journal of nordregio

No. 1 April • Volume 2 – 2002

Bendt Bendtsen: – The Government´s Ambition is to Conduct a Far More Coherent and Co-Ordinated Policy s. 13

The Geographical Focus of Regional Policy s. 4

New Regional Plan to Be Adopted in Iceland s. 7 www.nordregio.se 01 54 463 8 +46 Fax 00 54 463 8 +46 Tel. Sweden Stockholm 86 SE-111 1658 Box NORDREGIO Adresses GEORGE LEESON GEORGE SMITH CHRIS KNUDSEN P. JON AALBU HALLGEIR JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO OF JOURNAL 10 16 23 18 21 17 13 11 9 4 4 8 7 7 3 Books Feature New Regional Plan to Be Adopted in Iceland in Adopted Be to Plan Regional New Identified Affairs Regional of Ministry Danish Worrying than that Posed by an Increase in Regionalism in Increase an by Posed that Worryingthan More is Nationalism to Return a of Prospect The – Andersen: Knud “Theories of Endogenous Regional Growth” Growth” Regional Endogenous of “Theories Municipalities? Øresund the for Needed Scheme Equalisation an Is Nyström: Hans Regions Sparse in Design Urban Wiberg: Ulf Cross-PartyInitiatives Undertaking with Concerned Primarily is Denmark in Policy Regional – Nielsen: M. Ole policy co-ordinated and coherent more far a conduct to is ambition government’s –The Bendtsen: Bendt Qualities Lost of Search In Sotarauta: Markku Countries Baltic the and Poland Russia, to Gateway Electronic New EU the and Business Small Swedish Jungles Income Municipal to Handbook Practical News Editorial The Minister and His Critics. This issue: Critics.This His and Minister The The Geographical Focus of Regional Policy Regional Focusof Geographical The Right now Right Norden Europe Language Editor Language of Ministers of Council Nordic Book reviews editor reviews Book Director Editor E-mail [email protected] E-mail 90 56 27 37 +47 Tel. Norway Brekkestø NO-4780 Espevik Knudsen JonP. spatial development, established by the Nordic Council of Ministers. of Council Nordic the by established development, spatial on documentation and education research, for centre a is Nordregio Börje Johansson, Charlie Karlsson and Roger R. Stough (Eds.). Stough R. Roger and Karlsson Charlie Johansson, Börje Subscription:[email protected] authors. their of views the express articles All charge. of free distributed is and quarterly appears journal The (NORDREGIO). Development Spatial for CentreNordic the by distributed and owned is NordregioJournal of ISSN 1650–5891 ISSN Copyright © Journal of Nordregio of Journal © Copyright Fax +46 8 463 54 01 54 463 8 +46 Fax 00 54 463 8 +46 Tel. Sweden Stockholm 86 SE-111 1658 Box Nordregio Leeson George Denmark journal No. No. 1 April 1 and Co-Ordinated Policy Co-Ordinated and FarCoherenta More Conduct to is Ambition Government´s The – Bendtsen: Bendt • Volume 2 – 2002 Volume– 2 1 April 1 of nordregio of s. 13 s. to Be Adopted in Iceland in Adopted Be to Plan Regional New Policy Regional Focusof Geographical The s. 4 s. s. 7 s.

OSIGRAF.NO 3177 editorial Stellae Polaris

THE NEW ICELANDIC regional poli- Undoubtedly the genesis of this of the government and parlia- cy plan for the period 2002 – idea can be found in earlier works ment to allow for the investments 2005, unveiled in January of this developed for Tromsø in Norway, in the area to be sufficiently con- year, marks a bold attempt to Rovaniemi and Oulo in Finland, centrated and plentiful to take the

EDITORIAL counterbalance the very real pos- or Umeå in Sweden. The stallae town over the threshold. sibility of a country in danger of polaris of the north has thus being reduced to having a thri- become successful ventures in all In the midst of such processes ving capital area at the same time these countries not least because there likely will be a significant as it faces the ongoing depopula- these regional centres were given amount of national turmoil over tion of its hinterland. crucial roles to play in the cross- such decisions and allocations. sectoral coordination of regional This is only natural as every com- Being the most sparsely popu- development. munity and every region in every lated country in Europe with only country wants a fair share of 3 inhabitants per square kilome- Interestingly enough, the thin- attention and resources. One of tre and a total population of little king behind the upgrading of the bright spots in this regard is more than 280.000, it is certainly Akureyri takes as its point of that rapid population growth in a challenge in its own respect to departure the position of the town Iceland at least harbours the pro- create some kind of balance when as the country’s second university spect of a bigger cake to be sha- there is so little actual population location. This means that the red out in future. This may also to distribute in absolute terms. logic of development runs in be true economically speaking, as The process of urbanization and much the same way here as it the country’s power resources are the concomitant concentration of does in Tromsø, Oulu and Umeå. far from being fully exploited. economic activity therefore threa- Other sectors are however to be tens to leave substantial parts of drawn upon as well, notably that Several decades of experience the country uninhabited. of communications, which will be with regional planning in the up-graded in order to facilitate Nordic context have clearly shown With few if any alternatives to Akureyri’s simply accepting the situation integration where Reykjavik and its immedia- with the “The stallae polaris of the north te surroundings becomes the only rest of the growth area in the country, the country. has thus become successful government has proposed a plan that lists numerous projects for From a ventures in all these countries …” implementation, but also one that more theo- more interestingly points to three retical additional growth poles beyond point of view, the inspiration that a country wanting to develop the capital area. Ísafjör∂ur in the behind the new regional plan in its periphery should not be shy northwest, Akureyri in the north Iceland does not seem to differ about concentrating its efforts in and Egilssta∂ir in the east are substantially from the growth a few selected places. The nor- thus all to be supported in an pole inspired doctrines that reig- thern capitals of Norway, Sweden effort to consolidate them as regi- ned in the field of regional policy and Finland clearly prove the onal strongholds. throughout the 1960s. Though case. And even more so, Iceland the basic elements of the econo- has no alternative but to create a Among these three, Akureyri my have changed dramatically, handful of regional growth cen- will be in a central position. with manufacturing having lost tres to counteract the dominance Viewed as the regional centre for much of its importance to know- of Reykjavik. the Eyafjör∂ur area with around ledge-led services, themselves 20.000 inhabitants, Iceland’s now viewed as the primary means If successful, Iceland will – by second city is planned to reach of re-vitalizing regions, the need means of its new regional plan – some 40–50.000 inhabitants in to coordinate massive investment pave the way for an historical the foreseeable future, perfor- in infrastructure in order to crea- about-turn in the country’s settle- ming the role as the only strong te useful synergies seems howe- ment pattern, as well as helping alternative to Reykjavik, and ser- ver to be as crucial as ever. to put in place a more bifocal ving as an advanced centre for institutional set-up. National com- goods and services across all of The test for Akureyri in its pos- petition is thus, according to any North and East Iceland. sible ascent to the ranks of the number of historical observati- polar stars of regional develop- ons, mainly for the good. π ment will be found in the ability

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 3 norden The Geographical Focus of Regional Policy All Nordic countries are members of the European Union or of the European Economic Area, and are therefore subject to EU/EEA competition rules. According to these rules, direct public support to individual businesses is in principle prohibited. However, there are exceptions to the rules for regions lagging behind economically.

Within these limits, aid cei- These areas include 23,7% of Hallgeir Aalbu by lings may differ between the the total population in the Nordic countries depending on national countries, as compared to 46,7% In Nordic regions that are consi- priorities and negotiations within of the population in EU15. There dered weak from a European per- the framework of the EU/EEA are significant variations between spective (as defined in Article 87 competition rules. The geographi- the Nordic countries: the highest (3)(a) of the EU Treaty, and in cal definitions of support areas population coverage is found in Article 61 (3)(a) of the EEA and the aid ceilings have to be Finland and Iceland with about Agreement) or have a very low notified to the European 40%, while Sweden is the EU population density, a maximum of Commission (for Denmark, country with the lowest coverage 30-35% net investment support is Finland and Sweden) or to the with 15.9% of its population allowed for small and medium- EEA Surveillance Authority (for living in national support zones sized businesses. For regions that Iceland and Norway). The coun- (Table 2.1). We should also note are considered weak from a natio- tries can then develop their natio- with interest the limited numbers nal perspective (as defined in nal policies within the agreed of people living in regions where Article 87 (3)(c) of the EU Treaty, limitations. Investment aid is of high aid levels are allowed, as and in Article 61 (3)(c) of the EEA course not given as a right to well as the differences between Agreement) a maximum of 20- individual companies, as the countries regarding maximum 25% net investment support is allo- countries themselves decide on aid levels: despite common legis- wed. The aid ceilings are 5-10% the budgets for their industrial lation, there is obviously conside- points lower for companies with and regional policy measures. rable room for manoeuvre, and more than 250 employees. Outside The aid actually given can there- thus for national practice. π the support areas, up to 10% fore be considerably less than the investment aid is allowed for SMEs maximum aid ceilings. independent of location.

