Seminar on higher education at the Ministry of Higher Education (Research Centre), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 29 January 2005. Current State and Problems of Contents Japanese Higher Education I Education system in II Higher education in Japan III Recent developments in higher education reform 1. Incorporation of national universities 2. The University Council and the deregulation in University of higher education Jun Oba 3. University financing – increasing competition be- Research Institute for Higher Education tween public and private sectors Hiroshima University, Japan 4. Internationalisation of higher education [email protected] 1 2

I Education system in Japan Percentage of children in full-time elementary 1. Development of the modern educa- education between 1875 and 1925

tion system 100

90 ● Development of Terakoya in the Edo period 80

● Introduction of a modern education system after 70

the Meiji Restoration (1868) - Education System 60

Order (Gakusei) 50

● Generalisation of elementary education at the be- 40 ginning of the 20th century 30 20 Total 10 Boys Girls 0 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 3 4

Percentage of students enrolling in upper sec- ondary schools and higher education institu- 2. Organisation of the school system tions (universities and junior colleges) 100.0 ● A number of amendments and revisions to the 90.0 system under the Gakusei (School System Order) 80.0 ● 70.0 Characteristics of the pre-war school system:

60.0 –a relatively short period of compulsory education, 50.0 common to all; 40.0 –a multiple track system after that period 30.0

20.0 Upper secondary school 10.0 Higher education (unive- rsity and junior college) 0.0 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 5 6 After World War II

● Entire revision under the occupation

● Nine-year compulsory education

● Unified into a single track system

–universities being open to every graduate of an upper- secondary school –abolition of distinction among higher education insti- tutions, except the junior colleges as an interim sys- tem

Organisation of the school system in 1944 7 8

Organisation of the present school Number of schools, students and system teachers as of 1st May 2004 normal age school year Number of schools Number of students Number of teachers* 26 21 Doctor University on

i Kindergarten 14,061 1,753,396 109,853 25 t 20 (graduate school) a

24 c 19 23 18 Elementary school 23,420 7,200,929 414,887 edu Master 22 r 17

21 ghe 16 Lower secondary school 11,102 3,663,512 249,801

20 Hi 15 University 19 14 (faculty) College Advanced Junior college Upper secondary school 5,429 3,719,048 255,629 18 13 courses Special 17 12 of training Secondary education school 18 6,051 470 y

16 r 11 Upper secondary school school on

i Secondary t 15 da 10 Technology a n Special education schools c education o

14 u 9 c 999 98,796 62,255 on

e school i ed 13 8 Lower secondary school t (for handicapped children) S a

12 7 c 11 6 College of technology 63 58,681 4,474 edu

10 5 y r y on r i o t a

9 4 Elementary school s a l Junior college 508 233,749 12,740 m c i r

8 u 3 pu P m 7 ed 2

o University 709 2,809,323 158,756 6 1 c 5 l oo on i t h Special training school 3,443 791,540 40,675 a

4 sc c Kindergarten - e du r e 3 P Miscellaneous schools 1,878 178,115 11,267 9 10

A very good performance in primary and sec- ondary education PISA 2000: Top 10

● Ranking in the OECD's PISA 2000 Reading Mathematics Science –first group for mathematics and science 1 Finland Japan –second group for reading 2 Canada South Korea Japan 3 New Zealand New Zealand Finland ● PISA 2003 4 Australia Finland UK –still in the same groups as the PISA 2000 5 Ireland Australia Canada –Japan slightly lowered its ranking by country. 6 South Korea Canada New Zealand 7 UK Switzerland Australia 8 Japan UK Austria 9 Sweden Belgium Ireland 10 Austria France Sweden 11 12 II Higher education in Japan PISA 2003 : Top 10 and Japan 1. Foundation of modern higher edu- Reading Mathematics Problem-solving cation institutions 1 Finland Finland South Korea 2 South Korea Japan Hong Kong ● Establishment of the (later 3 Canada Hong Kong Finland Imperial University, then Tokyo Imperial Univer- 4 Australia South Korea Japan sity) by the Government in 1887 5 Lichtenstein Lichtenstein New Zealand ● 6 New Zealand Australia Macao Other in major cities 7 Ireland Macao Australia 8 Sweden Holland Lichtenstein 9 Holland Czech Republic Canada 10 Hong Kong New Zealand Belgium ------14 Japan 13 14

