Canadian and Quebec Studies: Developments and Challenges / Le Numéro Anniversaire – Études Canadiennes Et Québécoises : Accomplissements Et Défis

The anniversary issue – Canadian and Quebec studies: developments and challenges / Le numéro anniversaire – Études canadiennes et québécoises : accomplissements et défis

TransCanadiana

Polish Journal of Canadian Studies / Revue Polonaise d’Études Canadiennes

The anniversary issue – Canadian and Quebec studies: developments and challenges / Le numéro anniversaire – Études canadiennes et québécoises : accomplissements et défis

10. 2018

Poznań 2018 Rada Wydawnicza / Advisory Board / Comité de Rédaction

Maciej Abramowicz (Université Marie Curie-Skłodowska, Lublin); Klaus-Dieter Ertler (Université de Graz); Yannick Gasquy-Resch (Université Aix-Marseille); Jan Grabowski (University of Ottawa); Sherrill Grace (University of British Columbia); Thomson Highway (Writer, Distinguished Visiting Professor at Brandon University); Serge Jaumain (Université Libre de Bruxelles); Smaro Kambourelli (University of Toronto); Józef Kwaterko (Université de Varsovie); Peter Kyloušek (Université Masaryk, Brno); Larissa Lai (University of British Columbia); Norman Ravvin (Concordia University; Concordia Institute for Canadian Jewish Studies, Montreal); Anna Reczyńska (Jagiellonian University, Kraków); Radosław Rybkowski (Jagiellonian University, Kraków); Eugenia Sojka (University of Silesia); Teresa Tomaszkiewicz (Université Adam Mickiewicz, Poznań) Recenzenci naukowi / Reviewers / Rapporteurs Gerardo Acerenza (Université de Trente) ; Wojciech Charchalis (Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań) ; Dagmara Drewniak (Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań); Gilles Dupuis (Université de Montréal) ; Michał P. Garapich (University of Roehampton) ; Petr Kyloušek (Université Masaryk, Brno) ; Rūta Šlapkauskaitė (Vilnius University) ; Piotr Wróbel (University of Toronto)

Redaktorzy naczelni / Editors-in-Chief / Rédacteurs-en-chef Agnieszka Rzepa

Redaktorzy odpowiedzialni za numer / Guest Editors / Rédacteurs responsables du numéro Ewelina Berek, Agnieszka Rzepa

Redaktorzy odpowiedzialni za biuletyn / Newsletter editors / Rédacteurs du Bulletin Ewelina Berek, Małgorzata Czubińska

Siedziba redakcji: Centrum Badań Kanadyjskich, gabinet C 3.30 Katedra Filologii Angielskiej UMK ul. Bojarskiego 1, 87-100 Toruń E-mail: [email protected]

Poznań 2018

Projekt okładki i stron tytułowych: Zenon Dyrszka, Agnieszka Frydrychewicz Skład, łamanie i korekta: Pracownia Wydawnicza WA UAM TABLE DES MATIÈRES / / TABLE OF CONTENTS :

Introduction / Avant-Propos ...... 7

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIES: CELEBRATING TWENTY YEARS OF ACHIEVEMENT / L'ASSOCIATION POLONAISE D'ÉTUDES CANADIENNES FÊTE SES VINGT ANS D'EXISTENCE

Looking Back, Looking Forward: Polish Association for Canadian Studies and Canadian Studies in Poland ...... 11 Józef Kwaterko – Professeure Nancy Burke : penser le Canada entre les cultures ...... 27

Articles

Józef Kwaterko – Clivages et convergences : les études littéraires québécoises sous le signe de la Caraïbe ...... 33 Anna Branach-Kallas, Piotr Sadkowski – Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre à la lumière des approches anglophones et francophones au début du XXIe siècle ...... 48 Weronika Suchacka – “The [C]rossing of [B]orders” and Intersections: Presenting and Practicing Intersectionality in Marusya Bociurkiw’s Works ...... 68 Anna Reczyńska – Benedykt Heydenkorn: Life History of an Emigrant Written into the Multicultural Canada ...... 100 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka – Portuguese Diaspora. The Portuguese Emigration to Canada: From the Sea to the City ...... 113

6 Table des matières / Table of contents

NANCY BURKE BEST M.A. THESIS AWARDS / PRIX NANCY BURKE POUR LES MEILLEURES THÈSES DE MAÎTRISE

Michał Kapis – Orality in Contemporary Canadian and South African Aboriginal Prose ...... 133

Comptes rendus / Reviews

Anna Żurawska – Katarzyna Wężyk, Kanada. Ulubiony kraj świata. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Agora, 2017, 352 pages. ISBN 978-83- 268-2559-0...... 167 Dagmara Drewniak – “From Life Writing to Fiction Writing: Polish- Canadian Connections in Recent Publications in Poland and in Canada” (Lucjan Krause, From the Vistula to the Canadian Great Lakes: A Life’s Journey. Toruń: Nicolaus Copernicus University Press, 2017. 245 pages. ISBN 97883-231-3890-7; Kasia Jaronczyk and Małgorzata Nowaczyk, Polish(ed) Poland Rooted in Canadian Fiction. Toronto – Buffalo – Lancaster (UK): Guernica Editions, 2017. 214 pages. ISBN 978-1-77183-144-4)...... 174

BULLETIN DE L’APEC / PACS NEWSLETTER

SUBMISSIONS / SOUMISSION D'ARTICLES Ewelina Berek Université de Silésie

Agnieszka Rzepa Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

INTRODUCTION / AVANT-PROPOS

In 2018 the Polish Association for Canadian Studies is celebrating the 20th anniversary of its establishment, and TransCanadiana the 10th anniversary of the publication of its first issue. The anniversary issue of the journal opens, therefore, with the section titled “Polish Association for Canadian Studies: Celebrating Twenty Years of Achievement”. The section comprises an essay reviewing the accomplishments of PACS and its members; and an essay by Prof. Józef Kwaterko, a founding and highly accomplished member of PACS, commemorating Prof. Nancy Burke, whose professional achievement and personal engagement and encouragement were crucial for the establishment of the organization. The part that follows includes six articles which reflect some of the diversity of research undertaken by Polish Canadianists: five articles by established scholars and one article by a budding Canadianist based on his M.A. thesis, which won special mention in the Nancy Burke best M.A. thesis contest for the year 2017. The first three articles focus on different aspects of Canadian francophone and anglophone literatures. Józef Kwaterko analyses the contribution made by Caribbean literary critics to Quebecois literary studies; Anna Branach-Kallas and Piotr Sadkowski trace the most recent trends in research on Canada’s participation in and commemoration of the First World War since the beginning of the 21st century; Weronika Suchacka offers a broad-ranging analysis of intersectionality in the work of Marusya Bociurkiw. The closing two articles, on the other hand, focus on issues related to lives of diasporic communities in Canada: Anna Reczyńska recounts the life and accomplishments of a prominent member of the Canadian Polish community, Benedykt Heydenkorn, while Marta Kijewska-Trembecka reviews the history of the immigration of the Portuguese into Canada. The article by Michał Kapis, based on his M.A. thesis, offers a comparative perspective on “oralized” literature of indigenous peoples of Canada and South Africa focusing specifically on two novels: Ravensong by Lee Maracle and The Heart of Redness by Zakes Mda. 8 INTRODUCTION / AVANT-PROPOS

We are grateful to the Embassy of Canada to Poland in Warsaw for the financial assisstance which made the publication of the anniversary issue of TransCanadiana possible. / Nous tenons à remercier l'ambassade du Canada en Pologne à Varsovie pour son aide financière grâce à laquelle la publication du numéro anniversaire de la revue TransCanadiana a été possibile.

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIES: CELEBRATING TWENTY YEARS OF ACHIEVEMENT / L'ASSOCIATION POLONAISE D'ÉTUDES CANADIENNES FÊTE SES VINGT ANS D'EXISTENCE

Agnieszka Rzepa Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

with Anna Branach-Kallas, Małgorzata Czubińska, Dagmara Drewniak and Tomasz Soroka

LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD: POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIES AND CANADIAN STUDIES IN POLAND

2018 is a year of multiple anniversaries for Polish Canadianists. In 1998 the Polish Association for Canadian Studies (PACS) was created; in 2008 the first issue of the PACS journal, TransCanadiana, appeared. The last twenty years were marked by vigorous activity of Polish Canadianists in their multiple roles of researchers, teachers, and event organisers. Given our rather humble beginnings, we can be proud of our achievement in the area of Canadian Studies and of the instrumental role of PACS in the integration of the Polish Canadianist community and the popularisation and encouragment of Canadian Studies in Poland.

Canadian studies are a relatively new area of academic inquiry. It started to develop in earnest in Canada only in the 1960s and 70s. Polish scholars followed suit in the 1980s, and as a result by the early 1990s Poland had a handful of scholars focusing on different areas of Canadian studies, and several universities were offering Canada- and Quebec-focused courses. Many of those scholars were among founding members of PACS, and have contributed to the further development and institutionalisation of Canadian Studies. Today, the fields represented by the majority of the Polish Canadianist community still reflect the research interests of those early enthusiasts: literature—both anglophone and francophone, history, political science, sociology, translation studies. Likewise, universities with Canadian or Quebec studies departments and centres are predominantly those where the early Canadianists were active: the University of Warsaw, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, University of Silesia (Sosnowiec campus), Nicolas 12 Agnieszka Rzepa

Copernicus University in Toruń, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Marie Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin and the University of Łódź. In time, Canadian studies subjects started to be taught and research into Canada carried out also at other universities or schools of higher learning: for example in the State Professional College in Konin, the Kalisz Campus of AMU, Casimirus the Great University in Bydgoszcz, the University of Szczecin and Koszalin Polytechnic.

The Polish Association for Canadian Studies was established in 1998 after several years of meetings of Polish Canadianists convened by Prof. Nancy Burke from the University of Warsaw with much support from the Canadian Embassy in Poland. At the time lasting professional and private links were established among members of our community, and international links were forged. Polish Canadianists actively participated in meetings and activities of the Central European Canadian Studies Network and, later, the European Network for Canadian Studies. While our Central European colleagues had encouraged us to form a Canadian studies association with them, the community of Polish Canadianists was soon numerous and active enough to establish an association of our own. Prof. Józef Kwaterko and Prof. Nancy Burke were instrumental in organising the first Congress of Polish Canadianists at the University of Warsaw. It was during the Congress, on April 17th 1998, that the Polish Association for Canadian Studies was established by 27 founding members. Prof. Anna Reczyńska of Jagiellonian University in Kraków was elected the first PACS President. Since then the Association has grown to over 100 members, and has remained faithful to its mission: to encourage the development of Canadian studies in Poland, to promote and popularise reseach on Canada, to develop links among Polish Canadianist community, and promote cooperation with colleagues abroad. The Association is now full member of the International Council for Canadian Studies. The proof that our efforts have been effective and internationally recognized is the Medal of the Governor General that PACS received in 2014 from His Excellency Governor General of Canada David Johnston; and prestigious awards given to PACS members, including the ICCS Certificate of Merit/Certificat de mérite for Prof. Józef Kwaterko (2016) and Professor Eugenia Sojka (2018), and Ordre des francophones d’Amérique with which the Conseil supérieur de la langue française du Québec distinguished Prof. Józef Kwaterko (2018).

Looking back, looking forward 13

Canadian Studies in Poland 1998-2018: Teaching, Research, and Outreach

PACS supports Polish Canadianists in their varied activities related to teaching, research and outreach. Canadian studies courses are offered by all the institutions mentioned in the previous section; in many of those students can write their BA, MA and PhD theses on Canadian subjects. Some institutions—for example the Chair of Canada at Jagiellonian University-- offer a very broad range of Canada-focused courses; the Faculty of English at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań runs an interdisciplinary Canadian MA Specialization "Anglophone Canada: literature, culture, language.” However, in the majority of Polish institutions Canadian studies courses are taught within already established institutional programs, and are often offered as electives. They tend to be quite popular with students, providing an interesting alternative to US-, UK- and France-focused courses traditionally offered by many Polish universities.

Teaching excellence is, of course, strongly linked to solid research; and we always hope it will also result in solid research on the part of our students, who are—hopefully—our future colleagues. It is important to stress that PACS has consistently supported budding Canadianists—students and young scholars--encouraging their research interests in different areas of Canadian studies. For many years, till our funding was cut, PACS offered financial support to young Canadianists through the conference travel grant and library research grant. We also honour outstanding graduate students with the annual Nancy Burke award for the best MA thesis with Canadian content. Articles based on parts of winning theses are published in TransCanadiana. TransCanadiana: Polish Journal for Canadian Studies, first published in 2008, is also a venue for established Canadianists from Poland and abroad to publish research results. Research results can also be presented at PACS triennial conferences, and a selection of articles based on conference presentations are published either in peer-reviewed collections of articles or in thematic issues of TransCanadiana.

Looking with hope into the future of Canadian Studies in Poland, this year we are also taking a long backward glance at the achievements of PACS and the community of Polish Canadianists. May the lists below function as a reminder of some of our activities and achievements.

14 Agnieszka Rzepa

PACS Triennal Congresses (in chronological order):

7th Congress – 19-21 May 2016, Toruń: “Canada and war/Le Canada et les guerres” 6th Congress – 5-7 April 2013, Poznań: “The Peaceable Kingdom? Cultural and language communities in Canada and the rule of law/Le Royaume paisible? Relations entre les communautés culturelles et linguistiques du Canada et l’application de la loi” 5th Congress – 7-9 October 2010, Cracow: “Towards critical multiculturalism: Dialogues between/among Canadian diasporas/Vers un multiculturalisme critique : dialogues entre/parmi les diasporas canadiennes” 4th Congress – 26-29 April 2007, Puławy: “Canadian ghosts, hopes, values/Rémanences, espérances et valeurs canadiennes”3rd Congress – 30 April–3 May 2004, Cracow: “Place and memory in Canada: Global perspectives”/Lieu et mémoire au Canada : perspectives globales 2nd Congress – 20-22 April 2001, Toruń: “Exploring Canadian identities/Vers l’exploration des identités canadiennes” 1st Congress – 17-18 April 1998, Warsaw: “Visions of Canadian studies: Teaching, research, methodology/Visions d’études canadiannes: Enseignement, recherche, méthodologie”

Research grants awarded to PACS members – an overview

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR CANADIAN STUDIES / CONSEIL INTERNATIONAL D’ÉTUDES CANADIENNES

DFAIT AWARD (25th Anniversary of Canadian Studies) 2001: Dorota Filipczak (University of Łódź)

FACULTY RESEARCH PROGRAM / BOURSES DE RECHERCHE

2001: Józef Kwaterko (Université de Varsovie) 2004: Agnieszka Rzepa (Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań) 2005: Anna Branach-Kallas (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń) Ewa Maria Poplawska (Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University, Warsaw) 2006: Mateusz Borowski (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) 2007: Józef Kwaterko (Université de Varsovie); Anna Czarnowus (University of Silesia, Sosnowiec) 2008: Anna Branach-Kallas (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń) Looking back, looking forward 15

2009: Wojciech Burek (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) 2010: Krzysztof Jarosz (Université de Silésie, Sosnowiec); Piotr Szwedo (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) 2011: Anna Reczyńska (Jagiellonian University, Kraków); Norbert Pikula (Jesuit College “Ignatianum”, Kraków) 2012: Marcin Gabryś (Jagiellonian University, Kraków)

ICCS FACULTY ENRICHMENT PROGRAM / BOURSES DE COMPLÉMENT DE SPÉCIALISATION

2003: Piotr Sadkowski (Université Nicolas Copernic, Toruń) 2005: Joanna Durczak (Marie Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin) ; Karolina Kapołka (Université de Silésie, Sosnowiec) ; Ewa Urbaniak-Rybicka (Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz) 2006: Mirosława Buchholtz (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń): Aleksandra Grzybowska (Université de Silésie , Sosnowiec) ; Eugenia Sojka (University of Silesia, Sosnowiec) ; Ewa Urbaniak Rybicka (State University of Applied Sciences, Konin) 2008: Ewelina Bujnowska (Université de Silésie, Sosnowiec) 2010: Radosław Rybkowski (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) 2011: Eugenia Sojka (University of Silesia, Sosnowiec); Marcin Gabryś (Jagiellonian University, Kraków)

CANADIAN STUDIES POSTDOCTORAL FELLOWSHIPS / BOURSES POSTDOCTORALES EN ÉTUDES CANADIENNES

2007: Lila Karpynskaya (K.D. Ushinsky South-Ukrainian State Teacher Training University, Odessa, Ukraine) 2010: Nancy Earle (Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, NL)

GRADUATE STUDENT SCHOLARSHIPS / BOURSES DE RÉDACTION DE THÈSE

2005: Tomasz Soroka (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) 2007: Yuliana Lavrysh (Academy of Pedagogical Science of Ukraine, Kyiv) 2009: Katarzyna Michalczyk (University of Silesia, Sosnowiec); Izabela Nawrot (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) 2010: Iga Wygnańska (Université Nicolas Copernic, Toruń) 2011: Karolina MacLachlan (King’s College London) 2014: Agata Trociuk (Université de Limoges, France) 16 Agnieszka Rzepa

JOHN F. KENNEDY-INSTITUT FÜR NORDAMERIKASTUDIEN, FREIE UNIVERSITÄT BERLIN

1997: Anna Branach-Kallas (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń) 1999: Ewa Urbaniak Rybicka (State University of Applied Sciences, Konin); Józef Kwaterko (Université de Varsovie) 2000: Anna Branach-Kallas (Nicolaus Copernicus University) 2007: Edyta Krajewska (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń) 2009: Krystyna Martyńska (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań) 2016: Kalina Kukiełko-Rogozińska (The School of Higher Education in Humanities of the Association for Adult Education in Szczecin) 2018: Magdalena Marczuk-Karbownik (University of Łódź): Małgorzata Bobowska (Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań)

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DES ÉTUDES QUÉBÉCOISES – BOURSES D’EXCELLENCE GASTON MIRON

2007: Sylwia Sawicka (Université de Varsovie) 2009: Aleksandra Grzybowska (Université de Silésie, Sosnowiec) 2010: Anna Żurawska (Université Nicolas Copernic, Toruń)

ROBARTS CENTRE VISITING PROFESSORSHIP IN CANADIAN STUDIES (YORK UNIVERSITY, TORONTO)

2015: Marcin Gabryś (Jagiellonian University, Kraków)

BANFF INTERNATIONAL LITERARY TRANSLATION CENTRE

2014: Krzysztof Majer (University of Łódź)

CANADA COUNCIL

2016: Krzysztof Majer (University of Łódź) (for the translation of Patrick deWitt’s novel Undermajordomo Minor)

AGENCE UNIVERSITAIRE DE LA FRANCOPHONIE

2010: Renata Jakubczuk (Université Marie-Curie Skłodowska, Lublin)

Looking back, looking forward 17

JUNIOR FELLOWSHIP ALFRIED KRUPP WISSENSCHAFTSKOLLEG GREIFLSWALD

2014/2015: Weronika Suchacka (Szczecin University)

POLISH GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

SENATE OF THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND

2016: Anna Reczyńska, Marcin Gabryś, Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, Tomasz Soroka, Karolina Pietrzok (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) Documentation of the Activities of Polish Diaspora in Toronto on Behalf of Poland and Polish Immigrants in 1980s and 1990s

STATE COMMITTEE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN POLAND (KOMITET BADAŃ NAUKOWYCH)

1998-2001: Józef Kwaterko (Université de Varsovie) Titre: Dialogues avec l’Amérique dans la littérature du Québec et de la Caraïbe 2007-2010 : Józef Kwaterko (Université de Varsovie) Titre: Poétique de la migration. Les représentations de l’identité culturelle dans la littérature québécoise et franco-caribéenne

POLISH NATIONAL SCIENCE CENTRE (NARODOWE CENTRUM NAUKI)

2011-2014: Marta Kijewska-Trembecka, Marcin Gabryś, Radosław Rybkowski, Tomasz Soroka (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) Project title: Peace, Order and Good Government. Key Issues in Contemporary Canadian Politics SONATA 2012-2017: Marcin Gabryś (Jagiellonian University, Kraków), Tomasz Soroka (Jagiellonian University, Kraków), Wojciech Michnik (Tishner European Univeristy, Kraków) Project title: Canada as a Selective Power. Canada’s Role and International Position after 1989 OPUS 2013-2017: Agnieszka Rzepa, Dagmara Drewniak, Katarzyna Macedulska (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań) Project title: The Aesthetics and Politics of the North American Female Memoir (1990 - Present) — Multicultural Perspectives 18 Agnieszka Rzepa

OPUS 2014-2018: Anna Branach-Kallas, Piotr Sadkowski (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń) Project title: The First World War as Cultural Trauma in English, French, and Canadian Literatures FUGA 2015-2018: Michał Obszyński (Université de Gdańsk) Titre: Status literatury frankofońskiej we współczesnych strategiach wydawniczych oraz dyskursie metaliterackim we Francji i w pozaeuropejskich krajach francuskojęzycznych OPUS 2018-2021: Dagmara Drewniak (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań) Project Title: The Figure of Home: Anglophone Literature of Polish Migrants and their Descendants in Canada after 2010

POLISH NATIONAL AGENCY FOR ACADEMIC EXCHANGE (NARODOWA AGENCJA WYMIANY AKADEMICKIEJ)

BEKKER Programme 2018: Anna Branach-Kallas (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń) Project Title: Missing Persons: Trauma, Precarity and First World War Veterans in Australian and Canadian Fiction (University of Toronto)

Publications (selected):

ICCS-CIEC Pierre Savard Awards for the best books in Canadians studies written in a language other than English or French:

Anna Branach-Kallas – Pierre Savard Award 2015 Uraz przetrwania. Trauma i polemika z mitem pierwszej wojny światowej w powieści kanadyjskiej (published 2014) [The Trauma of Survival: The (De)Construction of the Myth of the Great War in the Canadian Novel] Kalina Kukiełko-Rogozińska – Pierre Savard Award 2016 Między nauką a sztuką. Teoria i praktyka artystyczna w ujęciu Marshalla McLuhana (published 2015) [Between Science and Art. Artistic Theory and Practice Depicted by Marshall McLuhan] Joanna Warmuzińska-Rogóż – Pierre Savard Award 2017 Szkice o przekładzie literackim. Literatura rodem z Quebecu w Polsce. (published 2016) [Sketches on literary translation. The literature of Quebec origin in Poland] Looking back, looking forward 19

Main book publications (in chronological order):

Anna Branach-Kallas, Piotr Sadkowski (2018) Comparing Grief in French, British and Canadian Great War Fiction (1977– 2014). Brill: Series: Textxet: Studies in Comparative Literature, Volume: 88, ISBN: 978-90-04-36478-3.

Agnieszka Rzepa, Dagmara Drewniak, Katarzyna Macedulska (2018) The self and the world. Aspects of the aesthetics and politics of contemporary North American literary memoir by women. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, ISBN: 978-83-232-3339-8.

Krzysztof Majer, Justyna Fruzińska, Józef Kwaterko, Norman Ravvin, eds. (2018) Kanade, di Goldene Medine: Perspectives on Canadian Jewish Literature and Culture / Perspectives sur la littérature et la culture juives canadiennes. Brill | Rodopi, collection "Francopolyphonies 25", 2018. EAN13: 9789004379404.

Marcin Gabryś (2017) Przewodnik po Konstytucji Kanady. Akt Konstytucyjny z 1982 roku. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN/ISSN: 9788376389127.

Marcin Gabryś (2016) Przewodnik po Konstytucji Kanady. Akt Konstytucyjny z 1867 roku. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN: ISSN: 9788376388335.

Marcin Gabryś, Tomasz Soroka (2017) Canada as a Selective Power. Canada's Role and International Position after 1989. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN//ISSN: 9788376387925.

Anna Reczyńska, Dagmara Drewniak, Michalina Petelska eds. (2017) Polacy w kanadyjskiej mozaice (Katalog), Gdynia: Muzeum Emigracji w Gdyni.

Marcin Gabryś, Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek eds. (2016) Pani Anna w Kanadzie. Księga pamiątkowa dedykowana Pani Profesor Annie Reczyńskiej. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka 2016. ISBN 978-83-7638-784-0.

Marcin Gabryś, Elżbieta Janik eds. (2016) Kanadyjskie przestrzenie. Zbiór referatów z konferencji naukowych w ramach Festiwalu Kultury Kanadyjskiej z lat 2012-2014. Kraków: AT Wydawnictwo, ISBN 978-83- 63910-65-5.

20 Agnieszka Rzepa

Sławomir Moćkun (2016) Bezpieczna przystań. Kanada i Polonia kanadyjska wobec Polski i Polaków w latach 1939-1945, Warszawa: PTH/ Neriton, ISBN 978-83-7543-380-7.

Michał Obszyński (2016) Manifestes et programmes littéraires aux Caraïbes francophones. En/jeux idéologiques et poétiques. Leyde : Brill/Rodopi, ISBN13: 9789004309128.

Joanna Warmuzińska-Rogóż (2016) Szkice o przekładzie literackim. Literatura rodem z Quebecu w Polsce. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. ISBN 978-83-8012- 773-9.

Anna Branach-Kallas, Nelly Strehlau eds. (2015) Re-Imagining the First World War: New Perspectives in Anglophone Literature and Culture Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438- 7748-0.

Anna Branach-Kallas, Natalia Sabiniarz, Nelly Strehlau, eds. (2015) Conflicting Discourses, Competing Memories: Commemorating the First World War Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ISBN: 978-83-231-3504-3.

Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek (2015) Najeźdźcy w sukniach. Awans społeczny i zmiana wiktoriańskiego wizerunku kobiety w Kanadzie na przełomie XIX i XX wieku. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. ISBN 978- 83-8019-259-1.

Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek (2015) Szacunek i wsparcie. Kanadyjski system opieki nad weteranami. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN 978-83-7638-586-0.

Kalina Kukiełko-Rogozińska (2014) Między nauką a sztuką. Teoria i praktyka artystyczna w ujęciu Marshalla McLuhana. Warszawa: Narodowe Centrum Kultury. ISBN: 978-83-7982-035-1.

Branach-Kallas, Anna (2014) Uraz przetrwania. Trauma i polemika z mitem pierwszej wojny światowej w powieści kanadyjskiej. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ISBN 978-83-231- 3192-2.

Looking back, looking forward 21

Branach-Kallas, Anna ed. (2014) Niuanse wyobcowania. Diaspora i tematyka polska w Kanadzie. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ISBN 978- 83-231-3101-4.

Czarnowus Anna, Joanna Warmuzińska-Rogóż eds (2014) Traverser les frontières. Mélanges offerts au Professeur Krzysztof Jarosz / Crossing Borders. Studies in Honour of Professor Krzysztof Jarosz. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. ISBN 978-83-226-2298-8.

Drewniak, Dagmara (2014) Forgetful Recollections: Images of Central and Eastern Europe in Canadian Literature. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, Poznań. ISBN 978- 83-232-2777-9.

Soroka Tomasz (2014) Rola Kanady w transformacji Imperium Brytyjskiego. Analiza stosunków kanadyjsko-brytyjskich w okresie międzywojennym. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. ISBN 978-83-233- 3730-0.

Suchacka, Weronika, Uwe Zagratzki, and Hartmut Lutz eds. (2014), Despite Harper: International Perceptions of Canadian Literature and Cultures. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovač. ISBN 978-3- 8300-7412-0.

Kijewska-Trembecka Marta et al. eds (2013) Kanada na przełomie XX i XXI wieku. Polityka, społeczeństwo, edukacja. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN 9788376384375.

Gabryś Marcin, Magdalena Modrzejewska eds (2012) Państwo i społeczeństwo: kanadyjska myśl społeczna, polityczna i prawna / State and society: Canadian social, political and legal thought. Katowice: Agencja Artystyczna PARA. ISBN 978-83-61061-89-2.

Tina Mouneimné (2013) Vers l'imaginaire migrant. La fiction narrative des écrivains immigrants francophones au Québec (1980- 2000). Bruxelles: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-2-87574-032-8.

Anna Reczyńska (2013) Braterstwo a bagaż narodowy. Relacje etniczne w Kościele katolickim na ziemiach kanadyjskich do I wojny światowej. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN 978-83-7638-341-5.

Agnieszka Rzepa, Alicja Żuchelkowska eds. (2012) Kanada z bliska. Historia – literatura – przekład. Adam Marszałek, Toruń. ISBN 978-83-7780-485-8. 22 Agnieszka Rzepa

Liliana Sikorska, Agnieszka Rzepa eds. (2012) Eyes deep with unfathomable histories: The Poetics and Politics of Magic Realism Today and in the Past. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main.

Paweł Zając OMI (2012) Kościół katolicki za Kołem Polarnym. Misjonarze Oblaci Maryi Niepokalanej w centralnej Arktyce kanadyjskiej, 1912-2012. Wydawnictwo WAM, Kraków. ISBN 978-83-7767- 056-9.

Ewelina Bujnowska, Marcin Gabryś, Tomasz Sikora eds. (2011) Towards Critical Multiculturalism: Dialogues Between/Among Canadian Diasporas / Vers un multiculturalisme critique: dialogues entre les diasporas canadiennes. Katowice : Agencja Artystyczna PARA. ISBN 978-83-61061-17-5.

Krzysztof Jarosz (2011) Immanence et transtextualité dans l’œuvre romanesque de Robert Lalonde. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Katowice. ISBN: 978-83-226-2034-2.

Krzysztof Jarosz, Joanna Warmuzińska-Rogóż (2011) Antologia współczesnej noweli quebeckiej. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego i Oficyna Wydawnicza WW. ISBN 978-83-60743-49-2.

Piotr Sadkowski (2011) Récits odysséens. Le thème du retour d’exil dans l’écriture migrante au Québec et en France. Toruń : Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, 2011. ISBN 978-83-231-2709-3.

Zuzanna Szatanik (2011) De-Shamed. Feminist Strategies of Transgression: The Case of Lorna Crozier’s Poetry. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. ISBN 978-83-226-2079-3.

Zuzanna Szatanik, Michał Krzykawski eds. (2011) Bodies of Canada / C-or(p)ganismes du Canada. RIAS Vol. 5, Winter/Spring, Nº1-2/2011. ISSN 1991-2773.

Dorota Filipczak and Agata Handley eds. (2010) Bringing Landscape Home in the Writings of Jane Urquhart. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. ISBN: 978-83-7525- 431-0.

Eugenia Sojka, Tomasz Sikora ed. (2010) Embracing Otherness. Canadian Minority Discourses in Transcultural Perspectives. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń, ISBN: 978-83-7611-759-1.

Looking back, looking forward 23

Marcin Gabryś (2010) Stosunki kanadyjsko amerykańskie w polityce premiera Pierre’a Elliotta Trudeau 1968-1984. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego: Kraków, 2010, ISBN: 978-83-233-3082-0.

Eugenia Sojka, Mirosława Buchholtz eds. (2010) Państwo – naród – tożsamość w dyskursach kulturowych Kanady. Wydawnictwo Universitas: Kraków, 2010, ISBN: 978-83-242-0941-5.

Anna Branach-Kallas (2010) Corporeal Itineraries: Body, Nation, Diaspora in Selected Canadian Fiction. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, Toruń, 2010. ISBN: 978-83-231-2494-8.

Piotr Mikuli (2010) Sądy a parlament w ustrojach Australii, Kanady i Nowej Zelandii. Księgarnia Akademicka: Kraków. ISBN: 83-7638-000-1.

Agnieszka Rzepa (2009) Feats and Defeats of Memory: Exploring Spaces of Canadian Magic Realism. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu im. A. Mickiewicza: Poznań. ISBN 978-83-232-1989-7.

Teresa Tomaszkiewicz, Aurelia Klimkiewicz, Alicja Żuchelkowska eds. (2009) Antologia współczesnej literatury Kanady frankofońskiej. OficynaWydawnicza Leksem: Łask 2009. ISBN 978-83-60178-65-2.

Aleksandra Grzybowska (2009) La fugueuse et ses avatars dans l’oeuvre romanesque de Suzanne Jacob. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Katowice. ISBN 978-83-226-1839-4.

Maciej Abramowicz, Joanna Durczak eds. (2008) Canadian Ghosts, Hopes and Values. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie Skłodowskiej, Lublin, 2008, ISBN 978-83-227-2847-5.

Renata Jarzębowska-Sadkowska dir. (2008) Le Québec littéraire: lectures plurielles. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika : Toruń. ISBN 978-83-231-2192-3.

Mirosława Buchholtz ed. (2008) Polska w Kanadzie, Kanada w Polsce. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek: Toruń. ISBN 978-83-744-1969-7.

Mirosława Buchholtz (2007) Reads not only for Kids: Canadian Literature for Young Readers. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń.

24 Agnieszka Rzepa

Eugenia Sojka ed. (2007) (De)Constructing Canadianness. Myth of the Nation and Its Discontents. Wydawnictwo Śląsk, Katowice. ISBN 978-83-7164-479-5.

Dorota Filipczak (2007) Unheroic Heroines: The Portrayal of Women in the Writings of Margaret Laurence. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego: Łódź.

Mirosław Buchholtz (2007) Canadian Passwords. Diasporic Fictions into the Twenty-First Century Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, Toruń. ISBN 978-83-231-2140-4.

Krzysztof Jarosz (2007) La réécriture dans la littérature québécoise, Romanica Silesiana No 2, Katowice. (numéro entièrement consacré à la littérature québécoise).

Agata Preis-Smith, Ewa¸ Łuczak, Marek Paryż eds. (2006) Mosaics of Words. Essays on American and Canadian Literary Imagination in Memory of Professor Nancy Burke. Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw: Warsaw. ISBN 83-60269-03-3.

Józef Kwaterko ed. (2006) L’humour et le rire dans les littératures francophones des Amériques. Paris: L’Harmattan. ISBN: 2-296-00242-0.

Anna Reczyńska, Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, Anna Śpiewak eds. (2005) Place and Memory in Canada: Global Perspectives / Lieu et Mémoire au Canada: Perspectives Globales. Polska Akademia Umiejętności: Kraków. ISBN: 83-60183-11-2.

Anna Branach-Kallas, Piotr Sadkowski eds. (2005) Dialogues with Traditions in Canadian Literatures/Dialogues des traditions dans les littératures canadiennes. Wydawnictwo UMK: Toruń. ISBN: 8323118116.

Krzysztof Jarosz ed. (2005) Les Images de l'Amérique dans les littératures en langues romanes. Wydawnictwo US, Katowice 2005. ISBN 83-226-1426-8.

Józef Kwaterko (2003) Dialogi z Ameryką. O frankofońskiej literaturze w Québecu i na Karaibach. Kraków, Universitas. ISBN 83-226-1426-82003.

Anna Branach-Kallas (2003) In the Whirlpool of the Past: Memory, Intertextuality and History in the Fiction of Jane Urquhart. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ISBN: 83-231-1583-4. Looking back, looking forward 25

Mirosława Buchholtz ed. (2003) Obraz Kanady w Polsce. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszalek. ISBN: 83-7322-579-X.

Jan Grabowski (2000) Historia Kanady. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Prószyński i Spółka. ISBN: 83-7255-044-1.

Nancy Burke (2000) Mirrors of Memory. Łódź: Biblioteca. ISBN 83-88528- 40-4.

Maciej Abramowicz (1999) Le Québec au cœur de la francophonie. Lublin: Wydawnictwo UMCS. ISBN 83-227-1432-7.

Nancy Burke, Józef Kwaterko eds (1998) Visions of Canadian Studies: Teaching, Research, Methodology. Warszawa, Wydawnictwa UW.

Józef Kwaterko (1998) Le roman québécois et ses (interdiscours). Analyses sociocritiques. Montréal: Wydawnictwo Nota bene. ISBN 9782921053921.

Anna Reczyńska (1997) Piętno wojny. Polonia kanadyjska wobec polskich problemów lat 1939-1945. Kraków: Wydawnictwo NOMOS. ISBN 978- 8385527466.

Outreach events

Polish Canadianists consistently try to reach out to broader academic community and to general audiences to popularise knowledge of and research on Canada. This aim is achieved through publications, but also through events aimed at academic and non-academic audiences, including university and high-school students. The events have different formats—lecture series, presentations, guest lectures, conferences, workshops, competitions—but all aim at exploring and celebrating the uniqueness, complexity and diversity of Canada, and at fostering recognition of and regard for Canadian culture.

The two most prominent annual events are:  Days of Canadian Culture organised by Canadian Studies Centre, University of Silesia; devised and convened since 2001 by Prof. Eugenia Sojka and her team. The event includes lectures by prominent Polish and foreign Canadianists, movie showings, theatre workshops, conferences and meetings with Canadian writers, playwrights, visual artists, and scholars; 26 Agnieszka Rzepa

 Canadian Culture Festival at Jagiellonian University in Kraków organised since 2012 by the American Studies Student Research Society (Institute of American Studies and Polish Diaspora); includes conferences, lectures, workshops, quiz nights and debates.

Similar outreach events on a smaller scale include:  Canada Day co-organised annually since 2011 by the Faculty of English (Centre for Canadian Literature) and Institute of Romance Languages and Literatures at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. It is a day long series of lectures on English- and French- speaking Canada (history, culture, literature, etc.) delivered in Polish by leading Polish Canadianists and open to students, AMU faculty and general public;  Maple Syrup Day at the Faculty of English at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań: celebrated annually since 2015. The event is organised specifically for AMU students by PhD and MA students of Canadian literature, and includes maple syrup tasting, information on Canadian culture, quizzes and competitions;  Canada Day organised annually at the University of Szczecin;  lectures on Canada delivered annually during Meetings with Anglo- Saxon Cultures organised by State University of Applied Sciences in Konin;  Day of Quebec Culture and Day of Canadian Culture at the University of Silesia: lectures, competitions for primary and secondary school students and university students offered since 2005;  Days of Francophone Culture: an outreach event in many Polish cities which brings together scholars, students and non-academic audiences of different age. It is designed to promote cultures of French-speaking countries, and includes lectures, workshops, movie nights, theatre performances, competitions. In Toruń the event is organised by our colleagues from the French Department of the Nicolas Copernicus University and it emphasises the culture of Quebec;  Discover Canada: a competition for high school students from all over Poland organised by Canadian Studies Centre of the University of Silesia. It requires broad, in-depth knowledge on Canada from the participants.

Canadian Studies are now an established subject of research and teaching in Poland. As PACS members and Polish Canadianists we have successfully made our mark in the field and we have managed to help incite interest in Canada in our students and also, hopefully, the general public.

Józef Kwaterko Université de Varsovie

PROFESSEURE NANCY BURKE : PENSER LE CANADA ENTRE LES CULTURES

Nancy Burke était professeure au Département d’études anglaises de l’Université de Varsovie. Elle a fondé en 1994 et dirigeait pendant plusieurs années au sein de ce département Canadian Ressource Center qui est devenu un centre de documentation très riche en ouvrages de fiction et de référence ainsi qu’en revues, et qui avait pour mission de favoriser l’enseignement de l’histoire et de la littérature de langue anglaise du Canada. Je voudrais souligner que les résultats de l’activité de recherche de Nancy était connus et très appréciés tant en Europe qu’au Canada. Elle a été invitée à plusieurs reprises à donner des conférences en Angleterre, en Allemagne, en Russie, en Hongrie, en République tchèque, en Serbie, en Lituanie. Avec le professeur Don Sparling de l’Université Masaryk de Brno, elle a codirigé la revue bilingue, Central European Journal of Canadian Studies/ Revue d’études canadiennes d’Europe Centrale (elle existe toujours). Ses travaux sur la littérature canadienne postcoloniale, sur les écrivains contemporains autochtones du Canada, sur les œuvres de Margaret Laurence, Margaret Atwood, Robertson Davis, Alice Munro, mais aussi sur les œuvres des écrivains qu’elle connaissait personnellement et qui furent ses amis, comme Mavis Gallant, Robert Kroetch ou Janice Kulyk-Keefer – étaient largement connus et publiés en Grande Bretagne, aux États-Unis et, bien sûr, au Canada et en Pologne. Sa cooptation en 2004 au Comité Consultatif/ Advisory Board de la prestigieuse revue, International Journal of Canadian Studies/ Revue Internationale d’études canadiennes confirme hautement la réputation et la reconnaissance internationale de Nancy comme chercheuse et éminente spécialiste de la littérature canadienne. Je voudrais partager deux ou trois souvenirs rattachés à la présence intense de Nancy Burke parmi nous. Je me souviens avant tout d’une des rencontres vers 1995-1996, à l’Ambassade du Canada à Varsovie, qui auront précédé la fondation de notre Association. On se réunissait une fois l’an dans un groupe de canadianistes dont certains étaient des pionniers en études canadiennes en Pologne, en vue de discuter de nos recherches, faire le tour de

28 Józef Kwaterko nos travaux et d’envisager de notre participation au vaste réseau d’études canadiennes dans le monde. Nancy fut ce jour-là la première à avancer l’idée de mettre sur pied l’Association polonaise d’études canadiennes. Elle percevait notre potentiel et comprenait nos aspirations. Elle tenait surtout à ce que nous passions du stade de partage des informations, des nouvelles et de comptes-rendus sur les publications récentes en études canadiennes, au stade d’une vraie coopération scientifique internationale et d’une présence institutionnelle. Au 1er congrès d’études canadiennes et de la 1ère Assemblée générale que j’avais l’honneur et le plaisir de coorganiser avec Nancy à l’Université de Varsovie, l’Association Polonaise d’études canadiennes fut fondée. Puis, grâce au travail infatigable de Nancy dans les comités scientifiques et dans notre Conseil administratif, suite aux congrès successifs à Torun en 2001 et à Cracovie en 2004, notre Association a pu aspirer au prestige et au rang international. Notamment, elle est passée du statut de membre associé (« associated member ») au statut de membre à part entière (« full member ») du Conseil international d’études canadiennes/ The International Council for Canadian Studies. Je me souviens en particulier combien Nancy était joyeuse lors de notre 3e congrès international à Cracovie les premiers jours de mai 2004 quand la Pologne entrait à l’Union européenne. Avec une grande facilité et enthousiasme, elle nouait des amitiés et des relations avec de jeunes canadianistes de huit pays de l’Europe Centre-orientale qui célébraient l’entrée de leurs pays dans la Communauté européenne, tout en donnant l’espoir aux canadianistes venus de Bulgarie, de Roumanie, de Croatie dont les pays restaient en attente d’admission à l’UE. Je me permets de souligner également un aspect, à la fois intellectuel et personnel, qui me semble important lorsqu’on évoque le rôle et la place essentielle que Nancy occupait parmi nous et au sein de notre Association. Il s’agit d’une position que j’appellerais, suite à Michaïl Bakhtine, exotopique, c’est-à-dire celle qui demande de rester à distance de son propre espace culturel lorsque l’on veut comprendre sa propre culture. Autrement dit, il s’agit d’un rapport à l’espace (topos) et au temps (chronos) de deux cultures en présence (l’autre et la sienne propre) qui seraient contraintes ni à l'enracinement ni au déracinement, mais qui resterait dans un état de l'entre-deux (in between), entre les symboles, les images et les valeurs. En effet, Nancy Burke enseignait et pensait le Canada au pluriel, en fonction de son hétérogénéité constitutive, culturelle et identitaire, plutôt qu’en fonction de son multiculturalisme officiellement déclaré, légiféré, statufié. Je me souviens que lors des préparatifs à notre Second Congrès à l’Université Nicolas Copernic de Torun en 2001, elle avait opté avec mon

Professeure Nancy Burke … 29 soutien d’appeler ce congrès Exploring Canadian Identities/ Vers l’exploration des identités canadiennes plutôt que Exploring Canadian Indentity, au lieu de désigner « identité canadienne » au singulier. Elle tenait ainsi à orienter nos communications et débats plutôt autour de notion de l’hétérogène, d’une pluralité d’approches identitaires susceptibles de mettre en évidence le caractère mosaïque, hybride et pluriel de la culture canadienne ou des cultures du Canada. Un autre exemple de cette pensée au pluriel de Nancy : dans le volume Obraz Kanady w Polsce (Image du Canada en Pologne), publié en 2003 sous la rédaction de Mirosława Buchholz, elle insistait sur l’importance, pour les étudiants polonais, de lire les textes des écrivains de Premières Nations du Canada, des immigrés juifs, comme Mordecaï Richler, des auteurs d’origine caribéenne, comme Michael Ondaatje, ou encore des écrivains anglophones du Québec comme Gail Scott. Je pense que pour beaucoup d’entre nous Nancy Burke incarnait des traits caractéristiques d’un « passeur culturel ». Cela explique aussi son rapport à la Pologne et à notre situation de chercheurs en études canadiennes. Elle se penchait avec une attention très vive et une grande empathie sur nos affaires et problèmes, mais elle les voyait le plus souvent du point de vue de l’autre, de l’ « outsider » − celui qui comprend, mais pas tout à fait, sans être entièrement « en phase », en adéquation, avec notre réalité ambiante, celui qui reste souvent « étonné » par rapport à cette dernière. Significativement, dans son article, "Kanada w Warszawie : pod znakiem klonowego liścia" (publié dans Obraz Kanady w Polsce), elle parlait de sa perplexité devant ce qu’elle appelait « une situation de crise aiguë » survenue la veille de l’inauguration du Canadian Ressource Center qu’elle s’apprêtait à diriger au sein de l’Institut d’études anglaises : elle avait déjà obtenu la salle et la promesse du payement des factures de l’électricité et de téléphone de la part de l’Institut d’études anglaises; elle avait également reçu tout le support matériel de la part de l’Ambassade du Canada. L’ouverture du Centre a été soudainement mise en suspens à cause d’une facture non encore réglée, notamment celle pour un tapis de sol, déjà posé, mais qui, en défaut de payement, devrait être impérativement arraché. Cette attitude d’étonnement et parfois de gêne ou d’incommodité que Nancy Burke éprouvait en face de notre vie de tous les jours avait quelque chose de très vivifiant et rafraîchissant pour nous tous. Car elle nous permettait de mieux nous comprendre à travers les yeux de cette Canadienne d’origine britannique, de cette grande voyageuse entre les cultures qui restera toujours comme telle dans notre mémoire.