Danish ministry of regional affairs identified

by Jon P. Knudsen Interior Affairs, the Ministry of has already been observed in Environment and the various other Nordic countries over the THE HOARY OLD, and occasio- other sectoral ministries will last few years, notably in nally disputed question of con- nevertheless be placed with the Finland and Sweden, where an trol with regard to Danish regi- Ministry of Economic and ideological shift from the re- onal policy looks finally to have Business Affairs. As can be distributional term, “regional been settled, as the new Danish seen form this issue’s interview policy”, to the more growth-ori- Ministry of Economic and with the Danish minister of ented term, “regional develop- Business Affairs has finally economic and business affairs, ment policy”, has taken place. taken over the role of co-ordina- Mr. Bendt Bendtsen, the minis- Given the alleged change of ting regional questions. The try’s leading role in regional ideological system following Ministry for Interior Affairs policy is designed to enhance the succession of governments will continue as was previously the business climate throug- in Denmark last autumn, this the case however to produce the hout the country and to spur change in regional policy yearly regional reports to the the economic development of emphasis is thus rather parliament, though the task of all parts of the country. logical. π co-ordinating the regional This turn of events can be efforts of the Ministry for seen to fall into line with what

4 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO norden NORDEN

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 5 norden

6 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO norden Practical Handbook to Municipal Income Jungles Grasping the nature of the municipal income system within a given country can be difficult enough in

NORDEN itself. Hans Nyström at the Nordic Council of Ministers has undertaken to present a comparative guide to the regional levelling effects of the municipal income systems in all the Nordic countries.

schooling system than in the rest of by Jon P. Knudsen Variations in costs and incomes are Norden. dealt with in two ways, through national The impression of the Nordic model as redistributional systems or through Likewise, the income structure varies one is increasingly giving way to the inter-municipal models of transfer. substantially between the countries. exploration of a multitude of institutio- These are general models applying to Whereas the Icelandic municipalities nal arrangements and policy schemes. given parameters such as population generate 77 percent of their income The field of municipal income systems size and structure. In addition, most from local taxes, and Sweden and is no exception to this. Though the countries have special measures targe- Denmark 60 percent, only 41 of prime role of municipalities is to produ- ting communities that become exposed Norwegian municipalities’ incomes ce welfare services at the local level, the to temporary crises such as factory clo- stem from local taxation. Not surprising- way this is accomplished, financially spe- sures and structural transformations of ly, Norwegian municipalities compensa- aking, varies a lot, as does the way in the industries in place. te this by taking 40 percent of their inco- which economic equalization on the me from national transfers. communal scale is accomplished. Looking at the economic role of the municipal sector, there are also substan- More details on the municipality fis- There is, so to speak, an element of tial variations between the Nordic coun- cal systems are available through the regional policy built into the financial tries. Taken as a relative share of the publication “Kommunala utjämningssy- frameworks of the municipalities through nation’s total GDP, The municipal sector stem i Norden”. Nord 2001:2. the national transfer arrangements of Denmark in 1999 accounted for 31 København: Nordiska ministerrådet. The aiming at levelling out the variations in percent, the corresponding figures for contents and analyses of this instructive municipal economic conditions. The regi- the other countries being 23 (Sweden), handbook has been made available onal policy component is most overtly sta- 18 (Norway), 15 (Finland) and 11 through a project conducted by Jan ted in the Norwegian system and less (Iceland). Most of these variations can be Mønnesland at Norsk institutt for by- og explicitly so in the Swedish system, explained, though, by variations in regionforskning (NIBR) on behalf of the though the actual levelling of the econo- municipality responsibilities. Taking Nordic Council of Ministers. π mic resources at the disposal of the vari- Iceland as the most deviant case in the ous municipalities is most developed in one end, the state is for instance respon- Sweden and least developed in Denmark. sible for more of the health care and the New Regional Plan to Be Adopted in Iceland In February the Icelandic government adopted the country’s new regional plan for the years 2002–2005. The Parliament will follow suit in May. A bold policy design to establish new regional growth centres will be the immediate result.

public services and transportation invest- such as Ísafjöur and Egilsta∂ir, will be of a by Jon P. Knudsen ments to facilitate Akureyri’s integration more modest scale. with the rest of North and East Iceland. A The plan proceeds by focusing on five stra- special proposal will be prepared aiming at The national policy to reduce the num- tegic objectives: this venture as a cooperative project betwe- ber of municipalities to around 40 to 50 is en the state, local authorities and various once again stated, and legal measures to π Growing and diversifying businesses organizations. achieve this goal are indicated. The govern- π Strengthening communities ment also proposes to make use of road π Enhanced knowledge base The debate has already been joined over tolls to facilitate and speed up the rate of π Improved transportation this measure, being as it is the most serious new projects, notably with regard to bridges π Emphasis on sustainable development attempt in modern Icelandic history to and tunnels. All of which aims at the counterbalance the influence of the capital improvement of the national road network. Among the twelve subsequent themes by establishing a competing centre of designed to flesh out these general objecti- growth. The new Icelandic plan can be conside- ves, perhaps the most interesting proposal red a follow-up to the previous prototype is to enhance the growth of Akureyri and Discussions has also taken place over regional plan that expired last year. What the Eyafjör∂ur area to some 40–50 thou- the need to place other centres on the list, renders this new plan as being particularly sand inhabitants in the foreseeable future. but realism has made the government reali- noteworthy is its high ambition and its insi- This implies a doubling of the present ze that the country’s population and resour- stence on sectoral contributions to enhance population. The measures to achieve these ces do not suffice to cater for yet another the country’s regional balance. π goals build on a cross-sectoral effort entai- second centre of similar size. Thus the level ling the relocation of higher education, of attention given to other regional centres,

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 7 norden

Swedish small businesses and consultants excited about EU initiative – but report completely different effects Swedish Small Business and the EU 7500 businesses and more than a hundred business consultants participated in the Small Enterprise (SME) Initiative for Sweden, which wound up last year. The programme cost nearly half a billion SEK, one-third of which came from the EU. Today practically all the participants agree that this EU pro- gramme to encourage growth was a success, but their assessment of its concrete results varies great- ly. According to the consultants’ reports to NUTEK, employment objectives were met and better, while few of the SMEs can point to any such measurable effects. by Lars Olof Persson Programme Small Enterprise Initiative in sultant help, professional help with inn- Sweden” (Utvärdering av det Operativa ovation, design and marketing. The Small Enterprise Initiative was a Programmet Småföretagsinitiativet i part of EU Structural Funds program- Sverige) and is published by NUTEK (in The project leaders report a substantial ming to encourage growth in small Swedish). fulfilment of objectives businesses. Participants included busi- nesses in the travel industry, small-scale Businesses satisfied with the outcome – According to the project leaders, the food industry, metal- and woodworkers, but few can or wish to evaluate its result for the SME programme as a machine shops, IT and computer firms effects whole came surprisingly close to expec- and companies from all sectors imagi- tations. According to the objectives set, nable. The SME initiative for Sweden The businesses which participated in there were to be, for instance, 6588 new was approved by EU in 1997 and cove- the SME project and were interviewed or saved jobs; according to the final red three areas: following its conclusion can be divided reports this objective was exceeded: π Opening up new markets into three groups with regard to the 7060 new/saved jobs were reported. π Applying IT in business effects of the Small Enterprise Initiative: The entire π Environmental strategies as a compe- program- titive advantage – Businesses who feel that the SME me has - project was stimulating but that its also accor- With business consultants as leaders effects are impossible to quantify. This ding to the of over 125 different projects, great num- group is the largest of the three. Many final offici- bers of businesses in the interior of projects have involved courses, e.g. in IT al reports – Norrland, in Bergslagen and Blekinge, applications, languages, marketing, been calcu- on the islands of Öland and Gotland environmental management, where lated as and in the archipelagos received help in small business entrepreneurs met, got having an participating in trade fairs, setting up to know one another and began to grasp efficacy of their own websites, improving language the importance of networking. They almost 50 skills, making their businesses environ- report that the project gave them inspi- new or mentally-friendly and networking with ration, support, new contacts, “energy to saved jobs other businesses. keep going” and possibly competitive per SEK 1 Lars Olof Persson strength for the future – but few concre- million in Before decisions were made on EU te results as yet. EU funds. For the same amount of EU financing, each project leader was funding a further 75 firms are said to required to specify precisely the project’s – Businesses who regard the SME have established networking co-operati- goals according to three indicators: the project as having been of little signifi- on and staff participated in almost 4000 expected number of jobs saved or crea- cance for them, which does not necessa- hours of competence upgrading. ted, number of hours of competence rily mean that they are dissatisfied with upgrading, and number of businesses the project. This group includes, for The reported high precision in fulfil- expected to develop networking co-ope- instance, businesses who did not feel ment of objectives comes as a surprise ration. Following the conclusion of the especially involved in the project. One of when we examine the distribution of project, the same project leaders then the reasons for this may be that they did reported effects among various projects. were responsible for reporting the not themselves seek to join the project Within the programme as a whole, it results in terms of these same indica- but were contacted by a project leader or was in fact reported that one-third of all tors. a fellow participant??. There are also a the projects had not resulted in a single number of businesses here who worked new or saved job. And only 15 percent of In the evaluation of the SME pro- on export initiatives, which often turned all the projects account for about half of gramme which Nordregio has carried out to be more difficult than expected. all the reported jobs resulting from the out at the request of NUTEK, the conc- programme. lusions of these official final reports – Businesses who feel the SME pro- were followed up with a survey, on the ject has had a major impact and produ- In the survey as well, most of the one hand, of project leaders and, on the ced concrete effects. This applies only to project leaders report very positive expe- other hand, of participating businesses. one in seven of the companies intervie- riences of the SME initiative. In additi- The evaluation report is entitled wed. Among them were firms who on, project leaders say almost without “Evaluation of the Operating received a great deal of individual con- exception that they are certain that the

8 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO norden

quantified effects they reported to the ative has turned out to be a useful lear- concept of network a single precise defi- secretariat at NUTEK correspond to the ning process for many small enterpri- nition for all enterprises and project lea- reality in the businesses themselves! For ses. That the initiative attracted enthusi- ders. Finally, the indicator of new or no less than two-thirds of the total num- astic consultants as project organisers is saved jobs must be regarded as highly ber of projects, the consultants attribute definitely clear from the survey we carri- difficult to determine with any certainty the major portion of the effects achieved ed out. – it is up to each firm and project leader

