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BORDER PEDAGOGY, SOCIAL REPRODUCTION AND STRUCTURES OF FEELING: EXPLAINING SUCCESS IN A SLUM SCHOOL. APOLLO SCHOOL, NAIROBI, KENYA. By Mumbua Sarah Musilla Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Anthropology Chair: Dr. William L. Leap Dr. Geompy tv. Burkhart Dr. Vivian M. Dean of College of Arts and Sciences Date 2006 American University Washington, D.C 20016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3255086 Copyright 2006 by Musilla, Mumbua Sarah All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3255086 Copyright 2007 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. © COPYRIGHT by Mumbua Sarah Musilla 2006 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BORDER PEDAGOGY, SOCIAL REPRODUCTION AND STRUCTURES OF FEELING: EXPLAINING SUCCESS IN A SLUM SCHOOL. APOLLO SCHOOL, NAIROBI, KENYA. BY MUMBUA SARAH MUSILLA ABSTRACT Slums in Kenya house some of the most disadvantaged populations in terms of schooling and economic marginalization. Apollo, a school which has consistently attained high scores in grade eight centralized examinations for almost three decades, is, however, situated in Nairobi slums. Its continued outstanding performance defies commonplace expectations that low income students cannot excel in academics. This study examines how the school has contested the ideology of failure that is normally associated with schooling in the slums. While my research does not question the importance of facilities in learning, it offers another way of looking at resource-based models in perceptions of successful education. My study establishes that Apollo is a battleground where both the ideologies of failure and success are in contestation. First, it examines the assumptions of what success in education in Kenya means. It assembles the politics of community needs in education ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and examines Apollo’s attempts to respond to them. I find that the assumption that one needs formal schooling in order to get ahead in Kenya is a strong motivating force for the parents, teachers and students. Second, I explore the perceptions of Apollo population about their physical and social location vis-a-vis their chances of achieving success in education. The way the teachers and students interpellate their position in slum ideology promotes strategies that advance the success ideology. Their positive interpellation provides a countemarrative to slum habitation and its associated ideology of failure. Third, my study investigates the underside of the success ideology. The practical process of attaining exemplary performance demands not only charismatic leadership but also unwavering discipline, strong work ethics, somewhat structured pedagogy and relentless commitment from the teachers and students. Fourth, I examine the success ideology in linguistic practice. Language is used by Apollo teachers and students to position themselves as major actors in the creation and maintenance of succcess and construction of Apollo school as a space where success prevails. Fifth, the study situates the success ideology within broader socio-political and cultural discourses that negotiate inequality. The success ideology is embedded in contested socio-political and economic terrains in education, language and culture. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREFACE The names of the schools (Apollo and Toyi), teachers, parents and students that are used in this dissertation are pseudonyms only, in order to protect the privacy of individuals interviewed. Gender identities have also been interchanged in several instances, in order to further conceal the identity of respondents and informants. Any names that resemble the real people interviewed should be considered coincidental. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The many miles that I travelled, literally and metaphorically, in the process of my doctoral studies could not have been covered without the contribution of many people and several organizations. My deep gratitude is extended to you all, in no particular order of priority. The Department of Anthropology at American University awarded me a merit tuition remission Teaching Assistantship, without which it would have been extremely difficult to finance my course work. They also awarded me a Sarah and Harvey Moore Fellowship that somewhat eased pressure at a difficult time. In addition, I am greatly indebted to the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, for their financial support (living expenses) throughout my course work, and the American University Career Center, for providing employment at a critical time. My dissertation committee deserves a chunk of gratitude for their constructive criticism. I salute the chair of my committee, Prof. Leap, for being the best advisor I could ever wish for. Your high expectations, standards and abstract thinking, which were both a source of admiration and frustration to me, challenged me to dig deeper, work better and tease out broad connections that immensely improved my drafts. Many thanks, too, for sensing when my spirit was in need of going into hybernation, and allowing it to, but still welcoming me back, like a prodigal sister, when the hybernation was over. Your V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. understanding of the restlessness of the spirit and the struggles of those who inhabit social and physicalla frontera is remarkable; your active participation in easing their atravesado experience was recognized and greatly appreciated. Prof. Burkhart, many thanks for giving very useful suggestions on the hidden variables and for exposing the beauty of ethnography to me. Your meticulous eye also helped me get a head start in editing. Prof. Vasquez, your ideas on everyday expressions of power and challenges to power relations and hegemony were thought provoking and highly appreciated. I salute all my teachers, at all levels of my schooling, for all your work that provided the solid foundation which eventually led to this achievement. The fieldwork leading to the writing of this dissertation would not have been possible without the cooperation of the leadership, the teachers, students and parents of both Apollo and Toyi schools. Although you are known here only by pseudonyms, your names, faces and personalities are real to me. I am most grateful that you gave me your time, shared your knowledge with me and welcomed me to your community. I am similarly indebted to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Kenya), and the City Council, Nairobi, for allowing me to do research in the schools mentioned. To Ms. Fanta Aw, Director of the American University International Students and Scholar Services, for your encouragement and understanding of the unique problems that international students face. To my former colleagues at the Career Center of American university and especially to the members of the Merit Awards Unit, for being great colleagues and for your encouragement. To Ms. Janice Flug and Ms. Lauren Tabbara of American University Library and CAS, respectively, for clarifying formatting issues. To vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Mr. Ken Ambrose of American University Center for Teaching and Learning Resources, for assistance with formatting and for solving a computer problem that was difficult to crack. The not-so-formal sector was extremely helpful throughout my course work, fieldwork and dissertation writing. To my parents, for your unconditional love, sacrifice and generosity, patience, wisdom, guidance and for teaching us the importance of education. To my mother, for reminding us to “keep kicking, even when you are on your death beds” (kava ngakusaa nginyaunyangya). To my children, Emma and Khelly, for your great love, for your optimism, for cheering me on, for being my technical team, and for not giving up on me. To my sister and great friend, Suviwa, for “taking care of business”, for your unconditional love, your faith in me, your understanding, your being candid with me, your sense of fairness and integrity, your cheering me on and keeping me abreast of developments. To my other sisters, Kavata (a.k.a

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