ARTICLES

Józef Kwaterko Institut d’études romanes, Université de Varsovie

CLIVAGES ET CONVERGENCES : LES ÉTUDES LITTÉRAIRES QUÉBÉCOISES SOUS LE SIGNE DE LA CARAÏBE

Abstract

This article stems from Pierre Nepveu’s assertion regarding “the transfers from the South to the North” made by Quebecois writers of Haitian origin (L’écologie du réel, 1988). My aim is to study the contribution made by Caribbean literary critics to Quebecois literary studies. I will focus my attention on Haitians who immigrated to Quebec, such as Max Dorsinville, Maximilien Laroche, Robert Berrouët-Oriol, Jean Jonassaint and Joël Des Rosiers. I will also examine the work by Fernando Ortiz (Cuba), Neil Bissoondath (Trinidad) and Édouard Glissant (Martinique). All these scholars, critics and thinkers have contributed concepts, ideas and motives that were adopted and reworked by Quebecois literary critics, resulting in a rich reflection on the postnational, pluri- and transcultural nature of Quebecois literary space. Keywords: migrant writing, Transculturalisms, Caribbean, Haiti, Quebec

Résumé

En partant du constat de Pierre Nepveu dans L’écologie du réel (1988) sur les « transferts du Sud au Nord » offerts par les écrivains québécois d’origine haïtienne, cet article se propose d’examiner la contribution des critiques caribéens aux études littéraires au Québec. On considérera en particulier l’apport des Haïtiens immigrés au Canada et au Québec comme Max Dorsinville, Maximilien Laroche, Robert Berrouët- Oriol, Jean Jonassaint ou Joël Des Rosiers, sans négliger celui de Fernando Ortiz (Cuba), Neil Bissoondath (Trinidad) et Édouard Glissant (Martinique). Ces chercheurs, critiques et penseurs ont proposé des concepts théoriques, mais aussi des idées et des motifs qui auront été absorbés et retravaillés par la critique québécoise contemporaine, l’ouvrant à une réflexion intense sur la situation postnationale, pluri- et transculturelle de l’espace littéraire au Québec. Mots-clés : écriture migrante, transferts culturels, Caraïbes, Haïti, Québec 34 Józef Kwaterko

En 1998, en parlant de l’hybridité croissante du paysage culturel québécois, due à la présence grandissante des intellectuels et écrivains migrants, Pierre Nepveu remarquait que les grands mythes du Nord et de l’Ouest qui avaient jusqu’alors hanté la culture et la littérature québécoises connaissent leur éclipse au tournant du XXe siècle. Désormais, ces représentations traditionnelles d’un ailleurs ou d’un au-delà face à un Québec cadastré et replié sur soi, se trouvent doublées par la figuration du Sud et proposent de nouveaux transferts de sens du Sud vers le Nord. Nepveu souligne avec insistance que le Sud, au lieu d’être un espace-temps assimilé de l’extérieur sur un mode de la réappropriation − comme au temps de la Révolution tranquille, du tiers-mondisme québécois et des « Nègres blancs d’Amérique », pour reprendre le titre de l’essai de Pierre Vallières (1968) − interfère sensiblement avec l’espace-temps québécois. Selon le critique, les écrivains haïtiens du Québec y contribuent de façon exemplaire :

Pourtant le sud ne vient pas seulement ajouter un autre pôle excentrique et exotique à l’aventure du Nouveau Monde. [...] Le sud, aujourd’hui, est ce qui vient vers nous et habite de plus en plus notre espace. [...] Le sud se trouve à devenir une figure de notre intérieur, une réalité qui vient habiter notre domaine, l’interroger, le changer. [...] Au Québec, c’est par l’immigration haïtienne que se produit principalement ce transfert [...]. [...] Par Haïti, c’est pour la première fois une immigration américaine, d’ascendance africaine et de culture forcément syncrétique, qui investit notre nord-est et travaille le dedans du lieu montréalais, le dissémine, le tropicalise, le bariole de signes foisonnants et contradictoires. (Nepveu, Intérieurs 329-330, en italiques dans le texte).

Les précurseurs

Dans son étude, Nepveu pense surtout à des romanciers comme Gérard Étienne, Émile Ollivier et Dany Laferrière dont l’écriture inscrit l’altérité comme l’expérience essentielle de l’identité culturelle du Québec à la fin du siècle dernier : une identité composite, faite de superpositions, de recoupements, au-delà de toute homogénéité. Il nous semble cependant que cette reconfiguration des lignes de force où le Sud impose sa présence spécifique peut être observable également à l’endroit de la critique littéraire qui va s’ouvrir tout au long des années 1990 à ce qu’on pourrait appeler une « créolisation » : un pluralisme de références, angles d’approche et concepts ayant trait à la diversité culturelle même des chercheurs universitaires et des critiques. Les travaux littéraires des auteurs d’origine haïtienne sont ici particulièrement intéressants car ils soulèvent souvent des questions nouvelles qui se trouveront à leur tour au cœur des préoccupations des intellectuels Clivages et convergences … 35 québécois d’ascendance canadienne-française ou d'origines diverses. À cet égard, avant d’aborder les apports contemporains à la critique québécoise par des auteurs d’origine haïtienne et, plus largement, caribéenne, comme nous le verrons par la suite, il convient de parler de deux chercheurs qui font figure de pionniers : Max Dorsinville (professeur à l’Université McGill) et Maximilien Laroche (professeur à l’Université Laval). Dans Caliban without Prospero. Essays on Quebec and Black literature (1974), Dorsinville interroge la parabole shakespearienne du conflit entre Prospero et Caliban dans La Tempête pour décrire les rapports entre les colonisateurs et les colonisés noirs. Ces deux personnages, qui symbolisent selon lui la dialectique entre la civilisation européenne et le primitivisme, l’urbanité et la sauvagerie, lui permettent de voir des parallèles entre la représentation de l’expérience sociale dans le roman québécois des années 1950 et 1960 et dans le roman des écrivains noirs aux États-Unis, dans la Caraïbe et en Afrique. Derrière la posture rebelle de Caliban, qui se situe du côté des faibles et revendique l’égalité avec Prospero, son alter ego européen, il perçoit la situation des littératures québécoise et afro-américaine en tant que « littératures post-européennes » (202), celles qui s’écartent de l’imitation des modèles européens dominants. On ne doit pas s’étonner que la typologie des littératures émergentes proposée par Dorsinville sera largement citée dans The Empire Writes Back. Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures comme contribution avant la lettre à la critique post-coloniale (Ashcroft, Griffiths, Tiffin 30-32). Il en va de même de Diana Brydon qui verra dans cette lecture politique de La Tempête une réécriture déconstructionniste (Brydon 76-77). Dans son second essai critique, Le pays natal. Essais sur les littératures du Tiers-Monde et du Québec (1983), Dorsinville traite de la « négritude » comme idée-image et thème fort de la réappropriation identitaire qui caractérise la poésie et le théâtre québécois sous l’impulsion du Cahier de retour au pays natal (1939) d’Aimé Césaire. Pour sa part, dans son article, « La conscience américaine de la nouvelle poésie québécoise » (1966), Maximilien Laroche estime que les poètes québécois des années 1950-1965 (ceux qui sont groupés autour des éditions de l’Hexagone) ont voulu se définir par rapport à la France « latine, européenne, cartésienne et ironique » et à l’Amérique « nordique, anglo- saxonne et pragmatique » (« La conscience américaine » 71), en exprimant en français leur sentiment d’appartenance au continent américain, aux « mille et une Amériques » (« La conscience américaine » 75). Quatre ans plus tard, en 1970 dans Le miracle et la métamorphose. Essais sur les littératures du Québec et d’Haïti, Laroche va poser les balises aux études sur l’américanité de la littérature québécoise qui vont se déployer pleinement dans les années 1980 grâce, entre autres, aux travaux de Gilles Marcotte, Pierre Nepveu, Jean- 36 Józef Kwaterko

François Chassay, Lise Gauvin, Simon Harel, Zila Bernd et Jonathan M. Weiss (voir Melançon 1989). L’essayiste perçoit déjà chez Nelligan et Saint- Denys Garneau l’émergence d’une conscience américaine non pas à travers une thématique explicite, mais dans le langage poétique même où le sentiment de la solitude, de l’isolement et de l’exil se conjugue avec « un désir d’émancipation » (15) qui se traduit par une nouvelle relation au paysage et aux mythologies du Nouveau Monde. Cette rencontre avec l’Amérique, intériorisée et articulée sur un mode intime, opère, selon lui, un décrochage vis-à-vis des modèles romantiques français et ceux de la poésie régionaliste canadienne-française avec son discours traditionnel et fortement idéologique sur l’« âme du Canada français ». Il observe que chez les poètes québécois contemporains (Jean-Guy Pilon, Gatien Lapointe, Pierre Perrault, Paul Chamberland), la figure du « pays », éprouvé à la fois comme absence et comme revendication de l’être, de même que la forte présence de l’Amérindien, ce « tiers obligé » et « absent » en même temps, sont des figures essentielles de l’américanité. Chez les poètes haïtiens (Jacques Roumain, Jean-F. Brierre, René Depestre, Davertige, Magloire Saint-Aude), Laroche trouve également des accents américains, en particulier dans leur traitement moderne du passé ancestral et religieux africain, là où le nouveau sens du sacré qui prend naissance en Amérique instaure un rapport « sauvage » et insolite au réel (le réalisme merveilleux, les crises de possession vaudouesque, l’érotisme « mystique », la créolisation du français comme langue d’écriture). En effet, pour Maximilien Laroche, l’Amérique continentale et insulaire est imprégnée de syncrétisme culturel où s’imbriquent trois grandes cultures : africaine, européenne et amérindienne. Au croisement de ces trois cultures, on retrouve l’homme américain, « un homme venu d’outre-mer et qui a dû rompre avec sa civilisation originelle » (Laroche, Le miracle 237).

Complicités critiques

À partir de la moitié des années 1980, avec l’échec du premier référendum sur la souveraineté, on observe au Québec la fin de « grands récits » sous-tendus par les enjeux sociopolitiques et l’entrée de la culture québécoise dans la postmodernité. Dans cette conjoncture nouvelle – avec la volonté de plus en plus manifeste chez les écrivains de se distancer des signes proprement « québécois » (langagiers, culturels, identitaires), la multiplicité de voix, de formes, la prolifération d’œuvres des auteurs immigrés, la prise en compte du pluralisme social et de l’hétérogénéité culturelle du pays – la littérature québécoise cesse d’associer territoire et identité, lesquels définissent ce que Guy Scarpetta appelle le « dispositif de l’enracinement » (Scarpetta 183-184). Clivages et convergences … 37

Désormais, on constate l’élaboration de diverses « fictions de l’identitaire » (voir Simon, L’Hérault, Schwartzwald, Nouss), soustraites au paradigme d’une littérature nationale et de plus en plus marquées par une perspective individuelle, « décentrée » par rapport au sentiment d’unanimité culturelle. Les critiques québécois d’origine haïtienne participent pleinement à ces interrogations sur la cosmopolitisation du paysage culturel québécois. Plusieurs auront proposé des idées, des concepts d’analyse et des formulations qui ouvriront de nouvelles perspectives à l’étude des transferts culturels qui se reflètent dans la fiction littéraire au Québec. En 1986, Jean Jonassaint, intellectuel haïtien, fondateur de la revue Dérives (1975-1987) qui a joué un rôle important dans la mise en évidence du potentiel culturel des immigrants au Québec1, publie une série d’entretiens, Le pouvoir des mots, les maux du pouvoir : des romanciers haïtiens de l’exil, consacrée à la production et la réception des œuvres des romanciers haïtiens condamnés à l’exil par la dictature militaire de François Duvalier. Un an plus tard, faisant écho au texte de Jonassaint, Robert Berrouët-Oriol, linguiste et poète originaire d’Haïti, installé au Québec depuis 1969, va proposer une première étude relative au concept théorique d’« écritures migrantes ». Il s’agit d’un court article « L’effet d’exil », paru dans la revue transculturelle, Vice Versa, fondée en 1983 par les Italo-québécois, Fulvio Caccia et Lamberto Tassinari, qui sera à l’origine de très nombreux débats et recherches sur la place de plus en plus identifiable occupée par les écrivains québécois de différentes communautés culturelles (voir Mouneimné 17-32; Mossetto, 2006; Caccia, 2010). Berrouët- Oriol part du constat que « la littérature québécoise contemporaine est encore en train de faire le deuil du discours identitaire univoque » (20) pour dénoncer la marginalisation des « voix migrantes » qui se battent pour leur reconnaissance institutionnelle dans l’enseignement, les revues littéraires et le marché éditorial. En 1992, Robert Berrouët-Oriol et Robert Fournier (un linguiste québécois) vont identifier ces voix « venues d’ailleurs » comme faisant déjà partie du « micro-corpus » (Berrouët-Oriol, Fournier 12) de la littérature québécoise. Ils les définissent selon deux catégories thématiques comme écritures « migrantes » (marquées fortement par le passé originel ou la mémoire du pays laissé ou perdu, réel ou fantasmé) et écritures « métisses »,

1 Notons que les intellectuels québécois d’origine haïtienne ont fondé au Québec d’autres revues culturelles à vocation inter- et transculturelle. C’est le cas de Nouvelle Optique (1971-1973), animée par Hérard Jadotte, Karl Lévesque, Cary Héctor, Colette Pasquis, Jean-Richard Laforest et Claude Moïse, et de Ruptures (1992-1998), revue quadrilingue (publiée en anglais, français, espagnol et portugais) que son premier directeur, Edgard Gousse, linguiste, chercheur et poète originaire de Jacmel, définit dès son premier liminaire comme « Un vaste projet d’amitié entre les peuples des Trois Amériques. Revue ouverte, aux dimensions plurielles ». Voir à ce propos Kwaterko (2011). 38 Józef Kwaterko qui subissent des effets d’hybridité au contact des voix d’« ici », étant confrontées davantage avec la réalité présente de l’exil (12-13). Pierre Nepveu, reprenant un an plus tard la perspective proposée par Berrouët-Oriol dans son article, cherche à montrer comment l’écriture migrante des années quatre-vingt coïncide avec la littérature québécoise dont l’imaginaire « s’est largement défini, depuis les années soixante, sous le signe de l’exil (psychique, fictif), du manque, du pays absent ou inachevé et, du milieu même de cette négativité s’est constitué en imaginaire migrant, pluriel, souvent cosmopolite » (Nepveu, L’écologie 200-201). En même temps, Nepveu affine l’approche thématique de Berrouët-Oriol se rapportant à l’expérience migratoire au plan socioculturel, en mettant davantage l’accent sur la démarche esthétique des écrivains migrants, sur l’expérience de l’exil inscrite dans le tissu narratif même en tant qu’hybridation des lieux, brassage de langues et de cultures, dérive mémorielle et fragmentation du récit (L’écologie 233-234). Il est significatif qu’à la suite de ces recherches entreprises depuis la fin des années quatre-vingt, au moment même où l’identité nationale se remet en cause, les chercheurs québécois de toutes origines vont non seulement constater la montée des écritures migrantes, mais essayeront de mettre fin à leur carence, dénoncée par les Haïtiens exilés.

Postures critiques et poétiques

Sherry Simon est une de premières à ouvrir des perspectives nouvelles en définissant la « perspective minoritaire » dans le prolongement de la réflexion de Deleuze et Guattari sur la « littérature mineure », décrite déjà par Kafka (Deleuze, Guattari 1975). Selon elle, c’est la langue qui occupe la première place quand il s’agit d’ « écrire la différence » (Simon 459). Simon Harel (1989) abonde dans le même sens lorsqu’il définit la « traversée des langues » (Harel 23) comme un des aspects déterminant le cosmopolitisme romanesque. Régine Robin s’appuiera elle aussi sur la notion kafkaïenne pour critiquer la catégorisation ségrégationniste de deux groupes d’écrivains : « Québécois ethniques » et « autres Québécois » ou « Néo-Québécois » (Robin 10). Robin se fait ainsi porte-parole des exclus dans la revendication d’un « nous » différencié et inclusif ; elle se révolte contre la « tentation de la ghettoïsation » et « l’assimilation » et parle du cosmopolitisme non pas comme un « hors lieu », mais comme une position assumée esthétiquement qui « consiste à traverser les codes, à s’en jouer, à développer une parole nomade qui ne soit pas une parole d’exil » (13-14). Pour sa part, Anthony Phelps, écrivain de la première vague d’immigration haïtienne qui publie au Québec depuis 1965, s’opposera violemment contre toute assignation à un « sous-groupe » : « Allons-nous Clivages et convergences … 39 reproduire au Québec, dans le domaine de la création littéraire, cette dichotomie canadienne à créer deux solitudes : l’écriture pure laine et l’autre : migrante ? » (Phelps 85). En 1996, dans sa célèbre conférence à l’Université de Montréal, « L’arpenteur et le navigateur », qui a suscité une violente polémique (voir Jarosz 2008), Monique LaRue emploie la métaphore de l’arpenteur et du navigateur pour désigner respectivement l’écrivain québécois « de souche », traditionnellement marqué par l’« ici », c’est-à-dire les topoï de la sédentarité et le sentiment de l’appartenance à un groupe défini (un « nous » ethnique), et l’écrivain immigrant, souvent exilé, attiré par l’ailleurs et voué au nomadisme, hors de toute fixation territoriale et sans filiation identitaire forte. Cette répartition lui permet de constater l’hétérogénéité de la littérature québécoise, riche de sa condition bifocale, et de récuser, dans un dialogue rapporté avec un de ses collègues de plume, les reproches de ce dernier à l’endroit des écrivains immigrés, lesquels « n’intègrent à leur écriture aucune des caractéristiques linguistiques issues de la démarche stylistique propre à la littérature québécoise » étant « plus sensibles à la problématique étrangère qu’à la nôtre » (LaRue 8-9). Dans la volonté de questionner les postures identitaires et d’échapper en même temps aux catégories restrictives, cantonnant les écrivains immigrés dans une condition minoritaire, deux écrivains d’origine haïtienne, Émile Ollivier et Jean-Claude Charles, vont déplacer la question de leur appartenance au champ littéraire québécois vers une échelle plus large, tout en interrogeant leur propre parcours. Le premier va refuser les traquenards de l’assimilation :

À vrai dire, j’éprouve quelque irritation devant l’épithète d’écrivain-migrant puisque je me sens enfermé dans un piège, le ghetto, alors que je fais tout pour m’en évader. Je me sens, avec cette étiquette, réduit à ma singularité d’immigrant, cantonné dans une condition minoritaire qui fait ainsi de moi un être unidimensionnel, mutilé d’une large ouverture sur le monde [...] (Ollivier 70).

Défiant tout enfermement dans un particularisme sociologique ou ethnique, Ollivier préfère parler d’ « écrivain de frontières » pour s’identifier à ceux qui « du fait d’être des migrants, ont perdu petit à petit leur certitude face à la ‘pureté ethnique’ pour acquérir une ‘identité incertaine’ forgée à partir de leur expérience migratoire » (69). Jean-Claude Charles, journaliste et écrivain nomade, habitant entre Paris, New York et Montréal, propose une réflexion sur l’espace postmoderne de la migration en se servant de l’oxymoron enracinerrance (imbrication d’ « enracinement » et d’ « errance ») qui dit à la fois la mémoire des origines et les réalités nouvelles de la migration. Par cette idée-image qui érige le 40 Józef Kwaterko nomadisme en une esthétique, Charles met l’accent sur le mouvement perpétuel de dérive et de voyage entre le lieu d’origine et les lieux d’exil ainsi que sur la discontinuité qui caractérise son propre style d’écriture et sa narration (Charles 2001). La réflexion sur la littérature migrante aura débordé les frontières du champ littéraire du Québec. En Pologne, dans une contribution originale qui élargit le corpus québécois par la prise en compte des écrivains immigrés en France (Vassilis Alexakis, Milan Kundera, Andreï Makine, Assia Djebar), Piotr Sadkowski introduit le concept de « récit odysséen », en regard de l’expérience avant- et après exilique de l’écrivain, figuré dans le texte comme personnage. Un tel concept opératoire lui permet d’analyser « [...] les fictions illustrant l’aventure d’un personnage exilé, qui au cours du voyage de retour (réel et/ou imaginaire) à son pays natal ou ancestral (ou encore rêvé comme tel), confronte divers aspects de son identité éclatée suite au vécu migrant. » (Sadkowski 49). En France, Jean-Michel Moura rangera les écrivains migrants parmi les écrivains postcoloniaux compte tenu de l’inscription dans leurs œuvres des rapports de force entre les pays historiquement dominés et économiquement dominants (Moura 4-5). Il en va de même de Xavier Garnier qui observe de fortes implications politiques dans la plupart des « littératures du Sud » (Garnier 24). Notons également la parution d’un important Dictionnaire des écrivains migrants de langue française. Passages et encrages (1981-2011), publié sous la rédaction de deux chercheuses autrichiennes, Ursula Mathis-Moser et Birgit Mertz-Baumgartner, qui regroupe les écrivains nés en dehors du territoire français, mais vivant et publiant en France (Moser, Mertz-Baumgartner 2010). Une pareille attention aux phénomènes de la mondialisation de la littérature migrante à l’époque actuelle est au cœur de la réflexion de Joël Des Rosiers, poète, médecin et essayiste d’origine haïtienne, auteur de deux importants essais, Théories caraïbes: poétique du déracinement (1996) et Métaspora: essai sur les patries intimes (2013). Dans le premier, en déconstruisant le concept de Berrouët-Oriol, il parle de l’effet de « l’ex-île » qui traduit un nouveau positionnement identitaire de l’écrivain haïtien, installé en diaspora québécoise à l’âge précoce (enfant ou adolescent) et libéré des angoisses de l’exil et du sentiment de l’écartèlement entre Haïti et le Québec. On peut dire que la mémoire des origines reste pour lui plus fictive que réelle, ce qui l’autorise à déployer des modalités d’écriture qui mettent à distance la nostalgie du pays natal ou encore à travailler ce manque comme un fantasme (Des Rosiers, « Théories caraïbes » 10-15). Dans son second essai, Des Rosiers construit l’image de métaspora qui transcende et englobe le concept de « diaspora », « idéaliste, romantique et nostalgique » (Des Rosiers, « Métaspora » 35). La charge sémantique du préfixe « méta » y est plus Clivages et convergences … 41 complexe. Elle nous situe d’une part dans un dépassement de la condition diasporique en tant que processus (dispersion, dissémination par la traversée des frontières nationales) ; d’autre part, elle permet de déceler les signes contemporains des grands traumatismes éprouvés par tous ceux qui cherchent à s’échapper de pays devenus invivables. En outre, étrangère au repli territorial et aux enracinements ethnicistes, elle est mieux à même de traduire notre expérience contemporaine de transmigration, des allers et des retours, réels ou imaginaires. Si le néologisme de métaspora relève de la démarche poétique de Des Rosiers, il n’est pas éloigné des reconfigurations conceptuelles des interactions culturelles introduites au Québec par d’autres Caribéens. Le concept de « transculture » et sa portée heuristique doivent être ici considérés au premier plan. Il a été explicité et discuté pour la première fois au Québec par Jean Lamoré dans la revue Vice Versa en 1987 et ensuite repris par lui dans un collectif Métamorphoses d’une utopie. Le pluralisme ethno-culturel en Amérique : un modèle pour l’Europe ?, publié en 1992 par Jean-Michel Lacroix et Fulvio Caccia. Lamoré se fonde sur le travail pionnier de l’anthropologue cubain, Fernando Ortiz, disciple de Bronisław Malinowski, qui applique le terme de transculturación à l’étude de la complexité ethnoculturelle et interraciale de Cuba dans son ouvrage, Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y azúcar (1940), publié en 2013 au Québec en français aux éditions Mémoire d’encrier sous le titre Controverse cubaine entre le tabac et le sucre. La « transculturation » est pour l’inventeur du terme la synthèse des phénomènes d’acculturation et de déculturation. Ortiz insiste sur la nature dynamique et inachevée des transmutations qu’elle met en jeu : « Elle est toujours un processus dans lequel on donne quelque chose en même temps qu’on reçoit : les deux parties s’en trouvent modifiées. Il en émerge une réalité nouvelle qui n’est pas une mosaïque de caractères, mais un phénomène nouveau, original et indépendant » (Lamoré 19). En ce sens, la transculturation réciproque des éléments en présence ne se rapporte ni à l’interculturalité, entendue comme échange qui implique des accommodements, ni au multiculturalisme qui a une connotation sociopolitique et préconise une coexistence des cultures comme dans le modèle fédéral canadien. Elle s’en démarque dans la mesure où elle suppose un « choc » (Lamoré 45) et une contamination entre, à travers (trans-) et au- delà des cultures qu’elle absorbe et qu’elle met à distance en même temps, en produisant une entité originale. En critiquant la définition sublimée de la transculture au sein de la revue Vice Versa qui l’utilise à côté des concepts flous (métissage, hybridation, syncrétisme), Pierre Nepveu souligne que cette dernière repose surtout sur le « refus de toute appropriation de la culture à l’intérieur d’une identité et d’un 42 Józef Kwaterko territoire réel » et sur « la conviction que toute culture se définit d’abord sur sa capacité d’autoaltération, de dépaysement, de migration » (Nepveu, « Qu’est-ce que la transculture? » 19). Fidèle à la pensée d’Ortiz, Nepveu interroge le paysage culturel au Québec pour constater que « la transculture se donne comme une alternative culturelle au projet d’une culture québécoise définie en termes d’identité, d’appropriation, d’homogénéité » (« Qu’est-ce que la transculture? » 20). À partir de là, il invite à dépister dans les œuvres littéraires québécoises − celles de Nicole Brossard, Yolande Villemaire, Jacques Poulin, Francine Noël, Régine Robin, Marilù Mallet − une pratique du dépaysement qui passe par l’ « expérience concrète de l’altérité » (« Qu’est-ce que la transculture? » 25) et la redéfinition de l’ « ici » (« Qu’est- ce que la transculture? » 27). Neil Bissoondath, un autre Caribéen (d’origine trinidadienne), qui tient à son identité hybride en se définissant comme un « Indo-Trinidado-Antillo- Canadien » (Bissoondath 131), va dénoncer l’appropriation culturelle en pointant les effets pervers de la politique canadienne en matière du multiculturalisme canadien. Dans son essai, Selling Illusions. The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada, paru en 1994, traduit et publié au Québec en français l’année suivante sous le titre Le marché aux illusions. La méprise du multiculturalisme, il s’élève contre la politique de discrimination positive sur laquelle repose le multiculturalisme qui encourage les membres des communautés culturelles à accuser les différences, à s’enfermer dans des ghettos en acceptant de ce fait leur marginalisation : « Les différences sont déjà assez évidentes sans qu’elles soient amplifiées par le multiculturalisme officiel et le culte grandissant de l’identité raciale et ethnique » (Bissoondath 134). Le message véhiculé par le multiculturalisme, étant celui de la division, n’épargne pas la littérature elle-même. Bissoondath souligne que les écrivains des premières nations ou immigrés au Canada, surtout ceux qui font partie des « minorités visibles », sont souvent « racisés » par la doctrine multiculturaliste : « Être “racisée” – dit-il – c’est s’être fait une conception raciale de la vie, avoir appris à se voir soi-même et à voir son passé, son présent et son futur à travers la couleur de sa peau » (115). C’est pourquoi les écrivains, quelle que soit leur appartenance ethnoculturelle, doivent rester inventifs et libres dans leur pratique d’écriture par rapport aux discours politiques dominants. En évoquant les prises de position d’un Kundera ou d’un Salman Rushdie, Bissoondath estime que chaque écrivain devrait récuser le rôle de porte-parole « propagandiste » (165) d’un quelconque groupe ethnique et plaider pour son autonomie dans le registre qui est le sien. Opposé lui aussi à l’idéologie de l’enracinement et aux certitudes identitaires, Édouard Glissant, poète, romancier et essayiste martiniquais, compte parmi les intellectuels caribéens qui ont eu un impact important sur la Clivages et convergences … 43 critique québécoise. Il a fait plusieurs séjours au Québec, notamment en 1973 et 1976 lors des Rencontres internationales des écrivains québécois, organisées par la revue Liberté, et en 1994, où il a été invité à donner une série de conférences par le Centre d’études québécoises de l’Université de Montréal auxquelles ont activement assisté, entre autres, Joël Des Rosiers, Lise Gauvin, Pierre Nepveu, Robert Melançon et Gaston Miron. Ces conférences ont été publiées la même année par les Presses de l’Université de Montréal sous le titre Introduction à une Poétique du Divers. La pensée de Glissant, répugnant à toute clôture, s’est tissée autour de quelques motifs, images ou idées et repères comme « relation », « divers », « opacité », « métissage », « identité-rhizome » ou « créolisation ». Dans ses essais des années 1990 (Poétique de la relation, Traité du Tout-Monde, Introduction à une Poétique du Divers), il plaide pour l’acceptation de la différence en tant que relation transversale, sans qu’elle soit sublimée par une transcendance universaliste. Sa perception des littératures francophones va dans le même sens dans la mesure où la langue française s’y présente comme une langue composite en raison de sa diversité, irriguée de l’intérieur par une polysémie sociale et différentes formes du brassage culturel. Parmi les critiques littéraires québécois, Lise Gauvin se réclame le plus manifestement de la réflexion de Glissant, en affirmant que la caractéristique des écrivains francophones est de se situer « à la croisée des langues » (Gauvin, L’Écrivain). Dans ses travaux, elle se réfère souvent à l’idée du multilinguisme que Glissant formule comme « imaginaire des langues » (Gauvin, « L’imaginaire » 11, 19) et l’érige en un principe « poétique » (Gauvin, « L’imaginaire » 19), permettant à l’écrivain de rendre visible son rapport au monde à travers une coprésence des langues dans son écriture et de s’arracher ainsi au piège d’un monolinguisme centralisateur (12). Selon Gauvin, c’est cet imaginaire de la langue que l’écrivain francophone donne à voir sur un mode implicite ou manifeste à travers ses représentations langagières. À partir de là, elle forge le concept de « surconscience linguistique » que les écrivains francophones ont en partage, en identifiant la langue « comme le lieu de réflexion privilégié, comme espace de fiction voire de friction, comme territoire imaginaire à la fois ouvert et contraint » (Gauvin, « Surconscience » 172). Les écrivains francophones font preuve, selon elle, d’une sensibilité particulière à la problématique de la langue d’écriture, l’exprimant soit dans un métadiscours soit la thématisant dans leurs œuvres comme tension, écart à la norme ou comme inconfort, mais aussi comme choix délibéré ou invention (Gauvin, « Surconscience » 173). C’est pourquoi, précise Gauvin, « la notion de surconscience recouvre à la fois un sentiment de la langue, une pensée de la langue et un imaginaire de la/des langues » (« Surconscience » 173 en italiques dans le texte). 44 Józef Kwaterko

On peut dire, pour conclure, que depuis le tournant des années 1980, la critique littéraire québécoise dans son ensemble aura été marquée de façon féconde par l’apport des penseurs et chercheurs caribéens. Leurs postulats théoriques, concepts et idées ont été absorbés par les recherches littéraires au Québec, lesquelles en portent des marques concrètes, sans que cette absorption soit pure et simple. Il faudrait plutôt dire que ces recherches se sont organisées avec et autour, sur un réseau de redéfinitions, de rapprochements et de croisements stimulants qui coulent désormais, pour ainsi dire, dans leur système nerveux. De leur côté, en bénéficiant d’une écoute de la part de la critique québécoise et en créant de nouveaux pactes de lecture, les chercheurs et essayistes caribéens sont devenus de ce fait des « gouverneurs de l’hiver », comme le dit Joël Des Rosiers en recyclant le titre éponyme du grand romancier classique haïtien, Jacques Roumain (Des Rosiers, « Théories caraïbes » 121). Cette métaphore du déplacement signale les liaisons et les points de recoupement entre le Sud et le Nord. Par extension, elle semble bien traduire la capacité de réinvention de la critique québécoise dans un paysage social et littéraire postnational où les cultures se conjuguent dans leurs multiples appartenances.

Bibliographie

Ashcroft, Bill, Griffiths, Garet et Tiffin, Helen. The Empire Writes Back. Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1989. Berrouët-Oriol, Robert. « L’effet d’exil ». Vice versa, vol. 17, 1986/1987, pp. 20-21. Berrouët-Oriol, Robert et Fournier, Robert. « L’émergence des écritures migrantes et métisses au Québec ». Québec Studies, vol. 14, 1992, pp. 7-22. Bissoondath, Neil. Le marché aux illusions. La méprise du multiculturalisme. Boréal et Liber, 1995. Caccia, Fulvio (sous la dir.). La transculture et Vice Versa. Triptique, 2010. Charles, Jean-Claude. « L’enracinerrance ». Boutures, vol. 1, no 4, 2001, pp. 37- 41. En ligne. 12 juillet 2018. http://ile-en-ile.org/jean-claude-charles- lenracinerrance/ Brydon, Diana. « Re-writing The Tempest. » World Literature Written in English, vol. 23, no 1, 1984, pp. 75-88. Césaire, Aimé. Cahier de retour au pays natal [1939]. Bordas, 1947. Deleuze, Gilles et Guattari, Félix. Kafka. Pour une littérature mineure. Minuit, 1975. Des Rosiers, Joël. Théories caraïbes: poétique du déracinement. Triptyque, 1996. —. Métaspora: essai sur les patries intimes. Triptyque, 2013. Clivages et convergences … 45

Dorsinville, Max. Caliban without Prospero. Essays on Quebec and Black literature. Press Porcepic, 1974. —. Le pays natal. Essais sur les littératures du Tiers-Monde et du Québec. Les Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1983. Garnier, Xavier. « Entre définitions et étiquettes : le problème de catégorisation des littératures ‘du Sud’». Notre librairie, vol. 160, 2006, pp. 22-27. Gauvin, Lise. « L’imaginaire des langues. Entretien avec Édouard Glissant ». Études françaises, vol. 28, no 2/3, 1992-1993, pp. 11-22. —. L’Écrivain francophone à la croisée des langues. Karthala, 1997. —. « Surconscience linguistique ». Vocabulaire des études francophones. Les concepts de base, Édité par Michel Baniamino et Lise Gauvin, Presses de l’Université de Limoges, 2005, pp. 172-174. Glissant, Édouard. Introduction à une Poétique du Divers. Presses de l’Université de Montréal, 1994. Harel, Simon. « Les marges de la ville : identité et cosmopolitisme dans le roman montréalais ». Lire Montréal. Actes du Colloque tenu le 21 octobre 1988 à l’Université de Montréal, Édité par Gilles Marcotte. Groupe de recherche « Montréal imaginaire », 1989, pp. 21-36. Jarosz, Krzysztof. « O geometrach i nawigatorach czyli dylematy transkultury w życiu literackim Quebecu ». Er(r)go, vol. 17, no2, 2008, pp. 91-101. Jonassaint, Jean. Le pouvoir des mots, les maux du pouvoir : des romanciers haïtiens de l’exil. Presses de l’Université de Montréal/L’Arcantère, 1986. Kwaterko, Józef. « Revues culturelles des immigrants haïtiens en diaspora québécoise : conditions d’émergence et quête de légitimité ». Cultural Constructions on Migration in Canada/Constructions culturelles de la migration au Canada, Édité par Klaus-Dieter Ertler, Martin Löschingg, Yvonne Vökl, Peter Lang, 2011, pp. 213-228. Lamoré, Jean. « Tranculturation : Naissance d’un mot ». Métamorphoses d’une utopie. Le pluralisme ethno-culturel en Amérique : un modèle pour l’Europe?, Édité par Jean-Michel Lacroix et Fulvio Caccia, Presses de la Sorbonne/Éditions Triptyque, 1992, pp. 43-48. Laroche, Maximilien. « La conscience américaine de la nouvelle poésie québécoise ». Les Cahiers de Sainte-Marie, vol. 1, 1966, pp. 71-75. —. Le miracle et la métamorphose. Essais sur les littératures du Québec et d’Haïti. Éditions du Jour, 1970. LaRue, Monique. L’arpenteur et le navigateur. Fides, 1996. Mathis-Moser, Ursula et Mertz-Baumgartner, Birgit (sous la dir.). Dictionnaire des écrivains migrants de langue française (1981-2011). Honoré Champion, 2012. Melançon, Benoît. La littérature québécoise et l’Amérique. Université de Montréal, Centre d’études québécoises (CETUQ), Rapports de recherche 6, 1989. 46 Józef Kwaterko

Mossetto, Anna Paola (sous la dir.). Le projet transculturel de « Vice Versa ». Actes du Séminaire international du CISQ à Rome (25 novembre 2005). Pendragon, 2006. Mouneimné, Tina. Vers l’imaginaire migrant. La fiction identitaire des immigrants francophones au Québec (1980-2000). P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2013. Moura, Jean-Marc. Théorie postcoloniale et littératures francophones. PUF, 1999. Nepveu, Pierre. L’écologie du réel. Mort et naissance de la littérature québécoise contemporaine. Boréal, 1988. —. « Qu’est-ce que la transculture? ». Pragraphes, vol. 19, 1989, pp. 15-31. —. Intérieurs du Nouveau Monde. Essais sur les littératures du Québec et des Amériques. Boréal, 1998. Ollivier, Émile. Repérages. Leméac, 2001. Ortiz, Fernando. Controverse cubaine entre le tabac et le sucre. [1940] Éditions Mémoire d’encrier, 2013. Phelps, Anthony. « Variations sur deux mots. Écritures/Migrantes, Migration/Exil ». D’autres rêves. Les écritures migrantes au Québec, Édité par Anne de Vaucher Gravelli, Supernova, 2000, pp. 83-96. Robin, Régine. « À propos de la notion kafkaïenne de “littérature mineure” : quelques questions posées à la littérature québécoise ». Paragraphes, vol. 2, 1989, pp. 5-14. Sadkowski, Piotr. Récits odysséens. Le thème du retour d’exil dans l’écriture migrante au Québec et en France. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2011. Scarpetta, Guy. Éloge du cosmopolitisme. Grasset, 1984. Simon, Sherry. « Écrire la différence. La perspective minoritaire ». Recherches sociographiques, vol. 25, no3, 1984, pp. 457-465. Simon, Sherry, L’Hérault, Pierre, Schwartzwald, Robert, Nouss, Alexis. Fictions de l’identitaire au Québec. XYZ, 1991. Vallières, Pierre. Nègres blancs d’Amérique. Parti pris, 1968.

Józef Kwaterko est professeur titulaire à l’Université de Varsovie où il dirige le Centre d’études en civilisation canadienne-française et en littérature québécoise. Il est auteur de Le roman québécois de 1960 à 1960 : idéologie et représentation littéraire (1989), French-Canadian and Québécois Novels, 1950- 1990 (1996, en collaboration avec Irène Geller et Jan Miernowski), Le roman québécois et ses (inter)discours. Analyses sociocritiques (1998) et d’un ouvrage en polonais, Dialogi z Ameryką. O frankofońskiej literaturze w Québecu i na Karaibach (2003). Il a dirigé un ouvrage collectif , L’humour et Clivages et convergences … 47 le rire dans les littératures francophones des Amériques (2006), codirigé L’imaginaire du roman québécois (2006) et, récemment, Kanade, Die Goldene Medine ? Perspectives on Canadian Jewish Literature and Culture / Perspectives sur la littérature et culture juives canadiennes (Brill-Rodopi, 2018).

Anna Branach-Kallas Piotr Sadkowski Université Nicolas Copernic

LE CANADA DANS LA GRANDE GUERRE : ÉTAT DES LIEUX DES APPROCHES ANGLOPHONES ET FRANCOPHONES AU DÉBUT DU XXIE SIÉCLE1

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to trace the most recent trends in research on Canada’s history and commemoration of the First World War since the beginning of the 21 st century. The article identifies the major thematic and axiological approaches in interdisciplinary and often transcultural studies of the First World War, referring specifically to the works of P. Berton, N. Gordon, S. Grace, D. Novak, J. F. Vance, Ch.-Ph. Courtois and L. Veyssière, M. Djebabla-Brun, B. Richard, B. Andrès, and others. As far as English Canada is concerned, we explore how recent studies undermine the myth of the Great War as a foundational moment for Canadian national history and identity. We also highlight the double historiographic challenge in the Francophone context: to rediscover the obliterated French Canadian experience during the First World War and to reinterpret the stereotypes, in particular the clichés concerning the conscription crisis of 1917. In our analysis we aim to compare the Anglophone and Francophone discourses and to expose points of convergence in the war experience of the two groups which are traditionally considered incompatible. Keywords: Great War, Canada, Quebec, history, memory, literature, culture, comparative studies

1 La présente étude est réalisée dans le cadre d’un projet subventionné par le Centre National de Recherche de Pologne (Narodowe Centrum Nauki, DEC- 2013/11/B/HS2/02871). Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 49

Résumé

L’objet du présent article est d’esquisser les tendances dans les recherches sur le Canada dans la Première Guerre mondiale dont une nouvelle dynamique se laisse observer dès le début du XXIe siècle. L’article répertorie les principaux axes thématiques et axiologiques dans le traitement de la Grande Guerre dans la recherche interdisciplinaire, et souvent à caractère interculturel, anglophone et francophone (notamment nous ferons appel aux travaux de P. Berton, N. Gordon, S. Grace, D. Novak, J. F. Vance, Ch.-Ph. Courtois et L. Veyssière, M. Djebabla-Brun, B. Richard, B. Andrès et autres). Quant au Canada anglais, nous nous concentrons sur la mise en question, dans les travaux récents, de l’image idéalisée de la Première Guerre mondiale vue comme le grand moment de l’Histoire formant l’identité et l’unité nationale. Dans le contexte francophone nous observons un double défi de l’historiographie : faire sortir de l’oubli l’expérience canadienne-française de la Première Guerre mondiale et réinterpréter des idées reçues, notamment en ce qui concerne la crise de la conscription. Nous abordons aussi des approches culturelles et littéraires, anglophones et francophones, de l’histoire de la Grande Guerre. L’étude des éléments parallèles dans les deux contextes fait remettre en question des opinions, longtemps répandues, sur l’incompatibilité totale des expériences de 14-18 vécues par les deux communautés fondatrices de la société canadienne. Mots-clés : Grande Guerre, Canada, Québec, Histoire, mémoire, littérature, culture, approche comparée

L’objet du présent article est d’esquisser les tendances dans les recherches sur le Canada concernant la Première Guerre mondiale dont une nouvelle dynamique se laisse observer dès le début du XXIe siècle. Nous nous proposons de comparer les études autour des discours mémoriels anglophones et francophones afin de révéler des éléments qui y sont parallèles, en dépit des opinions, longtemps répandues, sur l’incompatibilité des expériences de 1914-1918 vécues par les deux communautés fondatrices de la société canadienne. Quant aux études menées au Canada qui se concentrent moins sur l’histoire politique et militaire, pour explorer davantage les questions d’ordre anthropologique, culturel et psychique, englobant aussi la réalité du front domestique ou, plus généralement, les conditions de vie des civils, il convient de noter que cette tendance correspond à des approches similaires dans d’autres pays du monde. Cependant, la spécificité du contexte canadien consiste, entre autres, dans l’importance des nationalismes d’une part et, d’autre part, dans la contestation de la tradition nationale dès les années 1970, aussi bien au Canada anglais qu’au Québec. Il convient également d’observer des positionnements par rapport aux tendances transnationales de nouvelles 50 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski narrations sur la Grande Guerre. L’interprétation du passé permet de mieux comprendre les processus dans lesquels se sont constituées les consciences nationales sous l’influence des facteurs impériaux, nationalistes et ethniques. Dans notre article, nous ne visons pas à présenter de manière exhaustive l’état des lieux de la recherche sur la Première Guerre mondiale au Canada. Notre intention est de faire un tour d’horizon dans ce domaine afin de procéder, à l’occasion du Centenaire de 1914-1918, à un bilan subjectif des narrations actuelles sur le passé marquant toujours profondément les identités collectives dans l’Occident.