NORDEN squarely to the SME initiative. Many to interpret what it has meant. Quite project leaders even claim that the SME It is difficult, if not impossible, to apart from that, we can question whet- project has had spin-off effects on other evaluate the efficacy of the actions her the number of new jobs is a sensible businesses in the region, i.e. which were undertaken. The range in answers to the measurement of growth. not directly involved in the project. question of how many jobs and other indicators resulted from a specific injec- In fact, the programme co-incided “The growth programme was successful tion of resources is very wide, from one time-wise with the favourable business – but growth declined” action to the next, from one firm to the development of the late 1990s for next and – above all - among the various Swedish enterprises in most sectors. Nordregio’s evaluation shows nonet- sources/reporters on which Nordregio Since the conclusion of the programme, heless that the programme was felt to be based its examination. Among the indi- expansion has declined and economic a success in a number of areas. Firstly, it cators which, in accordance with EU growth stagnated. It is highly possible has been a mobilising programme, with demands, are to be given for the pro- that the SME initiative contributed to a variety of projects and effective imple- gramme’s effects, competence upgra- making many of the 7500 participating menting organisation. The projects’ ding can be regarded as one effect small enterprises better equipped to focus on education and exchange of which is pretty much borne out in reali- meet the downturn precisely because experience was experienced as interes- ty. Secondly, the constructing of net- they did not increase staff to the extent ting and absorbing, both by consultants works between firms is also documen- set as an objective for the SME program- and participating firms. The project the- ted and to a certain extent quantified. It me! π refore met with wide acceptance from is inherent in the nature of the question, participating businesses. The SME initi- of course, that it is impossible to give the

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JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 9 europe New Electronic Gateway to Russia, Poland and the Baltic Countries vast amount des comprehensive link lists of by Jon P. Knudsen of informa- the respective countries’ offici- tion on als and agencies, social organi- THE DEMISE OF THE IRON curtain Russia, sations, legislative data, rese- and the subsequent stabilisation Estonia, arch institutes etc. An impor- of the former eastern European Latvia, tant part of the database is an countries has created a new Lithuania extensive Map Library, created Nordic interest in the neighbou- and Poland. by Nordregio together with its ring east. One of the problems The Finnish partners, which includes hun- often met by administrators, National dreds of thematic maps organi- academics, business persons Fund for sed in several categories, as well and tourists alike, is however Research Christer Pursiainen as links to other map sources the lack of reliable information and Development (Sitra) has on the Internet. on the countries in question. financed the pilot phase of this The database is open for new Nordregio therefore, in coo- database. partners, who would be willing peration with the Aleksanteri The database, which is avai- to utilise it as a channel and Institute – the Finnish Centre lable on a free access basis at infrastructure for their own for Russian and East European www.balticdata.info, includes publications and projects. The Studies at the University of basic information on, and con- database is managed by Christer Helsinki and the Centre for cise analyses of the respective Pursiainen. Markets in Transition at the countries’ macro and micro eco- Helsinki School of Economics nomics, political and adminis- • [email protected] and Business Administration, trative systems as well as many offers a website containing a other fields and issues. It inclu-

10 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO Right MARKKU SOTARAUTA NOW

n the 1990’s we lear- ned that economies In Search of Lost Qualities have become globally inter- dependent and that new relati- – Some Reflections on Leadership and onshipsI between economy, state and Influence in Regional Development regions. society are emerging. We are now It also seems entering an era that Manuel Castells that RD-policies are has labelled the “Network Society”. often too administrative in Castells taught us also that Network nature with true leadership being Society is characterized by greater fle- lost in the jungle of old thinking, xibility in management; decentraliza- development plans, rules, etc. to tion and networking of firms both In the era of building the welfare what it internally and in their relationships state, leadership in public organisati- wants, the to other firms. As Castells has also on required good administrative seductive strategy stated, the new economy is primarily skills, knowledge of various statutes, attempts to induce other informational, because productivity and the ability to players into co-operation. and competitiveness now funda- follow instructi- As seductive strategies gain more mentally depend on the capacity to ons cor- emphasis, influencing other actors’ rectly independent decisions, in other and effi- words, – understanding the nature of ciently. influence – will present a demanding As such, challenge for leaders, as the traditio- one nal conception of power proves incre- could say asingly insufficient. In order to be that the able to influence events, leaders have to act in the riptide of different inter- MARKKU SOTARAUTA system functio- ests and aims, and find a totally new ned in an essen- range of means that can be applied in generate, process and apply know- tially rigid top-down manner, with different events. It should also be ledge-based information. It is global instructions flowing in a hierarchical noted that leadership may be seen as because the core actitivites of produc- fashion. Network society on the other the effect of actors upon one another tion, consumption and circulation are hand is so clearly more complex, and it may be that the promotion of organized on a global scale, either more blurred, more dynamic and regional development has several lea- directly or through a network of lin- more penetrating that we need to ders all of whom have different lea- kages between economic agents. become more skilled in the stimulati- dership qualities. This kind of reasoning has also on of transition and interactive pro- In order to be a leader, an indivi- permeated into discussions on regio- cesses, not only in terms of adminis- dual or organisation engaged in the nal development as the focus of regi- trating resources, but also in formu- promotion of regional development onal development in the last decade lating development programmes. We needs, in the simplest of terms … has perceptibly shifted from a con- need therefore to focus more on peo- • to go before, or to show the way cern with various interventions and ple. • to influence, or to induce subventions to something more akin In comparing leadership to • to go ahead of, or in advance of to the improvement of competiti- games, we can state that today’s lea- • to have the advantage over veness and the search for new modes dership ought to place more empha- • to act as a/ leader for policy-making. sis not on forcing strategies but on • to go through, or to pass seductive strategies. A forcing strate- • to act as a guide Traditionally policy-making in gy is based on the fact that other play- regional development (RD) is based Righters have to respond to the move But what is it to lead in the complex, on a fairly well established belief in made, and that there is only one pos- ambiguous and muddled process of the capabilities of policy-makers to sible response to that move. A seduc- regional development? How does one find the correct strategies for the tive strategy on the other hand is go before, induce, or act as guide if one future through rational planning. I based on the fact that other players does not have the formal power to do argue, based on our studies, that RD- are not compelled to respond to it, so? How does one go ahead of, if one policies are often programmed des- but rather that it elicits in them the has the formal position but not the criptions of the current and past NOWrespect to do so? It is not possible in the desire to respond, because it takes state, through which it is not always into account other players’ strategies space available to give a full answer possible to generate innovative and goals. While the forcing strategy here, but the following abilities that enough means to develop and thus attempts to make other players yield enable leaders to gain influence can bri- ensure the future competitiveness of efly be distinguished.

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 11 right now

The ability to co-operate from the viewpoint of the – one can gain influence future and seizing onto by … creating the impossible • playing together with without getting bogged other actors without down in details, attempting to go “solo” The ability to create new too often, knowledge - one can gain • creating genuine functio- influence by … nal networks based on • taking advantage of the needs of the actors chaos and not immedia- nordregio involved, not those of the tely trying to re-impose administration, order, • trusting other actors and • looking for the new, and building trust without creating an enthusiastic seeking to be “in control” atmosphere without get- too much, ting too attached to old The leading Nordic centre for research, education • creating teams without beliefs or old knowledge, and knowledge dissemination on spatial develop- trusting to programmatic • knowing how to use nar- achievements too much, ratives, metaphors, and ment with a Nordic and European comparative and by inspiring indivi- images productively, rat- perspective duals to perform better at her than becoming the same time, swamped in facts – basi- Our international and • listening to what other cally, the ability to dis- highly qualified staff offers you: actors have to say, and tinguish the wood from avoiding where possible, the trees. the self-promotion of The newly emergent •• ActualitiesActualities one’s own ideas. global environment has The ability to encourage seen not only a change in •• ConferencesConferences other people – one can gain the means of production, influence by … but also in the basic con- • Contact • inspiring, not adminis- structs, processes and trating bureaucratically, rhythms of policy-making. • Courses • understanding that This has had a hitherto change is usually genera- perhaps under-appreciated •• EAEA NetworkNetwork ted through experimenta- impact on the administra- tion and risk-taking, and tive norms and inter-per- •• EJSDEJSD not through administrati- sonal and bureaucratic ve processes, relationships that have for- •• ESDPESDP • being respected due to med the basis of the admi- one’s ideas and activities nistration of regional deve- •• JournalJournal of of Nordregio Nordregio and not so much because lopment policy throughout of one’s position, the Fordist period of wel- •• LibraryLibrary • looking for latent potenti- fare-state construction. al in development wit- While this may be confu- •• Maps Maps hout concentrating too sing and threatening to much on the existing some, to others it provides •• Publications Publications resources and/or various the opportunity to con- limitations. struct a system that is inn- • •Research Research Projects Projects The ability to create an ovative and responsive rat- innovative environment – her than one that is stag- one can gain influence nant and desiccated. by … Within this new approach, • creating the kind of local individuals and new, more innovative environment adaptive institutions will in which actors can deve- play an ever-more promi- lop their own creativity, nent role. Thus, rather Nordic Centre for Spatial Development innovativeness, and com- than being in a position petitiveness. A good play- where such individuals or er does not play for institutions are at the others. behest of the system, the Visiting adress Postal adress The ability to create the system itself will increa- Holmamiralens väg 10 P.O. Box 1658 future - one can gain singly need to be constant- Skeppsholmen SE-111 86 Stockholm influence by … ly constructed and re-con- • visioning and creating structed through the daily Telephone Fax the future without belie- practice of those who work +46 8 463 54 00 +46 8 463 54 01 ving in plans too much, in it. π • shaping the big picture www.nordregio.se

12 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO editorial Taking onboard the mantle of the new leader of Danish The Minister regional policy, the conservative minister of economic and business affairs, Bendt Bendtsen, sets out to formu- and His Critics late a growth paradigm for regional policy development.