● Characteristics of these institutions ● Other institutions

–Governmental institutions –Governmental institutions other than imperial univer- sities –Organised on the continental European model (esp- ecially Germanic) –Local public institutions –Bureaucratic system with quasi-autonomous academic –Private institutions units (faculties) ● Specialised School Order in 1903

● University Order in 1918

–acknowledgement of the university status to non-gov- ernmental institutions

15 16

Number of higher education institu- Characteristics of pre-war higher edu- tions as of 1943 cation

● Well-organised bureaucratic administration sys- Universities Specialised tem in governmental institutions [imperial univer- Total Schools ● sities] Coexistence of three sectors of higher education institutions – governmental (national), local pub- Governmental lic and private (national) 19 [7] 58 77 Local public 2 24 26 ● Absolute priority to the national institutions, es- pecially the imperial universities Private 28 134 162 Total 49 [7] 216 275

17 18 2. The expansion of higher education After the war (as of 1949) and its decline

● 70 national universities without difference in le- ● Rapid growth of higher education in the 1960s gal status among them and early 1970s

● 17 local public universities ● Number of institutions

● 81 private universities –1960 : 245 universities and 280 junior colleges – ● Junior colleges (regarded as provisional) 1975 : 420 universities and 513 junior colleges ● Multiplication of students from 1960 to 1975

–Universities : 2.77 times –Junior colleges : 4.28 times

19 20

Number of universities by sector

750 ● Enrolment ratio (of the age cohort) 700 650 Private Public 600 –10.3% in 1960 National 550 –38.4% in 1975 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 21 22

Number of junior colleges by sector Students enrolment in universities

3,000,000 600 2,750,000 550 Private Private 2,500,000 500 Public Public National National 450 2,250,000

400 2,000,000

350 1,750,000

300 1,500,000

250 1,250,000 200 1,000,000 150 750,000 100 500,000 50 250,000 0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 23 24 Second expansion in the 1980s and Trends in 18-year-old population and early 1990s access to higher education

250 50% ● Number of universities 225 45% –1980 : 446 universities (93 national, 34 public and 200 40% 319 private) 175 35% 150 30% ds n a –1995 : 565 universities (98 national, 52 public and s hou

t 125 25% f o

s en

415 private) t 100 20%

–2004 : 709 universities (87 national, 80 public and 75 15% 542 private) 50 10%

25 5%

0 0% 69 74 79 84 02 07 56 61 66 71 76 89 9 9 9 9 9 9 958 963 994 999 004 009 1955 1 1957 1 1959 1960 1 1962 1 1964 1965 1 1967 1968 19 1970 1 1972 1973 19 1975 1 1977 1978 19 1980 1981 1982 1983 19 1985 1986 1987 1988 1 1990 1991 1992 1993 1 1995 1996 1997 1998 1 2000 2001 20 2003 2 2005 2006 20 2008 2

18-year-olds Entrants (universities & junior Ratio of the age group colleges) advancing to universities and junior colleges 25 26

III Recent developments in higher education reform a. Progress towards incorporation

1. Incorporation of national universi- ● Proposals for incorporation ties –Teikokudaigaku dokuritsuan shiko [Private study on independence of the Imperial University] in 1899 ● Change in the status of the governmental institu- –Michio Nagai's Daigakukosya [university corpora- tions tion] in 1962. ● Legal personality and more autonomy –The Central Council for Education's proposal on in- corporation of national universities

27 28

● Discussion at the National Council on Educa- ● A new administrative system "Independent Ad- tional Reform in the late 1980s ministrative Institution (IAI)" in 1999

