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Women's Political Representation in East-European Post-Communist And WOMEN’S POLITICAL REPRESENTATION IN EAST-EUROPEAN POST-COMMUNIST AND POST-SOVIET COUNTRIES Macro- and Micro-Level Analysis of the Factors of Election to the National and Regional Legislatures Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln 2020 vorgelegt von Kristina Gushchina, M.A. aus Ust’-Kamchatsk Referent: Prof. Dr. André Kaiser Korreferent: Prof. Ingo Rohlfing, PhD Tag der Promotion: 14.07.2020 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This dissertation is a result of three and a half years of work at the International Max Planck Research School on the Social and Political Constitution of Economy – a joint doctoral program between the University of Cologne (Cologne Center for Comparative Politics) and the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies. Although back then it seemed that I have a lot of time to work on this project, the years passed by quickly. It was very demanding at times to finish the dissertation on schedule, but it is extremely rewarding to look at the finished product now. I would not be able to do it without an incredible support I received from the people around me. I would like to thank the Cologne Center for Comparative Politics for being such a great place to conduct the research. In particular, I would like to thank my supervisor, André Kaiser, for seeing a potential in me and my project and for allowing me to become a part of the program. I am grateful for his detailed comments on the earlier versions of my papers at the research seminars and in private appointments which helped me to make this project better. I appreciate his support and his encouragement along the way. I am also grateful to him for being kind enough to suggest writing an article together which would combine our research interests. The result of this exciting collaboration became Chapter 3 of this dissertation. I would also like to thank my second supervisor, Ingo Rohlfing, for his support and interest in my project. I am grateful for his prompt yet detailed comments on the early stages of my work. I highly appreciate the opportunity to work with him. Besides, I would like to thank Prof. Gail McElroy (Trinity College, Dublin) for kindly agreeing to become an external member of my dissertation committee. I am grateful for all her thorough comments on each of my papers and extremely helpful discussions in person during our meetings at the different conferences. I would also like to thank all the faculty and administration and service staff of the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies. Their support made me feel very welcomed in the first year of my studies that I spent there. In particular, I would like to thank Ruth Hanisch, Enke Otte- Wiese, and Christiane Wenz-Miebach for helping me to solve all the initial bureaucratic issues and to settle in Cologne. I am additionally grateful to Susanne Hilbring for being extremely kind to me. Talking to her, and especially going to the Deep Purple concert together, has been a lot of fun. Beyond that, I would like to thank my colleagues at the Cologne Center for Comparative Politics and at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies. Without their insightful comments and helpful advice in the research seminars and in private, during lunch, and over coffee “at Roberto’s”, it would not be possible for me to successfully finish this dissertation. I am iii particularly grateful to Laura Einhorn, Jeren Rozyjumayeva, Bruno Castanho Silva, and Jens Wäckerle. Laura’s infinite encouragement and trust in me have been an extreme source of inspiration and support along the way. Her willingness to discuss any issues related to my academic as well as private life has helped me greatly during the doctorate. I am grateful to Jeren who has been a great example of a hard-working researcher with a never-ending passion for knowledge. Her motivational speeches facilitated my work, especially in moments of struggle. I want to thank Bruno for his continued support that started during our previous studies at the Central European University. He has always been ready to answer my statistics-related questions, to comment on the early versions of my manuscripts, and to correct my (mis-)usage of articles. I am similarly grateful to Jens who supported me greatly during my studies. His thorough comments on my papers and readiness to discuss any issues associated with our research on women’s political representation contributed to the improvement of my dissertation. I also want to thank Paul Beckman for his support during one year we shared an office together. He was always helpful and patient with my endless numbers of questions, especially those involving translations from German. I am additionally grateful to Franziska Deeg, Philip Gross, Guadalupe Moreno, Franziska Pradel, Leonce Röth, Daniel Saldivia, Jan Sauermann, Michael Schwan, and all other colleagues who made my time at the CCCP such a great and enjoyable experience. I feel very blessed to have so many people and friends around who supported and continue to support me along the way, especially during the hard times which are an integral part of any doctorate. They helped me to maintain a balance between work and private life and made it possible for me to finish the dissertation with a minimal loss of nerve cells. iv CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Women in politics: State of the art ................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 Concept of representation .......................................................................................... 3 1.1.2 Women’s under-representation in the world and the variations between the regions 4 1.1.3 “Traditional” factors of women’s legislative representation and gaps in the literature: “demand-side” and structural factors ....................................................................... 6 1.1.4 “Traditional” factors of women’s legislative representation and gaps in the literature: “supply-side” factors ............................................................................................... 8 1.1.5 Women in politics in post-communist countries ..................................................... 10 1.2 Overview of included studies ......................................................................................... 13 1.2.1 Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................. 13 1.2.2 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................. 15 1.2.3 Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................. 17 1.3 Relevance and broader implications ............................................................................... 19 1.4 Publication status of the articles ..................................................................................... 22 DEMOCRACY, REGIME CORRUPTION, AND WOMEN’S LEGISLATIVE REPRESENTATION IN POST-COMMUNIST EUROPE .................................................... 24 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 24 2.2 Women’s Legislative Representation and Democracy ................................................... 27 2.3 Women’s Legislative Representation and Corruption .................................................... 31 2.4 Women’s Legislative Representation in Post-Communist Countries ............................. 34 2.5 Data and Method ............................................................................................................. 36 2.6 Results ............................................................................................................................. 38 2.6.1 Democracy, regime corruption, and women’s legislative representation ............... 38 2.6.2 Elections’ attributes and women’s legislative representation.................................. 42 2.7 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 46 MULTILEVEL GOVERNANCE AND WOMEN’S LEGISALTIVE REPRESENTATION ....................................................................................................................................................... 48 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 48 3.2 Multilevel Governance and Women’s Political Representation ..................................... 50 3.3 Data ................................................................................................................................. 54 3.4 Method and Analysis ...................................................................................................... 60 v 3.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 65 PATHWAYS TO POWER: WOMEN AND MEN IN POST-COMMUNIST PARLIAMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 69 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 69 4.2 Female and Male Parliamentarians:
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