THIS ISSUE Denmark Bendt Bendtsen: – The Government’s Ambition is to Conduct a Far More Coherent and Coordinated Policy – Regional cleavages or tensions, be they economic, social or political in nature, are generally consi- dered to be less articulated in Denmark than in the other Nordic countries. Should we justly speak of Denmark as more idyllic in these terms, or are there tensions, and which ones will eventually become the most important? ments – measured by regional imba- ding of the population and for greater by Jon P. Knudsen lances, environmental costs and social economic activity. Our objective is the- risks – the government will therefore refore to generate regional develop- – It is true that Denmark is charac- closely monitor developments during ment, which on a long-term basis terised by being one of the most pro- the years ahead. minimises the inequalities concerning sperous countries in Europe. Viewed from a European perspective, it is also – The a country without major regional dif- new govern- ferences. The circumstances, which ment advo- highlight Danish uniqueness at the cates a European level, relate predominantly balanced to our rather high level of nation Denmark. equality. Over the past 30 years, eco- Some guide- nomic development in Denmark has lines are gradually narrowed regional income found in the differences. Between 1979 and 1998, initial regional income differences were governmen- reduced by almost 50 per cent. tal policy However, since 1998 we have witnes- declaration, sed a reversal of this tendency, and but how have thus experienced minor increa- should this ses in regional differences across be understo- Denmark. This is also the case when od in a we analyse 1970–2000 figures con- more detai- cerning taxable income per capita pro- led fashion? portional to the national average, dis- tributed in terms of regional counties – It is versus the Copenhagen metropolitan true that zone. the initial govern- Denmark certainly has a need for ment poli- strong potential growth centres such cy declara- as Copenhagen and Århus. But it is tion stres- also important, that such positive ses the developments do not take place at the need for expense of Denmark’s provincial areas. securing The government thus deems the for the Bendt Bendtsen maintenance and development of a Danish popu- balanced Denmark to be a crucial lation equal living conditions, no mat- services, employment and economic political objective. ter which part of the country one conditions among the regions. lives. The government thus seeks to In order to support such positive turn all parts of the country into areas One of the methods of achieving elements within regional development that are attractive in terms of both this objective is the appropriation of – measured by increases in economic development and housing. This will 20 million D.Kr., which – for each wealth – and to ward off negative ele- allow for a better geographical sprea- year during the period 2002–2005 –

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 13 feature will be available for regional develop- The package contains 32 concrete ditions. The on-going development of ment initiatives, which aim at mini- proposals, which e.g. will ease a range the strategy will ensure that each mising existing differences with of business tax regulations, reduce ministry follows the same course regard to employment, economic con- administrative burdens relevant to when it comes to formulating the ditions and services. businesses and enterprises, improve government’s policy towards Danish conditions for new business entrepre- trade groups and businesses. These resources will help to co- neurs and start-ups, reduce energy finance development projects, in costs, increase levels of productivity At regional level, it is necessary to which the regional authorities, institu- and innovation, and create favourable focus on a wide range of political issu- tions and enterprises jointly aim at economic conditions concerning suc- es. It is therefore crucial that all mem- strengthening the preconditions for cession within enterprises. bers of the government take on a regi- economic growth across the regions. onal political responsibility. This also This would be achieved for example Changing the regulations on suc- corresponds with emerging trends in by financing new types of education cession is but one example of how the other countries. As such, there is now or other initiatives, which strengthen strengthening of the general business a general tendency discernable that technological development. The environment conditions contributes considers regional policy to be a cohe- resources may also be spent on activi- the generation of new dynamics rent policy area, in which an increa- ties, which contribute to strengthe- across a broad range of business sing need for co-ordination among ning research activities across branches throughout the country. different sector policies exists. Denmark’s regions. A further usage would be to finance the development – How will the policies of the various – Some parts of Denmark such as of business environment conditions, ministries be coordinated in order to Bornholm, the county of Storstrøm and tailored to fit specialised business achieve a common regional policy? I am several of the minor islands lag behind in areas, local technologies and the main of course thinking of the coordination terms of business development and sector competencies within each of between the ministries of economic and employment. Will there be new measures the regions. business affairs, interior affairs and envi- developed for these parts of the country? ronment, but also of the coordination of Finally, the resources may be spent important sectors such as those dealing – Danish regional business policy on implementing the regional busi- with communication, education and has recently undergone a number of ness strategies, which have been deve- health. Which ministry will act as co- important developments. As such, the loped over the past years. ordinator, and how strong does the current aim of the policy is one of government intend such coordination to generating and promoting growth ori- – What are the main changes in this be? ented initiatives. We deal with larger area with regard to the policy of the pre- groups of policy participants, the use vious government? – A feasible and sound economic of resources has increased, and we policy uses several clubs from the apply a new and broader range of poli- – Pointing out the differences bet- golf-bag. The government’s ambition cy instruments. Policy experience has ween the new government and the is thus to conduct a far more coherent provided us with a differentiated ones lead by Mr. Poul Nyrup and co-ordinated policy than was pre- knowledge regarding the instruments Rasmussen is very much a question viously the case. The comparable task and their effects. The regional busi- relating to the means and instruments, is then to integrate the numerous ness development programmes and which have been and will be used in policy areas, which affect the opportu- EU-programmes have created the order to create a balanced regional nities available to the various trades, basis for elaborating actual strategies development in Denmark. industries and businesses’ to generate concerning the development of regio- economic growth and competiti- nal business conditions. Thus, we The new government will focus on veness. have witnessed a move from a policy both regional business development designed to offset imbalances towards which deals with the development of A strengthened focus at the condi- one of supporting growth opportuniti- regional strength positions, and the tions affecting enterprises and busi- es within individual regions. improvement of the general conditions nesses, has been established by mer- conducive to a healthy business environ- ging a range of business related policy Within the field of regional deve- ment. As such, this is a two-legged stra- areas – i.e. economic policy, business lopment, the Ministry of Economic tegy with both legs being part of the environment policy, urban- and hou- and Business Affairs maintains a Competitiveness Package, which was pre- sing policy, energy policy and compe- close dialogue with a number of vul- sented by the government in January tition policy - under the auspices of nerable regions and local provinces. 2002. With the package we seek to ease the new Danish Ministry of Economic This applies to e.g. for Bornholm, the economic burdens of business to the and Business Affairs. Lolland, south Funen, Samsø and tune of almost half a billion D.kr. in Frederikshavn. In each case, co-opera- 2002. During the spring of 2002, the tion has been established on the initi- Firstly, resources have been appropri- government will present a Growth ative of local interests, which – due to ated for the period 2002–2005. Each Strategy to Parliament, which will pro- the emergence of acute crisis situati- year these will finance targeted regional vide the necessary political weight to ons - have been forced to seek external political initiatives. Secondly, the State move such a strategy forward. The assistance. Budget for 2002 grants resources, Growth Strategy will constitute of a which will improve general business- general framework for a range of new Co-operation between the Ministry of economic conditions for starting up initiatives and analyses within policy Economic and Business Affairs and new, and running existing, enterprises. areas affecting general business con- other ministries mirrors a wider pro-

14 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO feature cess that places the initiative and – In May 2002, I will present a report and reasonable use of our resources. responsibility on the shoulders of the to Parliament concerning the possibi- Spatial planning thereby contributes region in question. Simultaneously, lities for the relocation of existing to creating the preconditions for the the co-operation opens up greater pos- state institutions and jobs from the development of competitive regions in sibilities for acquiring external compe- Copenhagen metropolitan zone to the Denmark. But this has to take place tencies and inspiration. regions. An inter-ministerial working within the broader context of the con- The ministry also participates in a group consisting of officials from the nection between the development of range of broader regional partnerships Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of competencies and regional strength – Jylland-Fyn and Vestsjælland- the Environment and the Ministry of positions. Storstrøm – regarding the formulation Economic and Business Affairs has of business strategies regarding the the responsibility of bringing this to – What was the reason behind sug- development of economic growth in fruition. gesting a new independent institute for both regions. The aim of both part- environmental assessment, and how is nerships is to create as favourable The relocation of state institutions this suggestion being carried out? business environment conditions as and jobs may contribute to the sup- possible within the regions and their port of professionally skilled environ- – The primary task of the newly provinces. The method for meeting ments within the regions and thereby established Institute for these objectives is subsumed in a pro- turn it into a lever for regional deve- Environmental Assessment is to con- cess of on-going development and the lopment. duct comparative economic assess- launching of concrete projects, which ments with regard to cost efficiency in support strategic target areas, pointed – Denmark has a reputation for politico- environmental decisions. out by the regions. being strong on physical and spatial Thus, it is not the task for the institute planning. How does the government to assess environmental consequences – EU funds contribute substantially intend to follow up this tradition? in terms of the effect on environmen- to regional business development in tal quality of different societal initiati- Denmark as in Finland and Sweden. – Within the field of spatial plan- ves. What is the government’s position on the ning, it is an important task to contri- possible withdrawal of this source of fun- bute to establishing the preconditions The government stresses the need ding following the post-2006 EU entry of for a balanced and simultaneous deve- for the Institute for Environmental the new applicant countries all of which lopment of all parts of the country. Assessment to remain independent, will themselves demand large amounts The government has therefore deci- and for it not to be mired in the of structural aid? ded to draw up a national report on instructional competencies of either spatial planning during 2002, which the Minister of the Environment, nor – The Danish government sup- addresses the question of balanced the rest of the government. As such, ports the enlargement of the development in Denmark. the institute will segregate itself from European Union. Before the end of the sector scientific institutions of the 2006 it will be necessary to take a ministry. Environmental assessments stand with regard to methods, National spatial planning has to be are important when initiatives have to through which we can ensure contin- enabled through co-operation and dia- be prepared and put in order of priori- ued development within our provinci- logue. Already today, a close partners- ty. However, environmental activities al regions. However, preparations for hip exists between the Ministry of the must also be exposed to permanent the reform of the EU’s structural Interior and Health, the Ministry of critical socio-economic analysis. It is funds have as yet not even begun. It Economic and Business Affairs and therefore a major challenge for such would therefore be premature at pre- the Ministry of the Environment. scientific institutions to participate in sent to take a position on what shape What needs to be done is to enhance the preparation of such environmental the contents of such a reform process the further development of partners- initiatives and then subsequently to should take. hip relations between the ministries criticise them. and the authorities on the regional One possible avenue of reform and local levels. The tasks of the institute are des- may be that the wealthy countries will cribed in the document, which consti- have to abstain from receiving the However, spatial planning cannot tutes the formal foundation of the same levels of support as they current- remain insulated. National spatial institute: “based on scientific high-level ly enjoy today. The adoption of such planning may contribute to the esta- international research, the Institute for joint position may enable the finan- blishment of a general view of diffe- Environmental Assessment will contribu- cing of support programmes within rentiated development across te to the attainment of defined environ- the applicant countries. However, it is Denmark. This may in turn help to mental objectives in the economically crucial that all regions in need of sup- set targets for the government’s natio- most efficient way. The tasks of the insti- port are granted aid for transformati- nal policy. Nevertheless, policy imple- tute will be to establish a general view of on and development. mentation must be based on regional the current and long-term environmental and municipal plans. situation in Denmark and the rest of the – The transplantation of state institu- world. Further tasks will be to assess the tions is cited by many as one means of Spatial planning plays an essential efficiency of environmental initiatives decentralising and vitalising the regions role when it comes to promoting the and to promote this knowledge to the beyond the capital region. What are the organisation of a sustainable society. public and political decision-makers”. government’s plans in this respect? As such, the placement of enterprises 7/7 π and businesses, infrastructure, hou- sing etc. lays the basis for the sound