● Some governmental consultative organs' recom- ● 57 new autonomous governmental corporations mendations in the framework of administrative in April 2001 reform of the government ● Study on the incorporation of national universi- ● Unanimous rejection on the part of national uni- ties in this framework versities and the Monbusho (Ministry of Educa- tion)

29 30 b. The national university corporation system (1) Goals/plan and evaluation ● A ministerial study on the incorporation of na- tional universities from 1999 ● A legal personality to each national university

● Laws on the incorporation of national universities ● Block funds in 2003 ● Definition of st ● Incorporation on 1 April 2004 –goals by the Minister of Education –a plan by each university (then approved by the Min- ister of Education)

31 32

Recommendations, if necessary Commission on Policy Evaluation and Evaluation of Independent Administrative Institutions (Ministry of Public Management and Home Affairs)

Opinions, if Report on the results necessary of evaluation MEXT Report on the results of evaluation ● An evaluation committee in the Ministry of Edu- Opinions on Consultations MTG/MTP, etc. Report on the results of evaluation on MTG/MTP, on education and research cation etc. Evaluation Committee for National University Independent Administrative Institution Corporations National Institution for –academic and non-academic members Draft (opinions) Presentation Academic Degrees and of MTG of MTG University Evaluation –president : Ryoji Noyori (2001 Nobel laureate in (NIAD-UE) Preparation of Approval of Evaluation chemistry) MTP MTP ● Report from the NIAD-UE with respect to mat- Preparation of ters essentially related to education and research annual plan Peer review

National university corporations

MTG: medium-term goals MTP: medium-term plan 33 34

(2) Governance and management National University Corporation President selection committee ● President of the university Auditors

● Deliberative bodies External experts only –board of directors –administrative council President Internal representatives Internal representatives –education and research council designated by the president concerning education Executives and research ● Structure of the secretariat at the discretion of External each university experts Administrative Board of directors Education and council research council

35 (3) Personnel

● Participation of external persons in university ● Non-public servant status

management –increased flexibility in personnel affairs –one executive (member of the board of directors) at –without staff quota management by the Government least –salary of the staff (academic and non-academic) in the –not less than half of the members of the administra- block grant (operational grant) tive council

37 38

(4) Students' payment

Public servant type Non-public servant type

Guarantee of status Stipulated by law Stipulated by rules of employment ● of each corporation A scope to decide tuition fees and entrance fees, Rights of labour Disputes are prohibited. Disputes are not prohibited. based on the standards determined by the MEXT Recruitment of administrative Selection among successful can- According to the criteria defined staff didates in the national public serv- by each corporation ● Fees in 2004 ice examination Dual employment, side business, Restricted by the National Public Stipulated in the employment rules –tuition fees : 5208000 yen (around 5,200 US dollars) and political activities Service Law of each corporation –entrance fees : 282,000 yen (around 2,800 US dollars) Foreigners Impossible to appoint them to Possible to appoint them to man- management positions agement positions Salaries and working hours Determined by each corporation (idem) Medical insurance and pensions Similar to the national public ser- (idem) vants Provisions of the penal code such Similar to the national public ser- (idem) as bribes vants

39 40

c. After incorporation - what has hap- (1) Financial stability of national uni- pened and problems versities

● Finance ● Operational grant to be diminished from FY2005

● Governance ● Rise of the standards of fees set by the MEXT

● External people ● Difficulty in finding other sources

● Evaluation

● Distinction between the public and private sectors

41 42 (2) Improvement of the university governance

● Cost of the increased autonomy ● Efforts for dissolution of the "dual structure" –

–Confrontation with student and staff unions, particu- academic and administrative larly with respect to revisions of fees ● Construction of an administrative structure cen- –Pressure from the community tring on the president

● Different fees among national universities? –ex. Hiroshima University (next page)