Le Canada anglophone

Pour le Canada anglais, tout comme pour la Grande-Bretagne, la guerre de 14-18 est avant tout la Grande Guerre (The Great War). Les liens du Dominion du Canada, tant sur le plan affectif que culturel, politique, économique et militaire, avec la Couronne demeurent très forts, ce qui explique l’entrée immédiate en guerre du Canada en 1914. Le pays, dont le nombre d’habitants ne dépasse pas 8 millions, envoie en Europe, jusqu’en 1918, 619 636 hommes (Berton 129), dont environ 60 000 trouvent la mort au front, surtout en France et en Belgique. On dénombre plus de 150 000 soldats canadiens blessés au combat (Godefroy 169-173). Jusqu’aux années 1970, la vision de la Première Guerre mondiale ancrée dans la conscience collective des Canadiens anglais est celle du grand moment de l’Histoire qui a permis de définir, pour la première fois, leur identité nationale. L’historiographie traditionnelle retient un tableau exaltant le patriotisme : le zèle des enrôlés volontaires qui se mobilisent en masse pour secourir leur lointaine Mère-Patrie bien-aimée. Les historiens militaires mettent en valeur les exploits glorieux du Corps expéditionnaire. Cependant, les chercheurs contemporains dévoilent des fêlures dans cette image idéalisée. Par exemple, ils démontrent dans quelle mesure le phénomène de l’enrôlement massif s’explique non seulement par le facteur – souligné par le discours officiel de l’élite politique – de la loyauté à l’égard de l’Angleterre, mais aussi par le problème de la pauvreté et du chômage parmi les descendants des immigrés européens (Morton, Fight 23 ; Cook, « Immortalizing » 49). Qui plus est, des études récentes font la lumière sur le rôle joué par la censure et la propagande. Pierre Berton, dans son ouvrage Marching as to War, commente les mesures draconiennes appliquées par le colonel Ernest J. Chambers, censeur en chef de la presse, afin de contrôler tous les messages de la guerre adressés aux habitants du Canada. En même temps, la propagande Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 51 faisait usage de l’imaginaire religieux en représentant le Kaiser sous les traits de Satan à la tête de son armée diabolique. Des exemples de la cruauté de l’ennemi, connus par ouï-dire, apparaissent comme des motifs récurrents dans les messages officiels (Berton 128 ; 162-170). La légende, médiatisée par la presse, du soldat du Corps expéditionnaire qui aurait été crucifié pendant la deuxième bataille d’Ypres en avril 1915, joue aussi un rôle considérable dans l’imaginaire collectif des Canadiens (Evans 52-63)2. Pour l’examen des facteurs impérialistes et nationalistes, il faut faire appel aux recherches de Jonathan F. Vance, qui souligne que la moitié des volontaires canadiens engagés dès l’automne 1914 venaient de l’Ontario et qu’il s’agissait pour la plupart d’hommes nés en Grande-Bretagne (Vance, Maple 45, 55). La guerre étant l’occasion au Canada de prouver la vaillance de la jeune nation, pour gagner de l’estime et de l’importance au sein de l’Empire, la propagande contribuait donc à créer une image positive, adressée aux Britanniques, du soldat du Corps expéditionnaire (Keshen 4-6). Cependant, la vision stéréotypée, forgée de cette manière, du jeune homme plein d’énergie, responsable, ingénieux, habitué aux vastes espaces, supportant facilement les incommodités de la nature, ne correspondait que très peu à la réalité, étant donné que les recrues provenaient majoritairement de milieux urbains (Keshen 4 ; Cook, Clio’s 10-40 ; Vance, Death 140-160). La bataille de la Crête de Vimy, du 9 avril 1917, est considérée comme l’événement militaire le plus marquant et le plus symbolique dans le grand récit national canadien de la Première Guerre mondiale. L’assaut victorieux sur une position allemande, solidement fortifiée, où d’autres troupes alliées avaient échoué, a prouvé les qualités, la vaillance et la puissance des quatre divisions canadiennes, qui pour la première fois opéraient ensemble durant la guerre. Dans l’imaginaire collectif des Canadiens, la bataille de la Crête de Vimy est perçue comme le moment de la naissance et de la manifestation de l’indépendance de leur nation. Aujourd’hui, les historiens gardent une distance critique par rapport à cette victoire spectaculaire, qui a eu un coût très élevé – 3 500 morts et plus de 7000 gravement blessés – mais dont les conséquences ont été peu importantes pour le déroulement de la guerre (Berton 178-180 ; Keshen 3). Selon l’analyse de Robert Zacharias (2012), la bataille de Vimy joue le rôle d’une crise sanglante nécessaire au processus de la formation de l’identité nationale au Canada. Le chercheur observe, dans ce contexte, l’importance des facteurs émotifs et souligne l’absence dans les discours mémoriels autour de Vimy de questions politiques et éthiques. Le Mémorial national du Canada à

2 Peter Webb note que l’observation de ce type de discours de propagande, perçu comme une pratique infâme et fort ambivalente du point de vue éthique aujourd’hui, est nécessaire si l’on cherche à comprendre l’évolution de la culture canadienne (47). Voir aussi Branach-Kallas, « Canadians ». 52 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski

Vimy (Vimy National Memorial), situé sur le lieu de la bataille dans le département français de Pas-de-Calais, inauguré en 1936, à grands frais du gouvernement canadien, contribue à perpétuer le mythe3.

Le Canada francophone

Tandis que dans le contexte anglo-canadien la Grande Guerre marque une étape primordiale dans le processus de formation de l’identité nationale, au Canada français le conflit de 14-18 semble généralement perçu comme une affaire politique étrangère dans laquelle sont impliquées les puissances européennes, où les Britanniques sont souvent considérés par la population francophone comme des oppresseurs et colonisateurs. La crise de la conscription de 1917 apparaît comme l’épisode le plus important que la mémoire collective des Canadiens français a associé à l’histoire de la Première Guerre mondiale (Biron et Parenteau 13). Le manque d’enthousiasme chez les francophones face à l’idée de s’engager s’explique pas seulement par leur attitude distanciée vis-à-vis de l’Empire britannique. Ils ne veulent pas non plus s’identifier aux Français et leur guerre qui est vue comme lointaine et incompréhensible (D’Amours 44-50 ; Warren 100-104). L’antagonisme entre les anglophones et les francophones canadiens se radicalise suite à la décision du gouvernement ontarien – le fameux règlement XVII – visant à restreindre l’enseignement en français dans les écoles de la province. La tension monte encore plus lorsque le gouvernement de Borden déclare la nécessité, en 1916, de doubler l’effectif des militaires canadiens à être envoyés au front. Le vote, en juillet 1917, de la Loi du Service militaire (Military Service Act) instaurant la conscription obligatoire, révèle la profondeur du clivage : tandis que presque tous les députés anglophones sont pour son adoption, les Canadiens français s’y opposent en bloc (Richard, « Le Québec » 113-115). Les protestations anti-conscriptionnistes de la population francophone, qui en sont la conséquence, atteignent leur apogée au printemps 1918. Lors des émeutes à Québec, le 1er avril, l’armée tire sur les manifestants, faisant quatre morts. Comme le souligne Béatrice Richard, les événements tragiques, que les historiens n’exploreront que tardivement, ont déterminé la vision du temps de la Grande Guerre dans l’imaginaire des Canadiens français qui se perçoivent comme victimes des forces politiques hostiles et étrangères (Richard, « Le Québec » 115). Bien qu’un manque d’intérêt puisse être observé de la part des chercheurs pour ce domaine, il faut noter qu’une première approche approfondie de la problématique de l’attitude de la population francophone face à l’effort de

3 Voir aussi l’étude de Tim Cook : Vimy: The Battle and the Legend (2017). Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 53 guerre a été proposée par une chercheuse américaine, Elizabeth. H. Armstrong4. La traduction française de sa thèse, The Crisis of Québec, 1914- 1918, qui date de 1937, n’est parue au Québec qu’en 1998, sous le titre Le Québec et la crise de la conscription, 1917-1918. Ce travail, mettant l’accent sur la dimension politique des événements, notamment sur le rôle du nationalisme canadien-français, demeure l’un des plus importants ouvrages de référence. La parution en 1977 du livre de Gérard Filteau, Le Québec, le Canada et la guerre, 1914-1918, annonce les tentatives, qui s’intensifient au début du XXIe siècle, de combler la lacune dans l’historiographie québécoise sur le premier conflit mondial et plus particulièrement sur le prix du sang payé par les soldats canadiens-français. Conçue comme un ouvrage de vulgarisation, la monographie de Filteau est axée sur l’histoire militaire de la guerre dont la reconstruction s’appuie partiellement sur des témoignages de ses participants recueillis par l’auteur. En publiant en 1999 et en 2000 son travail en 2 volumes, Les poilus québécois de 1914-1918 : histoire militaire des Canadiens français de la Première Guerre mondiale, Pierre Vennat contribue plus méthodiquement à remettre en question l’image stéréotypée d’une opposition unanime de l’opinion publique au Québec contre l’enrôlement. Le chercheur profite de l’étude sociomilitaire de Jean-Pierre Gagnon (1986) consacrée à l’histoire de l’unité francophone du Corps expéditionnaire – le 22e Bataillon – et explore également les archives du journal québécois La Presse, favorable à l’idée de l’engagement des Canadiens français dans l’effort de guerre. Patrick Bouvier, pour sa part, déconstruit le mythe du refus massif d’obéissance de la part des francophones, en démontrant dans son étude sociologique Déserteurs et insoumis. Les Canadiens français et la justice militaire (1914-1918) que le nombre des soldats canadiens-français jugés devant la cour martiale (61 reconnus coupables, 7 fusillés), comparé aux statistiques concernant l’ensemble du Corps expéditionnaire, n’est point élevé. De même, Amy Shaw, dans son livre Crisis of Conscience: Conscientious Objection in Canada during the First World War, remet en question l’image stéréotypée des Anglo- Canadiens, d’une part, unanimes dans le soutien enthousiaste de l’effort de guerre et des Canadiens français, d’autre part, qui y étaient réfractaires. La chercheuse se penche sur la pratique de l’accord de l’exemption pour des motifs religieux et idéologiques. Si en Grande-Bretagne ou en France les objecteurs de conscience suscitaient l’intérêt de l’opinion publique, au Canada, ne faisant pas partie de l’élite intellectuelle ou financière et ne sachant pas se constituer en un organisme influent et engagé dans la lutte politique, ils sont demeurés un groupe méconnu. Qui plus est, en 1917, ils ont

4 Voir aussi Djebabla, « Historiographie ». 54 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski perdu le droit de vote, tandis que les femmes, veuves, mères et sœurs des combattants, l’ont acquis5. L’historiographie québécoise se confronte à un double défi : faire sortir de l’oubli l’expérience canadienne-française de la Première Guerre (qui englobe aussi bien les réfractaires que les volontaires) et réinterpréter les événements dont la perception risque d’être troublée par des idées reçues ancrées dans les mémoires collectives des francophones et des anglophones au Canada. Les études rassemblées dans l’ouvrage collectif Le Québec dans la Grande Guerre. Engagements, refus, héritages, sous la direction de Charles-Philippe Courtois et Laurent Veyssière (2015), semblent répondre à ces nouveaux besoins de la narration historique. Le problème de la conscription y est minutieusement analysé. Cependant, son approche s’accompagne d’études portant sur les questions telles que le sort des combattants canadiens-français, les méandres politiques et idéologiques du débat mené au Québec sur l’effort de guerre et les conséquences à long terme de ces événements dont la dimension locale est expliquée aussi à la lumière de l’histoire de l’Europe de 14-18. Par exemple, les analyses de Serge Bernier et de Caroline D’Amours consacrées au 22e Bataillon6 permettent de remettre en question une vision dichotomique et simplifiée des attitudes des élites politiques anglophones d’une part et francophones de l’autre, face au problème de l’enrôlement des Canadiens français. De la même manière, certaines données statistiques font nuancer les jugements sur l’importance de la disproportion entre la présence réelle des francophones et des anglophones dans le Corps expéditionnaire. Pour cette raison, comme le souligne Yves Tremblay, il est nécessaire d’envisager une nouvelle approche du problème, qui se détacherait des deux narrations nationalistes stéréotypées et viserait davantage la comparaison des cas particuliers en ce qui concerne les questions de participation à la guerre et/ou de la résistance à la conscription, dans les deux communautés fondatrices du Canada (70)7.

La culture : approches interdisciplinaires

Dans le monde occidental, dès les années 1980, les historiens ainsi que les spécialistes en littérature et en culture s’intéressent à la guerre à l’échelle microhistorique et au travers des vécus individuels. Ainsi, la narration sur la Première Guerre se mue en une histoire des affects (Winter et Prost 201-210).

5 Voir aussi Branach-Kallas, « Conflicting Narratives ». 6 Voir aussi Bernier, Le Royal. 7 Pour une approche approfondie de la confrontation des deux nationalismes voir Lacombe, La rencontre. Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 55

Par conséquent, l’exploration factuelle débouche sur la tentative de reconstituer et de comprendre cette dimension du passé qui démontre l’influence de la guerre sur divers domaines de la vie, tant sur le plan individuel que collectif. Les études appuyées sur des textes littéraires, œuvres d’art, monuments, mais aussi sur l’analyse des mécanismes psychologiques et des pratiques de la vie quotidienne ont un caractère interdisciplinaire 8. Quant au domaine canadien, il faut évoquer dans cette perspective Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning and the First World War (1997)9, dans lequel Jonathan F. Vance analyse le mythe de la Grande Guerre créé au Canada au cours du conflit et consolidé par de nombreux discours mémoriels. L’image du soldat qui, comme le Christ, se sacrifie pour les autres, présente dans des sermons, journaux, romans, poèmes, tableaux et œuvres musicales, contribue à ce type de narration. Vance évoque les diverses pratiques institutionnelles visant à glorifier et éterniser la mémoire des morts au champ d’honneur (Vance, Death 40 ; 97-118). Contrairement à ce que l’on observe dans la société anglaise, au Canada la vision du premier conflit mondial ne se concentrait pas sur l’inutilité du massacre des milliers de jeunes gens. Les Canadiens voulaient voir un sens profond dans les quatre années du sacrifice et s’élevaient contre les voix critiques, par ailleurs peu nombreuses, considérées comme un outrage à la mémoire de leurs héros morts pour une cause juste. La propagande officielle promouvait les attitudes patriotiques et nationalistes favorables à l’idée (opposée à l’opinion sur les effets désastreux de la guerre pour le développement de la jeune nation) selon laquelle l’engagement du Canada dans le conflit de 14-18 avait permis de construire l’unité de la société et la grandeur politique du pays (Vance, Death 258-267). Parmi les approches interdisciplinaires du vécu de la Grande Guerre au Canada, axées sur sa problématique présence/absence dans la mémoire collective québécoise, il faut évoquer la monographie de Mourad Djebabla- Brun Se souvenir de la Grande Guerre. La mémoire plurielle de 14-18 au Québec (2004). L’évolution des stratégies de l’utilisation de l’expérience de la Première Guerre mondiale en fonction des enjeux politiques et idéologiques, qui sont répartis en trois périodes (1919-1931, 1931-1960 et 1960-1998), y est démontrée d’après l’analyse des pratiques révélatrices des « caractéristiques qu’un groupe entend se donner par une interprétation qui lui est propre du passé » (14). Djebabla-Brun s’intéresse, dans ce contexte, aux monuments aux morts, rituels commémoratifs du 11 Novembre, manuels scolaires et textes littéraires. Ce qui retient le plus l’attention de

8 Voir Branach-Kallas et Sadkowski, « Współczesne badania ». 9 La version française de l’ouvrage, traduit par Pierre R. Desrosiers, a été publiée en 2006 au Québec sous le titre Mourir en héros. Mémoire et mythe de la Première Guerre mondiale. 56 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski l’historiographe est la manière de vivre la guerre et sa mémoire par les combattants et les civils (13-14). Dans le contexte québécois, la question de la commémoration en tant qu’acte visant un consensus semble d’autant plus complexe qu’il s’agit « d’une population dont l’expérience de l’événement se partage entre une participation à l’aventure militaire et un refus » (15). Un autre trait distinctif de la mémoire canadienne-française commenté par Mourad Djebabla-Brun consiste dans les tentatives d’intégrer symboliquement le souvenir de la Grande Guerre, avec toutes ces victimes originaires de la communauté francophone, au grand récit national rattaché au passé glorieux de la Nouvelle-France (51-52). De cette manière, la pratique commémorative québécoise apparaît comme une alternative par rapport à deux discours mémoriels fédéraux : la célébration du 11 Novembre, propre aux partisans de la tradition britannique, et celle – qui accentue l’autonomie du Canada – axée sur l’hommage rendu aux soldats de Vimy. En outre, les chercheurs qui remettent en question l’idéalisation, dans la mémoire canadienne, de la figure du combattant abordent la problématique du rapatriement de plus de 400 000 Canadiens après la guerre (cf. Morton 2004 ; Rutherdale 2004). Ces hommes, vus comme une masse anonyme traversant le Canada, effrayaient les civils à l’écoute des bruits sur la brutalité des soldats infectés, suite à leur séjour sur le vieux continent, par de dangereuses idées de gauche. Desmond Morton et Glenn Wrigth dans Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915-1930 (1987) commentent l’histoire des organisations de vétérans canadiens et le système compliqué établi par le gouvernement fédéral de pensions militaires qui n’étaient pas suffisantes pour assurer la survie économique des anciens combattants. La crise économique a aggravé davantage leur situation. Le gouvernement canadien cherchait à aider les vétérans en leur attribuant des lots de terre, mais la condition précaire de l’agriculture n’a fait qu’exposer plusieurs d’entre eux à la pauvreté et à l’échec. Parmi les travaux consacrés à cette problématique se situe aussi The Invisible Injured: Psychological Trauma in the Canadian Military from the First World War to Afghanistan d’Adam Montgomery (2017). Quant aux contextes canadiens-français, parmi les recherches sur le destin de vétérans, leurs difficultés du retour à la vie civile, ainsi que sur l’aide (en l’occurrence il s’agit des soins psychiatriques dans les asiles au Québec) qui leur était assurée par l’État, il vaut la peine de mentionner le travail de Geneviève Allard Névrose et folie dans le corps expéditionnaire canadien (1914-1918). Le cas québécois (2012). L’observation des expériences des vétérans, plus particulièrement des personnes traumatisées psychiquement, souvent marginalisées ou inaperçues par l’État, contribue aussi à approfondir la connaissance des processus par lesquels se forment l’identité et la mémoire nationales (Montgomery 10). Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 57

Certains chercheurs dévoilent également des pratiques discriminatoires du gouvernement canadien, ce qui attire l’attention sur la problématique de la race et de l’ethnicité au cours de la guerre. Dès 1914, au Canada, les gens appartenant aux minorités allemande, autrichienne et ukrainienne deviennent, à cause de leur provenance de pays reconnus comme ennemis – et malgré des preuves de leur loyauté à l’égard de l’Empire britannique –, objet de suspicion, de propagande diffamatoire en conséquence de quoi ils sont victimes d’une politique répressive. Cette question est abordée par Bohdan Kordan qui dans son étude Enemy Aliens: Prisoners of War: Internment in Canada During the Great War (2002) commente le fonctionnement des camps de détention dans lesquels des immigrants jugés dangereux – de par leur origine – étaient internés et obligés de travailler comme prisonniers de guerre10. Le destin de ces « ennemis internes », notamment de ceux à majorité ukrainienne détenus dans l’un des plus grands camps, servant aussi comme ferme expérimentale, situé au Québec, à Spirit Lake près d’Amos, est étudié par Isabelle Kirouac-Massicotte dans l’essai « Spirite Lake. Un camp de concentration au cœur de la forêt abitibienne » (2014)11. Timothy C. Winegard, pour sa part, dans For King and Kanata: Canadian Indians and the First World War (2012) commente les destins des Canadiens autochtones engagés dans la Première Guerre mondiale. Par de nombreux Amérindiens, la guerre était perçue comme l’occasion de prouver dans les combats, aux côtés des soldats blancs, leur capacité de défendre la civilisation européenne et, par conséquent, de mériter le respect et la reconnaissance de la part du Canada et de l’Empire. Plus de 4000 autochtones ont fait leur service dans le Corps expéditionnaire, ce qui correspond à environ 35% de la totalité de la population masculine amérindienne du Canada à l’époque. Près de 300 d’entre eux ont donné leur vie sur les champs de bataille. Les soldats amérindiens ont gagné le respect de leurs supérieurs et camarades dans l’armée. Néanmoins, dans l’immédiat après-guerre, leur dévouement a été vite oublié par les autorités canadiennes. La plupart d’entre eux n’avaient pas la possibilité de bénéficier de l’aide octroyée par le gouvernement. Un autre aspect du racisme au Canada dévoilé au cours de la Première Guerre mondiale, à savoir l’attitude à l’égard des soldats noirs, constitue l’objet de l’étude de Mateusz Bogdanowicz : « A ‘White Man’s War’? Canadian Blacks’ Contribution to Canada’s Effort in The Great War » (2017).

10 Sur le destin de la diaspora polonaise au Canada pendant la Grande Guerre voir Reczyńska. 11 À l’emplacement de ce camp, en 2011 a été créé un musée avec Le Centre d’interprétation historique (cf. http://www.campspiritlake.ca/main.aspx?PageName =Histoire). Voir Sadkowski 48-49, à propos des traitements romanesques de l’histoire du camp à Spirit Lake. 58 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski

Le destin de la population civile pendant la Grande Guerre est abordé par Desmond Morton. Dans Fight or Pay, le chercheur commente l’activité du Fonds patriotique canadien (Canadian Patriotic Fund – CPF) assurant l’aide économique aux familles de soldats. Les études portant sur l’identité de soldats ont attiré l’attention des chercheurs sur la question de l’émergence du phénomène de l’identité de genre dans le contexte de la Première Guerre corrélé à la problématique de la condition des femmes. Comme le soulignent Jonathan F. Vance (Death 148-151) et Suzanne Evans, dans Mothers of Heroes, Mothers of Martyrs: World War I and the Politics of Grief (2007), au cours de la Grande Guerre la propagande faisait usage de l’image de la mère canadienne prête à sacrifier ses fils au nom de la civilisation, de la justice, de la liberté et de Dieu. Ce message visait non seulement les volontaires potentiels, mais il était adressé directement aux femmes – épouses et mères – afin d’éveiller le sentiment de honte ou de culpabilité chez celles qui n’encourageraient pas leurs maris et fils à s’engager dans la guerre. Qui plus est, des recherches démontrent la fausseté de la thèse communément admise selon laquelle la guerre aurait conduit à l’émancipation des femmes qui ont relayé les hommes au pouvoir. Au cours de 1914-1918, les Canadiennes étaient encouragées à remplir des tâches masculines, aussi dans le monde professionnel, mais en même temps on soulignait qu’il s’agissait seulement d’une situation exceptionnelle et intermédiaire qui ne devait durer que jusqu’au retour des hommes du front. Le modèle traditionnel de rôles féminins et masculins a acquis une importance particulière durant cette époque de désordre. Les femmes devaient servir de gardiennes du foyer et la perfection de leur attitude morale pendant l’absence des pères, maris et frères avait pour but de contribuer à la victoire des Alliés. Comme le souligne Joan Sangster dans « Mobilizing Women for War », les exigences dans ce domaine à l’égard des femmes au Canada étaient même plus conservatrices qu’en Grande-Bretagne ou en France (162). Qui plus est, la situation des Canadiennes pendant et après la guerre, comme le notent les coauteurs de l’ouvrage collectif A Sisterhood of Suffering and Service: Women and Girls of Canada and Newfoundland during the First World War, édité en 2012 sous la direction de Sarah Glassford et Amy Shaw, dépendait de plusieurs facteurs : âge, classe sociale, origine ethnique, race. Il convient aussi d’évoquer des études portant sur l’effort des infirmières canadiennes qui soulèvent le problème de leurs traumas et expériences identitaires causés par la guerre (cf. Allard 2005 ; Morin-Pelletier 2006)12.

12 Ces ouvrages relèvent aussi d’une autre tendance, visible au début du XXIe siècle, de l’historiographie canadienne qui consiste dans la reconstruction des vécus individuels de la Première Guerre mondiale par le biais des (ré)éditions et analyses des témoignages de ses participants. Parmi les publications de ce type (cf. Bergeron, Tremblay, Litalien), il est un Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 59

La littérature : découvertes et perspectives nouvelles

Dans le domaine des études littéraires, pendant longtemps le thème de la Première Guerre mondiale au Canada n’a pas suscité l’intérêt des chercheurs. La publication en 1977 du roman The Wars de Timothy Findley13 provoque un certain tournant éthique aussi bien parmi des écrivains que des critiques qui commencent à explorer les expériences de 14-18. L’ouvrage de Findley devient l’objet de plusieurs études14. Cependant, des recherches sur d’autres textes littéraires canadiens liés à la problématique de la Grande Guerre n’apparaissent qu’à la fin du XXe siècle. L’essai de Donna Coates « The Best Soldiers of All: Unsung Heroines in Canadian Women’s Great War Fictions » (1996) constitue la première étude, dans la littérature canadienne, abordant la question des personnages féminins dans le contexte de la Première Guerre. Dagmar Novak est l’auteure de la première monographie – Dubious Glory: The Two World Wars and the Canadian Novel (2000) – qui propose une approche globale de la Grande Guerre en tant que thème de romans canadiens. Elle présente les plus importants écrivains et analyse succinctement leurs ouvrages. Il importe de remarquer que Novak commente le modèle du roman sentimental anglophone élaboré au Canada dans la période 1914-1918 afin de servir d’apologie de la guerre juste montrée comme une croisade. En 2011, Susan R. Fisher a publié son ouvrage Boys and Girls in No Man's Land: English-Canadian Children and the First World War qui offre une analyse intéressante de l’influence de divers discours sur le psychisme d’enfants pendant la guerre. Il y est également question de l’évolution de la littérature pour enfants consacrée à la Grande Guerre, où se laissent observer des changements de connotations des notions comme courage, citoyenneté ou patriotisme. L’année 2014, qui coïncide avec le Centenaire du début du premier conflit mondial, apporte enfin la parution de deux études approfondies du thème de la

intéressant d’évoquer un cas bien particulier qu’est le texte édité par Béatrice Richard, La Grande Guerre de Paul Caron. Chroniques d’un légionnaire canadien-français (1914- 1917), paru en 2014. L’auteur du témoignage ne représente aucune des figures de la mythologie québécoise de 14-18 : ni soldat du 22e Bataillon, ni conscrit réfractaire, Paul Caron a combattu dans la Légion étrangère. Qui plus est, ses chroniques du combattant jouent, comme le note Béatrice Richard dans la préface, « un rôle de pionnier de reporter de guerre au Canada » (5). Voir aussi Orzeszek. 13 La traduction française – Guerres – d’Éric Diacon a paru en 1977. Sa réédition de 2014 a été préfacée par Alice Ferney, romancière française, auteure d’un grand roman sur la Première Guerre mondiale : Dans la guerre (2003). 14 Il vaut la peine de noter que le numéro 91 de la revue Canadian Literature, en 1981, a été entièrement consacré au roman de Findley. 60 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski

Grande Guerre dans la littérature canadienne : Landscapes of War and Memory: The Two World Wars in Canadian Literature and the Arts, 1977- 2007 de Sherrill Grace et Catching the Torch: Contemporary Canadian Literary Responses to World War I de Neta Gordon15. La monographie monumentale de Grace offre des interprétations des textes littéraires et des œuvres d’art canadiens dans lesquels les thèmes des deux guerres mondiales occupent la place prépondérante. En ce qui concerne le contexte de 14-18, les études les plus détaillées sont consacrées à The Wars de Timothy Findley (considéré comme le roman qui a généré une nouvelle convention du traitement littéraire de la guerre au Canada), à Broken Ground de Jack Hodgins, à Three Day Road de Joseph Boyden16. Sherrill Grace prête aussi beaucoup d’attention aux ouvrages dramatiques abordant le problème de la guerre. La chercheuse se réfère à de nombreuses études sur la mémoire individuelle et collective, afin de souligner que l’histoire militaire du Canada et des témoignages littéraires et artistiques sur le passé guerrier permettent de mieux comprendre aussi bien l’identité canadienne que l’essence de l’être humain. Grace observe que le lecteur contemporain fréquentant les textes sur la Grande Guerre prend le rôle de témoin chargé du devoir de répondre à la question : pourquoi les humains ont-ils mené leur monde à la catastrophe ? Neta Gordon, dans Catching the Torch: Contemporary Canadian Literary Responses to World War I, présente aussi une étude des romans et drames canadiens publiés à la charnière des XXe et XXIe siècles, mais elle se concentre avant tout sur la problématique de l’identité nationale. Elle interprète l’idéal de la communauté et du devoir envers celle-ci – qui relègue à l’arrière-plan le rôle de l’héroïsme individuel – comme motif constituant le trait distinctif de la littérature canadienne sur la Première Guerre mondiale. La guerre est perçue comme l’expérience qui éveille chez les personnages littéraires leurs valeurs essentielles, à savoir le sens des responsabilités et le devoir à l’égard des autres, ce qui apparaît comme une des hautes vertus dans la tradition canadienne. Les ouvrages publiés dès les années 1990 mettent en scène le cauchemar de la guerre, mais en même temps ils accentuent les motifs tels que l’harmonie, l’apaisement et la reconstruction, en créant de

15 Toujours en 2014, Anna Branach-Kallas a publié sa monographie Uraz przetrwania. Trauma i polemika z mitem pierwszej wojny światowej w powieści kanadyjskiej [Le mal de survie. Le trauma et la polémique autour du mythe de la Première Guerre mondiale dans le roman canadien]. La chercheuse y analyse le motif du trauma dans des textes littéraires créés au cours des années qui suivent directement 1918 ainsi que dans des ouvrages de la fin du XXe et du début du XXIe siècles. Leur interprétation est précédée par une présentation détaillée du processus de la formation du mythe de la Grande Guerre au Canada. 16 Le roman traduit par Hubert Leroy sous le titre Le Chemin des âmes a paru en 2006. Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 61 cette manière certaines définitions de la canadianité importantes pour les lecteurs du début du XXIe siècle. Il convient de souligner que Gordon démontre la fonction de la littérature consistant à combler des lacunes de l’Histoire, quand, par exemple, les fictions présentent la guerre du point de vue des Autochtones et des Canadiens français. En ce qui concerne ce dernier contexte, la chercheuse analyse le roman La Kermesse de Daniel Poliquin en relation avec l’histoire du Québec et du Canada. Gordon tient à prouver qu’il est impossible de traiter séparément ces deux expériences collectives de la Grande Guerre. En commentant l’ouvrage de Poliquin, l’auteure fait observer aussi une érosion progressive des mythes de la Première Guerre mondiale chez les nouvelles générations aussi bien au Canada anglais qu’au Québec. Les études critiques et analytiques consacrées plus spécifiquement à la Première Guerre mondiale au Canada francophone sont numériquement beaucoup plus restreintes, ce qui s’explique par la rareté de ce thème dans la tradition littéraire du Québec17. La question de la quasi-absence de la Grande Guerre dans la littérature canadienne-française et québécoise a été étudiée et largement commentée, par Micheline Cambron, Michel Biron et Olivier Parenteau dans le numéro 110 (2007) de la revue Voix et Images. Mourad Djebabla-Brun, dans la monographie à laquelle nous avons déjà fait appel, répertorie un corpus littéraire qu’il analyse en relation de l’évolution des pratiques commémoratives autour de la Première Guerre mondiale au Québec. Bernard Andrès, pour sa part, procède à l’étude de la dimension littéraire des textes de témoignage de soldats canadiens-français. Dans deux longs articles, publiés en 2015 et en 201618, le chercheur se concentre sur l’aspect psychologique et émotionnel des témoignages publiés ou diffusés, sous forme de livres ou de brochures, au Québec entre 1914 et 1920, afin d’observer la manière dont ces textes expriment le vécu quotidien et les prises de positions idéologiques des « poilus canadiens-français » qui ont servi, dans la plupart

17 De notre perspective, il est légitime de constater qu’au début du XXIe siècle des ouvrages littéraires francophones évoquant de façon explicite le conflit de 14-18 sont relativement nombreux. Dans les romans des auteurs comme Gaston Théberge, Jean Mohsen Fahmy, Jean-Pierre Charland, Daniel Marchildon reviennent les motifs de la crise de la conscription (et plus largement des débats des Canadiens français sur l’effort de guerre) et du traumatisme causé par la grippe espagnole. Cependant, dans tous les cas il s’agit des textes qui ne retiennent pas l’attention des critiques et des chercheurs, étant donné le genre auquel appartiennent ces ouvrages, soit la littérature populaire et les livres pour la jeunesse avec une visée didactique. Voir Sadkowski 47-48. 18 L’étude plus complète de la problématique analysée dans ces deux textes sera exposée dans le livre de Bernard Andrès L’Humour des Poilus canadiens-français de la Grande Guerre, dont la parution au cours de l’année 2018 est annoncée par les Presses de l’Université Laval (cf. https://www.pulaval.com/produit/l-humour-des-poilus-canadiens- francais-de-la-grande-guerre). 62 Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski des cas, sous le drapeau britannique en Europe. Andrès examine également la défiance des combattants envers les institutions militaires coloniales, mais aussi les stratégies adoptées dans leurs écrits – la subversion, l’humour, l’ironie, le sarcasme – afin de contourner la censure. L’analyse des modes d’expression narrative et de l’humour s’accompagne de commentaires, enrichis de documents iconographiques, éclaircissant le contexte politique, idéologique et culturel de l’épreuve de la Grande Guerre vécue par les Canadiens francophones. La Kermesse de Daniel Poliquin et L’Emmitouflé de Louis Caron (ce deuxième étant, parmi les ouvrages francophones ayant pour thème l’expérience de la Première Guerre, l’unique texte à avoir le statut de classique dans l’histoire littéraire québécoise) font partie du corpus soumis à l’analyse comparative par Anna Branach-Kallas et Piotr Sadkowski dans Comparing Grief in French, British and Canadian Great War Fiction (1977- 2014). Les auteurs examinent des textes romanesques choisis en adoptant une perspective transnationale, ce qui permet d’observer les tendances communes et les divergences dans le traitement de la Première Guerre mondiale au Canada, dans les littératures anglophone et francophone, en France et en Grande-Bretagne. L’approche comparée des traditions littéraires et culturelles, perçues souvent comme incompatibles, démontre des ressemblances importantes, par exemple, des portraits de vétérans et de femmes. Il en est de même en ce qui concerne les représentations romanesques des communautés durant la Grande Guerre et la fictionnalisation du motif du deuil. En guise de conclusion, il importe d’observer que les approches interdisciplinaires et/ou comparées de la Première Guerre mondiale au Canada anglophone et francophone permettent de faire sortir aussi bien l’historiographie que les littératures canadiennes de leur isolement. Elles mettent en valeur leurs interdépendances internes et leurs rapports avec les textes scientifiques et fictionnels européens consacrés à l’expérience que l’on reconnaît aujourd’hui comme fondatrice de la modernité occidentale. Si le comparatisme dévoile les divergences, il invite aussi à réinterpréter les représentations traditionnelles des traumas culturels, voire à déconstruire les idées reçues qui contribuent à la formation et l’évolution des identités nationales (Offenstadt 200). Les recherches font découvrir des fêlures dans l’image de la tension entre les positions anglo-canadiennes et francophones réduite trop facilement à des oppositions binaires. Ce type de relecture de la Grande Guerre permet d’espérer un élargissement du dialogue interculturel qui, aujourd’hui et peut-être plus que jamais, semble nécessaire afin de bénéficier de la leçon que l’Histoire donne à la génération des témoins du Centenaire, au Canada et partout dans le monde. Le Canada dans la Grande Guerre … 63

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Anna Branach-Kallas est professeur à l’Université Nicolas Copernic de Toruń. Ses recherches portent sur la littérature de la Première Guerre mondiale, les traumatismes culturels, les études comparées et les écritures migrantes au Canada anglais et au Québec. Elle est l’auteur de Uraz przetrwania. Trauma i polemika z mitem pierwszej wojny światowej w powieści kanadyjskiej (Prix Pierre Savard, Toruń, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2014), Corporeal Itineraries: Body, Nation, Diaspora in Selected Canadian Fiction (Toruń, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2010), In the Whirlpool of the Past: Memory, Intertextuality and History In the Fiction of Jane Urquhart (Toruń, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2003), et coauteur, avec Piotr Sadkowski, de Comparing Grief in French, British and Canadian Great War Fiction (1977-2014) (Leiden, Brill Rodopi, 2018). Elle a aussi (co-)édité de nombreux ouvrages collectifs.

Piotr Sadkowski est docteur habilité à l’Université Nicolas Copernic de Toruń. Ses recherches concernent, entre autres, l’écriture migrante au Québec et en France, la thématique juive, le mythe, la mémoire et la post-mémoire. Il a publié Récits odysséens. Le thème du retour d’exil dans l’écriture migrante au Québec et en France (Toruń, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2011) ainsi que des articles dans des revues universitaires et ouvrages collectifs en Pologne et à l’étranger ; coauteur, avec Anna Branach-Kallas, de Comparing Grief in French, British and Canadian Great War Fiction (1977-2014) (Leiden, Brill Rodopi, 2018).

Weronika Suchacka University of Szczecin

“THE CROSSING OF BORDERS” AND INTERSECTIONS: PRESENTING AND PRACTICING INTERSECTIONALITY IN MARUSYA BOCIURKIW’S WORKS

Abstract

In the initial stages of her career, Marusya Bociurkiw, a Ukrainian-Canadian queer writer specified her literary and artistic interests to be mainly concerned with the intersections of her manifold subject positions. The writer defined the goal of her work already at the beginning of her literary and artistic path, but the interconnectedness of her multiple identities is clearly visible in all of her works. Consequently, the impossibility of choosing between multiple identities, or of emphasizing the importance of one over the other, is observable in her further prose, poetry, and memoir work. As Bociurkiw’s career develops, we see more and more categories that have become defining for her oeuvre; in particular, for her most recent online writing or documentary film, Thus, besides many subject positions, such as a writer, film director, academic, and activist, the role of a daughter and family member but also diaspora member, queer community member, feminist, lover, food connoisseur, and traveller (to name but a few categories) comes under close scrutiny in Bociurkiw’s imaginative creations. Yet, Bociurkiw’s portrayals of these categories extend a mere presentation because what the author explores in her works is the complexity of their intersections. Thus, the examination of her opus requires adopting an intersectional approach, which Bociurkiw herself develops in her creative pieces. As a result, Bociurkiw cannot be classified exclusively as a queer or lesbian author, because her literary, online, and documentary projects clearly locate her also among practitioners of intersectionality. The aim of this article is thus to explore Bociurkiw’s oeuvre both as works on intersectionality and intersectional works and, therefore, to consider it a truly innovative example of Canadian literature open to influences and practices of other fields of research such as intersectionality studies. Keywords: intersectionality, Ukraine and Canada, relationality, critical self-reflection, solidarity and resistance. “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 69

Résumé

Au début de sa carrière, Marusya Bociurkiw, une auteure queer canado-ukrainienne, a précisé que ses intérêts littéraires et artistiques se situent essentiellement aux croisements ses divers sujets. Bien que la romancière ait défini l’objectif de son travail au début de son chemin littéraire et artistique, l’interdépendance de ses diverses identités est bien visible dans tous ses travaux. En conséquence, l’incapacité de choisir parmi ses diverses identités, ou celle de mettre l’accent sur l’importance de l’une d’elles, peut être observée dans ses œuvres prosaïques, poétiques et biographiques ultérieures. Lors du développement de sa carrière, nous pouvons voir de multiples catégories devenues décisives pour son œuvre, notamment pour son écriture sur Internet et ses documentaires plus récents. Or, à part de nombreuses activités en tant que romancière, réalisatrice, universitaire et activiste, les rôles de la fille et du membre de famille ainsi que ceux du membre de sa diaspora, du membre de sa communauté queer, de la féministe, de l’amante, de l’amatrice de la nourriture ou de la voyageuse (pour ne citer que quelques catégories), sont minutieusement examinés dans les créations d’imagination de Bociurkiw. Les représentations de toutes ses catégories par Bociurkiw demande une courte présentation en raison de la complexité de ces croisements envisagée dans ses ouvrages. Ainsi, l’examen de son œuvre exige d’adopter une approche intersectionnelle que Bociurkiw élabore elle-mêne dans tous les actes créatifs. Par conséquent, Bociurkiw ne peut pas être considérée uniquement comme une auteure queer ou lesbienne en raison de ses projets littéraires, documentaires ou ceux sur Internet, qui la situent de toute évidence parmi les adeptes de l’intersectionnalité. L’objectif de l’article est donc d’étudier l’œuvre de Bociurkiw aussi bien comme des ouvrages sur l’intersectionnalité et comme des ouvrages intersectionnels et de les envisager comme une illustration vraiment novatrice de l’ouverture de la littérature canadienne aux influences et aux expériences d’autres domaines de recherche comme des études sur l’intersectionnalité. Mots-clés : intersectionnalité, l’Ukraine et le Canada, relationnalité, autoréflexion critique, solidarité et opposition.

INTRODUCTION

A variety of genres that Marusya Bociurkiw, a Toronto-based writer, film director, academic, and activist, engages in is considerable. It includes prose writing: a novel The Children of Mary (2006), a memoir Comfort Food for Breakups: The Memoir of a Hungry Girl (2007), and a collection of short stories The Woman Who Loved Airports (1994); as well as poetry Halfway to the East (1999); blog writing “Recipes for Trouble: A World of Food Stories, Culinary Memories, and Ingredients Queerly Political” and other blog accounts available mainly at rabble.ca; but also film work, for example, a documentary What’s The Ukrainian Word for Sex? A Sexual Journey Through 70 Weronika Suchacka

Eastern Europe (2010) and the most recent one This Is Gay Propaganda: LGBT Rights and the War in Ukraine (2015). Taking into account a wide generic spectrum of Bociurkiw’s works as well as their thematic depth, it is highly surprising that, so far, critics have largely overlooked Bociurkiw’s literary and artistic endeavours as there are virtually no critical studies of her works. This omission may have also contributed to the fact that if/when Bociurkiw is named in major companions to Canadian literature, her work is classified as queer or lesbian writing.1 Much as this classification is right, it is not exhaustive since the aspect of queerness is not the only one that Bociurkiw explores and, what is more, it cannot be neatly singled out of all the subject positions that her works deal with as it is their entanglement that comes under close scrutiny in Bociurkiw’s imaginative creations. Yet, Bociurkiw’s portrayals of various categories extend their mere presentation because what the author explores in her works is the complexity of their intersections. Thus, the examination of her opus requires adopting an intersectional approach, which Bociurkiw herself develops in her creative pieces.2 Consequently, Bociurkiw’s literary, online, and film projects clearly locate her among practitioners of intersectionality. The aim of this article is thus to explore Bociurkiw’s oeuvre, focusing on her online and film creations, both as works on intersectionality and intersectional works and, hopefully, to bring attention to it as a truly innovative example of Canadian literature that is open to influences and practices of other fields of research such as intersectionality studies.3

1 See, for example, Moyes, with Henderson and Holbrook 652. 2 I have come to such a conclusion over the course of studying Bociurkiw’s work (which began when writing my doctoral thesis; see (Suchacka, “‘Za Hranetsiu”’)). My observation was confirmed by the author in our e-mail exchange—Bociurkiw’s awareness of her multiple belonging could never allow her to position herself as a writer in the sphere of being ‘either . . . or,’ but rather it has required from her exploring the state of her in- betweenness, or as the author put it in our e-mail correspondence, “intersectionality [and] hybridity.” ‘Intersectionality’ is again used by Bociurkiw in one of her online accounts, in which she uses this term to define her way of academic teaching: “My feminist pedagogy is intersectional” (“Six Reasons”). Hence, my exploration of Bociurkiw’s work is grounded in the theory of intersectionality. 3 Such is also the aim of my current project under the same title that this article comes from. I commenced my work on Bociurkiw’s presentation and practice of intersectionality thanks to my fellowship at the Alfried Krupp Wissenschaftskolleg Greifswald, Germany, in 2014-2015. The study in question is still in progress, but I have already presented the results of my hitherto done work during various conferences; apart from my fellow lectures at the Krupp Kolleg (see Suchacka. “Those Silent” and Suchacka, “Queening”;) see also my fellow report in Alfried Krupp Wissenschaftskolleg Bulletin 2015), I also delivered papers during the 7th Congress of Polish Canadianists: Canada and War/Le Canada et les guerres “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 71

CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERSECTIONAL APPROACH IN MARUSYA BOCIURKIW’S WORKS

Even a cursory examination of Bociurkiw’s works reveals what the author had already pointed out at the beginning of her career. In one of her earliest essays, “Bordercrossings: Skin/Voice/Identity,” Bociurkiw states: “my positioning of my various subject positions, and therefore of my identity in various artistic or feminist or ‘queer’ contexts is constantly renegotiated” (8). Consequently, Gloria Anzaldúa’s question with which Bociurkiw closes the same essay, namely “Where are our alliances, with our cultures, or our crotch?” (8; italics in orig.), is a rhetorical one with respect to the beginnings of Bociurkiw’s literary and artistic path that her essay discusses: the interconnectedness and influence of Bociurkiw’s multiple subject positions is self-evident in her early creative attempts, and the writer further confirms this fact when she defines the key aim of her work in the following way: “The crossing of borders from the realm of sexual identity to the realm of cultural identity, and of finding a language that works for both, is, I have to say, the biggest challenge I have faced in my work thus far” (6-7). The impossibility to choose between different identities or to emphasise the importance of one over the other is even more conspicuous in Bociurkiw’s works following her 1993 essay; as her career develops, we see more and more categories that become defining for her oeuvre. Thus, apart from the already mentioned subject positions of a writer, film director, academic, and an activist, the role of a daughter, family member, diaspora member, queer community member, feminist, lover, food connoisseur, and traveller (to name but a few categories) become the subject matter of her literary and/or artistic creations.