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 15 Ole M. Nielsen: – Regional Policy in Denmark is Primarily Concerned with Undertaking Cross-Party Initiatives If there is one person who is really synonymous with regional questions in Danish politics, it is Ole M. Nielsen. The deputy chairman of the tiny Christian Democrat Party has made regional policy one of his specialities. Elected from Northern Jutland, he is however eager to point out that he represents all of Denmark, and in particular, all of the periphery.

– No, I do not. The divides in lang- pattern of presence. This is important by Jon P. Knudsen uage and culture are too important because it saps the fundament for for that to happen. viable regions. – I am the person who is really addressing regional policy in – How – Is there room and budgets avai- Denmark. Coming from a small then should lable for more regionally placed universi- party, I happen to have been elected this new ties and cultural institutions in present with the votes of many Danes resi- pattern of day Denmark? ding beyond my own constituency. I centralisati- would therefore like to emphasise on be – I think so, but I am of course that West Jutland, Storstrøms Amt, changed ? aware of the fact that the current Bornholm, and the minor islands as government does not follow this line well as the western part of Sjælland – – I beli- of thought. And I would like to add in sum all of the geographical perip- eve in fur- that perhaps not all regions need full hery, is of my concern, Nielsen pro- ther invest- universities, but could do well with claims. ments in sections of universities. Areas like regional Storstrøms Amt and Slesvig seem to – Why do you have this insistence on instituti- be in need of this kind of impetus to ons, nota- get moving. It may be costly to invest pursuing regional policy? Ole M. Nielsen bly in the in new areas, but it is even more cost- – Because I love small communiti- fields of education and culture to ly to have a country whose resources es. They are the cornerstones of fami- meet the demands of new generati- are not used to their fullest extent. lies, enterprises, social fabrics and ons. I think the University of Ålborg the cultural life in our country. I feel offers an example of how this should – Nevertheless, there remains a sig- that the advent of such big projects as be done. I was involved in public life nificant amount of money in the system the bridges over Storebælt and when it was founded, and I suppor- for regional development for those who Øresund has sparked a process of ted it with enthusiasm, though there want to undertake regional development centralisation of unprecedented force, were many that where sceptical of the projects, particularly where they are tied a process that serves some regions scope of the project. We thought to various European arrangements? well while sucking the energy out of Ålborg would prove too small and others. provincial. But look what happened, – Yes, but most of it seems to end Ålborg has turned out to be a superb up in the pockets of consultants with – Do you have any examples? university, attracting some of the few lasting imprints to be detected in finest scholars in Europe, and thus the regions affected. I miss the old – It is easy to argue that the nor- the region thrives and prospers. Let Regional Development Authority in thern parts of Jutland have become bet- me also point at the possibility of Silkeborg. It was highly skilled and ter connected recently through massive relocating public services and civil worked well in assisting projects investment in the motorway system. servants from Copenhagen to other throughout the country. Today I am But so far, the effects are such that it parts of the country. Firstly, the natu- sorry to see that we have lost the nati- has only been made easier for people re of the regional variations of hou- onal grip on these affairs as they have in, say, Frederikshavn to commute to sing prices produces the best argu- become involved with the wider EU Ålborg. The smaller society at the end ment for such a move, and secondly, ambitions as regards regional deve- of a new nexus is paradoxically loosing it adds to centralization to congest lopment. out through what is otherwise conside- most of the country’s academic work red a breakthrough. Though infrastruc- force in the capital. – Your national involvement with ture is increasingly being put in place regional policy, how did it all start? to connect the periphery to the centre, – But hasn’t there been a decentrali- paradoxically it becomes even more zation of institutions in Denmark over – I felt a lack of attention was important to be centrally located. the years, the university sector in itself being given to regional policy in our providing an example? country, and that something should – Pursuing this line of thought, do you be done to bring the issue back into actually fear becoming too well connec- – Certainly, but at the same time focus. This was something that see- ted to Germany, first in Jutland and later we witness a movement where basic med to attract widespread sympathy with a new bridge to Fehmarn, the result services such as the courts, the police, across the various parties, I asked being that most of Denmark will itself the national food administration etc. the prime minister to present a regio- become a periphery? are pulling away from a decentralised nal report to Parliament. In this way

16 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO feature

we got our first report, presented by – Speaking of the administrative sys- use. I am however not in favour of the minister for interior affairs by the tem, the Danish three-level model of this approach as it erodes the possibi- way, that was two years ago; it was administration is often depicted as being lity of a consistent and foreseeable meagre in content, but nevertheless it “in harmony”. Do you subscribe to such policy line to be followed in the vari- served to recognize the field of policy. an analysis? ous municipalities.

– With the new liberal-conservative – We may see changes in this – What about the number and size government in office, has the content of respect, especially pertaining to the of municipalities? Danish regional policy changed? county municipalities. Their future is being closely scrutinised at present. – On the whole I think the struc- – Not really, Indeed one feels that One idea is to turn the hospitals as ture is sound, though there may be FEATURE it is still too early to say, though I do well as other institutions into self- need for mergers in some corners of feel that whoever is in power, the governing entities competing with the country. We should not forget Social-democrats or the conservatives each other in a market were the that a lot of so-called poor municipali- and liberals, does not really make municipalities act as the buyers of ties do well because they have learned that big a difference. Regional policy services. This could work out well, I good habits such as cautious spen- in Denmark is, as such, primarily believe. On the other hand we have ding. In several instances however I concerned with creating and maintai- also seen a proposal for the streng- believe inter-municipal cooperation ning cross-party initiatives for win- thening of the legislative power of the to be a better solution than that of ning a coalition majority in parlia- municipalities to the detriment of the merger. π ment. county level with regard to local land

Knud Andersen: – The Prospect of a Return to Nationalism is More Worrying than that Posed by an Increase in Regionalism He is the county mayor of Bornholm, the most remote island in the Danish archipelago, and he has, among other things, been Danish representative in the EU committee of the regions. Though a senior member of the leading party, Venstre, in the government coalition, Knud Andersen often holds his own views on regional policy.

– What then will be the decisive para- – What Jon P. Knudsen by meters in the establishment of this new political “regional order” in this new service pro- instruments – Denmark is often portrayed as a very vision driven landscape? can be used stable country both regarding its regio- in moulding nal parameters and its regional admi- – Competence and economic carrying regional nistrative framework. Is this also the capacity. People will of course consi- strongholds, prognosis of those in the country at der these aspects. But to take one establishing large? example, i.e. that of hospitals, it stri- and develo- kes me that proximity is most impor- ping univer- – For the time being stability reigns, tant as long as you are healthy; the sities or cul- but such tranquillity is likely to be moment you become ill, the medical tural insti- undermined in the near future by competence of the hospital comes to tutions for the dissolution of both local and regi- the forefront. When we move into the instance? Knud Andersen onal administrative structures. I fore- future of these institutions becoming – Yes, these are examples of instru- see that a free choice on hospital ser- self-governing entities, some kind of ments, and it is very important that the vices will bring about the successive structure will emerge where these state is aware of their potential in this reorganisation of other services, a aspects of service provision are met. respect. Regional policy does not, alas, process that will in the end lead to hold the same status in Denmark as it municipal and county borders beco- – Should these principles apply in does in Norway and Sweden. That is ming obsolete, and thus of little inte- Bornholm and Copenhagen alike? why we have to come to terms with the rest. The programme of the current fact that regional development has to government will contribute to the – The size and the economic carrying be centred on the needs of people in speedy enhancement of such develop- capacity will of course differ in vari- their own localities. To be quite blunt, ments. ous parts of the country, but the prin- we do not expect any official instituti- ciple remains the same. ons of the kind mentioned to be erec- ted in Bornholm.