● Very precarious situation of national universities

43 44

Administrative Council President Board of Directors Education and President’s bureau Research Council Eval. Committee Co-ordination Committee of directors of ● Faculties, Graduate Schools Auditors Leadership of the president and Research Institutes Control Bureau ● Wide (and positive) participation of constituent

Vice-president Vice-president Vice-president members Vice-president Executive Vice-president Vice-president Vice-president Vice-president Executive Executive (attached (research and Executive Executive Executive Executive (education and (personnel and schools) international (collaboration) (ICT) (finances) (hospital) ● students) general affairs) Development of non-academic staff relations Attached Personnel and Education Research Collaboration ICT Policy Office Office of Schools General Affairs Office Office Office Office of Finance the Hospital Office Office Centres for common use Faculties Graduate schools Research institutes University hospital 45 46

(3) Participation of external people in university administration

● Danger of an excessive concentration of powers ● Effective participation of external experts in or- der to be responsive to society - How? ● Shared governance (R. Birnbaum)

47 48 External members of the Administra- (4) The evaluation tive Council of Hiroshima University

● Name Occupation (former) Underdeveloped evaluation methods W. Imanaka President, Chugoku Newspaper ● Time consuming President, Japan Audio Visual Educational Association (Former Secretary to the K. Inai Minister of Education) Professor of Higher and Comparative Education, State University of New York B. Johnstone at Buffalo (Former President of State University of New York) M. Ogasawara President, Board of Education of Hiroshima Prefecture Special Advisor, Tachibana Women’s University (Former President of M. Onami Ritsumeikan University) T. Shiiki Lawyer Chairman, Chugoku Economic Federation / Chairman of the Board of Directors, S. Takasu Chugoku Electric Power Co. Ltd. Secretary-General, Tokyo Conference for the Collaboration in Chugoku (Former K. Tanabe Director-General, Chugoku Bureau of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI Chugoku))

49 50

(5) Blurred distinction between public 2. The University Council and the de- and private sectors regulation in higher education

● Competition between the public and private sec- a. The University Council and its recommen- tors for the same resources (competitive research dations funds, students, etc.) ● Discussion at the National Council on Educa- ● Incorporation of national universities has made tional Reform (Rinjikyoikushingikai) them closer to the private sector. ● Establishment of the University Council in 1987

51 52

● Background ● Abolition of subject areas – one of the most im-

–Progress in scientific research and changes in human portant recommendations resources; – structure curricula reflecting their own educational –Rise in the percentage of students continuing to ideals and objectives higher education and diversification of students; –no definition of subject areas, such as general educa- –Growing need for lifelong learning and rising social tion and specialised education expectations of universities. –no requirement on obtaining a certain number of cred- its in each subject area (acquisition of a minimum to- tal number of credits only)

53 54 1998 Report A Vision for the University of the 21st Century and Future Reform Measures : Distinctive 2002 revision of the School Education Universities in a Competitive Environment Law

● Improve the quality of education and research with ● More flexibility for a reorganisation of faculties the purpose of nurturing the ability to investigate and departments issues; ● Introduction of a continual third-party evaluation ● Secure university autonomy by making the educa- system for all universities tional and research system structure more flexible;

● Establish university administration and manage- ment with responsible decision-making and im- plementation; and

● Individualise universities and continuously im- prove their education and research by establishing multiple evaluation systems. 55 56

b. Diversification of higher education institutions and their programmes

● Universal phase (M. Trow) ● Definite abandonment of the planned higher edu-

–Enrolment ratio : 49.1% in 1999 cation policy –Over 50% in 1987, if the non-university sector is in- ● Acceleration of diversification of higher educa- cluded tion institutions

57 58

Implementation of curriculum reform c. Development of human resources in universities (2001) in knowledge-based society

● Knowledge : key to the development

Review of subject classifica- ● 475 Lifelong learning tion ● Wedge-formed curriculum 329 Adult students

Review of compulsory and 365 elective subjects system

Review of credits calculation 321

Introduction of course system 204

Review of the number of cred- 353 its required for graduation

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 59 60 Japan's foreign production ratio by Number of employees by occupa- industry tional classification