Relationality and Critical Self-/Reflection

However, while intersectional ‘I’ continues to be an important source of Bociurkiw’s inspiration and a point of critical reference for the subject matter of her works as autobiographical influences, whether direct or indirect, strongly define the nature of Bociurkiw’s oeuvre, another distinctive feature common to the author’s projects despite their generic diversity is her focus on others/the Other and their hi/stories. To put it more specifically, what all of Bociurkiw’s at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland (see Suchacka, “Fighting”) and the 10th Biennial MESEA Conference: Cultural Palimpsests: Ethnic Watermarks, Surfacing Histories at the University of Warsaw, Poland (see Suchacka, [R]ecalling”). See also (Suchacka "Intersectionality"), which constitutes one of the chapters from my ongoing project. 72 Weronika Suchacka works make evident is that not only do our multiple identities intersect but they intersect meaningfully with other people’s identities, becoming in this way “multiple registers of existence” (Alarcón in May 43; see also May 21). Thus, showing “a ‘relational position to a multiplicity of others’” (Alarcón in May 43), Bociurkiw’s approach should be defined as intersectional because her perspective tends towards plurality also in this respect (May 48). Consequently, her point of view remains, to use May’s term, “matrix”-oriented (21-28), which means in this context that Bociurkiw’s works are marked by “‘a consideration of how one might figure in another’s history’ (and not just how another does or does not figure in one’s own worldview and sense of self/history/reality)” (Hemmings in May; May 223-24). But apart from defining Bociurkiw’s analysis of intersecting identities through its constant reference to “multiple others” (Smith and Watson 88), Bociurkiw’s discussion of “overlapping identities” (Valentine 13; May 47) can also be characterized as analytical and probing. Thus, “the model of selfhood” that Bociurkiw presents in her works is not only “interdependent and identified with a community,” or simply put, “relational” (Smith and Watson 278) but also “self-/reflective” and “critical.”4 Notably, relationality and critical self-/reflection have been characterized by critics as key features of an intersectional approach. Rita Kaur Dhamoon, for example, points to “a self-reflexive critique of the analyst” (240), which she indicates as defining

4 As will be shown in this article, a number of intersectionality and feminist critics have been influential in formulating my observations about the named features that characterize Bociurkiw’s work. At this point, however, I should also refer to Sally Kimpson whose statements most directly connect all of the aspects that I would consider as defining for Bociurkiw’s oeuvre. In her article, Kimpson talks about her feminist approach that relies on the application of “[c]ritical self-reflexive autobiographical narratives” and “its usefulness not just for addressing the experiences of those who are marginalized in society and the marginalization of feminist researchers in academic setting, but also for foregrounding the experiences of those researchers whose marginality is linked to race, sexuality, class, gender, age, and . . . ability” (75). Kimpson’s indication of critical and self-reflexive aspects of personal accounts as pivotal for the researcher’s work, and in consequence, her reference to the researcher’s relationality that entails the use of such narratives in approaching a marginal and intersectional positionality of the researcher as well as of the subjects of her research are clearly observable in Bociurkiw’s work. Hence, I follow Kimpson (and other critics referred to in the main text) in identifying those features and applying the same terms in my analysis of Bociurkiw’s work. I will be using, however, the term “self-/reflective” (which Kimpson also mentions in her text; see 75) instead of “self-reflexive” to shift the focus away from ‘self-referentiality’ implicated in the latter term and move it more towards the aspect of ‘careful and detailed consideration’ entailing both the self and the Other, which the former term is, in my view, more indicative of and, therefore, more appropriate for defining Bociurkiw’s approach. “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 73 for the frameworks of a larger “social . . . [and] political critique” (230, 240), an observation in accord with a point made by Kathy Davis that “[i]ntersectionality offers endless opportunities for interrogating one’s own blind spots and transforming them into analytic resources for further critical analysis” (77). Likewise, Vivian May sees “critical thinking” as fundamental for intersectionality (32),5 and so her definition of its project starts from pointing to critical reflection as its principal aspect, which encapsulates, in fact, what can also be stated about Bociurkiw’s work:

As a critical orientation, intersectionality is forward-looking and historically focused. It asks that we imagine future possibilities and reconsider omissions, past and present, from a “matrix” mindset: it also helps to expose historical silences and to understand oppression and privilege as lived experiences and processes situated in and shaped by material, political, and social conditions. (6)

From Writing Intersectionality to Narrating Intersectionality

In the context of these observations, Bociurkiw’s work and her way of exploring intersectionality is immediately noticeable as equally marked by a strong presence of the same features. But what I would also like to argue in the following discussion is that the mode of writing intersectionality in her literary work (prose, poetry, fiction, and a memoir) extends into narrating intersectionality6 in other generic forms that Bociurkiw’s work also includes, namely her recent online texts7 and the latest documentary film This is Gay Propaganda: LGBT Rights and the War in Ukraine (2015), which I see as both sharing the above-named features with her literary works but also

5 See also May 30, 34, 57, and 59. 6 Distinguishing between ‘writing’ and ‘narrating’ intersectionality I would like to emphasize different generic forms used by Bociurkiw for its exploration (various genres of writing/printed texts, but also online accounts and documentary film work). This distinction is based on Smith and Watson’s idea differentiating between “life writing,” i.e. “written forms of the autobiographical,” and “life narrative,” which they define as “a general term for acts of self-presentation of all kinds and in diverse media that take the producer’s life as their subject, whether written, performative, visual, filmic, or digital” (4; italics in orig.). 7 As already stated, with the exception of “Apple Cake, LGBT Refugees and the War in Ukraine,” which has been published at www.dailyxtra.com, Bociurkiw’s online publications, which I will discuss here, include her texts available at rabble.ca. Except for three pieces identified there as ‘news’ (i.e., “Meet the New Ukraine,” “Not In My Name,” and “The Shame and the Pride”), all of these accounts are classified at the website as ‘blogs.’ 74 Weronika Suchacka projecting them in new ways, and so adding significant aspects to be taken into consideration in a general discussion of Bociurkiw’s oeuvre. Consequently, Bociurkiw’s online accounts and documentary can be seen as extending her art of analyzing intersectionality in a double way. Firstly, presenting her intersecting identities as “collectivized and situated” (Smith and Watson 258) is even more apparent in Bociurkiw’s online pieces and her film so that greater emphasis is put there on relationality, which can be seen as marking a shift in Bociurkiw’s focus that does not reject its autobiographical element but rather moves more distinctively in the autoethnographical direction. In this respect, I would also like to suggest that while the voice we read and hear in Bociurkiw’s online and film narratives continues to be critical as Bociurkiw’s self-/reflection characterizes all of her work, it becomes more distinct as that which is “able to reflect on the ethnos as both insider and outsider” (Smith and Watson 259; emphasis in orig.). I base my observation on Smith and Watson’s definition of ‘autoethnography,’ which they see as a type of “life writing in which the bios of autobiography is replaced by ethnos or social group” (258), and their elaboration on the role of the narrator that they connect with assuming a critical, both inside and outside, perspective on her/his group, which, in their view, is possible to adopt due to the narrator’s “education, linguistic skill, and reflexivity” (259). Yet, as it will be shown in this article, equally important for my conclusion is an intersectional understanding of the role of the researcher and her personal yet critical involvement in the subject and with the subjects of her intersectional work. Dhamoon explains that:

. . . an intersectional-type research paradigm serves to not simply describe and explain complex dynamics of power in specific contexts and at different levels of social life but also critique or deconstruct and therefore disrupt the forces of power so as to offer alternative worldviews. This disruption entails a self-reflexive critique of the analyst and her or his own implication in the matrix of meaning- making, specifically her or his relationship to knowledge production and research subjects. (240)

Relationality of the researcher together with her critical self-reflexivity characterize thus the personal that lays grounds for/of intersectional work and become an incentive leading towards the collective. A Davis explains, intersectionality “can – by definition – be employed by any (feminist) scholar willing to use her own social location, whatever it can be, as an analytic resource rather than just an identity marker” (72). In accord with Dhamoon and with Davis, May also states that “[i]ntersectionality seeks to shift the terms of agency and personhood by transforming social reality. Its larger point is to insist that the world change, that our basic assumptions about knowledge “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 75 and the self transform by departing from the singular to the plural” (47-48). Consequently, I read Bociurkiw’s online and film work in the light of these statements, suggesting that “the singular” that is strongly present there opens even more so than in her previous work to “the plural,” confirming again Bociurkiw’s approach to be intersectional in as much as it recognizes “identity as not just multiple but also coalitional” (May 48; also 41).

INTERSECTIONALITY IN MARUSYA BOCIURKIW’S ONLINE AND FILM WORKS

Intersectional Subjectivity and Its “Ontological Complexity”

The content of “Bordercrossings: Skin/Voice/Identity,” one of Bociurkiw’s earliest academic texts already signals that intersectionality with its characteristic “emphasis on lived multiplicity” (May 49) and collectivity (39, 41, 48) will become a formative idea influencing Bociurkiw’s perception of subjectivity. Without directly naming it, the article nevertheless clearly deals with the questions of intersectionality, and so Bociurkiw’s reflections about her academic and artistic work are never without a simultaneous reference to her hybridity or multiple subject positions; hence, intersections of ethnicity, race, queerness, and sexuality come to the forefront of her discussion in her essay. Bociurkiw in fact finishes it by inquiring about her affiliations: “Who are my people?” (8), a question which has also evidently inspired Bociurkiw’s further work, marking her analysis of her “I” as more and more others-oriented. Bociurkiw’s online texts written about two decades later provide the evidence for this observation as her different subject positions are clearly pronounced and emphasized in various social, economic, and political contexts. Bociurkiw’s online accounts present the ‘I’ that is multiple and hybrid; thus, she expresses herself not only as a Canadian national8 but also a citizen of the world, who discusses its current affairs.9 The author inquires, researches, and informs her readership about these issues also from her position of an activist as well as academic who is interested in the theory and

8 See Bociurkiw’s online texts concerning Canadian matters discussed in a wider context: “Six Reasons Why Calls to Fire David Gilmour Miss the Point,” “Convention-al Affects,” “Occupy Toronto,” “Dreaming Big,” “Marx and the 99%,” “That Hopey-Changey Thing,” or “The Shame and the Pride.” 9 See Bociurkiw’s online texts, such as: “The Three Big Leftist Myths about Ukraine and the Reasons to Remember,” “Paris-Barcelona-Ukraine,” or “Not In My Name.” 76 Weronika Suchacka practice of the media in general, and the workings of affect in particular.10 Yet, she always speaks about her “I” as a member of a world-wide and Toronto-based queer community and by contextualizing her multiple subject positions in this way, she gives an insider’s perspective on the feeling of abandonment, “unease and alienation” of her “queer friends” ostracized by their families due to prevailing homophobia and heteronormativity that endorses and enforces only the “right” structures of society (heterosexual, full families) and its “righteous” ways (heteronormative, conventional lifestyle), pushing all of the Other into the margins, into “exile” (“Don”). Intersectional subjectivity that Bociurkiw represents in her online texts is thus marked by what May calls “ontological complexity” (44) apparent not merely in its “plurality” of subject positions (39-40) but also its “interconnections” (8; emphasis in orig.; also 40-43). As a result, the voice we hear there belongs to a subject who is fully aware of it, and who uses her location at the crossroads of her various contexts to her advantage by developing an ability to adopt both an inside and outside perspective on her multiple belongings. It is clearly visible, for example, in Bociurkiw’s text relating current developments of feminism in Ukraine, and more specifically of a feminism promoted and performed by “brazen, bare-chested Ukrainian feminists, Femen” (“Getting”). Bociurkiw reflects upon the activities of groups like Femen or Pussy Riot from her position of what she directly identifies as “a queer diasporic feminist of East European descent.” Expressing her admiration for these activists in her statement that: “I’ve never seen East European feminists address lgbt and poverty issues with as much fervor as these groups,” Bociurkiw precisely delineates her allegiance to “such intersectional and transnational feminism [that] emerge[s] from the land of my ancestors.” Yet, her feminist/queer/diasporic point of view meets, or is confronted with, her position of an academic researcher of “affect, those passionate, contradictory and contagious embodied feelings that occur in the movement between Internet and audience,” which makes her aware of another, more ambivalent, attitude she also has:

As a queer diasporic feminist of East European descent, I find myself filled with feeling as I watch Pussy Riot’s and Femen’s videos and interviews on YouTube. The feelings are contradictory, for sure: their nudity makes me uneasy, worried for their safety. . . .

10 Bociurkiw talks about her research interests in, for example: “Getting My Head Around ‘Breasts as Bombs,’” “Convention-al Affects,” “That Hopey-Changey Thing,” “Femme Monologues and the Archival Turn,” or “The Shame and the Pride.” See also Bociurkiw’s most recent academic work Feeling Canadian: Television Nationalism & Affect (2011). “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 77

Pride, excitement, fear, and sometimes shame, too, have filled me as I track Femen night after night across cyberspace. Their slogans are provocative: Breasts as Bombs! Sextremism! A Peaceful Al Quaeda! Their messaging opens up spaces for contradictory and contagious affects. Sara Ahmed has described how feminism can operate simultaneously as the “origin of bad feeling,” or, alternatively, of “fellow feeling.” Femen provides a vivid example of this. (“Getting”)

Clearly, multiple contexts that the ‘I’ in Bociurkiw’s online narratives is shown to inhabit equips her with complex, often contrasting, points of view. The subjectivity presented in Bociurkiw’s online texts shows best what May’s idea of identity as coalitional means. As May explains, “[a] coalitional model [that] entails a both/and philosophy of the self” means that the self is recognized “as ‘at once diverse and self-contradictory in its identities, and yet also a cohesive whole capable of shifting its social identifications from context to context” (Barvosa in May 41). Gaining such a complex “both/and” self-perception that goes hand in hand with adopting a compound perception of the context(s) one is located in requires activating “matrix philosophy” which enables to “perceive the world in ways that are more than simply plural: they may be in conflict” (May 43; emphasis in orig.). Bociurkiw adopts such an orientation in her work. Consequently, her critical and matrical self-/reflection, which includes both an insider’s and outsider’s perspectives, allows Bociurkiw to discuss the contemporary developments in Ukraine in terms of “tension” and “opposition” (May 44). For example, in her text “My Ukraine: Soldiers in the Streets, Geese in the Fields,” Bociurkiw comments upon devastating economic conditions that contemporary Ukraine continues to face, exposing, with unhidden anger and contempt, major causes of this situation:

My mother’s village in western Ukraine: Geese being herded by old babas, ox carts driven by farmers. In the fields, people tilling the soil until nightfall with shovels and hoes, no farm equipment in sight. No paved roads to be seen, let alone public transit, well-equipped schools, recreational facilities, jobs, futures.

No, not the 19th century. The 21st.

Contrast that with the imported peacocks, floating restaurant, ponds and parks of deposed Ukrainian president Victor Yanukovych’s secret compound, and you have a sense of the obscenity of this oligarch’s Russia-propped rule. Not to mention his offshore billions, taken directly from Ukrainian state coffers. Him and a dozen others: the oligarchs that bankrupted Ukraine. 78 Weronika Suchacka

Bociurkiw’s discussion of Ukraine reveals contrasting circumstances that govern its current context. Yet, it is also Bociurkiw’s contradictory perception of Ukraine and her conflicting feelings about her ancestral land that come to the front in her online writing: recognizing the historical grounds of Ukraine’s present situation, Bociurkiw also points in the same text to Ukraine’s history as “a history of trauma, colonization and continuous displacement.” While, in the light of such statements, readers could assume that a sense of compassion for her ancestral land, which emerges from her remarks,11 might be suggestive of Bociurkiw’s pride in her ethnic background, they are in fact confronted with Bociurkiw’s admission of shame that she felt about it in the past and her ways of dealing with it:

Growing up, I was never proud to be Ukrainian. In fact you could say, what with the word bohunk bandied about when I was a kid, what with diaspora’s conservatism and the homophobia I grew up with, what with the history of what had been done to the Jews -- you could say I was ashamed. (“My Ukraine”)

Yet, a “both/and philosophy” of the contradictions existing in the self and the world does not end with defining these conflicts but rather engaging with them. As May informs, “[t]here may be no ‘resolving’ the differences, as doing so could require erasing differences or denying important disconnects. Such disjunctures matter and hold meaning, so one retains the tension, using ‘both/and’ logics to keep open the ‘fissures’ between perceptions” (43-44). This is precisely what Bociurkiw follows in her texts—instead of eradicating or simplifying the differences she perceives or feels, Bociurkiw engages them instead in her critical analysis; thus, when she continues to talk about her shame, we hear her confess: “So I wrote about it, I wrote through it. I wrote myself, as a feminist writer, as a queer artist, into the literature” (“My Ukraine”). Hence, writing intersectionality by adopting “matrix philosophy” and being critically self-/reflective has helped Bociurkiw to gain a wider perspective, which enables her to appreciate her descent without losing a critical outlook on it. In this way, Bociurkiw is able to define Ukrainians as “my people,” admitting wryly as she does: “I never stopped being Ukrainian, even if Ukrainians didn’t see me as one of their own” (“My Ukraine”). Yet, Bociurkiw goes even a step further in her intersectional approach because she reveals one more important aspect of it, namely the fact that “[i]ntersectionality understands people as ontologically plural, not only in terms of multiple identities, but also in terms of locational and relational power,” which means that, as May continues to explain, “[w]e are situated in,

11 We also hear it in her statements like “my heart breaks at the thought of this newly victorious nation being quashed yet again” (“My Ukraine”). “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 79 constrained by, and able to resist within, myriad forms of power . . .” but also “at the same time, we are capable of complicity with dominance on various fronts” (39; emphasis added). Bociurkiw’s work exposes homophobia and heteronormativity to be prevailing not only in Canadian society in general but also within her own ethnic community, in which Bociurkiw still observes destructive forces of patriarchy or hears distant yet returning echoes of past animosities such as anti-Semitic attitudes. Consequently, in her online texts, Bociurkiw continues to run the gauntlet of “intersectional-type research” because she shows there one of the main features of an intersectional approach, namely “a willingness to address sometimes uncomfortable relations of implication in the production and organization of unequal power relations” (Dhamoon 240). In “Meet the New Ukraine,” for example, Bociurkiw admits to having adopted dominating and judgemental views on Ukrainian politics, which resulted from misunderstanding its complexity that she finally arrived at only much later:

While western leftists (including myself) took it upon ourselves to critique the Ukrainian enthusiasm for the EU, it was suddenly clear to me that the LGBT community had no choice. It was either Europe, or a return to Russian anti-gay legislation. In fact, a law similar to Russia’s was already being proposed under the Yanukovich regime. And yet, Ukraine had been the first of the post-Soviet countries to decriminalize homosexuality. These activists wanted to keep things that way but they want much, much more.

Clearly thus, Bociurkiw’s critical and self-/reflective personal, which in her online texts and (as will also be shown) her documentary tends, to even greater extent, towards plurality and is even more others-oriented than in her previous works, acquires here also the attributes of the political, another intersectional feature of her work that deserves paying closer attention to.12

“Intersectional Politics”

To consider the political aspects of Bociurkiw’s online and film work, I would like to refer to the concept of ‘memoir’ and its meaning as interpreted by Nancy K. Miller. Defining the genre in question, Miller recognizes as “[c]entral . . . the etymological root of the word in the double act of recalling and recording,” and she states the following:

12 For references regarding a feminist idea that the personal equals the political, see further comments here (p. 23, fn. 30). 80 Weronika Suchacka

To record means literally to call to mind, to call up from the heart. At the same time, record means to set down in writing, to make official. What resides in the province of the heart is also what is exhibited in the public space of the world. (Miller in Smith and Watson 275)

While Bociurkiw’s online texts and the documentary film constitute different types of narratives, they are, as already stated, clearly set in the autobio/ethnographical. As a result, Miller’s definition of ‘memoir,’ a type of autobiographical writing, allows me to draw an analogy between these genres as all of them are undeniably forms of “recording.” In this respect, the digital nature of Bociurkiw’s articles and her documentary broadens the meaning and scope of what is understood by “to record” in Miller’s definition of ‘memoir’ simply by the fact that they are no longer forms of a printed word but online publications and a filmic production. In consequence, it is also the meaning and scope of “to make official . . . in the public space of the world” that Bociurkiw’s online texts and documentary expand not only by way of their digitalized form (which makes the message of Bociurkiw’s works “official” or available to greater “public space of the world”) but also their content, in which narrating the personal (that is at the core of both Miller’s definition of ‘memoir’ and Bociurkiw’s works) becomes an expression of Bociurkiw’s “[i]ntersectional [p]olitics” (May 48). In the remaining part of this article, I would like to characterize her politics by referring my hitherto made observations about Bociurkiw’s work to May’s discussion of two “facets” of intersectionality; hence, I would like to follow May’s line and consider Bociurkiw’s intersectional work as involving “a radical coalitional political orientation” and “resistant imaginary” (34; emphasis in orig.; see also 48-60). In this way, my discussion will also reveal a close correspondence between May’s theorization and Bociurkiw’s literary and artistic practice of intersectionality.

“Resistant Imaginary”

As suggested above, Bociurkiw analyzes her contrasting feelings towards Ukraine, its history and present state, not only on a personal level but also on a political one. It is again visible in her text “My Ukraine,” in which she writes about Ukrainians as “a dignified, resilient, sophisticated people” who managed, on the grassroots level, to organize into a civil society on the Euromaidan and mount there their resistance to oppression they have suffered:

2013/14: There were coalminers from eastern Ukraine, housewives from Lviv, students from across the country. LGBT activists manned the emergency phone lines. Feminist groups helped out at the clinic. Jews and Muslims were present at “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 81

every moment, along with clergy from Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Working and singing and protesting and praying together, these common citizens brought down a corrupt government.

In the same text, Bociurkiw continues to champion the “diversity” of Ukrainian people reflected by their gathering on the Euromaidan and sees it as the nation’s “strength.” What is more, in “Meet the New Ukraine: Feminist and LGBT Activists Building Civil Society,” she recognizes the contribution of “feminist, LGBT and human rights communities” in the Euromaidan civil movement, criticizing the fact that it “has remained largely unnoticed by international media.” Trying to fill in that gap, Bociurkiw provides there information about the current work of feminist and LGBT rights activists in Ukraine,13 expressing her interest in their fight put up together with other participants of the Euromaidan revolution not only as a queer/feminist/ diasporic activist herself but also as a filmmaker and researcher who arrived in Ukraine to document this “profound and historic cultural transformation.” She relates her accounts of meeting and interviewing various people who try to make this “transformation” happen in the reality of post-Maidan Ukraine, concluding her text with a pointed comment, which can also be taken as self- criticism, that “Canadian activists have much to learn from them.” Such critical confrontation of her “I” with so many “others” influences Bociurkiw’s political self-perception in as much as she admits to have discovered “new meanings for . . . [herself]” (“Meet”). But it has also significantly affected her perception of the others—Ukrainians who, in her eyes, are “[n]o longer” those who took part in “a seemingly futile effort to join the west,” but who have become perceived by her as members of “a population passionately engaged in rebuilding their society, from the inside out” (“Meet”). Another result of her revised personal that has, in consequence, become politicized is her contribution to the political of the Other—by focusing on “the ‘disrememberd,’” i.e. those whom the mainstream society disregards in various aspects of historical, social, cultural, and political life (May 53), Bociurkiw follows the main premise of

13 Bociurkiw talks about the work of Anna Dovgopol, feminist activist, one of the organizers of “Women’s Batalion” (Zhinocha Sotnya) on the Euromaidan, and Bogdan Globa, director of Fulcrum, an LGBT rights organization. As Bociurkiw further informs us in the same text, Ukrainian LGBT activists mainly try to cooperate with Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) as family life is a key aspect in Ukraine, but they also try to reach the government. What is more, they concentrate their efforts on organizing a healthcare system that would be open towards gays, people suffering from AIDS, and lesbian mothers-to be. While they are in favour of civil partnership, gay marriage is nevertheless relegated to further positions in the list of their priorities. 82 Weronika Suchacka

“[i]ntersectionality as a [r]esistant [i]maginary” because she is “identifying omissions and approaching them as meaningful, [so that] gaps or interstices . . . [are] engaged politically. . .” by her (May 53). What it means in practice is that relating her account of Ukrainians and their fierce opposition that has been purposefully ignored or unacknowledged by some, Bociurkiw writes about them against those narratives that have diminished Ukranians’ effort, or that spread distorted facts about it. She opposes such narratives directly when she states that “[t]he Euromaidan was no U.S.-funded performance as some on the left bizarrely claimed. I recall they said that about the Orange Revolution of 2004/05, too” (“My Ukraine”). What is more, Bociurkiw openly proclaims her “fighting the information war,” in which:

To put it simply, slick Russian propaganda, funded by the deep pockets of oligarchs, has trickled into almost every media outlet in the West, as far as I can see. It’s often subtle, sometimes merely a figure of speech. “Separatists” instead of “Russian-backed militia.” “Civil war” or “crisis” instead of “invasion.” It’s happening in the left-leaning press as well. (“Apple Cake”)

Obscuring a factual reality by a euphemistic presentation of events diminishes the extent of Russian political and military aggression against Ukraine but also the importance and necessity of Ukrainians’ opposition to it. Moreover, as Myrna Kostash observes, it “[gives] such little credit to the agency of great swathes of the Ukrainian republic,” which, in Kostash’s view, was already the case in the critics’ comments on the Orange Revolution and its staging by Ukrainian people (“My Maidan”).14 Thus, writing about them and their

14 Reflecting on the reception of the Orange Revolution in her text “My Maidan,” Kostash admits that she was disappointed by the response of the Canadian left who failed to recognize the organization of Ukrainian society, in all its diversity that the crowds of the revolution represented, into a civil force, strong enough to fight together for their freedom. With respect to the Euromaidan events, Kostash shares there similar concerns with Bociurkiw, pointing to common disbelief of “Canadian progressives” in the Ukrainian people’s active social mobilization and to lack of their support for the Ukrainian civil movement, as well as to “anti-Ukrainian propaganda” that spread accusations of “dark European- or U.S.-based conspiracies behind it [the Euromaidan]” and expressed instead concerns about “Russian imperial interests.” Kostash also heavily criticizes the myths spread on the Internet or, as she puts it, “memes endlessly repeated by Moscow and circulated by its friends (the ‘useful idiots’) who are both on the left and the ultra-right in the West.” Among these memes, Kostash names: . . . for example: the demands articulated from the Maidan in its early weeks instigated a coup of fascist anti-semitic thugs abetted by the CIA against an elected president. Russia has a legitimate geopolitical concern about Ukraine's “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 83

“courageous self-organization” (Kostash, “My Maidan”), Bociurkiw opposes narratives that deny Ukrainians their historical and historic role, proving that they have acted together as the “agents of their own transformation” (Kostash, “My Maidan”), and emphasising the importance of their choice to do so. In this way, Bociurkiw retrieves their “‘historical agency . . . [and] personhood . . . [that] have been denied’” to them (May in May 57). At the same time, she pronounces her own choice and agency because by writing her accounts in opposition to such narratives, she activates a counter-discourse, and in this way narrates “a counter-history” (Thomas 243), which draws attention of the international community to the historical narratives of Euromaidan that have been previously neglected, “show[ing],” as her film synopsis proclaims, “a side of the conflict in Ukraine the world has not yet seen” (“This”).15 Bringing the voices of the disregarded or silenced to the fore is crucial for, as May suggests, “intervening in historical memory or interrupting the dominant social imagination,” which constitute the key features of intersectionality’s “resistant imaginary” (34; emphasis in orig.). It is also clearly noticeable in Bociurkiw’s latest documentary film This Is Gay Propaganda. What follows here is my attempt at identifying the elements of this imaginary enacted by Bociurkiw also in her documentary, which expands a political discussion opened by her online accounts, showing the events of Euromaidan as seen from the perspective of the Ukrainian queer people and their participation in the country’s revolution as well as their lives afterwards. We will see therefore that by recording “the struggle of oppressed people to come to voice” (hooks, “Choosing” 146),16 Bociurkiw’s film itself becomes an important “voice of resistance” (150). As suggested above, by filling in the gaps in the Euromaidan metanarrative, Bociurkiw’s work is conducive to the political emancipation of the Other as it creates a channel of expression for the silenced, revealing in this way its firm foundations in the oppositional, one of the most important

turn to Europe. Russia and Ukraine have a long, intertwined history of relationship that should not be sundered. Putin has a right to defend oppressed Russian- speakers beyond Russia's borders. Russia stood up to Hitler’s armies while Ukraine collaborated with the occupiers. 15 In Said’s terms, this locates her distinctly in “the role of the intellectual” that Said defines as the ability “to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose so that choice and agency returns to the individual” (in Barsamian and Said 99). For the importance of “‘counterhistories’ and ‘counternarratives’” (Dill and Zambrana in May 58), an indispensable means of what May defines as “[i]ntersectional historical contestation” (56), see May 53-60. 16 Finding a channel for the expression of the oppressed is an important aspect of and for resistance literature (see Harlow 99) and feminist work (see Perreault 132-33). 84 Weronika Suchacka aspect of intersectionality. May elaborates on the resistant factor that intersectional projects are determined by, distinguishing its further characteristics as follows: “. . . in asking whose voices have been heard, documented, or recognized, intersectionality not only raises questions about who ‘counts’ as a knower, but also what counts as evidence of resistance or insurgency: in doing so, it entails a redefinition of the past, a rethinking of the archive” (56). As already indicated, Bociurkiw’s work acts in accordance with this premise, but it also observes the form in which this postulate is achieved—as we read in May: “[i]n examining intersectional interventions in historical memory what becomes clear is that history cannot be told in the singular voice or via the lone, iconic figure” (54). Bociurkiw’s documentary, This Is Gay Propaganda, respects this idea in particular, and so hers is a voice that is heard only in the background of this film, which instead centres on the multiple voices of its characters—“activists in Ukraine during and after the Euromaidan revolution” (“Apple Cake”).17 Clearly, being in Ukraine as both an insider and outsider at the same time—being Ukrainian and queer, and yet also Canadian—Bociurkiw realizes that an account of “what it had been like to be gay on the Euromaidan” (“Meet”) can only be told by Ukrainian queer people who have experienced it themselves. Thus, choosing a filmic type of narrative, Bociurkiw enables the audience to see the people and hear their stories that her online texts could only quote or paraphrase. Attending to their stories mainly as “the listener or facilitator” (Thomas 245), and so placing their own accounts in the focus of her and the audience’s attention is “a form of resistance” (242) that Bociurkiw’s film clearly becomes.18 Critics indicate the act of “storytelling” to be a key factor in expressing the oppositional, which, in Said’s view, should be adopted by intellectuals as their methodology: “I think one of the roles of the intellectual . . . is to provide a counterpoint, by storytelling, by reminders of the graphic nature of suffering, and by reminding everyone that we’re talking about people. We’re not talking about abstractions” (in Barsamian and Said 187).19 It is thus

17 Multiplicity of voices and its importance are marked by Harlow in her discussion of resistance narratives (see, e.g., 94, 98-99, and 112). For the significance of the stories to be told by the storytellers in “their own voices” and “on their own terms” (242), see Thomas (e.g., 242-43, 245). 18 See also Warner who points to “a unique perspective” that a researcher adopting an intersectional approach can get “from listening to the meanings that emerge when people reflect on their own experiences” (457). 19 I am also referring here to Robina Anne Thomas (Qwul’sih’yah’maht) and her article, “Honouring the Oral Traditions of My Ancestors Through Storytelling,” in which Thomas talks about her application of storytelling in her research as a constructive type of methodology. She refers to its tradition among her ancestors, which has given them a “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 85 no surprise when we hear Said’s message echoed in Bociurkiw’s statements in one of her online texts, “Apple Cake, LGBT Refugees and the War in Ukraine,” written during the production of her documentary and expressing her outrage at the wrong done to the Ukrainian queer people, whose first-hand accounts gave her a sense of tragedy they have been experiencing: “But these are real people,” we hear Bociurkiw conclude, “with real stories of oppression at the hands of the so-called Donetsk People’s Republic. These accounts and others have opened my eyes to what’s really going on.” Thus, focusing on multiple stories of the oppressed has also clarified Bociurkiw’s perception of their tragedy. It has been made possible by an intersectional approach that entails “departing from the singular to the plural,” thanks to which “our basic assumptions about knowledge and the self transform” (May 48). Adopting such an approach in her film, Bociurkiw clearly wants to affect its viewers and enable them to change also their self-/perception. Consequently, her documentary allows the viewers to meet the oppressed, who are introduced to them by name, showing that “[b]ehind a name is history” (Thomas 241). Each history is different, yet all share in experiencing pain. And so, the viewers learn, for example, about Olena and Vlad who had to run away from Donetsk due to the massive hunt for queer people that was launched there. Bociurkiw recounts their stories already in her online text:

Oleksandra . . . tells me how, as a loud-and-proud lesbian feminist activist, she inevitably ran into homophobia. How it got worse in the past few months, as payouts started to happen. Donetsk citizens (many of them unemployed, all of them underpaid) would be offered the equivalent of $40 (a rather large amount in those parts) by Russian military to join the “separatist” demonstrations or to

possibility to “tell a counter-story to that of the documented history of First Nations in Canada” (241). In this respect, Thomas considers storytelling an important “tool of resistance” (252). Intersectionality theorists also emphasize the importance of stories and their exploration in intersectionally-oriented research; see, for example, Phoenix 141 and 148. May also suggests that in the face of data or archival deficiencies, it is worth “look[ing] to other expressive/knowledge genres, including art, orature, performance, music, and narrative.” She points to fiction as a valuable source of intersectional perspective on identity, dominance, and oppressive imbalances, as it may extend or add to what is proposed by conventional theory and empiricism (243; see also 244 and 20). Brah and Phoenix are involved in and call for the study of intersectionality as “narrated in . . . autobiographical and empirical studies” (79; see 79-82). Likewise, “[t]he life-story narratives” (282) are in the focus of an analysis by Prins (282-88) and by Valentine (15-18). A call for a similar approach can additionally be found in Taylor, Hines, and Casey. The importance of “personal narratives and single-group analyses” (1781) in the intracategorical study of intersections is emphasized by McCall (1780-83), who defines this approach to intersectionality as “an intellectual descendent [sic] of narrative studies” (1783). 86 Weronika Suchacka

harass queer people like Oleksandra. The Russian anti-gay propaganda law makes it illegal to be visible as LGBT in any way. That, combined with the powerful messaging of the Russian Orthodox Church (European Union equals same-sex marriage and naked gay men in Pride parades) created a dangerous situation for Oleksandra in her beloved city.

“It was still funny to me when people started calling me a Banderite lesbian,” she says. She’s referring to the Russian propagandist claim that the entire citizenry of Ukraine, including its government, is in thrall to Hitler and deceased rightwing Ukrainian politico Stephan Bandera. . . .

“I stopped laughing when armed militia came to my door with death threats,” she says. Her wide smile is gone. She swallows, holding back tears.

Vlad corroborates Oleksandra’s stories with some of his own. He says that every queer person he knows has left Donetsk. (“Apple Cake”)

Telling different stories of different people who experienced similar forms of oppression proves not only “[t]he cognitive shift to multiplicity” that Bociurkiw clearly takes in her work but also the idea behind it, namely it shows that such a shift “permits one to perceive and keep hold of divergent premises” (May 44). Evidently, what is at stake for Bociurkiw in her documentary is to emphasize the existence of not only plurality of oppressive experiences but also their diverse nature. As a queer person, Bociurkiw knows the pain of being discriminated against, yet she also realizes that experiences of the oppressed are not easily comparable because they are always spatially, historically, and politically specific. In her film, she therefore offers an intersectional perspective on group and individual identity, which shows both “as internally heterogeneous” (May 41). This heterogeneity is particularly visible when Bociurkiw again activates her relational point of view and contrasts her positionality with the subjectivities of the oppressed presented in her documentary. Consequently, we see how Bociurkiw empathizes in her film with the experiences of its characters; and yet, she can only imagine the extent of their suffering as well as the extent of wrong done to other queer people in Donetsk by, once again, relating the experiences of the others to her own context:

I think: What if every LGBT person I knew had to leave Toronto? Not just for a brief time, but probably for good? What if we had to say goodbye, not just to the city with its crappy transit, great art scene and funky neighbourhoods, but also to jobs, homes, friends and family, because we were queer?

And what if the world did not believe our story? (“Apple Cake”) “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 87

By means of relationality then, Bociurkiw draws attention to “heterogeneous commonality” (Collins in May 41) that unites the subjects of her documentary and other queer people. Her documentary proves in this way that sameness is not the (only) answer to the questions of belonging and identity (May 41-43; 50-51). Focusing on queer subjectivities that could and do suggest certain similarities of experience, the documentary insists, however, on showing how different such experiences can also be, following an intersectional idea that “we are the same and different, simultaneously,” and so it “[does] not discard differences for some underlying essence, or focus solely on . . . similarities” (May 42; emphasis in orig.). Showing both similarities and differences but exalting neither, Bociurkiw’s film indicates the possibility of “commonality in terms of shared interests rather than shared identity” (Cole in May 51), which defines “solidarity” that builds the ground of “intersectional politics” that is necessarily “coalition politics” (Kafer in May 51) because:

. . . solidarity requires thinking in terms of mutuality and accountability as the political basis for relationships. Rather than assume commonality of oppression or of identity, defined singularly within the logics of sameness, “the practice of solidarity foregrounds communities of people who have chosen to work and fight together. . . . [It] is always an achievement, the result of active struggle.” (Mohanty in May 51)

In her documentary, Bociurkiw shows the active struggle of people whose identities and experiences are much alike and yet differ significantly, and who decided to unite in the fight for the common good—their personal and national liberation. Bociurkiw as a director, activist, and a queer person joins in their struggle. By registering their accounts, her camera work creates therefore a powerful tool of a historical inscription of this struggle because it prevents the Other from historical oblivion by locating, i.e. defining and naming, their specific historical, and spatial context.20 Travelling to three cities in Ukraine: Kiev, Kharkiv, and Odessa, Bociurkiw documents particular experiences of individuals telling their “stories of creative resistance” (Bociurkiw, “This”) as Ukrainians, who took part in the Euromaidan revolution to help in their country’s struggle towards its independence, but at the same time as the country’s queer Other, who have been struggling to survive in their country on a daily-life basis. Bociurkiw continues to present stories of queer people like Oleksandra and Vlad, or rather enables their stories to be known by a wider audience because she seems to understand the necessity “to keep telling the

20 I base this observation on statements by hooks (“Aesthetic Inheritance” 116, 121-22), but also Lorde (in Perreault 4-5); Mohanty in herising (135); Philip (e.g., 9-10, 14-15, 18- 19, 26, 28); Said (in Barsamian and Said 22); and Thomas (241). 88 Weronika Suchacka story in as many ways as possible, as insistently as possible, and in as compelling a way as possible, to keep attention to it, because there is always a fear that it might just disappear” (Said in Barsamian and Said 187). In this way, This Is Gay Propaganda itself becomes a “stor[y] of creative resistance” (Bociurkiw, “This”) because it “creates space for the ‘Other,’ or those voices that have been excluded or erased, to be included in the dominant discourse” (Thomas 244).21

“Coalitional Political Orientation”

As already stated, narrating intersectionality of her film’s subjects, and in this way, emphasizing their various interconnected locations “in a concrete history and space” (Said in Barsamian and Said 22), i.e. the political conflict(s) in contemporary Ukraine, Bociurkiw’s documentary “historicize[s] and locate[s] [their] political agency” (Mohanty in herising 135). But also, by writing about her own intersecting identities and contexts, approaching them critically and through the lens of the identities and contexts of the others, Bociurkiw defines her “politics of location” that in her case means “[standing] in political resistance with the oppressed” (hooks, “Choosing” 145). This answers the initial question that Bociurkiw posed in “Bordercrossings” about the people with whom she might identify because by promoting “marginal narratives and discourses” as central (herising 137) in her work and by means of her work, she is in fact “[c]hoosing the margin” (hooks 145) to be her “space of resistance” (149)—or to put it differently, using bell hooks’s words, “[s]peaking from margins” Bociurkiw is “[s]peaking in resistance” (152). The remarks above can also be referred to Fairn herising’s observations about the role that relationality and “critical reflexivity” play in defining “politics of location” (136)22 by researchers who are involved in “[working]

21A recognition of a historical narrative of the subjugated people is seen as equivalent to their liberation but also a key factor in challenging and revising the historical record and discourse of the dominating powers, in the process of which resistance literature plays a crucial role (Harlow 4, 28-30, 85, 116). 22 herising explains their role as follows: By situating ourselves in history and the contexts of our own multiple locations, we can move toward working through and with differences based on multiple subjectivities. . . . Furthermore, by critically locating ourselves within the relational contexts, constructions, and histories that (re)produce marginal communities, we differently situate ourselves to recognize the shifting and multiple subjectivities of marginal communities, struggles, and the nuances of the asymmetrical relationships . . . that we forge. (137) “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 89 with/in marginal communities” (128).23 In herising’s view, it is only “[b]y situating and contextualizing . . . [themselves] in relation to the subjects of . . . [their] research” that researchers can, in fact, equip themselves and their work with “strategies for counter-narratives and oppositional politics” (135). Bociurkiw proves exactly this when she describes her own personal involvement in the political resistance of Ukrainians fighting on the Euromaidan – the subjects of her work. For example, in “Meet the New Ukraine” from June 20, 2014, Bociurkiw relates:

Just one month ago I was navigating tire barricades and memorials for the dead, eating borscht with brawny men in fatigues, interviewing activists who overthrew a corrupt government. I inhaled tear gas thrown by the Right Sector, gulped back killer vodka with LGBT thinkers and activists, and, many, many times, swallowed back tears.

Long story short, I was in Ukraine, where, to quote a very bad old song, tears are not enough.

What is evident in Bociurkiw’s accounts is that being in Ukraine and among the people, confronting them personally and listening to what they have to say is most paramount for Bociurkiw’s way of researching:

Over the next few weeks I talked to many other activists. . . . with a middle-aged feminist involved in documenting human rights abuses during the Maidan, for the International Court in the Hague. For a forthcoming film [This Is Gay Propaganda], I interviewed a young lesbian working with Crimean refugees, and another young woman, helping those who lost their jobs in the Maidan, to find work. In Lviv, after a screening of my film, “What’s the Ukrainian Word for Sex?,” I had a long discussion with students working to change academic culture in Ukraine, whether through raising LGBT issues at a forum on human rights (they were later shunned), or through refusing to participate the corrupt bribe system at universities throughout the country. (“Meet”)

I should additionally mention here that herising (144-46) also refers to bell hooks and her ideas about locating oneself politically within “the margin.” 23 See also Kimpson who, like herising, discusses methodological strategies useful for conducting research in marginal communities. As already mentioned here, a “critical and self-reflexive” analysis of one’s personal experience is, in Kimpson’s view, an effective approach towards one’s research work because it helps to redeem the marginalized voices and ways of knowing and thinking from dominating discourse (75-76), which she considers not only “a political act” (74) but also “a deeply subversive . . . move” (92). I see both Kimpson’s and herising’s observations about research methodologies applicable to Bociurkiw’s work, which is clearly based on similar principles. 90 Weronika Suchacka

In this way, Bociurkiw fulfills a basic principle of creating a work of resistance, according to which “[n]o research of this kind can be complete unless the researcher is located within the resistance movement itself inside the occupied land, taking his testimony from the place in which it is born, lives and is propagated: the lips of the people” (Kanafani in Harlow 3). We see therefore that not only the subjects of her film engage in “intersectional politics” that bases on coalition (Kafer in May 51), but Bociurkiw herself is also immersed in it as she stands in solidarity with “the resistant oppressed” (May 59) and joins their liberation struggle because, as hooks observes, a point when one’s marginality can be used as one’s “site of resistance” is reached “through struggle” (“Choosing” 153). And so, Bociurkiw’s film documents continuous endeavour of Ukrainian queer activists such as Olena, “who taught women’s self-defence classes during Euromaidan and now fights the spread of anti-gay laws in Eastern Europe” (Bociurkiw, “This”) by channelling her efforts into, for example, organizing safety houses for the victims of homophobia fleeing from their families or home towns. In such shelters, queer people can continue their struggle to “resist . . . [,] to be subjects, not objects, . . . [to] restore to . . . [themselves] the dignity denied . . . [them] on the outside in the public world” (hooks, “Homeplace” 42). In such substitute homes, they can keep on living their lives: they can meet their friends and treat them with tea or home-made apple cake,24 they can discuss the next steps of their struggle and continue to be creative25—simply put, they can “continue to love,” which as Marlene Nourbese Philip observes, “is surely the most powerful gesture of resistance possible” (29).