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 17 feature

– Is this where the European Union regions in need of support. use to the competence of the munici- becomes a factor ? pal sector? – In many ways it is more important – The whole of this process of regionali- – No, it is not wise to place authority to be alert to the situation in Brussels sation, as you describe it, will surely in these matters too close to the than in Copenhagen. Over the years, change Danish society. Do you not fear actors themselves and to those who a sum of DKK 100 – 150 stemming that people will turn “inwards” when themselves are intimately concerned from European budgets has been confronted by such a prospect ? with the outcomes. This is one of the spent in various projects in policy fields in which we have to be Bornholm, often with good results, I – To me the prospect of a return to more careful in the approach we would say. The lesson to be learned nationalism is more worrying than adopt. here then is to concentrate spending that posed by an increase in regiona- on a few viable projects. lism. We have to consider that – When you speak of “rearranged and Denmark is going to be conceived of stronger municipalities”, are you thin- – What will happen to Bornholm after as two regional realms, namely, king in terms of the variations of service 2006 if many of these budgets and fund Jutland and the islands. To the south, provision stemming from socio-economic sources are re-directed towards the needs there will be Hamburg. Most functi- and demographic diversity? of restructuring in the new or candidate ons now residing at the county level members from Eastern Europe? will have to be directed either towards – Yes, if we build stronger and more these sub-national levels or towards a region-like municipalities, many of – I do not believe this to be a plau- more robust and rearranged munici- these variations will be levelled out, sible scenario. There will continue to pal level. but then, in addition, we also need to be structural funding available for the create a system of local power over western EU members because there – Considering the municipalities for taxation in combination with a transfer are tasks to be dealt with in these a moment, do you endorse your system that manages to smooth out countries as well. In Denmark there government’s intention to move the the remaining wider discrepancies. π will still be islands and peripheral question of decisions over rural land

Ulf Wiberg Department of Social and Economic Geography, Umeå University Urban Design in Sparse Regions

Population figures for recent years Map 1 illustrates the admi- indicate a growing division between nistrative division of nor- regional winners and losers across thern Sweden, the average Sweden. Moreover, depopulation ten- population density in the dencies are so strong, particularly in municipalities and the locati- the sparsely populated regions, that ons and sizes of the key the ability to maintain a stable welfare nodes of the urban regions. standard in terms of infrastructure The general feature is that of and services is now threatened. New a territory dominated by economic “rules of the game” and the mono-centric municipalities. increased freedom to choose location Focusing on commuting, among both firms and households are local labour markets across not only causing depopulation but are municipal borders are prima- also negatively impacting on demo- rily to be found in the coastal graphic, social and economic structu- zone. Polycentric local labour res. From a sustainability point of view market structures appear in therefore policies and plans, individual only a few cases – actor preferences and the financial Boden–Luleå–Piteå in resources encompassed in the term Norrbotten, “risk-capital” have to be better co-ordi- Lundsvall–Timrå–Härnösand nated in certain sparse and fragile spa- in Västernorrrland, Falun- tial contexts. This suggests that a pro- Borlänge in Dalarna, and active effort is needed to redefine the Gävle-Sandviken in spatial arena and to create a pattern of Gävleborg. In addition the consensus oriented strategic behaviour trans-national local labour among politicians and administrators market currently being constructed in Map 1: Population density, administra- across municipal and other adminis- the Haparanda-Tornio area as part of tive divisions and municipal centres in trative borders. New trans-sectoral, a wider Interreg effort to integrate the northern Sweden. trans-regional and trans-national per- coastal urban regions between spectives may thus be important as Swedish Piteå and Finnish Oulu (the Map 2 illustrates how the issue of tools for renewal, more efficient soluti- Bothnian Arc) should also be mentio- depopulation has become a serious ons, and ultimately, greater economic ned in this regard. problem in these northern communi- strength. ties in recent decades. This has hap-

18 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO feature

pened in spite of sub- stantial investment in a great variety of sec- toral and regional policy measures.

FEATURE A general perspective

From this empiri- cal example of an unsustainable demo- graphic development we will turn to a gene- ral discussion on ways of dealing with spatial development issues under heavy pressures for change.

Map 2: Population change in municipali- ties in northern Sweden 1970-2000. Growth above the national average is shown in black, growth below the national average in grey, with decreases in white.

When discussing the spatial dimensi- ons of attraction the “magnet metaphor” may be used as a tool to illustrate that it is a matter of process cha- racterised by a contin- uous rivalry over potential migrants, ating attractiveness and competiti- planning concepts and investment new investments and projects, and veness. However, ever greater spatial patterns. In older urban regions we the relocation of industrial plants bet- planning efforts will be needed to find several layers of contributions ween places. The types of geographi- meet increasing levels of competition each aiming at a reinforced quantita- cal settings discussed here are prima- among European regions. Population tive and qualitative structure, or at rily small and medium-sized towns development in recent years reflects least reactive investment to meet and cities. These have, by tradition, a strong preferences among key actors changed economic conditions, needs key role as nodes in regional or local for big, polycentric and diversified and challenges. Such footprints may administrative contexts in combinati- urban regions. indeed represent different mixes of on with roles as the main centres for public, private and public-private services and other business activities. Urban design is a matter of quali- partnerships. A further, often impor- Moreover, over the last thirty years, ty, beauty and functionality with refe- tant aspect, is that the internal life of Sweden has seen significant increa- rence to peoples needs, values and buildings may change dramatically ses in the size of the public sector, preferences. Embedded in the con- over time, reflecting changes in con- both in terms of employment oppor- cept of urban design is also an sumer structure and demand. tunities and in the establishment of emphasis on the role of strategies new institutions. This has been and planning in relation to invest- In this article the concept “urban accompanied by administrative ment in the built environment. A key design” includes the following adjustments of the number of muni- question is how to form the “ideal” aspects: cipalities, based on the principles of urban region. However, the ideal • variety and heterogeneity of land central place theory. The municipal structure is not a static phenomenon. use in the functional urban region, reforms in the latter part of the 20th We are dealing with an organic sys- • nodal structure and internal distan- century may be regarded as signifi- tem, which means that the capacity to ce relations in the urban region, cant steps towards a stronger local adapt to new conditions becomes a • settlement structure and variety in level in terms of creating the capacity critical aspect. Thus, the answer to density of population, to deal with planning issues and to this question must be seen to be • physical character of areas for hou- find strategies for maintaining or cre- changing over time and it is often sing, services, industries and leisure reflected in distinct generations of activities,

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 19 feature

• locational pattern of various types of text. To understand this more fully among households and entrepre- services, one needs to analyse the variety of neurs. This identity may rely on his- • quality of transport infrastructure attitudes and preferences among peo- torical tradition and on impressions and capacity of public transports. ple. A basic division thus emerges in terms of buildings, locational pat- between “insiders”, that is to say peo- terns and ideas about land use cha- Besides the character of these ple who live there at present, and racter. structural conditions the dynamics in “outsiders”, or people who may be the urban region is a critical dimensi- regarded as potential immigrants and Moreover, to be recognised as on. The main driving forces are pre- new investors. The “insiders” have attractive is a matter of “place”-marke- ferences among households, entre- personal experiences to rely on while ting. In a world of increasing freedom preneurs and businessmen. A com- “outsiders” form their views on more of opportunity to migrate and to mon feature is that we are increasing- diffuse, and indirect, types of infor- change the location of economic acti- ly dealing with footloose key persons, mation. vity, both the visibility and the positi- firms and plants. Migration patterns ve mental image of specific places among people, investment and other The concept of urban design is not need to be promoted in order to business activities indicate the econo- automatically related to any specific increase their perceived attracti- mic vitality of the urban region. Daily density and size of built environ- veness. flows of goods and commuting peo- ment. However, it is related to a cer- ple illustrate functional connections tain delimited territory. This arena A vision for the north and dependencies both between sub may differ in scale and spatial struc- areas of the urban region and its inte- ture from a single small town to a Due to the sparse nature of condi- gration in wider networks nationally polycentric urban region or a metro- tions – both physical and “political” – and internationally. politan area and may include ex- prevalent across northern Sweden, urban areas with high frequencies of regional success is highly dependent In most planning activities just a commuting streams. on what each sub-region is capable of minor part of these patterns of invest- accomplishing in the form of strate- ment, activities and flows are suscep- Urban design concerns at its core gic internal and external alliances tible to change. However over time, “place”-building. It deals with geograp- across traditional borders and other planning activities in different sectors hical places as social constructions. barriers. Significant barriers to may lead to cumulative results rang- Thus place-building is a cumulative growth as such can be seen in the ing from a stagnated profile to a process characterised by a permanent comparatively long distances to inter- dynamically changing and strengthe- interplay between social and econo- national markets, insufficiently deve- ned profile. mic activities, patterns of attitudes loped transport and communications and preferences, investment in the options, in the lack of “risk” capital, The concept of urban design inclu- built environment and institutional and in problems associated with the des both macro and micro dimensi- policies and rules. This means that a difficulty of recruiting key persons to ons. At the macro level the functional frequently changing mix of actors in fill important posts. The “rules of the role in a regional, national and inter- terms of individuals, households, game” alluded to above indicate that national context is stressed. At the firms and public sector institutions the coastal zone of northern Sweden micro level, it is mainly a matter of are involved in designing and re- in general is much more viable in how physical planning and architec- designing the urban landscape. development terms compared to the ture meet needs and preferences. interior areas. However, at a more As indicated above, several distinct detailed scale some local labour mar- The landscape setting of the built driving forces can be seen to play a kets along the coast will also face environment seems to have an visible role in this process. Thus both severe problems in attuning themsel- impact on gradations of attractiveness demographic structure and migration ves to current structural socio-econo- at the micro level. “Hot spots” are flows have a basic role in terms of mic conditions. In fact, the largest often found close to water surfaces, volumes. These driving forces are fur- urban cores with universities thems- though they are also to be found in ther adjusted due to a number of fac- elves accommodate most of the specially designed housing areas and tors. The principal dimensions are potential for economic growth. This in places with a cultural heritage. social structure and life styles, the may include “positive overspill” to Under the umbrella concept “social structure of the local economy and locales in the countryside nearby and capital” is recognised the context of the labour market, ideological and in the small towns surrounding such both entrepreneurship traditions and political viewpoints and actions, cul- centres depending on residential pre- entrepreneurial persons as a funda- tural heritage, and the diffusion of ferences. Ongoing efforts to further mental precondition for economic technological advances and options construct more distinct functional development and for the development for mobility and communication. The poly-centric structures or develop- of social and cultural activities, which consequences of this become mani- ment axes may result in more arenas are seen as important prerequisites fest in terms of movements, locatio- in the north with increased functiona- for the maintenance of a high quality nal de-gradations and up-gradings lity and visibility, which may in turn of life. and changes in mental maps. lead to higher levels of attractiveness. In this process however it should be As mentioned above, the concept A complementary dimension may noted that the upgrading of the trans- of “urban design” refers to how peo- be labelled “place”-making. Behind port infrastructure is a necessary, ple appreciate and react to the physi- this can be found a stress on certain though far from a sufficient “key” cal features, the functional qualities cultural aspects and on the importan- factor. π and the cultural identity of the built ce of the elaboration of identity as an environment in a certain spatial con- influential factor on preferences