61 62

Number of cases of co-operative research imple- 3. University financing – increasing mented between national universities and the indus- try / Number of the TLO recognised by the Gov- competition between public and ernment private sectors 10,000 50

9,000 45 a. The spiral of tuition fees

8,000 40 ● Governmental funds to HE institutions in the 7,000 35 FY2003

6,000 30 –97 national institutions and others : 1,525,606 million 5,000 25 Number of cases TLO (plotted on the right yen axis) 4,000 20 –989 private universities and junior colleges : 321,750 3,000 15 million yen 2,000 10

1,000 5

0 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 63 64

The first year tuition fees (entrance fees included) by sector and the ratio of b. Poor public expenditure on higher tuition fees of private universities to those of national universities education 1,100,000 3.25 1,050,000 National Universities 3.00 1,000,000 Local public universities ● Pressure towards the reduction of public expendi- 950,000 Private universities 2.75 900,000 Private/National ture on HE 850,000 2.50 800,000 750,000 2.25 –decrease in subsidies to private universities 700,000 2.00 650,000 600,000 1.75 –increase in tuition fees of national universities en

Y 550,000 500,000 1.50 450,000 1.25 400,000 350,000 1.00 300,000 250,000 0.75 200,000 0.50 150,000 100,000 0.25 50,000 0 0.00 76 77 84 91 98 983 990 997 9 1975 1 19 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1 19 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1 19 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1 19 1999 2000 2001 2002 65 66 Public expenditure on higher educa- c. Increase in competitive funds open tion (2000) in OECD countries to public and private institutions

● Competitive funds open indifferently to public 5.0 4.7 4.6 as a percentage of total public 4.5 expenditure 4.2 4.3 and private institutions 4.1 4.1 as a percentage of GDP 4.0 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.5

0.0

ia ia p. ly al al rk ce ce ry ea ay in l r da nd ny nd nd an co nd en nd t um e a a r i g a SA t a a n e NL a i a a a a t p a d a UK o s l l l o x w l u p l r n R a e g I a e t g m r t r U u r m r e e e T l a n n J o r S s r K o e k n i r c w e F u P A G I I o z u C c e F e M D N S t B e H P i A D G C z w E C S O

67 68

Number of COE projects adopted by Top 15 universities ranked by the amount of competitive research funds awarded by the the MEXT, by sector Government (million yen)

40,000 37,177 100 97 35,000 90 84 30,000

80 25,000

70 20,000 18,601 15,591 60 15,000 11,924 10,000 8,784 50 National universities 8,420 7,640 5,924 Public universities 4,978 4,169 5,000 3,138 40 Private universities 2,586 2,586 2,554 2,517 31 0 30 to e) e) yo ka ku ya 25 hu do ch t ba ba t i ma i DU k o o 23 a e a u i a obe yo h o s g T v v M ka i i K K yus I C 20 T oh a uk sh r O k r T T T K p s o p N o r ( i T ( H o H a 10 i 5 e 4 4 ed 1 K 0 as W 2002 2003 2004

69 70

4. Internationalisation of higher edu- Number of international students in cation Japanese higher education institutions 120000 ● Total Nakasone Plan in 1987 110000 Students financed by the 100000 Japanese government –More than 100,000 international students in Japan be- 90000 st fore 21 century 80000 70000 ● Japan Student Services Organisation 60000 http://www.jasso.go.jp/index_e.html 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

71 72 Breakdown of the international stu- dents by their region of origin (2004)

● Revision of the legislation concerning the foreign universities in Japan

Other Asian countries –Temple University Japan (USA) South Korea Oceania China Europe

America (North & South) Africa & the Middle and Near East

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00%

73 74

Closing remarks

● Three major factors for HE reform

–diversification in students –changes in the demand for human resources –increased reliance of industry on academic research activities

● Differentiation of HE institutions

● Continual university reform by academics

75