24 In her online text “Apple Cake, LGBT Refugees and the War in Ukraine,” Bociurkiw refers to the cake prepared by Vlad, which becomes an expression of love and beauty that Vlad and his flatmates of a Kievan safety house are full of. Bociurkiw recognizes it in her text, emphasizing “a warmth and sweetness to this place — a juxtaposition of the tragic and the beautiful I’m to see time and time again as we travel from Kiev to Kharkiv to Odessa.” 25 An illuminating example of their creativity and inventiveness is, in my view, Vlad’s work on renovating an old wardrobe. The scene in which Vlad is showing the repaired piece of furniture to the film crew is quite inconspicuous—it might be easily overlooked for its brevity. Yet, it conveys another strong message; Vlad’s pride in and joy of the result of his work resonated powerfully with me, especially when reading bell hooks’s essay “Aesthetic Inheritance: History Worked by Hand,” in which hooks discusses her grandmother’s quilt making and contextualizes it in the long tradition of Black women’s craftwork. The experiences of Black women are of course different from the experiences of Ukrainian queer people, but Vlad’s reaction when showing the wardrobe reminded me of hooks’s remarks about her grandmother and her willingness “to show . . . how one comes to know beauty and give oneself over to it” (116) despite all the ugliness of oppression experienced on a daily-life basis. “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 91

The beauty of their struggle to keep their dignity stands out most particularly when contrasted with cruelty they experience. Bociurkiw’s film exposes it at its very beginning, showing the most extreme examples of oppression; the documentary opens thus with brutal scenes of violence against Ukrainian queer people that were registered by the perpetrators themselves and disseminated online. These criminal acts strike with the acuteness of physical pain inflicted on the victims by the perpetrators whose unbridled savagery is blatantly premeditated to deprive the victims of their dignity. The scenes showing these acts expose the viewers to “the graphic nature of suffering” (187), making us aware that, paraphrasing Said again, the pain is real, and that it is done to real people (in Barsamian and Said 187). In her essay, “The Personal, Experience, and the Self,” Sally Munt talks about how important it is to share with the whole community one’s personal experience of pain resulting from being oppressed as a lesbian or gay: “To ‘come out’ as lesbian or gay is to speak the truth of . . . oppression. We formulate this identity as a way of reversing the pain of homophobia, claiming in doing so a common experience” (187). Following Munt’s line, we may say that, in This Is Gay Propaganda, Bociurkiw uncovers the truth of oppression experienced by Ukrainian queer people, but at the same time she also reveals that there are still places in the world where being gay or lesbian is not a matter of identity politics but a matter of life or death—where to come out and survive is not self-evident.26 Yet, by means of her documentary, Bociurkiw does “reverse” the suffering of the oppressed, “claiming in doing so” perhaps not “a common experience” (Munt 187) but rather “heterogeneous commonality” (Collins in May 41). She narrates the stories of the oppressed presenting their experiences as individual and diverse yet intersecting, which works in accordance with Said’s observation that “[s]eparate histories . . . [should] be seen as intertwined and counterpointed with each other. Without that, the Other is always going to be dehumanized, demonized, invisible” (in Barsamian and Said 22). In consequence, uncovering “heterogeneous commonality” of Ukrainian queer people and their experiences, Bociurkiw restores their humanity and raises their visibility, but she also proves that oppression is not a single, one-time occurrence, pointing instead to its multiple and continuous nature (Lugones in May 56; May 57). Finally, we may say that by “claiming” this commonality, Bociurkiw “reverses the pain of” oppression into the possibility of resistance. In this

26 I am referring here to Igor, another person whose story we hear in Bociurkiw’s documentary. As we learn, Igor had to run away from his family because his brothers tortured him and planned to kill him for being gay. Because they followed him when he escaped to Kiev, Igor finally emigrated to the US, which he was able to do thanks to Olena and other activists who helped him out. 92 Weronika Suchacka way, she shows that/how it is possible to “come to this space [of marginality as resistance] through suffering and pain” (hooks, “Choosing” 153).27 Narrating the stories of Ukrainian queer people like Oleksandra, Vlad, Igor, or Olena, who, already in their young lives, have suffered from homophobia in all of its verbal, psychological, and physical forms, but who have nonetheless managed to resist and fight against their oppression, Bociurkiw shows “how . . . power is born” (Brant, “A Simple Act” 94) among people who, struggling together, create the “community of resistance” (hooks, “Homeplace” 47).28 Following an intersectional impetus of “a politics of coalition” (May 4) that bases on the idea of “solidarity and collective contestation” (48), Bociurkiw contributes to the development of such a community because she not only talks about these people’s pain and struggle but also talks about it in solidarity with them. In This Is Gay Propaganda, she directly voices her support when, at the end of the documentary, she says: “Oleksandra, Vlad, Olena, this is for you.” Dedicating the film to them, Bociurkiw also dedicates it to their cause. By documenting their struggle, she ensures that their effort will be remembered because the film will work against “forgetfulness [which] undermines . . . solidarity and the future of . . . liberation struggle” (hooks, “Homeplace” 45). Moreover, it will do so continuously, whenever it is screened, whenever it is shown “in the public space of the world” (Miller in Smith and Watson 275), making “[w]hat resides in the province of the heart” (275) not so much an “official” (275) statement as a political stance.29

27 The most expressive of which is, in my view, a scene showing an 18-year-old Vlad sitting in an almost empty room of a Kievan safety house he found his shelter in. While this scene might also seem quite inconspicuous, it is in fact powerful. When we look at it more cautiously, we see a young man trying to bear his pain, probably continuously intensified by his memories, in which he seems completely immersed when the shot is taken. There are no words but the language of his body reveals his silent suffering; an unconscious movement of his leg that he is anxiously shaking all the time expresses his fear of and for his uncertain future, while his whole craned posture might be read as his despondency and despair about what he has already gone through. 28 Discussing the liberating role and importance of homeplace for the continuation of Black culture, but also reading this locus generally as “a site of resistance” that is “crucial . . . for forming political solidarity,” hooks states that it is only by its means that “a meaningful community of resistance” can be created. (“Homeplace” 47). Bociurkiw’s documentary includes an interesting example of hooks’s observation because it presents the struggle of young Ukrainian activists organizing safety houses for queer people, which give them a possibility not only to find shelter but also to come together and continue their struggle, building in this way their community of resistance. 29 As an example of such screenings, I would like to mention an event that I co- organized in 2015 within Ukrainicum, an annual Ukrainian Summer School, which took “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 93

Conclusion

The above quotation from Nancy K. Miller’s statement, to which I have already referred in this article, is purposefully repeated here because it has helped me to read Bociurkiw’s work within the tradition of “feminist discourse,” in which, as Jeanne Perreault observes, “[t]he strong presence of the ‘I’ . . . continually reasserts the belief that the personal is political—one of the basic principles of feminist consciousness” (129). Perreault, in fact, discusses “writing of the self as a social and political act” (133), which she sees as a distinguishing feature of women’s self-writing:30

Most often in feminist texts the “self” is provisional, an exploration of possibility and a tentative grammar of transformation. Rather than treating “self” as a fixed notion, clearly conceptualized and needing only to be “expressed,” the feminist writer of self engages in a (community of) discourse of whish she is both product and producer. This interrelation of self and community is one of the most provocative issues in the writing of feminist subjectivity. Political or ideological consciousness takes into account the intersections of individual experience in its complexities of race, sexuality, class, ethnicity. The feminist writing of self, then, is part of creating new communities. (7)

place at the Alfried Krupp Wissenschaftskolleg Greifswald in Germany. The majority of the audience who attended the screening of Bociurkiw’s documentary consisted of the school’s international participants, among whom there was a number of young scholars from Ukraine. The film received a standing ovation from the public, followed by their words of praise and support for Bociurkiw’s work. Bociurkiw was encouraged particularly by Ukrainian students to show her film in Ukraine, which, in their view, should be made available to greater audience to raise awareness of what Ukrainian queer people experience and to increase tolerance towards them. 30 Perreault identifies the political aspect and tradition of writing the personal in works by Audre Lorde, Kate Millett, Adrienne Rich, and Patricia Williams. She defines their works as examples of “autography,” a name she gives to a type of feminist self-writing that “foreground[s] the suggestive and flexible processes of both autos and graphia” (2; italics in orig.) by “mak[ing] the writing itself an aspect of selfhood the writer experiences and brings into being” (3-4; also qtd. in Hall 9). At the same time, Perreault sees subjectivity as “communal as well as private” (6), and so in direct reference to “an identity politics” (6) because “that written ‘I’ . . . [is] an element in the “we” of feminist communities” (2). For the discussion of “the intersection of I and We” (149) in the context of lesbian auto/biography writing, see Hallett (142-49). See also Munt’s discussion of the role of the personal (experience and feeling) in the political (theorizing) of Lesbian and Gay Studies; as well as Kimpson’s remarks about the political aspect of applying personal narratives as feminist research methodology (74-76). 94 Weronika Suchacka

Clearly, Bociurkiw’s work can be read in a similar way but it also significantly adds to this tradition of feminist thinking in as much as it not only writes ‘self’ but also writes (about) its intersectionality, or even expands into narrating intersectionality as Bociurkiw engages in other forms of artistic expression like online writing or film work. Moreover, while it can be read along the identity politics of other feminists who, as Perreault observes, “writ[ing] themselves . . . write the movement” (8), Bociurkiw’s expression of the political enables us to read her oeuvre also as a work of resistance. Both traditions, feminist self-writing and the literature of resistance, in which Bociurkiw’s works are firmly set, recognize the potential of “the political as the power to change the world” (Harlow 30),31 and in this way share a significant feature with the project of intersectionality that sees it as one of its central tenets (May 4; 48-53). Insisting that the meaning of the political is located in “coalition” (May 4; also 48), intersectionality draws attention to the fact that this coalition or “solidarities need to be forged via mutual commitments, not via principles of homogeneity and sameness” (4). As I have shown in this article, Bociurkiw’s literary, online, and documentary projects are based on exactly this premise, and for that reason, among many others which I have discussed here, her oeuvre should be classified not only as a work about intersectionality but also an intersectional work. As its illuminating example, Bociurkiw’s pieces prove how narrating intersectionality is politicized as it becomes a meaningful expression of resistance. While all of Bociurkiw’s works are generally marked by her critical, self- /reflective analysis of intersectionality, Bociurkiw’s relational approach towards her subjectivity is conspicuous particularly in her Internet and film work. The online texts and the documentary This Is Gay Propaganda that I have discussed in this article demonstrate how Bociurkiw relates her Ukrainian ethnicity and queerness to Ukrainianness and queerness of the

31 Perreault recognizes the potential of transformation in feminist autography as a “process [that] is recursive: the selves written are transformed in the writing as the communities they change change them” (134; see also, e.g. 8, 17-19, and 22). hooks, on the other hand, proposes “marginality” to be considered “as location of radical openness and possibility” (“Choosing” 153). Defining marginalized positionality “as site of resistance,” which she sees as a counteractive position that one decides upon, as opposed to enforced marginality that one experiences as a result of “oppressive structures,” hooks ascribes to it the potential for change that we can unlock when we decide to define our position in its context (153). In hooks’s view, locating ourselves and our agenda in this space, “we begin the process of re-vision,” being “ready to offer our ways of seeing and theorizing, of making culture, towards that revolutionary effort which seeks to create space . . . where transformation is possible. . .” (145). “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 95 people represented in her work—the descendants of her ancestors located in a crucial moment of Ukraine’s contemporary history. Bociurkiw approaches these interrelations from the perspective of her other multiple subject positions such as a writer, film director, artist, activist, and researcher, to name a few. Consequently, her point of view is critical because her various locations equip her with both an insider’s and an outsider’s perspectives. These reveal that the “differences based on multiple subjectivities” (herising 136) are significant; nevertheless, what Bociurkiw’s work proves is that these differences can become a ground for “heterogeneous commonality” (Collins in May 41) because, as herising puts it, “[t]hese differences help us uncover the dissimilar and/yet overlapping positions, potentially allowing us to forge solidarity on grounds that reject essentialist categories and demarcate the multiple sites of struggles” (136). Bociurkiw’s work clearly “demarcates her sites of struggles” and demonstrates that she “forges her solidarity” with the marginalized in their political revolution fought in the hope that it brings about necessary evolution of the status quo. Whether Bociurkiw’s literary and artistic expressions of this political resistance can directly contribute to any social transformation is still to be seen, but the fact that they work in line with intersectionality’s dedication “to the potential that change is possible,” even if “not guaranteed” (May 60), only confirms that their author will continue making “a speech of suffering” (hooks, “Choosing” 147) be heard, standing in determined resistance to its causes.

Works Cited

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—. “Dreaming Big: The Occupy Movement and the Media.” 12 Nov. 2011, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2011/11/dreaming-big- occupy-movement-and-media-0. Accessed 21 Mar. 2018. —. Feeling Canadian: Television Nationalism & Affect. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier UP, 2011. —. “Femme Monologues and the Archival Turn.” 31 Mar. 2011, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2011/05/femme- monologues-and-archival-turn. Accessed 22 Mar. 2018. —. “Getting My Head Around ‘Breasts as Bombs’: Contradictory Feelings, Non-Western Feminism and Femen.” 16 Sept. 2013, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2013/09/getting-my- head-around-breasts-bombs-contradictory-feelings. Accessed 20 Mar. 2018. —. “Marx and the 99%.” 25 Oct. 2011, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya- bociurkiw/2012/11/marx-and-99. Accessed 22 Mar. 2018. —. “Meet the New Ukraine: Feminist and LGBT Activists Building Civil Society.” 20 June 2014, http://rabble.ca/news/2014/06/meet-new-ukraine- feminist-and-lgbt-activists-building-civil-socjety. Accessed 9 Feb. 2016. —. “My Ukraine: Soldiers in the Streets, Geese in the Fields.” 5 Mar. 2014, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2014/03/my-ukraine- soldiers-streets-geese-fields. Accessed 9 Feb. 2016. —. “Not In My Name.” 8 Nov. 2001, http://rabble.ca/news/not-my-name.> Accessed 22 Mar. 2018. —. “Occupy Toronto: Can’t Stop the Conversation.” 22 Nov. 2011, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2011/11/occupy-toronto- cant-stop-conversation. Accessed 20 Mar. 2018. —. “Paris-Barcelona-Ukraine: No Border is Benign.” 18 Mar. 2014, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2014/03/paris-barcelona- ukraine-no-border-benign. Accessed 20 Mar. 2018. —. “The Shame and the Pride.” 9 July 2010, http://rabble.ca/news/2010/07/shame-and-pride. Accessed 22 Mar. 2018. —. “Six Reasons Why Calls to Fire David Gilmour Miss the Point.” 28 Sept. 2013, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya-bociurkiw/2013/09/six-reasons -why-calls-to-fire-david-gilmour-miss-point. Accessed 20 Mar. 2018. —. “That Hopey-Changey Thing: Thoughts on Citizenship, Affect, Cancer and the Layton Funeral.” 1 Sept. 2011, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya- bociurkiw/2011/09/hopey-changey-thing-thoughts-citizenship-affect-cancer- and-. Accessed 22 Mar. 2018. —. “This is Gay Propaganda: LGBT Rights and the War in Ukraine.” Film synopsis. Canada, 2015. —, dir. This is Gay Propaganda: LGBT Rights and the War in Ukraine. Canada, 2015. —. “The Three Big Leftist Myths about Ukraine and the Reasons to Remember,” Apr. 1, 2014, http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/marusya- “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 97

bociurkiw/2014/04/three-big-leftist-myths-about-ukraine-and-reasons-to- rememb. Accessed 9 Feb. 2016. Brah, Avtar, and Ann Phoenix. “Ain’t I a Woman? Revisiting Intersectionality.” Journal of International Women’s Studies, vol. 5, no. 3, 2004, pp. 75-86. Brant, Beth (Degonwadonti). “A Simple Act.” Mohawk Trail. Ithaca: Firebrand Books, 1985, pp. 87-94. Brown, Leslie, and Susan Strega, editors. Research as Resistance: Critical, Indigenous, and Anti-Oppressive Approaches. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2005. Davis, Kathy. “Intersectionality as Buzzword: A Sociology of Science Perspectives on What Makes a Feminist Theory Successful.” Feminist Theory, vol. 9, no. 1, 2008, 67-85. Dhamoon, Rita Kaur. “Considerations on Mainstreaming Intersectionality.” Political Research Quarterly, vo. 64, no. 1, 2011, 230-43. Hall, Lynda, editor. Introduction: Lesbian Loving Wor(l)ds: Communicating Acts. Lesbian Self-Writing: The Embodiment of Experience, by Hall, New York: Harrington Park Press, 2000, pp. 1-19. Hallett, Nicky. Lesbian Lives: Identity and Auto/Biography in the Twentieth Century. London: Pluto Press, 1999. Harlow, Barbara. Resistance Literature. New York: Methuen, 1987. herising, Fairn. “Interrupting Positions: Critical Thresholds and Queer Pro/Positions.” Brown and Strega, pp. 127-51. hooks, bell. “Aesthetic Inheritances. History Worked by Hand.” Yearning, pp. 115-22. —. “Choosing the Margin as a Space of Radical Opennness.” Yearning, pp. 145-53. —. “Homeplace as a Site of Resistance.” Yearning, pp. 41-49. —. Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics. Toronto: Between the Lines, 1990. Kimpson, Sally A. “Stepping off the Road: A Narrative (of) Inquiry.” Brown and Strega, pp. 73-96. Kostash, Myrna. “My Maidan.” 16 June 2014, http://rabble.ca/news/2014/06/my-maidan. Accessed 9 Feb. 2016. May, Vivian M. Pursuing Intersectionality, Unsettling Dominant Imaginaries. New York: Routledge, 2015. McCall, Leslie. “The Complexity of Intersectionality.” Signs, vol. 30, no. 3, 2005, pp. 1771-1800. Moyes, Lianne, Jennifer Henderson and Susan Holbrook. “Lesbian Literature.” The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature, edited by Eugene Benson and William Toye. 2nd ed. Toronto: Oxford UP, 1997, pp. 651-55. Munt, Sally R. “The Personal, Experience, and the Self.” Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Critical Introduction, edited by Andy Medhurst and Sally R. Munt, London: Cassell, 1997, pp. 186-97. 98 Weronika Suchacka

Perreault, Jeanne. Writing Selves: Contemporary Feminist Autography. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1995. Philip, M. Nourbese. “A Genealogy of Resistance.” A Genealogy of Resistance and Other Essays. Toronto: Mercury Press, 1997, pp. 9-30. Phoenix, Ann. “Psychosocial Intersections” Contextualising the Accounts of Adults Who Grew Up in Visibly Ethnically Different Households.” Lutz, Herrera Vivar, and Supik, pp. 137-51. Prins, Baukje. “Narrative Accounts of Origins: A Blind Spot in the Intersectional Approach?” European Journal of Women’s Studies, vol. 13, no. 3, 2006, pp. 277-90. Smith, Sidonie, and Julia Watson. Reading Autobiography: A Guide for Interpreting Life Narratives. 2nd edition. Minneapolis: U of Minneapolis P, 2010. Suchacka, Weronika. “‘The Crossing of Borders’ and Intersections: Presenting and Practising Intersectionality in Marusya Bociurkiw’s Works.” Ongoing book project. —. “Fighting for Queer and Political Freedom: Acts of Defiance in Marusya Bociurkiw’s Works.” Canada and War/Le Canada et les guerres. 7th Congress of Polish Canadianists/Le 7ème Congrès des Canadianistes Polonais. Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland. 19-21 May 2016. Presentation. —. “Intersectionality as ‘Ontological Complexity’ in Marusya Bociurkiw's Short Stories and Poems.” Perspectives on Canada: International Canadian Studies despite Harper and Trudeau. Ed. Barbara Butrymowska and Uwe Zagraztki. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovač, 2018. 147-78. —. “Queering and Politicizing Culture: Intersectionality in Canadian Lesbian Writing. Case Study: Marusya Bociurkiw’s Works.” Alfried Krupp Wissensschaftskolleg Greifswald, Germany. 8 March 2016. Fellowlecture. —. “‘[R]ecalling the absent spaces’: Ethnic Heritage and Memory in Marusya Bociurkiw’s Works.” Cultural Palimpsests: Ethnic Watermarks, Surfacing Histories. 10th Biennial MESEA Conference. University of Warsaw, Poland. 22-24 June 2016. Presentation. —. Report. Alfried Krupp Wissenschaftskolleg Bulletin. Greifswald: Alfried Krupp Wissenschaftskolleg, 2015. —. “Those Silent, Unspoken Identities”: Ancestral Legacy and Queer Identity in Marusya Bociurkiw’s Works.” Alfried Krupp Wissensschaftskolleg Greifswald, Germany. 24 Nov. 2014. Fellowlecture. —. “‘Za Hranetsiu’ – ‘Beyond the Border’: Constructions of Identities in Ukrainian-Canadian Literature.” Diss. Greifswald University, 2011. Greifswald University Library, 2012, http://ub-ed.ub.uni- greifswald.de/opus/volltexte/2012/1271/. Accessed 30 June 2017. Thomas, Robina Anne (Qwul’sih’yah’maht). “Honouring the Oral Traditions of My Ancestors Through Storytelling.” Brown and Strega, pp. 237-54. “The Crossing of Borders” and intersections … 99

Taylor, Yvette, Sally Hines, and Mark Casey. Introduction. Theorizing Intersectionality and Sexuality, edited by Taylor, Hines, and Casey, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, pp. 1-12. Valentine, Gill. “Theorizing and Researching Intersectionality: A Challenge for Feminist Geographer.” The Professional Geographer, vol. 59, no. 1, 2007, pp. 10-21. Warner, Leah R. “A Best Practices Guide to Intersectional Approaches in Psychological Research.” Sex Roles vol. 59, 2008, pp. 454-63.

Weronika Suchacka holds an MA and a PhD from the University of Greifswald, Germany. She is a recipient of the Stiftung für Kanada-Studien Research Prize (2009), and a Junior Fellowship at the Alfried Krupp Wissenschaftskolleg Greifswald (2014-2015). In 2011, she co-founded the Szczecin Canadian Studies Group (SCSG) at the University of Szczecin, Poland, where she is currently employed as an assistant professor. She also taught classes at the University of Greifswald. Her academic interests include Canadian Studies (anglophone Canadian literature), postmodern theories of identities, Gender Studies, intersectionality, and Ukrainian-Canadian literature. Her recent publications include the foreword to Unbound: Ukrainian Canadians Writing Home (ed. by Lisa Grekul and Lindy Ledohowski; UTP, 2016), the winner of the 2018 Kobzar Literary Award. Anna Reczyńska Jagiellonian University in Cracow

BENEDYKT HEYDENKORN: LIFE HISTORY OF AN EMIGRANT WRITTEN INTO THE MULTICULTURAL CANADA

Abstract

Benedykt Heydenkorn (1905? 1906? – 1999) arrived in Canada in 1949 after traumatic war experiences. In the years 1964-1977 he worked as editor-in-chief of Związkowiec (Alliancer) – then the most popular Polish language newspaper, published in Toronto. He was also involved in the work of the Polish-Canadian Research Institute in Toronto. Heydenkorn was the author and co-author of several books devoted to the problems of the Polish ethnic group in Canada, published articles on this topic and edited consecutive volumes of Polish immigrants’ memoirs published by the Polish-Canadian Research Institute, whose active member he was himself. He got involved in various charity activities for Poland and Polish diaspora but he also supported the activities within Canadian multicultural policy. He is certainly one of the most interesting figures of the Polish ethnic group in Canada. Keywords: Benedykt Heydenkorn, Polish diaspora, Polish ethnic pres, Polish- Canadian Research Institute

Résumé

Benedykt Heydenkorn (1905? 1906? - 1999) est arrivé au Canada en 1949 après les expériences guerrières traumatiques. Dans les années 1964-1977, il a travaillé comme rédacteur en chef du journal Związkowiec (Syndicaliste) – le plus connu journal en polonais publié à Toronto. Il a été aussi associé aux travaux de l’Institut de Recherche polono-canadien de Toronto. Heydenkorn a été l’éditeur et le co-éditeur de plusieurs livres sur les problèmes du groupe ethnique de Polonais au Canada, des articles sur la même thématique et a édité plusieurs volumes CONSECUTIFS des mémoires des immigrants polonais publiés par l’institut, dont il était un membre actif. Il s’est engagé dans de diverses actions caritatives pour la Pologne et la diaspora polonaise, mais il a Benedykt Heydenkorn: life history of an emigrant written into … 101

également soutenu les activités liées à la politique multiculturelle canadienne. Il a certainement été l’une des plus intéressantes figures du groupe ethnique polonais au Canada. Mots-clés : Benedykt Heydenkorn, diaspora polonaise, presse ethnique polonaise, Institut de Recherche polono-canadien

The history of emigration from the Polish territory to Canada and of the Polish ethnic group in that country holds a special place among the many areas of interest among Canadian studies scholars in Poland. Yet, research in this area is not easy because it requires extensive knowledge of both Polish and Canadian issues. Scholars conduct their research based on knowledge of the history of both countries and their mutual relations. They also use documents and studies related to Canadian policy towards immigrants and diasporas created by them, while at the same time they show examples of this policy in practice. Difficulties in this research also result from the fact that the basic materials on the Polish ethnic group in Canada are available only in the country of settlement, that is Canada itself. Additionally, only few of them are scholarly publications or organized and developed archival collections. The existing documents are scattered, complete sets of Polish language magazines are difficult to find and the Polish diaspora’s organizations and their activists seldom attached any significance to documenting even their own activities. Descendants of Polish emigrants, often not knowing the language, seldom appreciated the already retained collections left by their parents or grandparents. It is worth reminding that the first waves of mass emigration coming from the Polish territory to Canada since mid 19th century consisted mainly of rural population, often without elementary education. That situation changed after World War Two with the arrival of Polish DPs (Poles who were forced to leave Polish territory during the war). In 1956 a group of fourteen enthusiasts deriving from that group established in Toronto the Polish Research Institute, connected with the Canadian Polish Congress (Kongres Polonii Kanadyjskiej)—an organization aspiring to represent the Polish ethnic group in Canada. The Institute, whose character was closer to a scientific society than to a research institution, in 1967 ambitiously called itself the Canadian Polish Research Institute. Its aim from the very beginning was to collect documentation connected with the history of Polish emigration to Canada, as well as the works and achievements of the Polish ethnic group in that country. The organizer and first director of the Institute was a lawyer, librarian and bibliophile Wiktor Turek, the author of several valuable publications on, among others, the first Poles arriving on the Canadian soil, on Polish settlement in Manitoba, as well as on Polish ethnic press in Canada. 102 Anna Reczyńska

The sudden death of Wiktor Turek in 1963 did not stop the activities of the Institute members. Its presidents were in turn, dr Tadeusz Krychowski (1963-1972) and Rudolf Kogler (1972 – 1995). Both of them belonged to the Second World War wave of emigration. A representative of this circle was also Benedykt Heydenkorn who, although remaining in the shadow of the above mentioned presidents, played a significant role in the Institute till the 1980s, determining the course of action of the institution and participating in the majority of its projects and undertakings. His interesting biography, exceptional personality, activities (also outside Canadian Polish Research Institute), as well as his involvement in building up new relations between the Polish diaspora and the country of origin, while at the same time putting into practice the idea of Canadian policy of multiculturalism, certainly deserve reconstruction and popularization. The aim of my article is to present this prominent figure, to show the complicated road of an emigrant who came to Canada and to present the difficulties which scholars have to face while researching the history of migration and Polish diaspora in Canada. Benedykt Heydenkorn was one of the founders and most active members of the Canadian-Polish Research Institute and, for many years, a deputy to its consecutive presidents. He was also an erudite owner of a treasure trove of documents, books and works of art. Those who knew Heydenkorn back in the 1980s consider him the then grey eminence who made almost all final decisions in the Canadian-Polish Research Institute. In Toronto, he was best known as a long-standing editor-in-chief (1964-1977) of Związkowiec (Alliancer) – a Polish language newspaper published by Związek Polaków w Kanadzie (the Polish Alliance of Canada). The paper, published twice a week, was perceived as liberal, secular and politically independent. It propagated immigrant assimilation in Canada while sustaining their connection with Polishness. This policy was consolidated by the editor of Związkowiec during his twenty-year long involvement with the paper. On numerous occasions, Heydenkorn expressed his disapproval of Poland’s instrumental policy toward the Polish diaspora, aimed either at controlling or using it in support of Polish interests. He was a critic of the stereotypes persistent in Poland of the emigrants’ wealth, enormous attachment to their homeland and the influence of the Polish community in Canada. At the same time, however, he himself got involved in charity collections for Poland, including the campaign aimed at bringing the Wawel treasures back to Poland, for which he also engaged the weekly Związkowiec. As editor, he brought up controversial topics. First of all, he called on the post-war immigrants to unpack and get actively involved in Canadian life. Starting in 1958, he visited Poland on several occasions, either as a Związkowiec correspondent or as a private person. He kept in touch with Benedykt Heydenkorn: life history of an emigrant written into … 103

Polish journalists, researchers, artists and Poland’s representatives in Canada, including the staff of the Society “Polonia” (Towarzystwo “Polonia”), which was an agenda of the Polish government at that time. This raised criticism of the Polish immigrant community, which did not acknowledge the authorities in Warsaw. It was even speculated that Heydenkorn collaborated with the communist security service. It was also used by some as an excuse for malicious comments on his Jewish origin, Jewish name and “semitic looks”. All this, combined with the editor’s independence, nonconformity, sharp tongue and his unwavering conviction of the rightness of his views led to many tensions and conflicts. In Związkowiec, Benedykt Heydenkorn published editorial commentaries, polemics, numerous articles and reviews. Undoubtedly, the credit for the increasing popularity and circulation of this paper goes mainly to Heydenkorn. With Heydenkorn as editor, Związkowiec was at its peak; it also achieved financial stability. It was published twice a week, and its weekend issues sometimes exceeded 50 pages in length. What is more, it had a lot of subscribers and regular readers, not only in Toronto (Kowalik 95). Heydenkorn raised the paper’s quality and prestige by attracting emigration writers and publicists, by publishing uncensored texts and dealing with controversial topics. He strove to adjust Związkowiec to the new conditions and needs of the new readers. It was not easy because he had to balance the costs and the opinions of the editorial board and the authorities of the Polish Alliance of Canada, whose organ the paper was. However, he managed to gradually introduce new sections and, as an experiment, one page in English. In 1977, the year Benedykt Heydenkorn retired, in the San-Francisco based Polish-language magazine Migrant Echo, an author using initials H. R. (supposedly sociologist Henry Radecki) wrote the following:

Under his expert leadership, Związkowiec become the largest circulating and the most popular publication in the Polish language in Canada, constantly maintaining high standards which Benedykt Heydenkorn set out for himself and for his co- workers. (...) Editors of ethnic press have an extremely difficult job. Severely limited by inadequate human and material resources, they are subject to demands of time, effort, and expectations.... Rewards are few; there is little financial incentive while the duties are heavy. An ethnic language newspaper editor requires many skills but especially he needs the ability to grasp and reflect the needs and interests of his very diverse reading public; wisdom to judge and deal with specific conditions and circumstances facing not only the readers but the ethnic group as a whole. Very few individuals meet these demanding requirements fully but Benedykt Heydenkorn was ideally suitable for this job. (H.R. 162)

Jerzy Giedroyć – the editor of Kultura, the leading Polish-émigré literary and political magazine published in Paris, in a tribute after Heydenkorn’s death, 104 Anna Reczyńska wrote that he had made Związkowiec the most important magazine of Polish Canadians and one of the best edited emigration periodicals (Giedroyć 133). A positive opinion from a person of such standing does not require any further recommendation. Giedroyć and Heydenkorn had known each other since the interwar period. They had been collaborating with each other in the press service of the Polish Armed Forces in Palestine and Italy. In the post-war period, Heydenkorn frequently corresponded with Giedroyć. He was helping raise funds for Instytut Literacki (The Literary Institute) directed by Giedroyć and published various texts both in Kultura and Zeszyty Historyczne. Heydenkorn’s accounts of trips to Poland, starting in 1958, proved particularly popular. Fragments of the accounts were broadcasted in Polish language programs on Radio Free Europe. Between 1972 and 1999, Heydenkorn regularly edited “Kronika kanadyjska” ("Canadian Chronicles”) for Kultura. It provided the readers with concise information about the most significant events in the Maple Leaf Country, focusing on persons and issues important for the Polish diaspora and the activities of other Candian ethnic groups. Frequently, the news was interspersed with his brief personal opinions and commentaries. This is what makes his “Canadian Chronicles” not only a valuable record of facts, but also a recorded account of the atmosphere and views of one of the most interesting Polish immigrant communities that the author was in contact with. Feature articles, polemics and reviews by Benedykt Heydenkorn were also published in Polish language magazines in Great Britain. The author himself did not collect his own texts; he did not even take down their titles. Therefore, compiling a list of his publications is virtually impossible nowadays. A few of his press publications remain, as newspaper clippings, in the collections of the Canadian-Polish Research Institute in Toronto. One of the most interesting texts is, for instance, his contributory article in the quarterly of the Polish Combatants’ Association in Canada (SPK in Canada) about the Polish II Corps of the Polish Armed Forces fighting in Italy in 1944, in which Heydenkorn commented on the report of the command of the 8th (Kresy) Infantry Division and included copies of two (probably original) appendices with the ethnic makeup of this troop. (Heydenkorn, “Fałaszywy...” 11-12). Unfortunately, the publication is lacking information on the origins or the storage place of the reproduced documents. Another important publication by B. Heydenkorn is a feature article about the press in the II Corps, published in two parts in the London magazine Tydzień Polski (Polish Week) in 1971. The information it contains makes it a text of great historic value. It also includes a great deal of Heydenkorn’s personal memories, which is rather unusual for his writings (Heydenkorn, “Służba...”). The author worked in the press service of the Polish troops formed in the Soviet Union. He evacuated with them – first to the Middle Benedykt Heydenkorn: life history of an emigrant written into … 105

East and then to Italy. Thus, he was a direct history witness who registered many interesting and little known facts about the Polish troops and the mood among them. He was severely critical of the highest command, noting, for instance, General Władysław Sikorski’s vanity and General Władysław Anders’s ambitions. Nevertheless, he emphasized that the latter was an immense authority figure for common soldiers (Heydenkorn, “Małe...”). Before the war, Heydenkorn symphatized with Józef Piłsudski’s supporters. After the end of the war, he worked in journalism, both in England and Canada, for newspapers of different orientation; yet, he was not involved in any political activity or organizations. Nevertheless, he was always following current developments, mainly in Canada and Poland, but also in the world. He was also interested in issues concerning the Polish and Ukrainian diaspora and current Soviet politics. In Heydenkorn’s preserved letters, one can find many tidbits and a great deal of information, which shows his multifaceted interests. In his letter to Jerzy Giedroyć from January 1980, he wrote the following, quoting a confidential source: “The Chinese maintain that Breżniew’s [Leonid Brezhniev] condition got much better, that he was healed with some injections. In their view, the politburo clique backed up by the army forced Breżniew [Brezhniev] to agree to the invasion of Afghanistan, which, according to the Chinese, was a huge mistake” (NAC, MG 31, D237, vol. 3). In the 1980s, Heydenkorn was engaged in fund raisers for the Polish underground and helped with tranferring the funds to Europe (NAC, MG 31, D237, vol. 5). However, he always remained a critical observer and distanced himself from the events in Poland and in the Polish immigrant community. A fragment of his letter from 1994 about Lech Wałęsa’s and other politicians’ visits to Toronto illustrates this stance very well:

I haven’t been to any of the meetings with President Wałęsa. Although I was invited, I avoid public events ... He wasn’t too successful: I think that the organization of the congress was not so much bad as it was wrong – but the damage was done. There is no shortage of visits of other well-known figures from Poland: we already had prime ministers [sic!], ministers and Kuroń will join this group in the forthcoming week.” (Heydenkorn B., 10. 10. 1994)

Heydenkorn knew personally and kept in touch with many people who have their place in Polish history. Apart from the already mentioned General Anders and editor Jerzy Giedroyć, among the names there were also: Walery Sławek, Melchior Wańkowicz and Tadeusz Romer. Haydenkorn corresponded with them and interviewed them. Among his committed friends, he was known as “Bumek”. There were, however, people around him who treated him with reserve and criticized some of his statements, publications as well as authoritarian attitude. He himself could be critical of people, especially those 106 Anna Reczyńska who he was not fond of. In the last decades of his life, he could be stubborn or even scathing. However, he always successfully achieved the goals that he set for himself. Alongside his many journalistic duties, Benedykt Heydenkorn was involved in the work of the Polish-Canadian Research Institute, mainly in editing. He siginificantly contributed to the publication in Toronto in 1973 of an English translation of Melchior Wańkowicz’s Tworzywo. The book was published under the title Three Generations. Heydenkorn's next achievement – together with professor William Ross – was the preparation for print and posthumous publication of a most valuable monograph Poles in Manitoba by Wiktor Turek (1976). Between the 1970s and 1990s, Heydenkorn prepared for print and edited 7 books in a series published by the Institute. Most of them were joint publications (with Rudolf Kogler, Ewa Morawska or Edward Sołtys), edited or co-edited by Heydenkorn and with his introduction. Many of these also contained articles or sketches (or, occasionally, even more texts) by Heydenkorn. They were devoted to various aspects of Canadian multiculturalism, the history and current affairs of the Polish ethnic group. A part of these texts comprises sociological analyses, another part is journalistic. Not all fulfill the formal criteria of an academic study. Nevertheless, Heydenkorn frequently quoted extensive fragments of formerly unknown or unique documents and gave his own interpretation and opinions about the events in which he himself participated or which he witnessed. Thus, many of his articles are, additionally, valuable source materials. This especially concerns the studies devoted to the Polish language press published in Canada: Związkowiec and Gazeta Katolicka, and publications about Poles and Polish ethnic organizations in Canada (Heydenkorn, “Polacy...”). For the purpose of many of his works, B. Heydenkorn conducted research in the archives and often published fragments of the documents found there. He concentrated on conclusions. Being used to a journalistic style, he usually did not attach significance to research methodology, footnotes or references. In view of the contemporary requirements, it is a major disadvantage. However, it does not undermine the value of his publications. Considering the lack of other monographs and materials, or unavailability of archive records, they become valuable collections of documents. Moreover, they are certainly source materials for analyses of the views and opinions held by the author himself. Some people maintain that Heydenkorn monopolized the editing process in the Institute. Yet, it is worth remembering that, for many years, he could not count on co-workers with sufficient knowledge and qualifications. Therefore, he probably got used to working on his own. Unfortunately, he did not manage to raise his successors, having set very high standards for any potential candidate. Heydenkorn's editorial work, called by one of his friends Benedykt Heydenkorn: life history of an emigrant written into … 107 painstaking, can be appreciated only by those who themselves have experience of editing manuscripts. Benedykt Heydenkorn was also the author of an entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia from 1985 on the Polish ethnic group. One of the fundamental historiography books about the Polish diaspora in Canada entitled A Member of Distinguished Family. The Polish Group in Canada (1976, edited also in French) was written by B. Heydenkorn together with the professor of sociology Henry Radecki. It was published in the series “History of Canada's Peoples” devoted to different ethnic groups in the Dominion of Canada. Today, due to the passage of time, this work requires a revision. It is, however, still cited as one of the most significant titles on the subject. Regrettably, studies of processes contemporarily taking place within the Polish ethnic group are not conducted. For researchers of migration issues, the successively published volumes of diaries of Polish immigrants who arrived in Canada during different periods, also edited by Benedykt Heydenkorn and published by the Canadian-Polish Research Institute, are of particular value. They were the product of several contests. The first two contests–held in 1956 and 1966–were organized by the editorial staff of Heydenkorn’s Związkowiec. The later ones–announced in 1971, 1981 and 1989–were held by the Canadian-Polish Research Institute, but Benedykt Heydenkorn was in charge of editing and publishing of the collected texts. His work resulted in five volumes of memoirs published in Polish (Pamiętniki vol. 1-3, “ale i słaby...”, Zawiedzeni) and a selection of 11 texts from the first three volumes translated into English (Memoirs). I had a chance to get to know Benedykt Heydenkorn personally. We conducted many conversations and discussions both in Kraków and Toronto. We also exchanged correspondence for many years. In the 1990s, when he was nearly 90 years old and still very active, some of his letters started with the repeated preamble: “I am still alive, but you can prepare an obituary for print” (Heydenkorn B., 25. 02. 1994). I was, at that time, obligated by Benedykt Heydenkorn himself to write the summary of his achievements. However, he himself did not facilitate this task for me. He edited five volumes of immigrants’ diaries, but he never wrote down his own memories. He rarely gave interviews and did not like to talk about himself. A part of his resumé, especially that related to Poland, is full of mysteries and inconsistencies. Heydenkorn died in Toronto on October 10, 1999. Apparently, he was 94 years old, although even in Kultura and his own publications, different dates of his birth were given. Most frequently, they implied that he was a year younger. In his lifetime, he responded to questions about his date of birth by saying that he did not know it, because all his documents had been confiscated and destroyed by the Soviets back in 1939. According to the tribute 108 Anna Reczyńska written by his friend – the poet Florian Śmieja, Heydenkorn was born in the village of Stara Bircza near Przemyśl (then Austro Hungarian Empire) in the year 1906. In conversations, Heydenkorn would occasionally say that he had no recollections of his father and had lost his mother too early. At the age of 5, he had been put under his relatives’ care in Lviv, which he recollected as “hard times”. He graduated from a public school in Lviv and, later, in the free Poland – from a humanist middle school, where he acquired the foundations of philosophy and a good knowledge of foreign languages, including German. There he also attended open lectures organized in the Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich (Ossolinem). After his final “matura” exams in 1926, he became an enrolled student of law at the University of Warsaw (AUW). On a sleeve of one of Heydenkorn's books, however, there is a note saying that he graduated in philosophy from the University of Warsaw (Heydenkorn, Związkowiec). It can be assumed that this information was approved by the author. The year 1906, as Benedykt Heydenkorn’s birth date, as well as the information about his graduating in sociology, was also repeated by Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Bohem in an edition of letters exchanged between Jerzy Giedroyć and Melchior Wańkowicz. It is quite interesting since Ziółkowska, Wańkowicz’s secretary of many years, knew the editor of Związkowiec very well (Jerzy Giedroyć 386; Kowalik 94-98). On the other hand, the documents from the Warsaw University archives show that Heydenkorn enrolled in the Department of Law. His personally written resumé gives the date of birth as July 24, 1905 (thus a year earlier than previously given). There is no doubt that the person in the accompanying pictures is the one we are interested in, despite spectacles and the signature “Baruch Heidenkorn” (with “i” instead of “y” in the surname) (AUW). On the form of exam fees from 1927, with Heydenkorn’s surname, in addition to the name Baruch, the name Benedykt is given in parentheses. The young student sent reports from the capital city to Lviv newspapers (Dziennik Lwowski and Epoka) in order to pay for his tuition and accommodation in Warsaw. His writing and his studies were however disrupted in 1928 due to health problems. The following year, he resumed his university education in the Department of Arts, which he continued until 1930, when he ultimately gave up his studies (WUA) for journalism. Since 1929, he worked for the Warsaw bureau of Berliner Tageblatt, and since 1933 he was also a political- parliamentary reporter for the French agency HAVAS, which allowed him to gain membership in Klub Sprawozdawców Parlamentarnych (Parliament Reporters’ Club) and to make frequent business trips to France. In Warsaw, Heydenkorn also sat on the editorial board of Ostatnie Wiadomości (Breaking News) and was a co-worker in some papers ideologically close to the proponents of Józef Piłsudski. He occasionally published in the weekly Epoka Benedykt Heydenkorn: life history of an emigrant written into … 109

(Epoch) and the cultural-literary monthly Droga (The Way), Scena Polska (Polish Stage) and Kronika Polski i Świata (The Chronicle of Poland and the World). He also had close contact with the milieu of Bunt Młodych (The Rebellion of the Young) (Śmieja), the newspaper edited by Jerzy Giedroyć. In Warsaw, Heydenkorn was friends with the writer and literary critic Karol Irzykowski and stayed in touch with activists and publicists from the circle of Lviv conservatists (Wardzała 33-36). Fragments of Heyenkorn’s articles printed after the war in the emigration press in London allow us to assume that his contacts with German journalists were, in the 1930s, used by the Polish military intelligence (II Unit of the General Staff of the Polish Army) (Wardzała 35). The period of World War II remains shrouded in mystery in Heydenkorn’s resumé. As Śmieja says, he got out of besieged Warsaw on September 17, 1939 and was arrested by the Soviet Secret Police (NKWD) while heading south-east. He was allegedly imprisoned in the territory of Poland and then in labour camps in Voronezh and Dnipropetrovsk (today Dnipro). It is worth noticing that Voronezh and Dnipropetrovsk are large cities in Western Ukraine and they were not listed as Soviet labour camps. Surprisingly, Heydenkorn is completely silent on the period of his captivity in Soviet camps, which is uncharacteristic of a person exiled during the WWII to the Russian interior. In the entire volume of information on Heydenkorn, his stay in the USSR is summed up by only a short note, which reads that he was released on the strength of the Sikorski- Majski agreement and joined the Polish Army with which he marched, through Iran and Iraq, to Palestine. Then, with the II Corps, he took part in the Italian campaign (H.R. 162); he, however, was not a front-line soldier, but worked for the staff. In the Soviet Union, and then in Baghdad, Palestine and Italy, he maintained a radio watch, prepared reports for the command and co- edited an information bulletin (Heydenkorn, “Służba...” 4). After the end of World War II, he stayed in Florence until 1946, from where he was transferred to England. In London, he collaborated with the press addressed to the demobilized Polish soldiers; he also got closer to the Polish socialists’ milieu (Kowalik 94-98; Wardzała 43). In 1949, Heydenkorn, accompanied by his wife Anna (Ziółkowska 7) left for Canada. Initially, he worked physically on a friends’ farm, and then became an employee of the Polish-Canadian Congress office in Hamilton for two years. Subsequently, he worked in Toronto: first (between 1952 and 1956), in the editorial office of the pro-London Catholic weekly Głos Polski- Gazeta Polska (Polish Voice – Polish Newspaper), and since 1957, in Związkowiec, where he was the editor-in-chief between 1964 and 1977. Heydenkorn retired in 1977 – before the period of decisive changes in Poland, which were also important for the Polish community in Canada. He left the 110 Anna Reczyńska paper in a good condition and for many years to come he remained its contributor, despite his growing reserve toward his successors. While writing articles, reports and reviews for Związkowiec, Benedykt Heydenkorn was, in his own way, involved in actions of the Polish community in Toronto. Although he did not perform any official roles, through his contacts and persuasion abilities, he influenced many decisions, especially those made by the combatants of World War II, who prevailed among the Polish immigrants in Toronto during the 1960s and 1970s. He was the driving force behind some actions of the Polish diaspora. He belonged to the circle of informal co-workers of Canadian-Polish envoys, including: Stanley Hajdasz (first Minister of State for Multiculturalism, and Senator from 1978) and Jesee Flis (Member of Parliament). Apart from all the activities and duties mentioned so far, in the mid 1970s, the retired Benedykt Heydenkorn did voluntary work for the Multicultural History Society of Ontario, established in Toronto in the wake of Canadian policy of multiculturalism. He was involved in collections and filed materials related to the Polish ethnic group. He also co-edited the Society’s Bulletin (Poliphony. The Bulletin of the Multicultural History Society of Ontario), the issues of which were thematic monographs of the ethnic history of provinces. An undisputed credit goes to Heydenkorn for the compilation of interesting texts by several authors for the 1984 well-documented issue of Poliphony (over 130 pages of the large format), entirely devoted to the Polish community in Ontario (Poliphony) Moreover, Heydenkorn participated, for many years, in the work of Canada Ethnic Press Federation. Benedykt Heydenkorn’s achievements would suffice to fill up several resumés. The presentation and assessment of his incredible activity is not easy. It is beyond doubt, however, that he was one of the most significant and interesting figures in the history of the Polish diaspora in Canada and the Canadian-Polish Research Institute.