20 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO feature

Hans Nyström Nordic Concil of Ministers Is an Equalisation Scheme Needed for the Øresund Municipalities? The report by the Danish and Since the net flow of commu- nue equalisation amounting to Swedish governments, Øresund - ters is from Sweden to Denmark, about SEK 48,000. In 1998 some Birth of a Region, points out that it will be interesting to see how 900 persons in Malmö commuted there is reason to investigate whet- much a municipality in Skåne, we across the Sound. Of these, an her there is a need for an equalisa- have selected Malmö, loses in unknown number were earlier tion system among the municipa- revenues when a resident begins border crossers who paid taxes in lities of the Øresund region. A to work in Denmark, and accor- Sweden. If we make a rough cal- number of municipal politicians dingly pays taxes there, and when culation, assuming that over half in the Skåne region have, in vari- a Dane moves to Sweden while of them, about 500, paid tax in ous contexts, expressed their dis- concurrently commuting to and Denmark, and increase the num- pleasure at lost taxation revenues paying taxes in Denmark. These ber of new commuters by an addi- when residents work in Denmark two examples are also compared to tional thousand, giving a total of and thus pay [income] taxes there, the situation where a Swede from 1500 commuters (lacking the actu- while at the same time taking another Swedish municpality al figures), then the loss in income advantage of municipal services in moves to Malmö and gets a job for Malmö would be approximate- their own municipality. there. Table 10.1 shows the effect ly SEK 6 million, which can be on Malmö’s finances. In the three compared to the total tax income The background to this discussion examples, calculations are based in the Malmö municipal budget is the taxation agreement between on an annual income of SEK for 2000 of just under SEK 6000 Sweden and Denmark which went 250,000. million. into effect in 1997 and provides for persons who commute to work since The marginal effects in our In the instance where a Dane that time to be taxed in their country three examples are very small, moves to Malmö while keeping of work. Under the earlier agreement which is the result of adjustments his or her job in Denmark the net commuters paid taxes where they in the income and expense equali- effect will be positive, since then were domiciled, which continues to sation system between municipali- the municipality’s revenues will apply to persons who began commu- ties which cushions the effects. increase by SEK 9000. Where the ting prior to 1997, so long as they migrating Dane continues to pay have not changed employers. This In the first example, where an tax in Denmark, once again reve- analysis intends to attempt to answer employed Malmö resident finds a nue equalisation between the the question as to whether an equali- job in Denmark while continuing municipalities results in an increa- sation system is needed among the to reside at the same location, the sed income for Malmö municipali- municipalities of the Øresund regi- municipality of Malmö loses only ty of about SEK 25 000. When the on, by looking at what happens in SEK 4000. This is primarily due able-bodied Dane moves in, the individual municipalities under the to the extensive equalisation which compensation in cost equalisation system if a resident, for example, occurs in the revenue equalisation, is reduced, as a result of the pro- works on the other side of the where the degree of compensation portion of people of non-working Sound, or if someone who already is 95%. The change in taxation age in the municipality is reduced. has a job in Denmark moves to revenue, a decrease of SEK The municipality also receives a Sweden and then commutes to 52,000, is thus compensated for general contribution from the Denmark to work. by increased contributions in reve- national government, which in

Table 10.1 Marginal effects for the finances of Malmö municipality – three example, SEK annually

A Malmö resident working A Danish moves to Malmö A resident of another Swedish in Malmö finds a new job but continues to work municipality moves to Malmö and in Denmark in Denmark finds a job there

Change in taxation base -250.000 0 250.000 Change in taxatin income -52.000 0 52.000 Change in income equalisation 48.000 25.000 -24.000

Change in general contribution 0 6.000 6.000 Change in cost equalisation 0 -22.000 -22.000 Total income change -4.000 9000 12.000

JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO 21 feature combination brings the total posi- The overall analysis shows that In other words, the total loss of tive change in revenue to SEK there is no need for an equalisati- income for Swedish municipalities 9000 for each new Dane. If, on system between Øresund and counties will amount to SEK however, the Dane has a family, municipalities. Since the flow of 73 million for every 1000 commu- this of course means increased commuters goes from Sweden to ting Danes, as compared to a situ- costs, for example, for day care Denmark, and in Sweden there is ation where they paid taxes in and schooling. This is true such an extensive equalisation of their municipality of residence in enough, but we must remember the municipalities’ taxation base, Sweden. that this applies equally if a family the loss in income for the indivi- moves to Malmö from another dual commune is practically negli- Today there is uncertainty as to Swedish municipality, which gible. A similar situation applies how many people are commuting brings us to our third example. to the counties, and thus there is to work over Øresund and paying Here we have a resident who no need here either for an equali- tax in their country of work. works and resides in another sation system among counties on According to 1998 figures, appro- Swedish commune, who moves to both sides of the Sound. ximately 2400 persons commuted Malmö and gets a job there. from Sweden to Denmark, while Instead it is all the Swedish the corresponding number from In such a case, Malmö’s incre- municipalities and counties who Denmark to Sweden was scarcely mental income would be a total of jointly bear the greatest loss in the 300. This would mean a net com- SEK 12 000. The difference when case where a Dane moves to a muting of 2100 in the direction of compared to the Dane who moves municipality in Skåne but contin- Denmark. These figures do not to Malmö but pays taxes in ues to work in Denmark. A rough indicate, however, how many paid Denmark is only SEK 3000. estimate indicates that the munici- taxes in their country of residence, palities and counties as a whole in accordance with the former bor- In other words, the difference lose approx. SEK 73,000 on each der agreement, but it is likely that for Malmö commune whether a Dane of working age. In these cal- a relatively large number of the Danish family, paying taxes in culations we have assumed a commuters were former border Denmark, moves in or a family municipal tax of 30%, basic deduc- crossers. These commuters also from another Swedish municipali- tions as well as travel deduction, included a sizeable number of ty will be merely SEK 3000, assu- which means a tax loss for the commuters who built the Øresund ming that they have the same municipalities and counties of bridge. family composition. approximately SEK 65,000 as compared to the Dane paying tax To complicate things still fur- What will then happen to in Sweden. In this we have also ther, there are a good number of Malmö municipality if a large assumed that the general contri- crew members (for instance, airli- number of able-bodied Danes and bution of approx. SEK 8000 per ne cabin crews) who work in their families decide to move to person will be borne by the muni- Denmark and live in Sweden and Malmö? The actual figures show cipalities (SEK 6000 per person) are taxed there like the older bor- that the net migration to Malmö and counties (SEK 2000 per per- der crossers. According to a rough from the Danish side of the Sound son). This contribution should not estimate, there could presently be has increased substantially, but necessarily be calculated as a loss, up to 2000 commuters working from a very low level. In the year since everyone migrating to a in Denmark who live and contin- 2000 it was about 230, as compa- Swedish municipality generates a ue to pay taxes in Sweden. red to almost 0 in previous years. general contribution to his or her municipality and county. If we attempt, based on the pre- To make a rough calculation, vious commuter figures and the we have assumed that net migrati- If 2000 Danes move to Skåne, new, uncertain information, to on will be as many as 2000 of whom 1000 are of working age make a very rough estimate of net Danes, 1000 of whom are of wor- and continue to work in Denmark, commuting in the Danish directi- king age and continue to work in this involves lost tax revenues and on today, this would lie somew- Denmark. We can compare this to costs for increased general contri- here between 0 and 2000 com- a situation where these 2000 bution for the collective municipal muters, after we have tried to eli- instead came from other Swedish tax coffers of: minate or cancel out those who municipalities and 1000 of them continue to pay tax in their coun- find jobs in Malmö. The differen- 1000 * SEK 65,000 (collective try of residence. In such case, this ce between these examples is then municipal tax coffers) + 1000 + would mean that the total loss of 3000 x 1000 = 3,000,000 SEK, SEK 8000 income for the collective Swedish which is still a very small amount (cost for general contribution) = municipal tax coffers would in the total budget for Malmö SEK 73,000,000. amount to something between municipality. SEK 0 and 146 million. π

22 JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO books “Theories of Endogenous Regional Growth” Börje Johansson, Charlie Karlsson and Roger R. Stough (Eds.).