Work Cited

"ale i słaby nie zginie”. Różne oblicza Kanady. Pamiętniki imigrantów polskich 1981-1989. Edited by Benedykt Heydenkorn, Toronto, 1990. AUW (Archiwum Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego), file Heidenkorn Baruch, RP 24233. “Benedykt Heydenkorn. Biografia,” www.kulturaparyska.com/pl/ludzie/alfabet/h/benedykt_heydenkorn. Accessed 8 March 2017. Giedroyć, Jerzy. “Śmierć Przyjaciela – Benedykt Heydenkorn”. Kultura (Paris), 1999, no.11/626, p. 133. H.R., “Benedykt Heydenkorn”, Migrant Echo, vol. 6, no. 3, September- December 1977, p. 162. Benedykt Heydenkorn: life history of an emigrant written into … 111

Heydenkorn Benedykt letter to A. Reczyńska, Toronto 10.10.1994, author's collection. —. letter to A. Reczyńska, Toronto 25. 02.1994, author's collection. —. “Fałaszywy Start”. SPK w Kanadzie, no.3, lipiec 1988, pp. 11-13. —. “Małe poprawki do wielkiej historii”, Tydzień Polski, 09.10.1971, p. 3. —. Organizational Structure of the Polish Canadian Community. The Federation of Polish Societies in Canada, Toronto, 1979. —. “Polacy w kulturze kanadyjskiej”. Tematy (Nowy Jork – Londyn), no. 31- 32, jesień-zima 1969, pp. 463-472. —. “Proletaryzacja inteligencji zawodowej”, Droga, no.1, 1930, p. 67. —. Rodowód i pierwszy okres Kongresu Polonii Kanadyjskiej, Toronto, 1995. —. “Służba prasowa w 2 Korpusie Garść wspomnień”, Tydzień Polski 4.12.1971, p. 3; part II, “Tydzień Polski” 11.12.1971, p. 4. —. Związkowiec. Monografia pisma polonijnego. Toronto, 1963. Jerzy Giedroyć – Merchior Wańkowicz. Listy 1945-1963. Edited by A. Ziółkowska-Bochem, Warszawa, 2000. Kowalik, Jan. “Benedykt Heydenkorn”, Kultura (Paris) 1977, no. 10/361, pp. 94-98. Memoirs of Polish Immigrants in Canada. Edited by Benedykt Heydenkorn, Toronto, 1979. NAC (National Archives Canada), MG 31, D237, Heydenkorn, Benedykt, vol. 3, file 7, Heydenkorn B. letter to J. Giedroyć, Toronto 10.01.1980. NAC (National Archives Canada), MG 31, D237, Heydenkorn, Benedykt, vol. 5, file 1-7, Polish National Fund – Committee. Pamiętniki Imigrantów polskich w Kanadzie. Wybór pamiętników nadesłanych na konkurs Kanadyjsko-Polskiego Instytutu Badawczego w 1972r. Edited by Benedykt Heydenkorn. Toronto, 1975. Pamiętniki Imigrantów polskich w Kanadzie, vol. 2. Edited by Benedykt Heydenkorn, Toronto, 1977. Pamiętniki Imigrantów polskich w Kanadzie, vol. 3. Edited by Benedykt Heydenkorn. Toronto, 1979. Poliphony. The Biulletin of the Multicultural History Society of Ontario. Poles in Ontario, vol. 6, no.2, Fall/Winter 1984. Radecki, Henry and Benedykt Heydenkorn. A Member of Distinguished Family. The Polish Group in Canada. McClelland and Stewart, 1976. Śmieja, Florian. “Swoje jednak trzeba robić: Benedykt Heydenkorn (1906- 1999)”. Archiwum Emigracji: studia, szkice, dokumenty, vol. 3, 2000, pp. 241- 247. The Canadian Polish Research Institute. “History,” http://www.canadianpolishinstitute.org/history/index.html. Accessed 8 June 2017. Turek, Wiktor. Poles in Manitoba, McClelland and Stewart, 1976. Wańkowicz, Melchior. Three Generations, Toronto, 1973. 112 Anna Reczyńska

Wardzała, Marcin. O emigracji, Kanadzie i Polsce: Benedykt Heydenkorn jako korespondent i współpracownik paryskiej “Kultury”, BA thesis submitted at the Institute of American Studies and Polish Diaspora, Jagiellonian University, Kraków 2007. Zawiedzeni, rozczarowani, zadowoleni. Pamiętniki Imigrantów 1958-1981. Toronto, 1984. Ziółkowska, Aleksandra. Korzenie są polskie. Warszawa, 1992.

Anna Reczyńska is a historian and the chairperson of Canadian Studies, Institute of American Studies and Polish Diaspora, at Jagiellonian University in Cracow, Poland. Her research and teaching concentrates on the history of Polish migrations, the ethnic history of Canada, especially the past of the Polish diaspora, and the history of ethnic relations in the Roman Catholic Church in Canada. She is the author of more than 50 scholarly publications, among them 3 book monographs: Emigracja z Polski do Kanady w okresie międzywojennym (Wrocław 1986), Piętno wojny. Polonia kanadyjska wobec polskich problemów lat 1939-1945, (Kraków 1997), as well as Braterstwo a bagaż narodowy. Relacje etniczne w kościele katolickim na ziemiach kanadyjskich do I wojny światowej (Kraków 2013). Marta Kijewska-Trembecka Jagiellonian University in Cracow

PORTUGUESE DIASPORA. THE PORTUGUESE EMIGRATION TO CANADA: FROM THE SEA TO THE CITY1

Abstract

Despite the early contacts of the Portuguese with the eastern coasts of today's Canada and despite centuries-old migrant traditions, the Portuguese began to emigrate to Canada relatively recently. The article constitutes a review of the immigration from Portugal to Canada. Keywords: immigration, Portuguese diaspora, Portuguese in Canada

Résumé

Bien qu’il y ait des premiers contacts des Portugais avec la côte est du Canada d’aujourd’hui et qu’il existe des traditions de migration séculaires, les Portugais ont commencé à émigrer au Canada assez récemment. L’article présente un panorama de l’immigration du Portugal vers le Canada. Mots-clés : immigration, diaspora portugaise, Portugais au Canada

The Portuguese in the world

The Portuguese are undoubtedly the greatest explorers and travelers in history, patrons of expeditions, like Dom Henrique o Navegador and intrepid sailors such as: Bartolomeo Diaz, Gaspar Corte-Real, Fernando Magellan and the most important for the Portuguese – Vasco da Gama. From the 15th to the 17th century, they prevailed on the oceans of the world, and when one looks

1 Fragment of the title taken from Teixeira and Rosa 2000. 114 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka at a map of Portuguese discoveries, even at the one on the floor of the Torre de Belém in Lisbon, from where they sailed out centuries ago, it can be clearly seen that the Portuguese were the first to reach almost all corners of the world. But being a small country, Portugal quickly lost its struggle for influence in most newly discovered areas to much stronger powers in Europe and at sea: Spain, England or France. Portuguese sailors were also fishermen who, in search of fisheries, penetrated almost the entire North Atlantic, until they reached its west coasts. Many scholars think that, although not all agree with it completely2, the Lusitanians3 reached the coasts of present-day Newfoundland as early as in the Middle Ages, and that they certainly were there in the second half of the 15th century, catching whales and cod in the rich fisheries called Grand Banks (Oliveira Marques 1: 138-139, 205-206; Marques da Silva 130-144). At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese sailing ships reached the shores of today's Brazil4, which for over three centuries served as a pearl in the crown of Portuguese overseas possessions and attracted waves of emigrants flowing from Portugal for several centuries5. As early as in the 16th century, around 3,000 people traveled to Brazil annually; in the 1670s, over 50,000 immigrants from Portugal lived there, and almost 200,000 at the beginning of the 17th century. Another large wave of emigrants arrived in Brazil in the second half of the 19th century, when large plantations of Brazilian coffee and cotton developed and, under the so-called The Golden Law or Lei Aurea, in 1888, slavery was definitely abolished. According to

2 This was discussed, among others, at the conference Heritages and Memories from the Sea in Evora, in January 2015; the conference presentations were published in Themudo Barata and Magalhaes Rocha. 3 Lusitanians, or Portuguese, the descendants of the legendary Lusus, sailors and great explorers, kings and knights spreading the Christian faith. They are the protagonists of the most important Portuguese epic Os Lusĭadas by Luís Vaz de Camões, published in 1572, based on Vasco da Gama’s expedition to India, 1497-99. Lusitania is Portugal. 4 Brazil was officially discovered in 1500 by Pedro Alvares Cabrala but, according to historians, the Portuguese had known about its existence and simply bluffed, thanks to which the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 set the line dividing the areas of discovery and exploration of new lands between Castile and Portugal along the meridian which located 1184 miles away from Cape Verde, not 320 miles as Castile sought with Pope Alexander VI (Hermano Saraiva 200-207). 5 Brazil was so important for Lisbon that during the period of the Napoleonic crisis in Europe, in the first decades of the 19th century, the entire Portuguese royal court, most of the aristocracy, higher ministry officials, and de facto all others who could, about 10,000 people altogether, went to Brazil in 1808 and for 13 years there they tried to build a new empire. Rio was then the capital of Portugal (Oliveira Marques 1987 2: 80-87). Portuguese Diaspora 115

Adam Walaszek, between 1888 and 1939, about 1.1 million Portuguese people left for Brazil, of which almost 400,000 in the years 1880-1900 alone. The Portuguese went there to work, often having only seasonal jobs – those who left early in autumn returned most frequently in May (243-244). Brazil has always been the target of the largest Portuguese migrations outside Europe (Rocha-Trindade 20-22; Pietschmann). Not only Brazil, but almost every discovery of new lands resulted in migrations to the new place. Constructions of forts, its defense, administration, development of trade, which was the main form of relations between the metropolis and the colonies, favored numerous settlements. The Portuguese, therefore, not only sailed to discover, but they also traveled a lot to settle, or just temporarily live, in new places on different continents. The main purpose of the 15th-century Portuguese expeditions was to find a sea route to India, but before Vasco da Gama achieved that goal during his expedition of 1497-99, others, somehow on their way to other places, had discovered further lands. The discovery of the islands in the Atlantic: Madeira, the Azores, Cabo Verde, São Tomé e Príncipe, and reaching the territories of present-day Angola and Mozambique had far-reaching consequences for Portugal6 (Oliveira Marques 1: 88-97; Rocha-Trindade 21- 22). Lusitanians settled there and remained forever. Angola, Mozambique, São Tomé e Príncipe and Cabo Verde gained independence from the metropolis only in the mid-1970s, and Madeira and the Azores are now autonomous regions within Portugal. However, the Portuguese left not only for their colonies or former colonies. Portugal was never a prosperous country for the majority of its inhabitants. "Hunger, poverty, life's oppression and constant uncertainty in life" pushed them to leave. Looking for a better life, they emigrated "for bread" anywhere they hoped they could find a better life. For over a hundred years, from the end of the 19th century to the 1990s, about 4 million people left Portugal (Teixeira and Rosa, „Historical and Geographical” 4). One should remember the size of Portuguese society. At the beginning of the 20th century, Portugal had about 6 million inhabitants; in the 1930s, it was less than 7 million people, in 1950 – 8.5 million, in 1960 – 8.9 million, 1970 – 8.6 million, 1980 – 9.8 and, in 2001, 10.3 million people lived in Portugal (Instituto; Oliveira Marques 2: 246, 259-260). The two largest emigration waves took place in the years 1911-1913 and from 1953 until the mid-1970s.

6 Discoveries: Madeira – 1418, the Azores – 1427; Cape Verde – 1462, São Tomé e Príncipe – 1471, Angola – 1483. Angola in the 16th century, but especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, was the basic "supplier" of slaves to Brazil, but also to North America; at the end of the 17th century it was about 7.5 thousand people a year, and a hundred years later, twice as many. 116 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka

In the first period, only in those three years, over 225,000 people left Portugal, i.e. about 3.5% of the total population of the country; they went mainly to Brazil. The second big wave, from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, was even greater. In the 1950s, about 30,000 people left each year, and starting from the early 1960s – even more: in 1965 alone – 89,000, in the following year – 120,000, and in 1967 – 95,000. In total, over 1.5 million people emigrated from Portugal in that period, one sixth of the country's population. They traveled across the ocean to Brazil, the USA and Canada, but above all, they emigrated to European countries. More than 1 million people went to France and Germany. The emigration was openly supported by the Salazar regime (Oliveira Marques 2: 360; Rocha-Trindade 26-27). Emigration from Portugal has one more important dimension, namely it differs depending on the region it comes from. Portugal consists of the so- called continental part and islands. Today, the islands are the Azores and Madeira, but until the 1970s, it was also Cabo Verde, which belonged to Portugal from 1462 to 1975, and São Tomé e Príncipe, 1522-1975. Since the end of the 19th century, the islands have shifted from the immigrant to emigrant societies. In the 20th century, the inhabitants of Madeira and Cabo Verde emigrated primarily to Brazil and Portuguese colonies in Africa – Angola, Mozambique and to work in South African mines. But in the last decade of the 19th century, several thousand left Madeira for the Sandwich Islands, today Hawaii. Interestingly, the first emigrants from the very poor central Portuguese province of Alentejo followed them. As a result of the drought, which further aggravated the state of agriculture in this province, in the years 1910-1911 about a thousand farmers decided to leave Alentejo. It should be remembered that the poorest did not go on such a journey (Rocha- Trindade 21, 37). In the mid-20th century, from Madeira and the north-west of mainland Portugal, from Aveiro, many emigrated to Venezuela. On the other hand, emigrants from the Azores traditionally went mainly to North America, preferably to the USA. At the end of the 19th century, Azoreans left usually as fishermen and sailors, but when they settled, they worked in mines or shipyards, in railway construction or on farms. In California, they were recruited for whaling and working on farms in the fertile Californian valleys. For the Portuguese, emigration to the USA, but also to Canada, was not easy not only for financial and logistical reasons, but also because of other important causes. For a long time, almost until the 1950s, the Lusitanians were not considered purely white, but rather an intermediate race, being somewhere between whites and colored people; they were also called oil- Portuguese Diaspora 117 skinned and thus subject to entry restrictions to both Canada and the US7. In the 1960s, the Portuguese, in particular the Azoreans, found it easier to settle in the US under the Azorean Refugee Act, enacted in 1958. This law was adopted on the initiative of the Senator of Massachusetts, J. F. Kennedy, after the explosion of the volcano Capelinhos on the Azorean island of Faial, which was active in 1957-58. In the early 1960s, around 10,000 to 12,000 Portuguese people left for America, most of them from the Azores. Later, the annual average was 2,000 to 3,000 people. The law certainly made the emigration to the USA easier for Azoreans (Rocha-Trindade 24-25). Emigration to European countries was chosen primarily by the inhabitants of mainland Portugal, often from metropolitan areas – Lisbon and Porto. Starting from the 1960s, Western Europe was "hungry for unskilled laborers" (Rocha-Trindade 27). The Portuguese left primarily for France, Germany, the British Isles, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Belgium. Much changed in Portuguese migrations throughout Europe when in 1986 Portugal joined the European Union (then the EEC). Since then, the Portuguese in the EU, from economic emigrants have transformed to residents. Until the end of the 20th century, most of the Portuguese chose to emigrate to France – in the 1990s. over a million of them lived there, followed by Germany with over 100,000 Portuguese emigrants (Rocha-Trindade 26-29). An interesting example is Luxemburg. In the country having, in 2007, around 550,000 inhabitants, the Portuguese Diaspora accounted for almost 15% of its population, i.e. about 70,000 people, constituting more than 30% of Luxembourg workforce (Statistics Portal). It can be said that it is the largest concentration of Portuguese people outside of Portugal. According to Portuguese statistics, in 2007, almost 5 million Portuguese lived out of the mother country. The largest number lived in the Americas – 2.8 million: in the US – over 1.3 million, in Brazil – about 700,000, in Venezuela – almost 400,000. In Europe, the Portuguese Diaspora, in 2007, counted almost 1.6 million people: the highest in France – about 800,000, followed by the UK – almost 250,000, Switzerland – over 180,000 and Germany – 115,000. Over 375,000 lived in Africa in former colonies: in Mozambique – 13,000, in Angola – almost 45,000. Most resided in South Africa, however – almost 300,000 people (República). They are, first of all, those who after the Portuguese colonies in Africa gained independence did not go to Portugal, but moved to the then still apartheid white South Africa. Many went there to "wait the time of confusion" in the colonies, but they stayed for many years.

7 An excellent analysis of the racist approach of the Anglo-Saxon world towards the Portuguese can be found in Harney. 118 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka

It should be emphasized that in the case of the Portuguese people, especially when they were traveling outside Europe, it was almost always a family, neighborhood, even regional emigration. To a lesser extent this concerned Portuguese migrations in Europe. In the 1970s, Portugal, apart from many other problems unsolved, had to cope with the wave of return migrations. After the fall of the Salazar dictatorship, Portugal accepted hundreds of thousands of compatriots returning from the colonies. It was not easy for a very poor country Portugal was at the time. Official figures say about at least 500,000 people, and according to unofficial numbers, including illegal arrivals it was almost 800,000, returned, which accounted for almost 8% of the population of Portugal. Over 60% of them came from Angola, another 33% from Mozambique, the rest from other colonies which won independence from Lisbon. Returnees were a huge problem for the newly rebuilt republic. The country was unable to provide them with decent conditions, which is why only a part of the returnees stayed in Portugal and a significant percentage moved elsewhere, right away or within a few years (Rocha-Trindade 30-32). Thanks to internal reforms and EU funds, at the end of the 20th century, the standard of living of the average citizen in Portugal significantly increased. In the first years of the 21st century, immigrants started to arrive, especially from the Lusophone countries. According to the Portuguese statistics, in 2006, almost 440,000 foreigners lived in Portugal: 32% of them came from former Portuguese colonies in Africa, including over 65,000 from Cabo Verde. Another 15% were Brazilians, about 65,000, and besides those who were legally staying, over 40,000 Brazilians entered Portugal illegally (Rocha-Trindade 32-33) Over the last two decades, Portugal has also become the target of migration from various EU countries, including the so-called old EU states: the UK, Germany, France, Spain; as well as from new member countries, mainly from Romania. Also, Americans are quite willing to settle in Portugal. The Polish Diaspora in this country is small, less than 1,500 people. In total, people from the above-mentioned countries make up over 20% of all foreigners living in Portugal. The new trend is the arrival of immigrants from Moldova, Russia and especially from Ukraine, who constitute another 10% of all immigrants to Portugal (Rocha-Trindade 33-34; Polonia). The 2008 crisis, which affected the Portuguese economy very drastically, in particular young people, among whom unemployment reached over 40%, triggered the most recent wave of emigration from Portugal. According to the Emigration Observatory – OEm Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa (ICS-UL), in 2008-2015, almost 2 million, mainly young people, a fifth of the country's population, left Portugal. They went to other EU Portuguese Diaspora 119 countries – Great Britain, Germany, France, but also to the USA and, for example, Mozambique, where economy was developing well and educated specialists were on demand. In 2007, around 4,200 Portuguese lived in Mozambique, while in 2013 – over 24,000 (ISCTE; Observatório).

Canada – old contacts, new emigration

As mentioned above, Portuguese contacts with what today is Canada can be traced back to the 15th and 16th centuries, although some believe that the Portuguese had reached the coasts of the present Newfoundland and Labrador as early as in the 13th and 14th centuries and, together with Basque fishermen, they were fishing cod in the waters of Grand Banks (Themudo Barata and Rocha). In the expedition of John Cabot to the New World in 1497, a navigator Joao Fernandes, called the lavrador, took part. He is the first Portuguese whose presence in the New World is documented. He came from Terceira in the Azores. The geographical name “Labrador” originates from his nickname (Rayburn 88). In the years 1500-1501, subsequent expeditions sent by Manuel I, King of Portugal, and commanded by Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel, reached Greenland and further the east coast of present Canada. In St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland, stands the monument dedicated to Gaspar Corte- Real (Yelp). Many names on Canadian east coast have Portuguese sources, though today they are often used in their anglicized versions, such as Cabo de Sao Jorge (Cape St. George), Ilha Roxa (Red Island) or Cabo Raso (Cape Raso). Also, the name Newfoundland (Terra Nova) is attributed to the Portuguese explorers (Teixeira and Rosa 6; Oliveira Marques 1: 138; Canadian Family 180-181). There is evidence that in the 16th century Portuguese fishermen, mainly Azoreans, were fishing at Grand Banks. As Oliveira Marques writes, it was regular fishing, "fleets were organized, customs and regulations for cod trade were established" (1: 258). The Portuguese were present, with some intervals resulting primarily from political reasons, in the Grand Banks fisheries up to the 1970s (Doel, Andrieux and Collins 44-80; Marques da Silva 130-143). Despite the early contacts of the Portuguese with the eastern coasts of today's Canada and despite centuries-old migrant traditions, the Portuguese began to emigrate to Canada relatively recently. Some reasons for this have already been mentioned above. In addition, Canadian policy for a long time successfully hampered the Portuguese settlement in Canada. According to immigration regulations, which were officially in force until 1967, only white 120 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka residents of Europe and Americans could emigrate to Canada. Potential immigrants were divided into three groups: desired, preferred and not preferred but accepted. The Portuguese were in none of these categories. However, in practice immigrants also came to Canada from countries not included in the official regulations. They arrived mainly because of the regulations adopted in the 1950s, which introduced various forms of sponsoring and, later, family reunification, that was used by the Portuguese alongside various illegal methods. Only the change of Canadian immigration rules and the adoption of the so-called point system, which came into force in 1967, ended discrimination based on race and country of origin of Canadian immigrants (Kijewska-Trembecka, Kanada-naród 33-34). However, it must also be admitted that the Portuguese themselves were not interested in emigration to Canada for a long time. The first group of immigrants from Portugal arrived in Canada in the spring of 1953, one could say that it was a “pilot group.” This was due to the agreement the Salazar government made with Ottawa. Canadians sought immigrants, unskilled laborers, who could work on farms, in forestry or in expanding the rail network. At that time, over 500 people arrived, almost exclusively married men, mostly from the Azores (around 70%) and Madeira, and the smallest number from northwestern Portugal (Rocha-Trindade 25). They went to work all over Canada and, unrelated to family duties, often changed their place of residence in search of higher income. Although they all came from villages or small towns, they were quickly attracted to work in Canadian cities. Interestingly, this first group of Portuguese immigrants was the most mobile of all the Portuguese who came to Canada in the following decades of the 20th century (Higgs 8). The first wave of immigrants was quickly joined by the next one, also dominated mostly by single men. Women and children came, at the earliest, after a few years, often after more than a decade. Over the following decades, over 95% of the Portuguese migrated to Canada as part of family sponsorship programs or were helped by neighbors or friends. Fewer than 5% were individual applicants (Higgs 7). Emigration to Canada from the Azores, Madeira and northern parts of mainland Portugal was primarily a result of family, local and not independent choices made by migrants. This resulted not only from strong Portuguese ties with the minha terra, private homeland as Ossowski (21-27) called it, but also from the fact that subsequent groups traveling to Canada were characterized by similar features: almost complete lack of education, lack of any professional preparation, knowledge of only their own native language, which often meant a regional variant of Portuguese Diaspora 121

Portuguese, for example that used on the island from which they came8. As a consequence, in Canada, emigrants from that period lived next to those who brought them there and acted as their sponsors. Loyalty to the family, home, village or region determined where the first generation of migrants lived, worked, shopped, went to church and spent their free time in Canada. Very quickly in the Canadian cities, primarily in Toronto and Montreal, the small Portuguese neighborhoods, Little Portugals, were created (Higgs 7). Over the following decades, more and more Portuguese emigrated to Canada, although the number of Portuguese immigrants in Canada is not comparable with, for example, Portuguese emigrants living in to Brazil or France. But migrations to Canada clearly gained pace. According to official Canadian statistics, in 2006 there were 6.2 million immigrants in Canada, i.e. people born outside the country, of which 150,300 were born in Portugal. Among them the majority were the people who came to Canada before 1991 – 137,000; 7,800 came in the following years; in the period 1996-2000 – 2,700; and between 2001 and 2006 – 2,900 (Statistics Canada). Teixeira, in turn, claims that in over fifty years, about 217,000 immigrants from Portugal reached Canada, i.e. 60,000 more than the number of Portuguese living in Canada in 2007. According to his data, in the years 1950-1959, 17,100 people immigrated from Portugal to Canada; in 1960-69 – 59,700; in 1970-1979 – as many as 80,000; in 1980-1989 – 38,200; in 1990-99 – 19,200 and in 2000-2007 – 2,900 (Teixeira and Rosa 6, table 1.1). Between 2008 and 2016, almost 6,000 Portuguese settled in Canada (Observatório). Emigration from Portugal in the 1960s and 1970s was in general very large, though only a small part of immigrants from that period reached Canada. The Portuguese, in particular the inhabitants of the islands, sought a better life because the long-standing rule of the Salazar team led the country's economy to structural backwardness and people to poverty. Salazar himself supported emigration as one of the ways to relieve tensions in the country. In addition, after the collapse of the regime, in the mid-1970s, more than half a million people from the colonies that had just gained independence from Lisbon returned to the country. Some of them went further. Since the 1980s, emigration to Canada has clearly slowed down, but it did not mean that the Portuguese stopped emigrating – they only changed the direction of their migration. Since 1986, Portugal has been a member state of the European Union and in the last three decades the Portuguese have emigrated to the EU countries. As mentioned above, the Portuguese diaspora in Canada originates mainly from the Azores. From the beginning of the settlement in Canada to this day,

8 In the 1960s, the average level of education among Portuguese living in Toronto and Montreal was 3.7 years for men and 2.8 years for women. See Burnet and Palmer 116. 122 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka over 65% of Portuguese Canadians represent the first generation or successive generations of immigrants from the Azores. They are strongly characterized by the fact that they hardly ever consider returning to the Azores. They connect their future and their children's future with Canada. About a quarter of newcomers from other parts of Portugal, in particular from the mainland, plan to return sooner or later (Higgs 14). According to the 2006 statistics, 262,200 people in Canada declared only Portuguese origin and almost 150,000 people reported Portuguese origin alongside other ethnic origins. 230,000 declared that their mother tongue was Portuguese. The most recent publicly available statistics from the Canadian 2011 census say that 250,300 people in Canada have a single Portuguese origin, and almost 180,000 have multiethnic roots, including Portuguese. Among those in the first category, 140,000, i.e. 56%, were born in Portugal, so the immigrant generation is still dominant in this group (Statistics Canada (a); Statistics Canada (b); Statistics Canada (b); Kijewska-Trembecka, Kanada na przełomie 174). The Portuguese, like many immigrants who came to Canada in the second half of the 20th century, live mainly in Ontario. Data from the 1981 census say that in Canada at that time there were 188,000 people of Portuguese origin, of whom 129,000 lived in Ontario, including almost 60,000 in Metropolitan Toronto. At the same time there were 27,300 Portuguese Canadians in Quebec, in British Columbia – 16,000, in Manitoba – 7,800, in Alberta – 6,000, and in Newfoundland – 245 people. 9 Three decades later, in 2011, census statistics on the distribution of the Portuguese group in Canada were as follows (the first figure stands for the category of single ethnic origin, the second for multiple ethnic origin): *Ontario – 184,200; 110,700 * Quebec – 34,500; 24,800 *British Columbia – 15,400; 21,100 *Manitoba 7,400; 5,300. The cities with largest population of Portuguese origin: *Toronto 128,500; 68,400, * Montreal – 29,500; 18,800 * Vancouver – 9,400; 12,300. For comparison: * Ottawa- Gatineau – 6,300; 5,900 * Quebec Ville – 790; 1,300 * Victoria – 1,300; 2,300 (Statistics Canada (b)). As 2011 data show, among people of Portuguese origin, there is a tendency to move from cities where traditional Portuguese neighborhoods are located to more ethnically diverse environments. The data also indicate that the Portuguese ethnic group in Canada is quite open to exogamy (Burnet and Palmer 98).

9 An important note: in the 1981 census, there was no distinction between single ethnic origin and multiple origin. Ethnic origin meant father's descent. Census of Canada, 1981, Ethnic Groups, Provinces and Territories. Portuguese Diaspora 123

The Portuguese in Canada – several characteristics

Starting from the 1950s, mainly Azoreans emigrated to Canada. In 2006, over 65% of Portuguese Canadians originated from these islands. Approximately another 30% came from mainland Portugal, the Lisbon district and the Northwest regions, in particular from Aveiro, a few percent came from Madeira (Oliveira 107). They were leaving a very poor country, ruled for many decades by the regime of Salazar, who led the country, named by him Estado Novo, the New State, to structural backwardness. The islands that were completely neglected by Lisbon were in a particularly difficult situation10. The beginning of Portuguese emigration to Canada, as mentioned above, was the agreement between Salazar and the Canadian government, thanks to which in the early 1950s the first emigrants arrived in Canada. Perhaps if not for this agreement, Canada would have waited a long time for the Lusophone newcomers. It is unlikely that without this help anyone from the impoverished Azores would have gone first to Canada, they simply would have not been able to afford it. Those who arrived first, sponsored further immigrant groups. In this way in Canada, in the middle of the 20th century, a new, very cohesive ethnic group appeared, connected primarily by family and neighborly relations. The internal coherence of the Portuguese group also resulted from objective features that characterized it as a whole: a minimal degree of education – many emigrants were illiterate, in particular women, the lack of professional competence – they were simply unqualified physical workers, no knowledge of foreign languages. With such a lack of independence, their only hope for a better life were strong intergroup ties that gave them the opportunity to live, work and function in a new reality. Such features were characteristic not only for the first waves of Portuguese immigrants, but also for those who reached Canada in the 1970s and 1980s.

10 António de Oliveira Salazar ruled in the years 1932-68 (he died in 1970), but the rule of the regime lasted until 1974, to the so-called Carnation Revolution, Revolução dos Cravos. Estado Novo, the New State, proclaimed in 1933, was a corporate model of an authoritarian, very conservative state, closely related to the very traditional Catholic Church. The four decades of Salazar's rule made Portugal "become an overwhelming country on the periphery of Europe" as the effect of Salazar's rule is figuratively described, and the Portuguese society still had the highest degree of illiteracy in Europe in the 1970s. In 1950 society, 45% of Portuguese were illiterate, in 1968 – more than 30%. In the 1950s, the school education was compulsory for only three years, and in 1960-67 it was four years (Oliveira Marques 1: 362). 124 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka

The value that gave assurance that in the new conditions there would be no man left alone was a cunha11 i.e. a sense of mutual loyalty to, responsibility, even nepotism, for people with whom one was somehow connected. A cunha was also like a patron, a guardian who provided support and help when needed. It was a strong element brought from the minha terra that consolidated the community12. However, this internal solidarity of the Portuguese group had, and still has, some limitations as it pertains almost exclusively to relations with relatives or to bonds within a community from the same region. There is no Portuguese solidarity in Canada above the regional divisions. This is particularly strongly emphasized by the arrivals from the Azores, who constitute almost two-thirds of the Portuguese in Canada. They say that in their mother country the people of mainland Portugal regarded them as inferior and always manifested it, and the Salazar regime in particular neglected the islands and marginalized their residents; likewise, in Canada, the emigrants are strongly divided and the Azoreans feel excluded again. Relations from the mother country have been transferred overseas (Oliveira 103-104). The Portuguese not only lived close to each other in exile, but also almost always found employment where their countrymen worked, usually also on their recommendation. Their domain was work in construction industry, in particular large-scale construction, road and rail expansion, renovation and cleaning works, and other physical jobs in factories. They often worked as janitors. Over time, those who could communicate in English started to find employment as truck or bus drivers. Portuguese women also worked in Canada, even though in Portugal they rarely sought work outside home. In Toronto, less in Montreal, they created networks of Portuguese cleaners, sometimes called "gangs”. They cleaned public buildings, in particular large office buildings and supermarkets; they did so-called minor cleaning. They worked in the evenings and nights, when their husbands were returning home and could take care of the children. Like their spouses, they did not have any professional qualifications and were very often illiterate. Therefore, working with the women from their own ethnic group was the only possible form of earning money. The work of women was also important because in the winter period men often did not have employment and then only women supported

11 literally: backing 12 Higgs (10) writes that such a community model was strongly supported by Salazar's regime, which created the state to be the "official" cunha, with the aim of combating all individuality in the society of Estado Novo. Living for decades in such a country, the Portuguese, also in exile, often sought help in solving simple, everyday problems, such as the payment of bills, a response to an official letter, in Portuguese consulates. Officials of these institutions were recognized as the official cunhas. Portuguese Diaspora 125 their families13. In addition, like most of the emigrants from the poor regions, the Portuguese felt obliged to help family members who stayed in the country and their relatives who emigrated with them. Part of the money sent back home was also earmarked for the construction or purchase of a house by those who planned to return. This phenomenon was characteristic not only for the immigrants who came first, but also those who arrived in the 21st century. Data published by the Observatório da Emigração Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, ISCTE (University Institute of Lisbon) say that between 2000-2017 the Portuguese diaspora in Canada sent more than 1.1 billion EUR to the country of origin. However, every year the volume of transfers is definitely decreasing: in 2000 it was over 145 million euro, and in 2017 – less than 26 million (Observatório). An important area that gave the Portuguese in Canada the means to earn a living were small, family businesses, most often established in the Portuguese neighborhoods and acting primarily for them. Along with the arrival of subsequent groups of immigrants, small grocery stores with fish, oil, fruit and wine were set up, as well as cafes where one could go – in accordance with a Portuguese tradition – with family for coffee, small restaurants, and hairdressing and tailoring shops. And although they had no experience in running any business, thanks to the help of their family and friends they could survive the various crises that lurked on the open market (Higgs 10). In general, the first and subsequent generations of Portuguese immigrants took up jobs that did not require high professional qualifications. But no matter where they earned their living, the Portuguese have always been valued in Canada for their diligence. The Catholic Church played an important role in the life of the Portuguese in Canada, especially for the first generation of immigrants. The church gathered the Portuguese around the holidays celebrating popular Portuguese saints, but above all around the worship of Our Lady of Fatima. Almost all immigrants came from traditionally religious regions and living in Estado Novo had to deal with Catholic institutions in every area of their lives. In Toronto, Portuguese masses have been celebrated since 1956 and in Montreal since 1960 (Higgs 10). It is almost natural that a group like the Portuguese diaspora very quickly established its own institutional completeness, which allowed members of the group to acquire a sense of social security. Very similar professional status and closeness of residence and employment, religious community and small ethnic businesses, lack of knowledge of English or French and a minimal level

13 A moving description of the conditions but also the spirit of the Portuguese women working in Toronto can be found in the text by Miranda. 126 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka of education – all this resulted in the emergence of ethnic institutions and organizations within which the group satisfied their private needs as well as communal ones (Breton). Higgs writes that Paradoxically urban residence explains the idealization and the nostalgia for village ways often expressed in conversation. (…) Faced with the snow, the immigrants talked of sun and beaches. They compared the human warmth and kindness of people at home with the seemingly aloof, indifferent Canadians, whose language they often did not understand. They contrasted what seemed licentious and immoral permissiveness in Canada with the demure conduct of women at home. (Higgs 11) The first Portuguese organizations appeared in 1956: in Montreal – the Portuguese Association of Canada; in Toronto – The First Portuguese Canadian Cultural Center. New institutions were formed very quickly, they were very diverse in the forms of their operation, but what is very characteristic, had a primarily local, rather than Canada wide, range. This is mainly due to the division within the Portuguese group itself, which is strongly conditioned by the region from which the Portuguese emigrated. The first newspapers in Portuguese also appeared. At the beginning, they were several-page parish bulletins. The first newspaper O Luso-Canadiano, was published in Montreal between 1959 and 1971; in Toronto, in 1963, the Correio Português (The Portuguese Mail) was created, which today is published under the name Correiro da Manha (The Portuguese Canadian Newspaper). There were also many other titles, however, during the first decades, the Portuguese-language press in Canada did not have many readers because a significant part of the immigrant community had considerable reading problems. In the 1970s, mostly thanks to the first subsidies from Canada’s cultural pluralism programs, the first Portuguese-language radio and television programs appeared, and they were very popular. In 2007, half a century after the foundation of their first ethnic institutions, the Portuguese in Canada ran 34 churches, 32 schools, mainly weekend ones, 211 organizations and clubs, and more than 6,000 smaller and larger ethnic businesses (Teixeira and Rosa 7, table 1.2). At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the Portuguese diaspora no longer lived in their separate neighborhoods. The Portuguese bought their own houses and moved to the outskirts of Toronto, Montreal or Vancouver, but research conducted in 2001 showed that this group is still one of the most isolated ethnic groups, very poorly integrating with the Canadian society, and despite the change of place of residence, it remains mentally in an ethnic ghetto (Quadeer).

Portuguese Diaspora 127

Conclusion

The Portuguese ethnic group is considered by researchers as the group during transformation, although almost everyone admits that these processes are late in relation to other groups and are also slower. The text analyzes the reasons for this state of affairs, among them the most important are: the dominance of the first generation, which in fact has no education and, additionally, no educational habits; socialization of the majority of emigrants during the Salazar regime, resulting in, among others, a lack of independence; internal group breakdown as a result of relations exported from Europe, including a sense of marginalization of the majority from the Azores (around 65% of the Portuguese ethnic group) by a group from mainland Portugal (Oliveira). Next generations of the Portuguese, born in Canada, have studied in Canadian schools, but in this case education is still not preferred by the majority of them as the way of development. Many young people resigned from voluntary education and went to work to help the family financially. It was particularly important for the Portuguese to own a house and therefore work was more preferred than education14 as it enabled the family could buy it,. Therefore, even though successive generations have achieved a higher education level than their parents, the Portuguese are still poorly educated in comparison to other ethnic groups (Rosa and Teixeira 196; Statistics Canada 2001). For example, in 2006, nearly 25% of the Toronto adult population passed any university courses, while only 5% of those of Portuguese descent did so. That, of course, translated into their low professional status (Teixeira and Murdie 204-206). In turn, the Montreal statistics show that in 2001, 48.5% of people of Portuguese origin living in Montreal had less than average education (Rosa and Teixeira 210). However, in both above-mentioned metropolitan areas, the Portuguese constitute the highest percentage among homeowners. In 2006, 63% of Toronto residents were owners of houses, but among those of Portuguese origin 88.5% in Toronto and 76% in Montreal were home owners (Rosa and Teixeira 210; Teixeira and Murdie 205). Owning a house is still the realization of the Portuguese dream in Canada.

14 Studies have shown that this is the opinion of the vast majority, almost 90%, of people of Portuguese origin (Teixeira and Murdie 196). 128 Marta Kijewska-Trembecka

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Marta Kijewska-Trembecka is Associate Professor in political sciences and sociology, Institute of American Studies and Polish Diaspora, Jagiellonian University, Kraków. Her fields of specialization include political sciences and sociology of nation and ethnic relations. Her main fields of interest in Canadian studies are immigration policy and ethnic relations; multiethnic society and multiculturalism; Polish ethnic group in Canada; history and contemporary problems of the Quebec society; the Quebec policy towards ethnic groups living in the province – the British, the Polish, Jews, the Portuguese and the Dutch.

NANCY BURKE BEST M.A. THESIS AWARDS / PRIX NANCY BURKE POUR LES MEILLEURES THÈSES DE MAÎTRISE

Michał Kapis Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

ORALITY IN CONTEMPORARY CANADIAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN ABORIGINAL PROSE

Abstract

This article provides a comparative analysis of orality in contemporary Canadian and South African aboriginal novels, specifically Ravensong by Lee Maracle and The Heart of Redness by Zakes Mda. Although the two countries are located on the opposite ends of the world they share a history of colonialism. The Western world is dominated by the technology of writing. It is perceived as a natural, inseparable part of language and not as a technology. In societies where the technology of writing has been introduced relatively recently, the boundary between the two variants of language is not as clear-cut. Indigenous authors openly speak of the power struggle between literature and orature. They aim to reconcile the spoken and the written by using various oralization techniques and strategies in their texts. They include repetitions to emulate the rhythm of storytelling, line breaks to indicate pauses, purposeful spelling mistakes to convey characters’ idiolects, and others. The authors may also devote space to describing indigenous cultures and traditions, including oral tradition. Some characters may be seen as more oralized than others, and some are even borrowed directly from traditional short stories. Keywords: orality, orature, indigenous literature, Lee Maracle, Zakes Mda

Résumé

L’article est une analyse comparative d’oralité dans des romans contemporains aborigènes canadiens et sud-africains, à savoir Ravensong de Lee Maracle et The Heart of Redness de Zakes Mda. Les deux pays sont localisés aux deux coins du monde, mais ils ont des histoires similaires de la colonisation. Le monde occidental est dominé par la technologie de l’écriture. Elle est considérée comme une partie naturelle et inséparable du langage et non pas comme une technologie. Dans des sociétés où la technologie de l’écriture a été introduite relativement récemment, les différences entre les deux variantes du langage ne sont pas tellement évidentes. Des auteurs indigènes 134 Michał Kapis parlent de la lutte de pouvoir entre la littérature et l’orature. Ils essayent de réconcilier la langue parlée avec la langue écrite au moyen des techniques et stratégies diverses dans le processus d’oralisation. Ils comprennent des répétitions qui imitent le rythme de la tradition orale, des sauts de ligne qui indiquent des pauses et des fautes d’orthographe intentionnelles qui montrent des idiolectes des personnages. Des auteurs aussi peuvent consacrer plus d’espace à des descriptions des cultures et traditions indigènes, y compris la tradition orale. Il y a des personnages qui sont plus oralisés que d’autres et, dans certains cas, ils peuvent être empruntés directement aux nouvelles traditionnelles. Mots-clés : oralité, orature, littérature indigène, Lee Maracle, Zakes Mda

Canada, South Africa and oralized literature

Speech and writing have for many years been perceived as two separate sides of the same coin called language. They are understood as connected, yet separate modes of communication existing in an irreconcilable dichotomy. By extension, the same could be assumed about literature and orature, which stem from writing and speech respectively. However, many contemporary indigenous authors, including some from Canada and South Africa, attempt to convey their oral traditions in a written form. In spite of the fact that studying orature has only recently gained traction in the academic circles, scholars such as Eigenbrod (1995) have already described several techniques used by authors to make their texts resemble oral traditions. Contemporary authors themselves admit that they are aware of the interplay between orality and writing, and take advantage of it (King 2004, Maracle “Oratory”). According to Scheub (2002), the South African Xhosa novelist Guybon Sinxo discussed the issue in his novel as early as 1944. Much as writing in general is a mimicry of speech, these written orality features imitate natural characteristics of orature. Whereas authors and scholars have reflected on orality features in their own literatures, so far there have been few attempts at comparing this type of writing across cultures. Cox and Justice (2014) explore interactions between indigenous literatures from various cultures in North America. Margery Fee (1997) goes a step further and juxtaposes North American, Australian and New Zealand aboriginal oralized literatures. Nevertheless, aboriginal African oralized texts have been largely left out of consideration when it comes to comparative studies. The aim of this article is to examine texts written by contemporary Canadian and South African aboriginal writers to determine whether they use orality features in their prose. Secondly, it tries to pinpoint orality features present in the chosen indigenous Canadian and South African prose and analyse their exact function within the text. Finally, it searches for similarities Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 135 in techniques and strategies used to oralize Canadian and South African texts. Indigenous cultures of these two countries are undoubtedly unique. Nevertheless, they might have much more in common than it would seem at first glance. The indigenous peoples of Canada and South Africa share a history of colonialism, struggle and oppression. In both cases, writing was first introduced to the native populations by the colonizers, which later gave birth to the power struggle between orality and writing. The indigenous peoples suffered from oppression and inequality. Finally, both in Canada and South Africa, oral tradition served at some point a political role, as a means of resistance against injustice. In view of the above, it seems reasonable to assume that oralized literatures of these two cultures might also bear some similarities. The choice of the specific texts for analysis in this artilce was dictated by several factors. The two novels discussed, Ravensong by Lee Maracle and The Heart of Redness by Zakes Mda, share a common theme of conflict, which is important in the context of the struggle between the oral and the written. Both novels are set in relatively small communities in Canada and South Africa respectively, and include detailed descriptions of the traditions, customs and daily life of the indigenous communities. Finally, in both cases the traditions are juxtaposed with the modern era and postcolonial reality, which is also a source of tension.

The oral in literature

The etymology of the word “literature” shows its strong connection to the written mode of communication. The term is derived from the Latin root littera, which meant “letter” or “handwriting”. Literary studies came long after the invention of writing and analyzed only written texts, therefore the assumption was that literature had to be written. Writing was embedded in the definition of literature and for many years nobody questioned this line of thinking. However, it is exactly the literary studies where the rediscovery of the oral began. One of the milestone works showing that written languages may have become much different than their oral predecessors was Milman Parry’s study of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. The first publications of Parry’s work came as early as 1928, but due to his untimely death and the fact that he wrote in French, his study was left unfinished and obscure to the wider public. It was only finished in 1960 by Albert B. Lord and in 1971, Parry’s son, Adam Parry, published a collection of his father’s works translated into English. In spite of the everlasting discussion as to whether Homer was truly the author of the classical Greek poetry attributed to him, Iliad and Odyssey were 136 Michał Kapis and still are recognized as two of the most important pieces of literature in human history. And although many scholars writing about Homer’s works could notice that they are different than other Greek poetry, the general adulation of the two texts hindered any attempts to further investigate their unusual features. Even when somebody attempted to provide a possible explanation for their existence, it was mostly limited to attacking Homer himself rather than looking at his work (Ong 19). John Myres (2015) has collected many accounts of Homer criticism, including those from before Parry’s discovery. Richard Bentley, respected for his work on reconstructing the Chronicle of John of Antioch, claimed that “poor Homer (...) wrote a sequel of Songs and Rhapsodies to be sung by himself for small earnings and good cheer. (...) Those loose songs were not connected together in the form of an epic poem, till Pisistratus” (Myres 2015 49). On another note, an Italian scholar Giambattista Vico wrote that Homer’s work is nothing more “but the mirror of a simple age”. He added that Iliad and Odyssey must have been a work of several writers, compiled into one text at a much later time (Myres 2015 57). Milman Parry was the first one, who formulated a clear and logical answer to the “Homeric question” and supported it with evidence. Iliad and Odyssey were designed as oral compositions, and as such, possess many features typical for oral tradition and oral storytelling (Parry). For example, as noted by Düntzer, the choice of epithets in Homeric verse is not based on their meaning, but rather the rhythmical and metric needs, which is revealed only during the poems’ declamation. Ong (20-24) explains that Parry’s discovery shook the entire literary world. Before his study, there existed an archetype of an ideal poet. This poet was an unpredictable genius, able to create perfect, original verses in seconds. They were supposed to produce a never ending array of metaphors, similes and epithets. And the embodiment of the archetype was Homer. Parry’s work proved not only that Homer was not a Greek god incarnate, but also that Iliad and Odyssey follow predictable schematics, allowing for the poems’ easier memorisation and declamation. Albert B. Lord (68-97) further emphasised this discovery by pointing out that not only the formal features but also the general themes of Iliad and Odyssey are formulaic and repetitive. For the western society, which respected Homer so much, it came as a shock that he utilised the features seen as poetic vices. The re-evaluation of Homer’s work does not mean that Iliad and Odyssey are bad literature. Ong (24) argues that for ancient Greeks repetitions were a symbol of wisdom. In a pre-writing society, the only viable method of preserving information was its memorisation, and repeating something is one of the most effective ways of remembering. To understand why the same features used by Homer became seen as dismal mistakes when used by contemporary poets, one has to return to the concept of restructuring Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 137 consciousness. In a world where writing is so omnipresent, there is no need for repetition or training the memory. The invention of writing has slowly changed the standards of storytelling. However, with Parry’s work giving an insight into the ancient European oral tradition, new studies started to appear and the interest in the oral began to grow.

Characteristics of primary oral cultures

The work of Milman Parry and his successors opened a new chapter in the studies of orature. While some scholars kept exploring the rediscovered oral roots of European literature, others shifted their focus to the peoples unmarked by the technology of writing. These are referred to as primary oral cultures (Ong 31). For Westerners, who “had their consciousness restructured” by the ubiquity of writing, it may be difficult to relate to the way of thinking of someone who grew up without it. A culture where all information is as evanescent as a sound develops a different way of perceiving the world around it which closer to the natural world. Ong provides an example of Hebrew, where the word dabar means bots “word” and “event”. In a similar manner, primary oral cultures perceive words as actions, nonexistent until performed. Ong further argues that without writing, words become much more potent and powerful. That is why in most if not all primary oral cultures words are believed to possess some magical properties. Knowing the name of an object, for example, is seen as giving a person power over the particular object. In Western societies on the other hand, naming things is just an act of labelling it for later reference. In a world where sound can never be visualised, the label has no right to exist (Ong 32-33). Another difference between the primary oral cultures and the literate ones is the general way of thinking. People who are skilled in using pen and paper do not have to rely on their memory too much. Any convoluted ideas or deep ruminations can be readily recorded in the written form and referred to at any given time. In fact, it is safe to assume that not a single member of the Western society would be able to remember everything they write down on the daily basis without extensive training in memorisation techniques, especially looking at how many people need grocery lists. Still, people from primary oral cultures are able to achieve it. According to Ong (34-35), the secret to the potency of their memories is the same as the technique used by Homer: they think in patterns. The mnemonic schematics used in primary oral cultures take advantage of alliterations, assonances, epithets, repetitions, antitheses and even common themes, analogous to those pointed out by Lorde in Iliad and Odyssey. Ong argues that people who do not know writing think in specific rhythms which facilitate the retention of thoughts. The only vestige 138 Michał Kapis of this way of thinking in Western societies are the occasional rhyming or rhythmical sayings present in the spoken language. Even then however, the abundance of analogous structures in primary oral cultures makes their few Western counterparts seem negligible. The conclusion is that at some point in history, people from the literate cultures have lost the ability to think in these rhythmic patterns, because the invention of writing made it obsolete. Finally, it is important to note how the concept of time is perceived in primary oral cultures. In literate societies, time is always linear. Everything has a beginning and an end. Every event is preceded by its cause. A straight line is often mistakenly understood as the only logical visualisation of the concept of time. However, it turns out that primary oral cultures perceive time rather as a circle than a straight line. They pay closer attention to the repetitive patterns in life. These include among others: changing of the seasons, migrations of animals and the life and death cycle. The circular perception of time is not based on causal connections, but rather on the coexistence of the past, the present and the future. This oral view of time is also visible in some literary works written by aboriginal authors. The discrepancy between linear and circular time itself has been widely discussed by many scholars, including literary critics, philosophers and physicists. The characteristics of the primary oral cultures as described above are used by Ong to provide a general background for the nine specific differences between the narratives used by literate people and those who live in writing- less worlds. The first aspect of the oral style of narration is that it is additive rather than subordinative. To illustrate it, Ong provides short passages from different translations of the Bible. Although both of them are written texts, the older Duoay version, from 1610, is much closer to the original oral style than the version from 1970. The additive style in the former is realised through the consistent use of the conjunction “and”. In contrast, the subordinative written style of narration alternates these structures to avoid repetitions. Introducing a variety of function words or using synonyms is a typical characteristic of a written narration. In the oral context, similar techniques would only confuse the listener and make it more difficult for the person delivering a narrative to remember it properly (Ong 36-37). Another characteristic feature of orature is that it is aggregative rather than analytic. For example, while forming epithets, oral narrators tend to resort to some ready-made formulas/word clusters like a “sturdy oak” or “beautiful princess”. These epithets are then usually repeated throughout the narration to strengthen the image of particular features tied to a particular archetype of character. For a Western audience, the number of adjectives used in orature would probably seem redundant, especially since the nouns described by them are very often clichés: oaks are in general sturdy, therefore Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 139 a Western reader would only expect to be informed if this particular oak was atypical in any way (e.g. a frail oak) (Ong 38-39). The third characteristic provided by Ong is strongly connected with the two previous ones. The oral style of narration is redundant or “copious”. As repetitions are so typical for primary oral cultures, they have several functions. Traditionally, orature is performed in front of a group of listeners. In this context, repetitions are useful in case any of the listeners mishears a particular word. Moreover, it allows the performer to sustain the much sought fluency of speech, since they are able to prepare for the next part of a story, while repeating something that has already been said. The written context on the other hand, allows the reader to revisit any misread or misunderstood fragment of the text at any given time. There is no need for repetition (Ong 39-40). The fourth aspect typical for orature is its traditionalism or conservatism. In primary oral cultures, memory is the only way of preserving knowledge of the past. There is no possibility to capitalize on the discoveries of previous generations by simply reading what they have written. That is the reason for developing particular sets of practices and traditions connected to remembering. In primary oral cultures, the elders are highly respected for their ability to recount stories from the days of old. In fact, the wise old men and women stand at the top of the social pyramid. In Western societies, the focus is shifted towards the energetic and adventurous youth, who are able to aid the society with their vigour and strength (Ong 41). Another feature of the oral style of narration is its closeness to the human lifeworld. In primary oral cultures, words do not exist outside of their context. Ong provides examples of written texts such as lists or compendia, which are completely abstract in a world without writing. Another example illustrating this difference could be a written manual on how to do something. In oral cultures, a skill is learned by mimicking someone who already possesses it. Any verbal instruction occurs strictly in the context of performing the skill. A written manual is detached from its context because, as mentioned before, written words are not viewed as actions (Ong 42). On a similar note, orature tends to be agonistically toned. It has already been demonstrated that words are viewed as having power. Analogously any interlocution is seen by members of primary oral cultures as a form of combat. Using Andrew Wilkinson’s terminology, oracy is very important in the day to day lives. Ong notices that in many early European narratives, such as Iliad or Beowulf, characters engage in tongue lashings and name-callings to prove who is the better and more intelligent orator. In this case, oral narratives can be seen as particularly violent. Ong attributes it partly to the general physical hardship of life in the early days of writing and before that. However, he also 140 Michał Kapis compares this violent verbal combat to the European art of rhetoric, pointing out that it also has the characteristics of a form of art (Ong 43-44). According to Ong, orature is also empathetic and participatory rather than objectively distanced. This again has to do a lot with the way of performing the narrative in oral traditions. Ong illustrates this feature with the example of a storyteller, who becomes so engaged in the story that he becomes the characters that he describes. In narration, it can be realised through switching from a third person singular narration to a first person singular one. Describing the same process, a Canadian author Jovette Marchessault wrote that an able performer has

the gift of being able wholly to involve herself into her words, to incarnate herself in flesh and blood in her subject matter. For example, when she told me about the whales, she became a whale and nothing existed, except the whale. (Marchessault in Eigenbrod).

This insight into the storytelling process shows that a performer is able to become any character, even an animal or a plant. Writing, on the other hand, is much more objective and distanced. Writers can only use words to convey the image of a particular character onto the pages of a book. Storyteller has a whole arsenal of emphatic techniques that they can use (Ong 45). Another important aspect of orature is the homeostasis. Ong explains that primary oral cultures are in constant state of equilibrium when it comes to the vocabulary that they use. Words are only used in the context of their meaning so, once the meaning is lost, they are soon forgotten and replaced with other, more relevant words. Western societies use dictionaries and historical documents to record past versions of particular words together with their archaic meanings. Although the words are devoid in any present context, they still exist in the written form. Primary oral cultures define everything by its relevance to the present. One drastic example of this is the situation among the Gonja people in Ghana. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the British recorded some instances of the Gonja oral tradition. The Gonja believed that their land was founded by one Ndewura Jakpa, who then divided the land between his seven sons creating seven separate divisions. When the same myth was recorded sixty years later, the administrative system had already changed. One of the divisions had been assimilated into another, and one had been lost due to boundary change. Interestingly, the new version of the myth accounted for the changes, describing Ndewura Jakpa as having only five sons. The present situation defined the mythology and changed it accordingly (Ong 47-48). The final aspect of orature presented by Ong is that it is situational rather than abstract. One of the best studies conducted on this phenomenon is that by Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 141 a Soviet psychologist Alexandr Luria in 1976. Luria conducted experiments on groups of illiterate and semi-literate people in remote areas of Uzbekistan. In one of the experiments, the subjects were shown pictures of geometrical figures and asked to name the objects in the pictures. Those who did not know writing, used real life objects to describe what they saw. A circle was called a plate, a bucket or a sieve, while a square could be referred to as a door or a house. The semi-literate people however, did use the labels for geometrical shapes as taught at school. The experiment illustrates that in primary oral cultures there is no need for abstract labels or categories. There are no circles, squares or triangles in the real world. Nevertheless, even a basic knowledge of writing is enough to restructure the way of thinking and the perception of the world (Ong 49-5). Up to this point, all issues touched upon in this chapter were connected with either literature, orature or the contrast between the two. However, the true subject of the study herein is the hybrid type of text, somewhere between literature and orature. It is a genre of written texts that strongly incorporate the elements of orature. A Native Canadian author, Thomas King, proposes the term interfusional literature to describe this type of text. Nevertheless, he speaks only of the works infused with the elements of Native Canadian orature. There is a need, therefore, for a term that would encompass these types of texts regardless of their authors’ background. For the purpose of this thesis “literature with orality features” or “oralized literature” will be used. The latter appears in few publications, though never in this exact context and is never properly defined. In what follows, I examine prose of contemporary authors who are ethnically part of primary oral cultures, or cultures which until recently were primarily oral—specifically Native Canadians and Native South Africans) The presence of orality features in their texts is not the effect of their consciousness being restructured by writing. It is rather a deliberate strategy in stylizing the narration in order to make it more similar to the oral traditions. As will be demonstrated later, these authors stand in between two types of narration but also between two cultures. Their way of writing is deeply rooted in their tradition and in the historical context of their people’s contact with literate cultures. Native Canadian and Native South African authors are two of the ethnic groups that best exemplify this style of narration.

Oral traditions of Canada and South Africa

Aboriginal Canadian oral traditions are focused around the elders. They are the ones preserving the knowledge of entire tribes, keeping mental record of their history. Hereditary Chief of the Mi’kmaq Grand Council, Stephen J. 142 Michał Kapis

Augustine, said that the knowledge of each elder is a piece of a grand puzzle of collective memory. When they meet, they tell stories to each other, and one elder serves as a mnemonic to others, allowing for the whole system to function properly (Augustine in Hanson). Elders do not necessarily have to be old. Sometimes, a younger person is recognized as an elder due to a specific set of skills they posses. The performer is also a crucial element in traditional storytelling in South Africa. Among the Zulu people, it is usually the wise, elder grandmother who delivers the tales. Canonici’s (132) description of the performer ties perfectly with what was mentioned before about Homer’s storytelling techniques. The performer chooses various ready-made plots, motifs, characters or refrains and artistically puts them together in various combinations creating new works of orature. In addition, using their acting skills, gestures, mime and impersonation, the performer enters into the body of a character they are describing. This concept has also been mentioned before, when discussing the aspects of orature defined by Ong. Canonici provides a quote which amazingly resembles what Marchessault has said about Native Canadian oral performers: “He becomes pervaded by the characters’ situation and their problems; feels and suggests the changes of their fate; struggles, suffers and rejoices together with them; as it were, he steps over from his world into theirs” (Sandor in Canonici 132). This alone shows how many similarities could be found between the two seemingly distant cultures when it comes to orature. Another important characteristic of Aboriginal Canadian oral traditions is the orally based thought process. It was previously demonstrated how writing can restructure human consciousness. Eigenbrod describes the oral mindset of native Canadians, using concepts that may seem odd for a person brought up in the world dominated by writing. Harry Robinson, an elder of the Interior Salish people, sees no difference between the past and the present. The history described in myths and that of written documents are in his mind equal and both produce a valid explanation of the present. In the native Canadian cultures, the labels of subjectivity, objectivity, realism and symbolism do not exist. Everything is blended together (Eigenbrod 93-94). At the centre of Aboriginal Canadian oral traditions is the character of the trickster. For some peoples it is known as Coyote, others call it Nanabush, Gluscaba, Whee-skay-chak, Raven, etc. This character is the personification of orature itself—it possesses the power of shape-shifting, assuming various forms of humans, plants or animals depending on the story. Just like the orature itself, Coyote is in the constant state of flux changing its role from one tale to another. It is usually presented as a trickster that uses its transforming powers to confuse others or to steal from them, often in a comical fashion. Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 143

However, at times it can also be described as a benevolent, spiritual creature. The universality of this character is best visualized through the roles that it serves in contemporary works. It can easily take the form of a prostitute or a drug dealer to conform to modern literary themes. Coyote also symbolizes the skills of adaptability necessary for survival in the unforgiving Canadian reality (Eigenbrod 94-97). The landscape often plays an important role in trickster stories. There are tales that explain geological features of the land and other natural phenomena (Hanson). South African folktales also include the character of the trickster, although it does not seem to be as vital for narratives as it is in Aboriginal Canadian cultures. Canonici (147) makes a distinction between animal and human tricksters. While an animal trickster is usually seen as a troublemaker, who eventually fails in his/her mischief and simply walks away, a human trickster is often presented as an antagonist of a folktale. At the end of a tale, a human trickster is usually defeated and punished. Cristina Pinto (2) talks about the character in a broader African context. She describes the African trickster as a being between humans and gods, who takes pleasure in playing tricks on both these groups. Trickster uses theft, shape-shifting, wordplay, lies and rule-breaking to cause chaos and achieve his/her goals. She goes on to provide more examples of tricksters from other cultures such as Loki in Norse mythology or Fox in European folklore. She also points out the strong resemblance between the Aboriginal African trickster character and the Aboriginal Canadian one. In both Aboriginal Canadian and South African oral traditions drums serve a pivotal role. There are many different types of drums, each one reserved for a specific occasion, to accompany a specific story or to be used by a specific storyteller. Traditional Aboriginal Canadian drums are made of a wooden frame and animal skin (usually elk, deer or moose but also cow or even fish skin). Canonici (131) also points to the importance of drums in the South African culture. Drums are seen as sacred instruments, because their sound reaches deep into the earth and reverberates in the forests, mountains and even people. According to some beliefs, the sound of drums can even reach gods and serve as a tool of prayer. The final two elements of a South African folktale as described by Canonici are the text (which he understands as the plot of the tale), and the theme. In a typical folktale, one will be able to find a protagonist and an antagonist, put against each other in the so called initial situation. The plot devices are once again predictable and repetitive, although variations do occur from story to story. In order to fully understand this concept, it is helpful to look at the work of Vladimir Propp (1929), who thoroughly analyzed the morphology of the Russian fairy tale. Propp created a comprehensive list of 144 Michał Kapis all narrative functions used in this genre. In other words, he compiled a list containing every possible plot device used in any Russian fairy tale ever. In order for such a feat to be even possible, the analyzed genre has to be incredibly repetitive. The same applies to traditional folktales of South Africa but also to other oral traditions around the world. When it comes to the theme, it is simply the message that the tale carries, its connection to the real world and the issues that it touches upon. The folktales are therefore designed to teach as well as to entertain (Canonici 132-134). The introduction of writing into the daily lives of the primary oral cultures in Canada and South Africa caused the decline of oral traditions. Canonici (134-137) says that many of his Zulu students have no experiences connected with the oral tradition. He identifies the culprits as urbanization, fragmentation of community life and the advent of technologies such as the radio and the television. The orature started transforming into literature. The Aboriginal Canadian character of Coyote was nearly destroyed by foreign authors using it as a character in stories for children, without understanding its role and cultural significance (Eigenbrod 95). Sophie McCall (18), in her study of as-told-to narratives, speaks of different ways in which Aboriginal Canadians were misrepresented through this genre. Firstly, there was the “vanishing Indian” representation. The idea that Aboriginal Canadians are a dying race spread in the early twentieth century. Many ethnographers and anthropologists set out on missions to salvage as much knowledge about these nigh on extinct, as was assumed at the time, people. This led to a mass production of Aboriginal oral art anthologies, which were treated rather as science projects than serious literature. The oral narratives were presented either as anthropological data or as stories for children, neither of which gave them justice. According to some, this practice was a form of cultural appropriation. Margery Fee writes that since the colonizers had “taken over the soil, they could also take over the myths of Aboriginal peoples, who were believed to be on the verge of extinction” (Fee in McCall 20). The misrepresentation of Aboriginal Canadians continued in the works of poetry compilers such as Robert Colombo. The volumes of poetry edited by him and published in the 1980’s talk about “Canadian native verbal acts”, generalizing all native Canadian cultures under one umbrella term. He gathers lyrics of songs and texts of stories com-piled by many people of different background over hundreds of years of contact. In addition, he rarely provides the names of the performers of the stories and the songs. The result is an incoherent and distorted representation of the native voice (McCall 22-24). In order to fully understand why the presence of songs and stories in anthologies was such a big issue, one has to delve deeper into Aboriginal cultures. McCall (26) provides the example of the Tlingit people, who always Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 145 begin their stories by assuring their right to tell them. Some songs are properties of particular clans, with no outsiders having the right to perform them. Even if such right is to be obtained, for example by trading the song or story for other goods, it is still important to state the work’s origin before performing it. In many aspects, publishing such work without permission could be seen as a copyright violation. In spite of the criticism, not all attempts to preserve Aboriginal orature in writing should be seen as failures. It is precisely this type of texts that has given birth to oralized literature. Wendy Wickwire took it upon herself to write down the stories told to her by Harry Robinson. She realized how important the oral style of expression is for preserving the character of Aboriginal stories. Eigenbrod describes the style that Wickwire used as “obviously oral”. There are many repetitions, interjections and questions to the reader, which simulate the participatory aspect of orature. The sentences are short and informal. In some parts, the text is difficult to understand unless read aloud (Eigenbrod 93). Wickwire proved that it is possible to “translate” oral stories into writing. Her achievement inspired Aboriginal authors to develop this style and to take it even further to create a new type of literature. Nevertheless, both the oral and the written form have their limitations and it is not simple to reconcile these two modes of communication. The inherent characteristic of orature is that it changes every time it is performed. The changes can be small, e.g. performer using different body movements or voice pitch, but they can also influence the plot little by little, so that after a number of years, the story is completely different. Eigenbrod compares writing down of these stories to “fixation of nothing less than life itself” (Eigenbrod 93). Analogously, it is nearly impossible to describe the performers body language or the tone of their voice with words alone. Moreover, without immediate audience, the participatory element is also missing from the written form:

Now came the big job, to take those oral stories and put them on paper. It was hard, we had to change from telling a story to a group of people to being alone and telling the story to the paper. (Campbell in Eigenbrod 92)

Finally, in reference to the contemporary works of First Nation authors in Canada, Emma LaRoque talks about the “power struggle” between the oral and the written (xx). Although many authors have proven that oralized literature can be created, there is always a question of whether it is more oral or more written. Achieving the perfect balance between these two media is a difficult task, especially since writing is still associated with the colonizers and the oppression of the native peoples. 146 Michał Kapis

During the era of the apartheid in South Africa, the power struggle between the oral and the written became even more literal. A. C. Jordan, a renowned Xhosa writer recounts his work as an education supervisor. Whenever he went to teach, he would always be accompanied by white supervisors to ensure that he did not propagate any subversive ideas. Jordan admits that he used oral tradition as a political weapon, to camouflage his messages to other black South Africans. He was able to

attack (...) the white rulers in an oblique fashion, creating iinsomni [folktales] in Xhosa, the meaning of which would not escape the Xhosa members of his audiences. He told of the contest between the birds, for example, how the birds met together to participate in a con-test to discover who could soar the highest in the sky. That bird would become the king of the birds. The eagle flew highest - or so it appeared. But unknown to the eagle, a tiny bird was hiding in its feathers. And when the eagle has reached the apex of his ascent, and started descending, the little bird flew a few feet higher, then itself glided to the earth. (Jordan in Scheub 5)

In this particular situation, oral tradition was used as a code, unintelligible for the outsider. It could be argued that an Aboriginal Canadian would have probably understood the implications of the story and the message hidden behind the plot. Scheub further argues that South African oral traditions served as a shield that helped the oppressed withstand the humiliations of apartheid. Storytellers were the ones who conveyed daily news to the people, carefully embedding them in folktales. In Scheub’s opinion, Western civilizations have always underestimated the power behind oral traditions. The incredible endurance of both Aboriginal Canadians and South Afri-cans may just prove his point.

Orality features in literature

Although the list of orature aspects provided by Ong helps to identify some orality features in modern literature, it cannot be used as a comprehensive base for this thesis. Ong focuses on the oral and the written as two separate modes of communication. He characterizes them both and identifies the similarities and differences between them. However, in case of literature with orality features, one has to take into account some additional techniques specific for this type of text. One of the features that can be easily identified as a means to oralize literature is the use of typographic space. Ong (126) does touch upon this feature, explaining that space in text serves as the equivalent to silence. He also provides the example of Laurence Sterne, who used blank pages in his novel, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy. However, the use of space Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 147 in oralized literature is quite different. It does indicate pauses and moments of silence, but does so in order to mimic the natural voice breaks, the hesitation of the storyteller or to create suspense. Typographic space helps to break the monotony of neatly justified text. Encountering a blank space, the reader is forced to pause in the process of reading, which simulates the pauses in speech made by oral performers. Another feature of oralized literature is the use of first person narration. According to Eigenbrod (96), the consistent use of first person narration in the contemporary native Canadian literature mimics the traditional performers who are able to imitate any character they are talking about. She further supports her theory by providing examples of works written from various perspectives. Jeannette Armstrong’s Slash is written from a male perspective, even though the writer is female, while the children’s book The Spirit of the White Bison adopts the perspective of the eponymous bison. Furthermore, the absence of the all-knowing third person singular narrator, provides for an authentic experience, where the reader’s knowledge is limited to the perspective of one character. A technique that can be used to simulate the participatory character of orature is the use of questions to the reader. Eigenbrod (93) mentions it briefly while discussing the language that Wendy Wickwire used to transcribe Harry Robinson’s stories. This type of question serves the purpose of including the reader in the process of storytelling. It breaks the fourth wall, destroying the feeling of detachment from the described events, which is usually associated with writing. Of course, the participatory aspect of the story is still fairly limited. The reader cannot answer or in any way react to the question, because the storyteller (the writer) is not accessible for them. Nevertheless, this technique creates a feeling of participation and being a part of the story, which is so central to native narratives. Unlike the written narratives, which are characterized by general coherence and logical structure, orature is more unpredictable. During performance, there is no time to think about sentence structure or about the most logical even sequence. That is why orature can sometimes be subject to digression. In oralized literature, the same function can be realized through interjections. The narrator gives himself the freedom to talk about anything that comes to his mind. Possible interjections may include personal comments or humoristic remarks. One feature of orature that is especially problematic to translate into a written text is connected with dialogues. A performer has a vast array of techniques in store when it comes to acting out dialogues. They can change the pitch of their voice, use body movements to visualize a character’s appearance and make them use specific phrases to present their idiolects. 148 Michał Kapis

Only the third method can be transferred onto paper, which is why some authors decide to maximize its efficiency. Whether it is through the overuse of a word or a phrase or consciously introducing grammatical or syntactic mistakes, this technique can differentiate characters without the need to use the traditional literary techniques in writing dialogues e.g. using phrases such as “said John” or “asked Lucy” to make sure that the reader is aware of who the speaker is.

Orality features in Lee Maracle’s Ravensong

The action of the novel takes place in the town of Maillardville, Canada. One part of the town is inhabited by the aboriginal people, while the other is where the white community lives. The two parts are separated by a river. The novel follows the story of Stacey, a young aboriginal girl, who has been admitted to the white school in town. Throughout the novel, Stacey serves as an intermediary between the contrasting styles of life and worldviews of the two communities. The novel opens with the funeral of Old Nora, one of the older women in Stacey’s community. Old Nora’s death is followed by a tragedy on the other side of the river, when one of Stacey’s classmates succumbs to peer pressure and commits suicide. These two events are important in Stacey’s life, as she keeps thinking about the two women and trying to make sense of their deaths. The aboriginal community is then struck with an influenza epidemic. The main character’s family tries to help contain it, but more people die, particularly the older, weaker ones. White doctors do not do anything to help the natives combat the epidemic. Later in the novel, Stacey disobeys the principal’s orders, which makes her popular at school. She starts spending some time with a white boy named Steve, who seems to be attracted to her. Steve shows interest in the life the native community. However, he is not able to truly understand Stacey and she becomes disinterested. The girl’s plan is to go to university and then start a school for the aboriginal children in her village. The whole community supports her in this endeavour and do everything they can to help her. The flu epidemic continues. Stacey’s father dies and so does Dominic, another elder of the village, to whom the girl has been close. She is even more shocked, when she learns that her father was infertile and that her real biological father was his twin brother Ned. There are several other events described later in the novel, including an aboriginal man being banished from the community for abusing his wife and Stacey teaching her mother how to read. The novel ends with Stacey setting out for her studies, however, in the epilogue, the reader learns that her plan later fails and she is not granted a permission to create a school in her village. Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 149

There are several characters in the novel that exhibit unusual idiolects. One of these characters is referred to as Speaker. At funerals, Speaker’s role is to provide the aboriginal community with words of encouragement. During Old Nora’s funeral he says what follows (1):

1) It’s how we are, siem. It is the proud of our women, siem. We are providers, mothers, tireless workers, siem. Wolf makes do with what is at hand, siem. There are no beggars among the wolf clan siem, (Maracle 18-19).

Speaker adds the word siem at the end of each sentence. Four out of five times, the word is italicized. The lack of italics in the last case can most probably be attributed to a printing error. According to the “Hul’qumi’num’ Words” dictionary, the word siem means “honoured people” or “respected ones”. However, the novel itself does not provide any explanation. Within the passage, siem functions as a foreign word for a non-native reader and a repetition at the same time, both of which have already been identified as orality features. A reader unacquainted with the aboriginal Canadian culture may also notice intercultural differences connected with funeral ceremonies. These differences are later pointed out by the main character herself. The novel features also other words in aboriginal languages (2), although they appear seldom at best:

2) “Everyone seemed to be bent on cutting, gutting and staking fish to dry; shtwhen, they called it” (Maracle 126).

There are several characters within the novel, who speak with a specific accent or mispronounce words. The character that displays these features the most is without a doubt Madeline. Due to the fact that she comes from a different part of the country, her accent sounds foreign to the ears of the remaining characters (3), (4):

3) “Never figured out how come dem people like our faces so much dey paint ‘em” (Maracle 166). 4) “My back teet ain’g flodin’ no more” (Maracle 172).

Despite the fact that the novel is written in English, it is implied that the characters do not always use the language. If that is the case, whatever accent Maracle had in mind when writing Madeline’s character, she had to translate it twice, first into English and then into broken English. Accents and dialects are inherent to spoken language. Although making spelling errors in writing 150 Michał Kapis may seem like a trivial task, accurate mimicking of a dialect in writing is a true challenge to which not every writer is equal. Firstly, there are the epizeuxis that have also been present in short stories (5), (6):

5) “Her hair was fine and black, black, black, straight and long” (Maracle Ravensong 166). 6) “The movement took on a rhythm… pick, pick, shovel, shovel, slap, slap, whoosh, whoosh…” (119).

It is worth noting that in the analyzed texts, this type of repetition is usually reserved for short, one-syllable words. Secondly, the novel also features a few examples of anaphora (7):

7) “Ten days of blinding effort. Ten days of struggle. Ten days of continuous grief and defeat” (93).

Thirdly, there are a few points in the novel, where Stacey is subject to powerful emo-tions. During these times, her thoughts become chaotic which is represented in an equally chaotic type of repetition (8):

8) Killed herself over lust… splash, whish… killed… She fought to amplify the articulation of river’s rush to sea in order to deaden the script set off inside by Polly’s passing. Killed herself over lust. Splash… killed herself over… whish… killed herself. (Maracle Ravensong 40)

Finally, because of the novel’s length, there is a possibility to use another type of repetition. Certain phrases are repeated throughout the novel. They appear every several pages. It takes a while for a reader to notice the pattern but once he/she does, the phrase becomes emphasised with every consecutive use. Similarly, the characters of Polly, Old Nora and Dominic regularly reappear in Stacey’s thoughts after their death. Ta-ble 1 shows a few examples of such phrases and characters together with an inventory of their reappearances.

Table 1. Reappearing characters and phrases in Ravensong: A Novel. Phrase or character Initial appearance Consecutive appearances p. 17, 25, 33, 51, 77, 96, “Nora seemed to whisper Old Nora 98, 103, 114, 124, 127, back at her”, p. 12 194. “Nora’s voice interrupted No use thinking about her thoughts: “No use p. 25, 124, 149. thinking about”” p. 17 Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 151

p. 63, 65, 71, 80, 81, 106, “Polly killed herself”, Polly 112, 127, 129, 148, 150, Carol whispered”, p. 38. 184, 188, 197. “Too much Raven,” they p. 111, 114, 179, 187, Too much Raven both laughed”, p. 107 198, 199.

At some point in the novel, Stacey admits that she is obsessed with dead people. The characters appear in her mind, commenting on current events in the novel. Stacey is not able to understand why Polly committed suicide and tries to make sense out of it. Her conclusion comes only at the very end, in the epilogue. The reader learns that Stacey’s nephew and Celia’s son has shot himself. What previously seemed unimaginable and inconceivable became true. Stacey realises that the culprit in both her nephew’s and Polly’s case was lack of connectedness among community members. By the time of the epilogue, Stacey’s village ceased to exist. The villagers spread across the country. Their bonds did not survive such test. This ultimately drove Celia’s son to suicide. This ele-ment can be seen as yet another repetition, which closes the entire plot. What is more, the reader learns that the entire book was a tale told by Stacey, Momma and Rena to Jacob, Stacey’s son. Jacob wanted to know why his cousin committed suicide. It shows that the book is indeed nothing else but an oral tale told to a family member. However, the epilogue is not the only instance in the novel where storytelling plays an important role. Due to the fact that majority of the plot is set in a native community, the novel includes many instances of oral storytelling. The sole number of times the word “story” appears in the novel is astounding. The very process of storytelling is also well described. The following fragment (9) talks about Old Nora:

9) When she was on a roll with some story or other she stood up and assumed the beauty and cadence of Speaker. Her eyes were large and shaped like Raven’s, snappy and black, her skin dark but her hair auburn, almost red. She kept it sleek and tied back away from her handsome face. She was beautiful when she spoke. Her gestures were expressive, perfectly timed and graceful. (Maracle Ravensong 98)

The stories in the novel serve several different functions. When Stacey reminisces about Old Nora, she remembers what people used to say about her. Nora’s husband died and the woman took on all the male responsibilities instead of marrying again. The conservative villagers were not pleased with her behaviour, but one of the elders, Grandpa Thomas, recounted a story about a warrior woman. This woman had two spirits and was a mother and a fighter at the same time. Grandpa Thomas came to the conclusion that Old 152 Michał Kapis

Nora must be a descendant of that warrior woman, therefore, her behaviour is acceptable. This example shows how stories are used as guidelines for establishing rules in native communities. In some cases, stories may also be used as a way to break news to somebody. When Jim, Stacey’s father, dies and his twin brother moves in to live with them, Stacey’s mom tells her a story which was previously told to her by Grandpa Thomas. The story talks about twin brothers, one of whom was a woman’s husband, while the other was the father of her children. Stacey then realises that Jim was not her biological father. She is shocked and does not know how to react (10).

10) Some stories aren’t worth telling and this was one of them. She waited for her mother to finish and then some. She did not want to exhibit any outrage until she had had a chance to think this through. (Maracle Ravensong 102)

Stacey’s mom uses a story to convey sensitive information to her daughter. Stacey however does not appreciate that fact. It is one of the very few instances in the analysed texts where a story has negative connotations. After Stacey learns the truth about her father, she is visibly upset and Ella asks her what is wrong (11).

11) What is wrong? You and Momma have a fight? “I can’t tell you, ta’ah,” she muttered. “Then it must not be your story to tell,” (105)

The above example presents the idea that a story may belong to a specific person. Ella continues saying that if Stacey cannot talk about something, it clearly does not affect her that much and, therefore, she should not be upset about it. Ella proceeds to tell Stacey another story. This time, its purpose is to educate Stacey and calm her down. The girl indeed feels better after listening to the woman’s soft voice and not even paying much attention to the words of the story. The educational purpose of stories is later expanded upon when Stacey comes up with a story about the Alphabet family in order to explain to her mom the intricacies of writing. Finally, stories are also shown to possess the ability to help people understand others better. At one point in the novel, Stacey’s mom and Madeline get interested in a history book that Stacey uses for her course at the white school. Although they cannot read and do not even fully understand the concept of literacy, they realise that the book is filled with white stories (12).

Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 153

12) “Their stories must tell you something about them, eh?” (Maracle Ravensong 146).

Stacey suggests that she will read it for them. Despite the fact that the book is written in a dry, factual style, characteristic for the written mode of communication, the two women become very emotional and invested with the historical figures and their fate. They even cry listening to the history of Chinese dynasties. This example shows how the attitude towards stories differs between the two communities. Storytelling is so prevalent in the novel that one can notice some expressions involving the word “story” used by the characters and the narrator as a verb. Although such a form used to function in English, it is now obsolete. Still, it appears in the novel on multiple occasions (13), (14).

13) “Stacey decided to story this up and lace it a little with more laughter” (115). 14) “Rena’s steady gaze seem to be studying her and figuring her out, storying up her character (...)” (122).

What is more, a story is also used as a synonym for life (15), (16).

15) “Momma had just given him another chance to alter the text of his story before he left this world” (Maracle 162). 16) “(...) she decided to live her life as though there were another place in which your story had to be accounted for” (162).

All in all, a closer look at Ravensong reveals that it is packed with orality features. Although it is presented as a typical novel, it is heavily influenced by oral tradition and spoken language. The structure of the text imitates the plot. Just like Raven struggles to unite the two communities and make them work together, the writer fights to reconcile the spoken and the written mode of storytelling. And although whether or not she has managed to oralize her novel remains for every reader to decide, it is clear that Lee Maracle purposefully used orality techniques to transcend the boundary between the spoken and the written. However, she is not the only author who has managed to do that.

Orality in Zakes Mda’s The Heart of Redness

The Heart of Redness is a complex tale covering two interconnected stories which are told alternately throughout the length of the novel. Both of them take place in a real region of South Africa, mostly in a village called Qolorha- 154 Michał Kapis by-Sea and its surrounding areas. One part of the story is set in the past and revolves around a historical event referred to as Xhosa cattle-killing. The cattle-killing took place in the years 1856-1857. At the time, the Xhosa people were struggling against the British colony. British governors of the Cape Colony attempted to forcefully take control over the native communities which led to numerous skirmishes and clashes between the two groups. What is more, the outbreak of a lung disease caused many Xhosa animals to die. Then news spread that a prophetess had appeared. There was a young girl named Nongqawuse, who claimed that she had seen figures of Strangers. The Strangers had told her that the Xhosa should kill all their cattle and burn all their crops as they are contaminated. If the people complied, new cattle and new people would emerge from the land of the dead, granting the Xhosa power to chase the British out of their lands. The prophecy has caused the nation to split into Believers and Unbelievers. The main characters in this part of the story are twin brothers called Twin and Twin-Twin. After Twin loses his prized horse to the lung disease, he begins to believe in the prophecy. This leads to a conflict between the brothers, as Twin-Twin claims that the entire story has been concocted by the British to make the Xhosa starve to death. The Believers frequently gather at the mouth of a river where they experience miracles of the prophetess. They soon start killing their cattle and burning their crops. However, for the prophecy to be fulfilled, the herds belonging to Unbelievers must also be sacrificed. Therefore, Twin leads a party of men to attack the Unbelievers’ homesteads, including his brother’s. Twin-Twin is put in a difficult situation. He is strongly against the Believers but Unbelievers become associated with supporting the British rule and Christianity. He feels ashamed to be one of those people, especially since his father has been killed by the British. However, he feels he has no other choice. The prophetesses continue to set newer and newer dates for the coming of the new people. However, nothing happens. The Unbelievers are blamed for the failure of the prophecies. Many Believers starve to death. The prophetesses then get arrested. The British take advantage of the situation to take over Xhosa land. Starving people are forced to work for them as slaves in order to survive. In the end, Twin dies and his wife and son are left to roam the beach in search of what little food the sea can provide. The other narrative takes place in modern times. The conflict between Believers and Unbelievers still continues, represented by two elders of Qolorha-by-sea: Zim the Believer and Bhonco the Unbeliever. Zim and his followers embrace the history of cattle killing, praising Nongqawuse and blaming Unbelievers for failure of the prophecy. He stands for preserving the natural beauty of the region and Xhosa traditions. Bhonco on the other hand is all about progress. He wants developers to build a casino complex in Qolorha- Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 155 by-sea, claiming that the investment would provide jobs for villagers. He also feels very strongly against Nongqawuse and wants people to forget about this part of Xhosa history. The two elders clash on every occasion trying to discredit and offend each other. The main character in this narrative is Camagu. Originally born in Johannesburg, Camagu lived most of his life in America, where he gained higher education. He returns to South Africa after the fall of apartheid. He ends up at Qolorha-by-sea following a girl whom he briefly talked with in Johannesburg. Both Zim and Bhonco see his arrival as a chance to win an educated gentleman to their side and further their argument. Camagu tries to stay impartial but initially he supports the development of the casino. He also starts a romantic relationship with Bhonco’s daughter, Xoliswa Ximiya, who is a principal of the secondary school in the village. Xoliswa is beautiful but cold and distant. She supports her father’s beliefs in progress and development. She longs for cities and western countries such as the USA. Camagu, on the other hand, is disenchanted with America and becomes gradually fascinated with the surrounding nature and Xhosa culture. The difference in their respective perceptions of the world deepens which ultimately destroys their relationship, despite the fact that the villagers believe they are going to get married. John Dalton, a white store owner who lives in the community explains to Camagu that the casino will only bring harm to the village. The developers will bring their own experienced workers to build it, many acres of pristine land will be sacrificed in order to create the complex. In addition, the villagers will lose their free access to the coastline, which will be reserved for rich white tourists. Camagu is convinced and although he still tries to eschew the conflict between Believers and Unbelievers, in his mind he supports Zim’s faction. He also falls in love with Zim’s daughter, a wild girl named Qukezwa, who spends her days swimming in the sea and exploring the wilderness. Qukezwa is difficult to understand. One moment she seduces Camagu and flirts with him, then suddenly she pretends that she does not know him. Camagu starts a business in the village, selling traditional Xhosa outfits to hotels and tourists. This further infuriates Xoliswa who sees everything traditional as a sign of backwardness. Their conflict reaches its climax when developers come to the village to lay groundwork for the casino. Camagu openly supports the Believers and comes up with a solution to protect the land: he declares that they could apply for the area to become a place of historical heritage due to its connection to the cattle- killing. This way Nongqawuse’s history saves her land from peril. This act finally causes Camagu to win Qukezwa’s heart. In the end, they get married and have a son. Characters in oralized literature are often named based on their function or characteristics, rather than a contemporary naming scheme. This naming technique is especially prevalent in The Heart of Redness. The most 156 Michał Kapis obvious example would be the two brothers Twin and Twin-Twin. Twin-Twin was the first one to be born but, according to Xhosa customs and perhaps a bit counter-intuitively, he is considered the younger brother. Their main characteristic in the novel is that they are twin brothers, which is all visible in their names. Many characters have epithets or praise names that follow their names and are consistently repeated throughout the novel. The most notable examples include Mlanjeni, The Man of the River and Twin-Twin, He Who Wakes Up With Yesterday’s Anger. Even Sir George Gray, the white governor of the Cape Colony, gets a praise name, although it is used mostly ironically. He is called The Man Who Named Ten Rivers, which was supposed to be the governor’s great accomplishment when he worked at the New Zealand colony. Most Xhosa people do not recognize it as anything praiseworthy. Nevertheless, the praise names are used much more often than the character’s real names (with the exception of Twin-Twin, whose real name is already very telling). Even having real names and praise names at their disposal, some characters refer to each other based on their relationship. Example (717) shows part of a conversation between Twin and Twin-Twin.

17) “You have been taken up by this foolishness, child of my mother” (Mda 47).

The brothers refer to each other in such manner on multiple occasions. Qukezwa, the wife of Twin, calls him “the father of Heitsi”, Heitsi being the name of their son; Bhonco refers to John Dalton as “son of my dead friend” etc. These epithets are unique to the relation between two given people. Their function in an oral story, where there are many characters may be to remind the audience who a certain person is. The audience is not able to go back a couple of pages and reread the fragment that they have forgotten. Naming becomes even more convoluted when one looks at names of gods or ethnic groups. South Africa is a very multicultural country. Nowadays it recognizes eleven official languages, each of which has many different dialects. Each of these languages also has a new set of names for other languages, ethnic groups, cultural and religious customs etc. The following examples list just a few of the names used in the novel which contain oral elements:

18) “Tsiqwa is the one who tells his stories in heaven” (Mda 13). 19) “Whereas Nxele had preached about Mdalidephu, the god of the black man; Thixo, the god of the white man; and Thixo’s son Tayi, who was killed by the white people, Mlanjeni worshipped the sun” (8). Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 157

20) “NoPetticoat is one of the amahomba—those who look beautiful and pride themselves in fashion” (25). 21) “(…) and become amaGqobhoka (…) those who have converted to the path that was laid for us by Christ” (28). 22) “(…) the clothing of amaqaba—those who have not seen the light and who still smear themselves with red ochre” (32).

As demonstrated above, even names of Christian deities have been transformed and given Xhosa names. Cultural divisions and relations between particular groups may seem to be an impassable maze for a reader who is not well-versed in South African cultural studies, however, the author always explains the terms he uses in text and sometimes even repeats the explanation whenever a term reappears. It may be argued that such a naming pattern is not far off the original system of giving surnames in Europe. People originally adopted surnames based on their professions (Smith, Potter) or characteristics (Brown, Young). It is also a common strategy in stories or TV programmes aimed at children. This naming scheme seems therefore to be very natural and, perhaps, connected more with the oral than the written. The Heart of Redness follows two distinct storylines one of which takes place long before the other. The tale of Twin and Twin-Twin serves as a historical shadow that constantly follows the story of Camagu. This sort of structure presents a whole new possibility for repetitions and realising the concept of circular time. Whereas in case of Ravensong repetition was identified as an orality feature, in The Heart of Redness it also seems to be one of the main plot points. As in the case of the previously discussed texts, The Heart of Redness features many epizeuxis (23) and anaphora (24), (25).

23) “Cook! Cook! Cook!” (Mda 41). 24) “People have eyes. They can see. They have ears. They can hear” (57). 25) “No other sun came. No great collision happened. No darkness” (77).

Similarly to Ravensong, there are also certain phrases and characters in The Heart of Redness that reappear on many occasions throughout the novel. Table 2 below lists several of those phrases.