BOOKS regional development. Leadership is undoub- are also expected to host groups of sectors that Johan Lundberg, Reviewd by tedly a highly important factor in explaining can form an independent cluster. This is pri- CERUM regional development. It is, however, often marily a theoretical paper, which concludes neglected in empirical analyses of regional with an appeal by the authors encouraging THE ATTEMPT TO UNCOVER the most development and growth. One reason for this others to undertake some more detailed empi- important determinants of regional economic being, of course, the great difficulties to be sur- rical work based on their model. growth is a subject that has gained much mounted in quantifying and obtaining an accu- attention over the last twenty years or so. rate measure of leadership, or to put it more In Part V, Attila Varga analyses how the Much of the empirical literature on regional scientifically, in operationalizing the notion of number of innovations within a region is affec- growth has focused on the so-called convergen- leadership. Stough assumes that leadership is ted by private research efforts in high technolo- ce hypothesis, as predicted by neoclassical manifested in different outcomes, which gy and local university research. A production growth theory. As such, it suggests that poorer makes it possible to use different proxy varia- function approach is applied where the num- regions tend to grow faster than richer ones. bles for leadership. He elaborate with four dif- ber of innovations within a region is explained This issue is important from many perspecti- ferent measures, i) voluntary community effort, by the private research efforts (the number of ves. One such perspective of particular interest ii) number of voluntary community organizati- professionals in the private R&D sector) and relates to the distribution of incomes across ons, iii) expenditures of voluntary community research expenditures at the local university. regions. If poorer regions tend to grow faster organizations and iv) economic development Varga also tries to capture potential agglomera- than richer ones, this suggests that incomes effort. Using multi sector analysis (MSA) and a tion effects by introducing measures of the will equalize across regions over time. This will data set on U.S. metropolitan areas, Stough concentration of high technology production, also affect the distribution of local tax bases shows that leadership is an important compo- business services and the relative percentage of across regions and hence the regional and local nent in the process of regional development. large firms. Each or the four sectors, namely, authorities abilities to fulfil duties imposed on chemicals, industrial machinery, electronics them by the national government. Also in Part II of this book, Gunther Maier and instruments are then analysed separately. gives a nice review of traditional neoclassical The main finding of this work is that local The convergence prediction in the neoclas- growth theory. The traditional model is then university research spills over into innovations sical model is derived from the assumption of modified by the introduction of agglomeration within the electronics and instruments indus- diminishing return to capital, both human and effects, that is, by economies of scale and exter- try while the number of innovations within the physical. However, the convergence hypothesis nalities. The model starts out with two identical chemicals and industrial machinery sectors has been rejected in many empirical studies, regions, i.e. two regions with the same produc- relies on internal knowledge resources. many of which have favoured theories of so- tion functions, amount of capital and labour, called endogenous growth. In short, in exoge- and initially the same probability of getting a The last paper to be commented on here is nous growth models, long-run growth is main- new company (or an innovation) assigned to the one by Hans Westlund. In this paper, we ly due to exogenously given technological pro- the region. Capital is assumed to be mobile learn about the history of regional policy in gress, while in endogenous growth models while labour is immobile. Moreover, when a Sweden since the 1960s. As such, one of the growth is generated by endogenous factors. company has assigned to one region, it stays main objectives with regard to regional policy There are then a large number of empirical there. Each time period a new company is has been the desire to equalize financing opp- studies that have sought to focus attention on added to the system. In line with traditional ortunities for the local public sector. That is to a broad set of possible determinants for regio- neoclassical growth theories, new companies say, to secure a certain quality in the provision nal growth, such as the provision of local are randomly assigned to one of the regions. of local public services such as primary and public services, intergovernmental grants, However, if the new companies’ location decisi- secondary schooling, and the care of the elder- other local and national public policy decisions, on depends on the relative share of economic ly even for sparsely populated areas. Until the local income tax rates, demographic factors, activity within the regions, which is likely in late 1970s, no real efforts where made to pre- infrastructure investments etc. reality, Maier shows that the economic activity vent the depopulation of such sparsely popula- will concentrate on one of the two regions. ted areas. Instead in-migration to the major city The book ‘Theories of Endogenous Thus in terms of economic activity, rather than areas was more or less supported by the natio- Regional Growth’ edited by Börje Johansson, converging, the two regions tend rather to nal government. However, by the late 1970s, Charlie Karlsson and Roger R. Stough is a con- diverge, in direct contradiction of neo-classical regional policy was re-focused on the develop- tribution to this particular field of the regional theory. ment of sparsely populated areas through the development literature. This book consists of provision of different subsidies aimed at the 20 chapters sub-divided into five parts. The In Part III, Börje Johansson and Charlie support and stimulus of local industrial life. main questions addressed by the book are, Karlsson introduce a theoretical framework to Using this description of regional policy as a what factors are important for regional develop- discuss the potential for small, medium and point of departure, Westlund then goes on to ment and growth, and whether we can affect large regions to host the production of different discuss Swedish migration patterns. Since regional development and growth patterns types of goods. The focus here is on two fac- 1970 there has been a tendency for individuals through public policy. Some of the contributi- tors, the market potential within the region to migrate from the sparsely populated areas to ons are of a descriptive and discursive nature, (internal market) and the accessibility to and the major city areas, and also from the centre while others are more formal in the sense that potential of the markets within neighbouring of the major cities to the surrounding munici- different hypotheses are derived and tested. regions (external markets). Of little surprise palities. However, Westlund does not provide Many interesting issues are highlighted and perhaps, the authors find that regions with any formal evidence for the hypothesis that this discussed, and as such the book is thus recom- large internal market potentials have an absolu- migration is either caused by (or through the mended reading not only for professional eco- te advantage in finding a diversified specialisati- lack of?) regional policy per se. This paper is of nomists and regional scientists, but also for on. Moreover, the advantage increases to an a descriptive nature and may as such serve as a policy makers. However, it should be emphasi- even greater degree where the region displays source of inspiration for further research. zed that the conclusions outlined in some of an external market potential. However, the pri- the papers are presented with a little more mary focus is not on regions with large internal To summarize, this is interesting reading confidence than the nature of the analysis markets but rather on small and medium- for everyone working in the field of regional undertaken actually warrants. In what follows sized regions. Where do these results leave science and regional development, with many I will comment briefly on what may be consi- these regions? The authors suggest that the important and interesting questions and issues dered a highly subjective selection of papers small and medium-sized regions are possible raised, analysed and discussed throughout. π from the book. locations for the production of goods associated with high transportation costs or ones that are In Part II of this book, Roger R. Stough in other ways sensitive to the long distances focus attention on the effects of leadership on between producer and buyer. These regions

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2002 Reports

ISBN Keith Clement and Malin Hansen: The NEBI Yearbook 2001/2002. 91-89332- Sustainable regional development in North European and Baltic Sea 16-4 Integration. the Nordic countries. (Nordregio Report 2001:8) Editors Lars Hedegaard and Bjarne Att forska om gränser. 130 pages. Price: SEK 150 Redaktör José Luis Ramírez. Lindström. ISBN 91-89332-20-2 Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2002. (Nordregio Report 2001:3) 211 sidor. SEK 250 486 pp. Order from: Audun Sandberg: ISBN 91-89332-15-6 www.springer.de Institutional Challenges for Common Property Resources in the Nordic Countries. Cluster Policies – Cluster Hanell,Tomas, (Nordregio Report 2001:7) 51 pages. Development? Aalbu,Hallgeir & Neubauer, Jörg: Price: SEK 50 A contribution to the analysis of the Regional Development in the ISBN 91-89332-19-9 new learning economy. Edited by Åge Mariussen. Nordic Countries 2002. EIA, large development projects and (Nordregio Report 2001:2) 131 pages. (Nordregio Report 2002:2) 154 pp. decision-making in the Nordic coun- SEK 150 A4, Illustrations in colour. EUR 30 tries. ISBN 91-89332-14-8 ISBN 91-89332-23-7 Editor Tuija Hilding-Rydevik. (Nordregio Report 2001:6) 239 pages. A Comparative Study of Nordic EIA Facing ESPON. Price SEK 250 Systems. – Similarities and Editor Christer Bengs. ISBN 91-89332-18-0 Differences in National (Nordregio Report 2002:1) 171 pp. Implementation. Polsk-svensk handbok för planerings- Edited by Hólmfrí∂ur Bjarnadóttir. SEK 200 begrepp – (Nordregio Report 2001:1) 155 pages. ISBN 91-89332-22-9 Polsko-szwedzki podrecznik pojec z SEK 150 zakresu planowania przestrzennego. ISBN 91-89332-13-x Leeson, George W.: (Nordregio Report 2001:5) 399 pages. The Changing Face of the Price: SEK 400 Population of Europe: – ISBN 91-89332-17-2 Working Papers Geographical Distribution, Urbanization, Depopulation and Innovation and learning for competiti- Fungerande partnerskap för regional International Migration. veness and regional growth – a policy utveckling – Erfarenheter från tre regi- challenge. (Nordregio WP 2002:2) 61 pp. SEK oner i Sverige och Norge. Editor Peter Maskell. 75 Av Elsie Hellström et al. (Nordregio Report 2001:4) 114 pages. (Nordregio WP 2001:9) 43 sidor. SEK 50 Price: SEK 125 Låt mångfalden blomstra! – Lokal ISBN 91-89332-16-4 Henning, Roger: demokrati i nordiska länder. Regional Governance in the Nordic Redaktör Ulla Herlitz. (Nordregio Att forska om gränser. Capital Areas. WP 2002:1) 59 pp. SEK 50 Redaktör José Luis Ramírez. (Nordregio WP 2001:8) 74 pages. SEK (Nordregio Report 2001:3) 211 sidor. SEK 100 250 2001 ISBN 91-89332-15-6 Ex-Ante Evaluation of Baltic Sea INTERREG IIIB, Programme - Final Innovation and learning for competiti- Report. Nordregio 2000 – Annual Report. veness and regional growth – a policy Edited by Merja Kokkonen. 23 pages. No charge. challenge. (Nordregio WP 2001:7) 42 pages. SEK Editor Peter Maskell. 50. (Nordregio Report 2001:4) 114 pages. Price: SEK 125