158 Michał Kapis

Table 2. Reappearing characters and phrases in The Heart of Redness. Consecutive Phrase or character Initial appearance appearances p.22, 29, 37, 43, 44, 50, “It was indeed the headless The headless ancestor 54, 55, 63, 64, 76, 90, body of Xikixa.” p.12 159. “Since then the amaXhosa p. 48, 49, 74, 76, 103, The Russians and Russian have been great admirers of 107, 108, 129, 135, 136, ships the Russians.” p. 37 141. p. 10, 14, 47, 67, 91, “On nights like this his Scars of history 133, 137, 151, 152, 153, scars become itchy.” p. 7 157. “To remain red all our life! p. 54, 85, 86, 93, 94, Redness To stay in the darkness of 99, 153, 159. redness!” p. 42

The title of the headless ancestor refers to Xikixa, the father of Twin and Twin-Twin. During a fight with the British, the soldiers killed him and cut off his head. The head was never recovered. Because of that, Xikixa is regarded not to be an effective ancestor as he is unable to communicate with other ancestors clearly. Throughout the novel he is often blamed for the arguments between Believers and Unbelievers. The fixation on Russians is also somewhat connected with Xikixa’s story. One of the previous governors of the Cape Colony was Sir George Cathcart. He was much hated by the Xhosa people, as he had beaten them in the War of Mlanjeni. This was also the war in which Xikixa was killed. In 1854, Cathcart participated in the Crimean War against Russia, where he lost his life. The news reached the Xhosa people, who assumed that the Russians must be a black nation comprised of the spirits of their ancestors who died in the War of Mlanjeni. The Russian army was therefore led by none other than headless Xikixa, and the Xhosa believed that Russian ships will promptly reach the shores of South Africa to help the Xhosa fight the British. It became a custom to sit on a hill and gaze at the ocean waiting for Russian ships. The scars of history are a hereditary condition that originated with Twin- Twin. At some point in his life, Twin-Twin was accused of being a wizard and a group of men attacked him, leaving scars on his body. These scars were then inherited by Twin-Twin’s descendants all the way to Bhonco. Whenever Bhonco gets angry with the Believers, the scars tend to itch. It was previously believed that only boys in Twin-Twin’s line can inherit the scars. However, as Bhonco does not have any sons, at the end of the novel it is his daughter Xoliswa who has to carry the burden. Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 159

Redness in the novel is a synonym for backwardness. Villagers use red ochre in various traditional rituals and as a means to beautify their skin. The Unbelievers often say that they want to lead their people out of redness and into civilization. This is also one of the main motifs in the novel, as redness is even present in the title. The Heart of Redness also brings to mind Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness and it is clear that the two novels share many themes. The fact that the novel covers two separate narratives spanning several generations provides a unique opportunity for repetitions. It has to be mentioned that in both storylines, there are characters that have identical names and who behave in a similar manner. It can be said that in these cases, the characters serve as repetitions. As a tribute to his believing ancestors, Zim names his first-born son Twin and his daughter Qukezwa. Qukezwa was also the name of the original Twin’s wife. The two women share wild personality and affinity with the sea. They are also strong Believers in Nongqawuse’s prophecy. Both Qukezwas name their sons Heitsi after the Khoikhoi prophet Heitsi Ebib. Both Twins end up dying of hunger in the city. Zim’s family even copies the name of the original Twin’s favourite horse, Gxagxa. Another example of a repeated character is John Dalton. The original John Dalton worked with the British government and had his hand in killing Xikixa. During the events of the cattle-killing, Twin-Twin was forced to ally with Dalton, although he strongly regretted it, as he felt that he should have avenged his father and killed Dalton instead. In the modern time storyline, the reader meets the descendant of the original Dalton with the same name. This Dalton is a businessman, who owns a store in the village. At the end of the novel, defeated and desperate Bhonco attacks and seriously injures Dalton to take revenge for his long-dead ancestor. The copiousness of repetitions of single words, phrases and characters in the novel is undeniable. However, there is one more type of repetition that has been used by Zakes Mda, namely repetition of events. The conflict between Believers and Unbelievers which is constantly brought to the reader’s attention is itself one big repetition. It is especially apparent in the case of Zim, who constantly tries to mimic the traditions of Believers. At the time of the cattle-killing, Believers used to shave off their eyebrows to differentiate themselves from Unbelievers. They also participated in cleansing rituals by taking emetics. Zim revives these traditions by doing the same in the modern time storyline. Repetitions are visible on every page of the novel. The climax comes at the very end, where the two perspectives, historical and modern, fuse together and the reader is presented with the same scene in the past and in the present: Qukezwa tries to make Heitsi go into the water but the boy refuses, claiming that he does not belong to the sea (26). 160 Michał Kapis

26) She will make a swimmer of Heitsi yet. Heitsi is afraid of the sea (…) How will he survive if something happens to her? Heitsi is afraid of the sea (…) Qukezwa sings in soft pastel colors and looks at Heitsi. Qukezwa swallows a mouthful of fresh oysters and looks at Heitsi. Oh, this Heitsi! Heitsi is afraid of the sea. (Mda 161-162)

The fact that this is the last scene of the novel proves how crucial the oral technique of repetition is for the understanding of the story. In order to achieve such effect, the author must have planned it ahead and execute it in such a way as to make it understandable even for a reader who might not be used to similar writing techniques. This final repetition is the cherry on top of the entire novel. It ties the two perspectives together, while accentuating the repetitive nature of orature. It also demonstrates how exactly the circular perception of time in primary oral cultures works. At this moment, the two narrations in the novel are seen as one and the same and the reader is really able to see that in this case, time moves on a circular track. Apart from the orality features that play a major role in the novel, there are also many minor elements that add to its oral feel. First of all, the two storylines are distinguished by means of tense. The story of the cattle-killing is written in the past tense, while the modern time story - in the present tense. The only exception to this pattern is the ending, where the two timelines fuse and are both narrated in the present tense. At multiple points throughout the novel, the transition between the past and the present is so smooth that it may take some time for the reader to realise that it has happened, especially since some characters share the same names. Secondly, the author uses a good number of demonstrative pronouns which have already been established as another feature of orality. The pronouns usually accompany names or titles (27), (28), (29):

27) “We do not complain if this son of Ximiya cries for beautiful things” (Mda 43). 28) “This descendant of the headless one must lament” (43). 29) “That son of Kala has something to him” (8).

Thirdly, The Heart of Redness contains more foreign words than Ravensong. Only the initial appearance of a foreign word is marked with italics. Zakes Mda explains all the words for the sake of the non-African reader, but he does so in various manners. Sometimes, the word is followed by its general classification, e.g. as a custom, a type of clothing or a ritual (30), (31):

Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 161

30) “It did not throb with stick fights and umtshotsho dances” (Mda 8). 31) “She is wearing her red-ochred isikhakha dress” (25).

The reader does not need to know the exact translation of these words. It is enough that the novel provides the general category to which a given item belongs. Sometimes, when the meaning of the word is more important for understanding the plot, the author provides a longer explanation (32), (33):

32) “Both Twin and Twin-Twin were among the amakhankatha—the men who taught initiates how to be men” (Mda 8). 33) “(…) by clapping hands and dancing what looks like the toyi-toyi— the freedom dance that the youth used to dance when people were fighting for liberation” (17).

In rare cases, the foreign word is thoroughly explained in a separate paragraph (34):

34) “Or is it their way of removing iqungu?” 35) Iqungu was vengeful force generated by war medicine. A soldier who died in the war could have his iqungu attack the slayer, bloating and swelling his body until he died. The amaXhosa believed that the British soldiers had their own iqungu. Therefore, they mutilated the bodies of slain British soldiers to render their iqungu powerless. (Mda 11)

Interestingly, the explanations are very often provided inside dialogues. It may make some of them seem unnatural, however, it also adds to the oral feel of the novel (35), (36), (37):

36) “You never know with these amaGogotya, these Unbelievers” (Mda 121). 37) “The law says only the umga, the mimosa, can be cut without permission” (126). 38) “Umzi uyatsha! A homestead is burning!” (127).

If the story was oral, all the dialogues would be performed by one storyteller. Digressing and providing additional information seems much more natural in speech than in writing. The unnatural feel of these interjection is even deepened when one considers the fact that the characters do not speak English. Therefore, the translations are something added specifically by the narrator. In a typical written work this would probably be achieved by using footnotes or by providing a glossary at the end of the novel. It would not, however, have the raw oral connotation that has been achieved in The Heart of Redness. It has already been mentioned how indigenous communities might have negative perception of writing. It is seen as a tool of oppression and 162 Michał Kapis something that has come to them from the outside. Authors of oralized literature admit that there is a power struggle between the oral and the written and that it is difficult to achieve balance between these two modes of communication. Both Ravensong and The Heart of Redness describe a conflict that can very much be understood as a manifestation of this power struggle. In Ravensong there is a tension between the indigenous community and white inhabitants of the town. According to Raven, the only way to reconcile these two polar opposites is by causing an epidemic, forcing people to work together. It is equally as difficult to convey oral tradition within the written form. The authors often have to make compromises, as not every oral element can be successfully recreated on the pages of a novel. In The Heart of Redness the struggle is between Believers and Unbelievers. Unbelievers stand for technology and advancement, which can also be represented by education and writing. The Believers prefer the traditional way of living and oppose the changes brought by the Western culture. They protect their traditions and take care of the natural world, which are all characteristics of the oral. In both cases, the conflict is left unresolved, which shows that the power struggle is very much alive even to this day. Both novels provide numerous examples of orality features. Their volume and complexity proves that the authors are aware of the issue in combining the oral and the written. They purposefully use the techniques and strategies discussed to create a unique style of literature that is clearly marked with their indigenous heritage.

Works Cited

Cox, James H., and Daniel Heath Justice, editors. Oxford Handbook of Indigenous American Literatures. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Eigenbrod, Renate. “The Oral in the Written: A Literature between Two Cultures.” Canadian Journal of Native Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 1995, www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/15.1/Eigenbrod.pdf. Accessed 18 June 2017. Fee, Margery. “Writing Orality: Interpreting Literature in English by Aboriginal Writers in North America, Australia and New Zealand.” Journal of Intercultural Studies, vol. 18, pp. 23-39, 1997. Guma, Samson Mbizo. The Form, Content and Technique of Traditional Literature in Southern Sotho. Pretoria: Van Schalk, 1993. Hanson, Erin. “Oral traditions”, 2009, indigenousfoundations. arts.ubc.ca/home/culture/oral-traditions.html. Accessed 21 Nov. 2016. „History: Aboriginal Peoples, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada and the Treaty Relationship”, 2012, Orality in contemporary Canadian and South African … 163

www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1338907166262/1338907208830. Accessed 21 Nov. 2016. Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism. New York and London: Routledge, 2003. King, Thomas. “Godzilla vs Post-colonial”, Unhomely States: Theorizing English-Canadian Postcolonialism, edited by Cynthia Sugars, Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview press, 2004, pp. 183-191. Lord, Albert. The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960. McCall, Sophie. First Person Plural: Aboriginal Storytelling and the Ethics of Collaborative Authorship. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2011. Maracle, Lee. Oratory: Coming to Theory. Vancouver: Gallerie Publications, 1990. —. Ravensong: A Novel. Vancouver: Press Gang Publishers, 1993. Marchessault, Jovette. “Song One: The Riverside”. All My Relations: An Anthology of Canadian Native Fiction, edited by Thomas King, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990, p. 188. Mda, Zakes. The Heart of Redness. New York: Picador, 2000. Mũgo, Mĩcere Gĩthae. “African orature: back to the roots”. Coming of Age: Strides in African Publishing Essays in Honour of Dr Henry Chakava at 70, edited by Kiarie Kamau, and Kirimi Mitambo. Kenya: East African Educational Publishers Ltd, 2016, p. 64. Myres, John. Homer and His Critics. Edited by Dorothea Gray. New York: Routledge, 2015. Ong, Walter. Orality and literacy. New York: Routledge, 2002 [1982]. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Edited by Adam Parry. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Pinto, Cristina Ferreira. “The animal trickster – an essential character in African tales”, www.eten-online.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=164&forum= 12&post_id=211#forumpost211, 2009. Accessed 19 Dec. 2016. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the folk tale. Translated by The American Folklore Society and Indiana University, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968. Scheub, Harold. “African Literature”. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2002, www.britannica.com/art/African-literature/The-influence-of-oral-traditions- on-modern-writers, Accessed 18 June 2017. „Zanemvula Kizito Mda”. South African History Online, 2011, www.sahistory.org.za/people/zanemvula-kizito-mda. Accessed 20 March 2017.

Michał Kapis is currently a doctoral student at the Faculty of English, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.

Comptes rendus / Rewiews

Anna Żurawska Université Nicolas Copernic de Toruń

KATARZYNA WĘŻYK, KANADA. ULUBIONY KRAJ ŚWIATA. WARSZAWA: WYDAWNICTWO AGORA, 2017, 352 PAGES. ISBN 978-83-268-2559-0.

Le recueil de reportages1 de Katarzyna Wężyk, journaliste du quotidien polonais Gazeta Wyborcza, attire déjà par son titre sous forme de thèse avancée avec assurance : Le Canada, le meilleur pays du monde, mais éveille en même temps une méfiance puisqu’il renvoie à un stéréotype au sujet du Canada. Au fur et à mesure de la lecture, on s’aperçoit pourtant que l’auteure interroge cette thèse parfois en la confirmant, parfois en la remettant en cause, bref, en présentant des contrastes et contradictions de ce pays. Le titre ne prétend donc nullement à être affirmatif, mais il n’est pas pour autant ironique. Et malgré son caractère de confirmation qui est censé inclure l’incontestable, cette formule du titre est, en réalité, une invitation à redécouvrir le Canada d’aujourd’hui (le texte est d’une grande actualité et s’il se réfère à l’histoire, c’est pour montrer les conséquences du passé sur le présent) et à suivre l’itinéraire canadien, aussi bien au sens géographique que métaphorique. La motivation à écrire ce reportage est expliquée par l’auteure dans le premier chapitre : « C’est Justin Trudeau qui m’a envoyée au Canada », affirme-t-elle2. En effet, lors de la visite du Premier ministre du Canada en Pologne, au mois de juillet 2016 à l’occasion du sommet de l’OTAN, Katarzyna Wężyk a été chargée d’écrire un article sur Justin Trudeau qui a, par la suite, suscité un grand intérêt des lecteurs. Quelque temps après, son éditeur lui a proposé de partir pour le Canada « et vérifier si le divin Justin existe » réellement (Wężyk 32, c’est nous qui traduisons). C’est ainsi que

1 Pourtant, la forme de ces reportages ne répond pas toujours aux critères du genre vu que le témoignage direct de l’auteure est parfois négligé en faveur des informations historiques, sociologiques, etc. puisées dans des ouvrages critiques. 2 Voir l’interview « Katarzyna Wężyk i jej ulubiony kraj świata. O Kanadzie w “Studiu Dużego Formatu” ». 168 Anna Żurawska commence l’aventure canadienne de Katarzyna Wężyk et c’est là où il faut chercher la genèse du livre. Il semble que, même si la reportrice, qui est politologue et américaniste, a, au départ, quelques a priori par rapport au Canada et son Premier ministre, elle parte en voyage avec une curiosité et une ouverture à tous ceux et tout ce qu’elle peut y trouver. Ses observations relatées dans le reportage sont complétées, avec soin, par des informations de différents domaines puisées dans des ouvrages spécialisés, revues et journaux, ainsi que dans des émissions télévisées et sur des sites Internet. Une longue bibliographie (en majeure partie anglophone) à la fin du livre3 prouve que l’auteure a pris soin de se documenter bien et d’effectuer de minutieuses études pour préparer son texte. Il est pourtant étonnant que la reportrice n’ait pas eu recours à de riches et multidisciplinaires travaux des canadianistes polonais (rédigés aussi bien en polonais qu’en anglais et français)4 non seulement pour voir quels problèmes ont été déjà examinés, mais pour vérifier quels genres de discours sur le Canada sont présents dans le milieu polonais. Mais c’est probablement une décision consciente de l’auteure dont le texte n’a pas pour but d’examiner de manière strictement scientifique la situation au Canada, mais de comprendre la réalité quotidienne des Canadiens (quoique ses observations soient parfois de nature anthropologique, sociologique, historique, politique etc. dont la crédibilité est assurée par des professeurs des universités canadiennes qu’elle rencontre et qui l’aident à mieux comprendre, par exemple, le phénomène du multiculturalisme et de l’identité canadienne). Elle fait d’ailleurs de fréquentes références à la culture populaire (ex. l’histoire de la chaîne Tim Horton, la série américaine, Due South, où l’un des personnages principaux est membre de la Police royale du Canada, etc.)

3 La bibliographie comprend 32 pages et est divisée en fonction des chapitres (chaque chapitre a sa propre bibliographie) et des sources (livres, articles, autres). 4 Branach-Kallas, Anna, Sadkowski, Piotr (sous la dir.). Dialogues with Traditions in Canadian Literatures / Dialogues des traditions dans les littératures du Canada. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, 2005 ; Jarzębowska-Sadkowska, Renata (sous la dir.). Le Québec littéraire. Lectures plurielles. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, 2008; Rzepa, Agnieszka, Żuchelkowska, Alicja (sous la dir.). Kanada z bliska. Historia – literatura – przekład. Adam Marszałek, 2012 ; Kwaterko, Józef. Dialogi z Ameryką. O frankofońskiej literaturze w Québecu i na Karaibach. TAiWPN, Universitas, 2003 ; Jarosz, Krzysztof , Warmuzińska-Rogóż, Joanna, Szatanik, Zuzanna (sous la dir.). De la fondation de Québec au Canada d’aujourd’hui (1608-2008) : Rétrospectives, parcours et défis / From the Foundation of Québec City to Present-Day Canada (1608-2008). Para, 2009 ; Reczyńska, Anna. Braterstwo a bagaż narodowy. Relacje etniczne w Kościele katolickim na ziemiach kanadyjskich przed I wojna światową. Księgarnia Akademicka, 2013 ainsi que tous les numéros de TransCanadiana et de nombreux articles parus dans diverses revues et monographies. Katarzyna Wężyk, Kanada. Ulubiony kraj świata 169

À part le titre, c’est la structure et le côté formel du livre qui suscitent l’intérêt du lecteur. Or, les pages de garde avant contiennent la carte du Canada avec l’indication de l’itinéraire parcouru par Katarzyna Wężyk. Celui-ci s’étend de Charlottetown à Vancouver, donc il montre, que, sauf les territoires du Nord, la reportrice a traversé toutes les provinces du Canada de l’est à l’ouest en faisant halte à des endroits importants pour chacune des régions (Montréal, Ottawa, Toronto, Saskatoon, Fort McMurray, etc.) et en utilisant divers moyens de transport : avions, trains, bus, voiture (ce qui lui a aussi permis d’éprouver la grandeur physique de ce pays – elle a parcouru 7300 km) (Wężyk 302). La présence de la carte suggère, de prime abord, que la lecture va s’ordonner selon des critères géographiques et recouvrir ainsi l’itinéraire du voyage réel de l’auteure, ce qui est d’ailleurs vrai. L’adoption d’une telle démarche dans le regroupement des informations transmises reste en accord avec l’opinion de Margaret Atwood, évoquée dans le dernier chapitre du texte de Katarzyna Wężyk (301), selon laquelle : tandis que « l’Europe est hantée par le temps, l’Amérique du Nord est hantée par l’espace » (c’est nous qui traduisons)5. Pourtant, la répartition du texte en chapitres, dont les titres interpellent le lecteur, montre que la structure de l’ouvrage ne s’appuie pas seulement sur des catégories définies par l’espace mais se concentre surtout sur la figure de l’homme. En effet, le titre de chaque chapitre contient le prénom d’une personne (ou le surnom, comme c’est le cas de Buddha – Stephen « Buddha » Leafloor). Un tel procédé montre tout de suite que c’est la vie de l’homme dans cet énorme espace qui intéresse le plus la reportrice. Qui sont donc les personnes choisies pour héros de son reportage ? À part le premier chapitre, intitulé « Justin » (Trudeau), qui met en scène le personnage célèbre, le chapitre « Ania » qui renvoie à l’héroïne de la fameuse série de romans de Lucy Maud Montgomery (et quelques autres qui placent au centre les figures historiques ou légendaires telles que Sam Steele ou Tommy Douglas), la plupart des personnages sont des gens ordinaires, représentants de cette société multiculturelle. Leurs histoires ont parfois le caractère personnel – touchant (chap. « Tina ») ou bouleversant (l’opinion d’Eickerman Velazquez) – et parfois, elles servent à illustrer une tendance plus générale. Derrière chaque visage, le lecteur découvre donc un autre problème canadien. Le chapitre « Justin », qui sert en même temps à justifier la rédaction du reportage, fonctionne comme une sorte d’introduction où Katarzyna Wężyk s’interroge si l’image médiatique et la vision idéaliste de Justin Trudeau6 et

5 „Europe is haunted by time, but North America is haunted by space.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZD3UWXHJCmk. En ligne. 5 mai 2018. 6 La présentation du phénomène de Justin Trudeau donne à Wężyk l’occasion d’analyser le succès politique de son père, Pierre E. Trudeau, et d’évoquer les temps de son gouvernement. 170 Anna Żurawska celle de son gouvernement paritaire et multiculturel sont représentatives pour le Canada entier. Tout au long du texte, elle présente des exemples concrets et réconfortants de la gentillesse proverbiale des Canadiens (ex. en faisant un détour de 40 km, une dame l’aide à atteindre la maison aux pignons verts – chap. « Ania »), de leur hospitalité et l’ouverture à l’autre (ex. l’accueil chaleureux des réfugiés de Syrie et l’aide sociale qui leur a été accordée, financée aussi bien par le gouvernement que par des personnes privées – chap. « Khaled »), elle est témoin de la cohabitation de diverses cultures et nations (surtout quand elle visite de grandes villes canadiennes), mais en même temps elle démontre bien des failles dans ce « meilleur pays du monde » aussi bien sur le plan historique, sociale qu’écologique. L’un des problèmes honteux de l’histoire du Canada décrit par Katarzyna Wężyk est la question des Premières Nations (chap. « Geronimo » et « Tina »). À travers le témoignage de Geronimo, « survivor » de Mohawk Institue (Wężyk 126), l’auteure explique les méthodes peu fameuses (appelées « le génocide culturel », Wężyk 127) appliquées par le gouvernement canadien pour assimiler les Amérindiens et les conséquences qui en découlent aussi pour le présent (la dépendance aux drogues et à l’alcool, le harcèlement sexuel sur mineurs, la délinquance, les suicides, etc.). Juxtaposée au premier chapitre et à la description des idéaux (multiculturels) du Canada, cette partie du reportage dénonce une dissonance entre la vision de l’ouverture à l’Autre et la présentation du quotidien des réserves indiennes. Pourtant, dans le chapitre qui suit, « Buddha », la reportrice harmonise un peu ce paysage conflictuel en présentant des initiatives des gens privés et des organisations non-gouvernementales qui, à travers la musique hip-hop et le soutien psychologique, visent à aider les jeunes délinquants, aussi ceux qui viennent des tribus indiennes. Une autre fausse note résonne dans le chapitre consacré à l’Alberta et à son industrie pétrolière. La reportrice présente habilement d’abord les dangers écologiques qui en résultent, le paysage apocalyptique de Fort McMurray, l’activité de Greenpeace et le milieu des employés dont le travail est étroitement lié à la prospérité de l’industrie pétrolière, donc elle fait entrecroiser des opinions des gens dont les intérêts s’excluent. Elle les fait, par la suite, confronter avec la rhétorique de Justin Trudeau, ce qui rend ce chapitre bien intéressant. Le chapitre suivant, « Mary-Rose », met en scène le même Fort McMurray lors du plus grand incendie du Canada. Katarzyna Wężyk obtient la relation de la situation durant le sinistre en interrogeant des habitants de la ville ruinée par la catastrophe. Elle ne montre pas seulement les dégâts, mais souligne en même temps la bonne organisation pendant l’évacuation ainsi que la solidarité et l’entraide des Canadiens ce qui ne contribue qu’à affirmer de nouveau la thèse de départ. Katarzyna Wężyk, Kanada. Ulubiony kraj świata 171

Les chapitres « Paweł » et « Claudia » relatent les observations de l’auteure sur Vancouver, point final de son voyage. Tout en admettant que la capitale de la Colombie-Britannique « a la réputation de l’une des plus agréables (et plus chères) villes au monde » (Wężyk 256), elle dénonce d’un côté la pauvreté et la corruption du quartier Downtown Eastside, et de l’autre, les ghettos des riches immigrants chinois qui influent sur le marché immobilier de la ville, ce qui est désavantageux pour les habitants. Le dernier chapitre, « Margaret (…) » (Atwood), a le caractère de conclusion où l’auteure pose la question sur les valeurs et surtout sur l’identité canadienne et essaie de comprendre pourquoi le modèle multiculturel fonctionne au Canada, ce qui n’est pas le cas dans les pays européens. L’une des réponses est donnée au début de ce chapitre par le professeur Daniel Hiebert : « Le Canada n’a pas une forte identité nationale. Tant mieux ! » (Wężyk 300). Il voit la raison de cette situation dans le fait que les Canadiens n’ont pas de mémoire collective et sont orientés vers le présent et le futur, ils ne retravaillent pas sans cesse l’histoire et les traumas du passé. Il dit : « L’histoire n’est pas notre sport national » (Wężyk 303). La reportrice compare cette situation au patriotisme national prôné en Pologne et montre des avantages de la situation canadienne. Son explication n’épuise pourtant pas le sujet et simplifie des choses. Il suffit d’observer le respect des Canadiens pour les monuments datant du XVIIe ou du XVIIIe siècles et de rappeler la devise du Québec : « Je me souviens » qui, certes, suscite toujours des débats sur sa réelle signification, mais renvoie sans doute à l’histoire et aux origines du Québec. De plus, la littérature de cette province, d’abord celle du XIXe siècle, créée comme réponse au rapport du Lord Durham, puis celle de l’époque de la Révolution tranquille (ex. Speak white de Michèle Lalonde) et enfin, la littérature contemporaine7 et le courant des écritures migrantes, témoignent de l’intérêt des Québécois pour l’héritage historique et culturel, mais constituent aussi une constante interrogation de l’identité individuelle et nationale, ce qui se répercute aussi dans les études littéraires8. Qui plus est, la vague d’immigration de l’Europe au Canada après la deuxième guerre mondiale fait que la mémoire et les traumas de la guerre ont été transférés aussi sur le terrain du Canada9. Au lieu d’une mémoire collective, il faudrait

7 Cf. LaRue, Monique. L’Œil de Marquise. Boréal, 2008. 8 Voir la note en bas de page numéro 4. 9 En témoignent l’ouvrage d’Anna Branach-Kallas, Uraz przetrwania. Trauma i polemika z mitem pierwszej wojny światowej w powieści kanadyjskiej. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, 2014, ainsi que la plupart des articles parus dans TransCanadiana volume 9 de 2017 portant le titre Conflicts, Confrontations, Combats. Canada in the Face of Wars / Conflits, confrontations, combats. Le Canada face aux guerres en témoignent. Par exemple : Dion, Robert. « Le Canada et Auschwitz : enquête et fiction dans Le Cœur 172 Anna Żurawska peut-être parler des mémoires au pluriel et essayer de chercher, afin de répondre à la question sur l’identité et le multiculturalisme, d’autres explications. En dépit de cette simplification, une telle juxtaposition des pays nationaux de l’Europe (qui se confrontent actuellement à l’immigration massive et à la radicalisation de divers nationalismes) et du Canada multiculturel a pour avantage de faire réfléchir le lecteur polonais sur les valeurs nationales et européennes confrontées à la situation au Canada. Le bilan fait dans ce chapitre, qui récapitule des côtés positifs et négatifs, semble confirmer la thèse posée dans le titre du reportage. Reste probablement à débattre la question de la réception de ce livre en Pologne : est-ce que les Polonais ont besoin de découvrir le Canada avec Katarzyna Wężyk ? Même si la présence du Canada en Pologne est appréciable dans le milieu des canadianistes, l’intérêt pour ce pays, en dehors de ce groupe de spécialistes, reste limité. Le savoir sur le Canada se restreint souvent à quelques idées évoquées d’ailleurs par Katarzyna Wężyk : hockey, gentillesse, sirop d’érable, etc. Le reportage, de manière très accessible10, dépeint le panorama du Canada d’aujourd’hui en essayant d’approfondir les origines de certains phénomènes. Les commentaires des internautes polonais qui habitent au Canada, laissés sur le site de Gazeta Wyborcza11 expriment un mécontentement face à la relation de Katarzyna Wężyk. Ils disent que la réalité est différente de celle présentée par la journaliste et que la personne qui a passé deux semaines au Canada ne peut avoir qu’une vision fragmentaire des conditions de vie dans ce pays. Quoiqu’ils aient raison qu’il faut plus de temps pour connaître bien un pays, le livre ne prétend pas à l’exhaustivité mais constitue une sorte de synthèse. Il a le caractère de rencontre d’une Polonaise avec différents représentants du Canada, c’est un dialogue avec une autre culture. Il faut apprécier une grande curiosité et ouverture intellectuelle à ce qu’elle y découvre. Et bien que parfois, ses découvertes ne soient pas les découvertes par excellence, le reportage se caractérise par une fraîcheur de regard, d’un regard qui tend à être holistique. Bref, la lecture de ce livre est à recommander.

d’Auschwitz et Artéfact de Carl Leblanc », Berek, Ewelina. « Entre Europe et États-Unis – tensions dues à la Seconde Guerre mondiale dans Le ciel de Bay City de Catherine Mavrikakis », Acerenza, Gerardo. « Les Italiens de Montréal, la Seconde Guerre mondiale et le fascisme : transferts culturels et littéraires », etc. 10 Il s’agit de la clarté du langage, de l’aisance du style et de l’habilité dans la présentation des problèmes abordés. 11 Voir l’interview « Katarzyna Wężyk i jej ulubiony kraj świata. O Kanadzie w “Studiu Dużego Formatu” ». Katarzyna Wężyk, Kanada. Ulubiony kraj świata 173

Bibliographie

Acerenza, Gerardo. « Les Italiens de Montréal, la Seconde Guerre mondiale et le fascisme : transferts culturels et littéraires ». Transcanadiana. Polish Journal of Canadian Studies/ Revue Polonaise d’Études Canadiennes, vol. 9, 2017, pp. 169–185. Branach-Kallas, Anna, Sadkowski, Piotr (sous la dir.). Dialogues with Traditions in Canadian Literatures / Dialogues des traditions dans les littératures du Canada. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, 2005. Berek, Ewelina. « Entre Europe et États-Unis – tensions dues à la Seconde Guerre mondiale dans Le ciel de Bay City de Catherine Mavrikakis ». Transcanadiana. Polish Journal of Canadian Studies/ Revue Polonaise d’Études Canadiennes, vol. 9, 2017, pp. 186–198. Dion, Robert. « Le Canada et Auschwitz : enquête et fiction dans Le Cœur d’Auschwitz et Artéfact de Carl Leblanc ». Transcanadiana. Polish Journal of Canadian Studies/ Revue Polonaise d’Études Canadiennes, vol. 9, 2017, pp. 133–151. Jarosz, Krzysztof, Warmuzińska-Rogóż, Joanna, Szatanik, Zuzanna (sous la dir.). De la fondation de Québec au Canada d’aujourd’hui (1608-2008) : Rétrospectives, parcours et défis / From the Foundation of Québec City to Present-Day Canada (1608-2008). Para, 2009. Jarzębowska-Sadkowska, Renata (sous la dir.). Le Québec littéraire. Lectures plurielles. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, 2008. Kwaterko, Józef. Dialogi z Ameryką. O frankofońskiej literaturze w Québecu i na Karaibach. TAiWPN, Universitas, 2003. LaRue, Monique. L’Œil de Marquise. Boréal, 2008. Reczyńska, Anna. Braterstwo a bagaż narodowy. Relacje etniczne w Kościele katolickim na ziemiach kanadyjskich przed I wojna światową. Księgarnia Akademicka, 2013. Rzepa, Agnieszka, Żuchelkowska, Alicja (sous la dir.). Kanada z bliska. Historia – literatura – przekład. Adam Marszałek, 2012. Wężyk, Katarzyna. Kanada. Ulubiony kraj świata. Wydawnictwo Agora, 2017. « Katarzyna Wężyk i jej ulubiony kraj świata. O Kanadzie w “Studiu Dużego Formatu” ». En ligne. 5 mai 2018. http://wyborcza.pl/10,155173,22511140,katarzyna-wezyk-i-jej-ulubiony- kraj-swiata-o-kanadzie-w-studiu.html?disableRedirects=true. « Margaret Atwood sings “Canada’s Really Big” ». En ligne. 5 mai 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZD3UWXHJCmk.

Dagmara Drewniak Adam Mickiewicz University

FROM LIFE WRITING TO FICTION WRITING: POLISH- CANADIAN CONNECTIONS IN RECENT PUBLICATIONS IN POLAND AND IN CANADA

LUCJAN KRAUSE FROM THE VISTULA TO THE CANADIAN GREAT LAKES: A LIFE’S JOURNEY. TORUŃ: NICOLAUS COPERNICUS UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2017. 245 PAGES. ISBN 97883-231-3890-7

KASIA JARONCZYK AND MAŁGORZATA NOWACZYK POLISH(ED) POLAND ROOTED IN CANADIAN FICTION. TORONTO – BUFFALO – LANCASTER (UK): GUERNICA EDITIONS, 2017. 214 PAGES. ISBN 978-1-77183-144-4

The year of 2017 witnessed the publication of several important books within the field of Polish-Canadian writing. All of them prove the fact that Polish- Canadian writing in all its varied forms is noticeable and has been gaining greater visibility lately. Despite obvious differences between the two texts presented here I have decided to discuss them together in one review as they mark important (and new) tendencies in the development of Polish-Canadian literature written in English. Putting these two texts together does not mean, however, that the other ones published last year are unimportant or less intriguing, but, rather, is supposed to show how divergent routes Polish- Canadian writing can take. Lucjan Krause’s From the Vistula to the Canadian Great Lakes: A Life’s Journey is classified by the editors as a memoir (though it should rather be defined as an autobiography) of a Polish-Canadian physicist and published by Nicolaus Copernicus University Press in a series of Archives of Polish Emigration. The narrative is edited by Professor Józef Szudy from the

Polish-Canadian Connections 175

Institute of Physics, Professor Anna Branach-Kallas, Head of the Canadian Studies Resource Center at the Faculty of Languages and Professor Mirosław A. Supruniuk, Head of the Archives of Polish Emigration at the University Library, who have contributed to the book by adding ‘Introduction’ and editing the narrative. Furthermore, the whole text is preceded by a short ‘Foreword’ prepared by the Rector of Nicolaus Copernicus University, Professor Andrzej Tretyn. The involvement of such eminent specialists in various fields only proves the importance of Professor Krause’s account as a systematic story worth knowing and pondering over. It encapsulates his life from the beginnings in Poland, as he was born in 1928 in Poznań, through the war years spent in Warsaw, having taken part in the Warsaw Uprising, being a POW, evacuation via France and Italy to his emigration to London and, finally, to Canada. With this meticulously reconstructed history, supplemented with a bunch of photographs and occasional footnotes, Krause intertwined two other large stories, that of his family life and his career. It is exactly his career as a physicist at the University of Windsor which made him establish the long lasting and fruitful connections with the Experimental Physics Chair of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Poland. As a result of being the head of the Department of Physics at Windsor and a leader of a dynamically developing experimental center for atomic and molecular physics in Canada, Krause could offer extremely valuable help for the Polish physicists in the form of international exchange programs, availability of publications unknown to Poles, chances of using sophisticated equipment necessary to carry out advanced research for those Polish specialists in physics who managed to cooperate with Professor Krause in Canada. With time, the exchange of scientists included also physicists from other universities such as Jagiellonian University in Cracow, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poznań University of Technology, University of Warsaw and some other scientific institutions in Poland. The ‘Introduction’ from the editors preceding the memoir per se lists all these institutions and scientists who benefited from the generosity and organizational skills of Professor Krause. In recognition of Lucjan Krause’s merits, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Senate of Nicolaus Copernicus University and furthermore, its university publishing house decided to publish his autobiography. According to Krause himself, the idea for writing his life story came from his friends and family members who insisted on his writing down the account of his life. As he turned 82, he decided to do this by combining his family memories together with the social, political and scientific backgrounds which made his life so vibrant and unconventional. His detailed descriptions are

176 Dagmara Drewniak supported by his wife’s diaries and a book comprising the history of his Warsaw Uprising Battalion (Robert Bielecki’s “Gustaw” – “Harnaś” Dwa Poswtańcze Bataliony, Warszawa: PIW, 1989) in order to give correct dates and timelines. He, however, mentions that fact that he originally intended to write this text only for children and grandchildren. The story is a very fastidious account stretching from his early, predominantly happy childhood spent in Poznań and the vicinity. The readers can reconstruct through his life the portrait of a middle-class family living in an affluent environment in a pretty large Polish city. With the outburst of the Second World War, everything changed for the Krauses, who left Poznań and went towards the east of Poland, having finally settled down in Warsaw. Through their family members, the Krauses managed to establish a life for themselves there and Lucjan started attending school as well as joined the Polish patriotic branch of scouts which at the war time formed auxiliary forces to the Polish Home Army, the armed resistance movement. As a member of this group, he entered the next important phase of his life, namely that of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. Being a POW, he was sent to Bergen Belsen POWs camp which bordered the infamous concentration camp, from which, after liberation, at the age of 17, he managed to go to France and Italy, from which he traveled to London. Being discouraged by the communist government’s rule in Poland, he decided to apply for the permit from the army to study chemistry in London. During the successful period of studies he met his future wife, Margaret, a student of cello at the Royal Academy of Music. After the Krauses completed their studies, they decided to emigrate to Canada which turned out to be a very smooth process and Lucjan Krause pursued his MA studies there as well as enrolled in a PhD program in physics. Upon graduation, they moved to Newfoundland where he found employment at the university in St. John’s and embarked on a research project within the field of atomic fluorescence. From this point on, the autobiography is a meticulously written study of Krause’s academic career in which he depicts his scientific fascinations and gainings together with the descriptions of his voyages both with the family and to meet other fellow physicists at various conferences as well as his transfer to Windsor. In these sections the most interesting moment seems to be the first visit to Poland Professor Krause undertook in 1962. He was invited to give a research seminar at Polish Physical Society in Poznań, which gave him a chance to visit Poland and his parents after almost 20 years. During this first visit, he also established links with Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń and met Professor Jabłoński. This was the beginning of a very fruitful and beneficial cooperation resulting in exchange visits, joint research and publications as well as friendships. The following years were very busy for

Polish-Canadian Connections 177

Professor Krause as he pursued his research at Windsor, his six children were growing up, his wife also continued to play cello at public, and he traveled extensively all around the world to attend conferences, give talks and offer seminars. He also includes stories of his happy family life, full of traveling and music as the whole family played instruments and they were keen on watching operas and attending concerts. Near the end of the text, Professor’s Krause’s book also incorporates some grievous moments especially when his beloved wife, Margaret becomes ill and finally dies. Lucjan Krause, now 90, is however, still involved in some research as Professor Emeritus and surrounded by a large and happy family. From the Vistula to the Canadian Great Lakes: A Life’s Journey is an interesting narrative of one’s successful and intense life as well as a documentary of scientific developments in physics and chemistry. It also becomes unique in its detailed way of presenting Polish-Canadian relations within science and international exchange. It has been Professor Krause’s determination which guaranteed for many Polish scholars a chance to visit Canadian laboratories and conduct experiments in atomic physics with the usage of advanced equipment unavailable in Poland at that time. The only flaw of the text is the indulgence in too many details of personal life, vacations and musical concerts the family took part in, but on the other hand if the book, according to the author’s declaration, was intended for his children and grandchildren, it is an understandable move as what enriches such stories are exactly the sometimes colorful and sometimes mundane details of family trips and get-togethers. By all means, the idea of paying tribute to Professor Krause’s involvement in research and Polish-Canadian cooperation by publishing his memories in Poland is worth noting and very satisfactory for the author himself. I would, however, strongly recommend Nicolaus Copernicus University Press to advertise the book in Canada as well since the story of Lucjan Krause’s life is absolutely engrossing and should be promoted in the country he chose to live in. Another book that I would like to discuss here is of completely different type. Polish(ed). Poland Rooted in Canadian Fiction edited by Kasia Jaronczyk and Małgorzata Nowaczyk with a ‘Foreword’ by Magda Stroińska is the first anthology of short stories written by authors of Polish extraction as well as a few writers fascinated with Poland and its imagery. The problem of anthologizing is not an easy one and the questions of what, how, and whom to anthologize has been raised both in Poland and in Canada (cf. Sojka 2010 and Kamboureli 2000). Many, much smaller ethnic groups have had their anthologies published in Canada for years. The Polish group, though substantial in numbers, did not have one until 2017. There had been

178 Dagmara Drewniak anthologies of poetry published in Polish and English but prose has not been given such attention. This sole fact already proves this book is an extraordinary literary achievement. Kasia Jaronczyk and Małgorzata Nowaczyk, first generation Polish immigrants in Canada, involved is completely different careers than writing, have managed to invite many writers of Polish origins to take part in the project as well as a few other authors who are inspired by the Polish themes and do not have any ancestors whose roots would go back to Poland or diasporas living in Poland at times. Hence, the anthology includes writers of Polish descent whose position on the literary market in Canada is more established, authors less known, and the ones interested in Poland; “writers who share Polish-ness” as the editors claim in the ‘Preface’ (2017: xi). The collection of short stories includes texts by writers of Polish or Polish-Jewish origins such as Aga Maksimowska, Andrew J. Borkowski, Ania Szado, Eva Stachniak, Jowita Bydlowska, Kasia Jaronczyk, Małgorzata Nowaczyk, Katarzyna Jaśkiewicz, Mark Bondyra, S.D. Chrostowska, Zoe Greenberg, David Huebert, Katharine Koller, Dawid Kołoszyc, Anna Mioduchiwska, Lilian Nattel, Douglas Schmidt and Norman Ravvin, and authors for whom Poland and Polish themes are literary inspirations: Corrine Wasilewski, Christian Robert Broerse, Lisa McLean, Pamela Mulloy, and Robert Young. It is interesting to see how the authors explore Polishness in their texts as well as depart from Polish-centered storylines. These are not simply the accounts of immigration to Canada, they do not batten upon simple nostalgia for the lost homeland, but they are stories of the generations that, despite the fact that some are the first or second generation immigrants, and some have no roots going back to Poland, freely use both Polish and Canadian locations, delve into Polishness in literal and more metaphorical ways. The texts gathered by Jaronczyk and Nowaczyk demonstrate that migrant writers as well as those interested in Central Europe are writers of global literature that does not have to be labeled exclusively as ethnic as it tackles varied, universal problems. Among the motifs noticed in the collection are the dilemmas of various relations such as mother- and fatherhood (Stachniak and Nattel), aspects of growing up, maturation and love (Szado and Maksimowska), haunting (Borkowski), exile (Kołoszyc), language (Jaronczyk), Jewishness (Ravvin) for instance. These stories have different shades and interpretative potentials and are by no means limited to the aforementioned themes. There are also different degrees to which Polishness is treated overtly and more covertly in the anthology. Some short stories like for instance, Andrew J. Borkowski’s “Ghost” discusses the strange appearance of a smell of the protagonist’s dead father who seems to haunt the Canadian house of the

Polish-Canadian Connections 179 family. The story seems to be a meditation on one’s place and belonging and the Polish focus occurs only in fragmented allusions, like the one comparing the odor to the scent of “a farm boy from the marshes of Polesie” (11) and through the references to Copernicus Avenue, which, for the readers of Borkowski’s linked short story collection Copernicus Avenue (2011) is an obvious reference to the Toronto Roncesvalles Avenue which has been the hub of Poles in Canada for decades. Sometimes, such allusions are even harder to spot as in the case of Lilian Nattel’s “The Last Refuge,” a story devoted to family relations as well as to the bond with the land. Except for the short mentions of the Polish sausage and mother “living under German occupation” (130), there is virtually no Polish theme explored overtly. Contrarily, there are narratives which are set in Poland and Polishness surfaces from the very first sentences. Pamela Mulloy in her “The Truth to Tell” explores a group of contemporary, young Poles working in big companies. Zoe C. Greenberg presents a powerful girl friendship depicted against the 1960s Communist Poland, where despite anti-Semitic moods and against all odds, a Jewish girl becomes a close friend with a Pole. Norman Ravvin’s treatment of Polish themes in “The Dulcimer Girl” is still different. This time, though the story is set in Poland, it is mainly through allusions, landscapes and music that the idea of the past heritage of Polish Jews emanates from the text. Apart from discussions on the idea of place, home, and belonging, Kasia Jaronczyk in her “Lessons of Translation,” inspired (ix) by Eva Hoffman’s seminal Lost in Translation (1989) examines the ways an immigrant picks up languages, finds oneself in and expresses through a new language. Not only does this story differ in terms of its structure and genre from the others in the volume, but it also offers an interesting insight into a linguistic aspect of migration. Varied as the collection is, it is also hard to discuss it unitedly. The stories display various narrative types, different subjects, lengths, and angles from which Polishness is discussed. As such a diverse volume of texts it cannot be really analyzed as one text. Its greatest value is its difference. The reader is offered an unusual and totally unique chance to read the texts by the leading authors of the Polish-Canadian group in the 21st century together. Its pioneering aspect is furthermore enriched by the inclusion of writers who are truly interested in Poland and Polish culture and draw certain inspiration from their travels to Poland as well as their fellow writers of Polish origins. It is a paradox that Kasia Jaronczyk, a microbiologist and Małgorzata Nowaczyk, a pediatrician and geneticist are the ones who came up with the idea and successfully compiled the first ever anthology of Polish-Canadian short stories.

180 Dagmara Drewniak

If I were to point out few drawbacks of this collection, I would indicate two small aspects of the book that leave the readers with the feeling of insufficiency. The first one of the ‘Foreword’ written by Magda Stroińska from the Department of Linguistics and Literature of McMaster University. Since this introductory chapter titled “Palimpsest Identity: Polish-Canadian Linguistic Condition” is inspired by Julia Kristeva and Ludwig Wittgenstein, one would expect a more thorough discussion on the titular palimpsest; an analysis similar to Stroińska and Cecchetto’s essay published in Exile, Language and Identity from 2003 perhaps. Another shortcoming of the collection is the inclusion of very short bios of the short stories’ authors. These are limited to listing where the particular author lives, or what awards they have won, sometimes a few titles are given, and at other times a profession and place of work are given. I am not sure if this is only my desire but I would love to read more about the authors, for example when and/or why they came to Canada, and in the case of non-immigrants how they became acquainted with Poland. This shortcoming may also refer to some stories at times. It is occasionally the case that when the reader becomes fully engrossed in a text, it finishes unexpectedly. These flaws do not diminish the value of the whole collection and definitely do not invalidate the editing work performed by Jaronczyk and Nowaczyk. The anthology Polish(ed). Poland Rooted in Canadian Fiction is a pioneering endeavor and should be noticed in the multicultural Canada as well as in Poland, a country whose emigration has been known for effusing their migrant experiences in literature for centuries. Both Lucjan Krause’s From the Vistula to the Canadian Great Lakes: A Life’s Journey and Kasia Jaronczyk and Małgorzata Nowaczyk’s Polish(ed) Poland Rooted in Canadian Fiction are two important books published in Poland and Canada in 2017. They promote Polish-Canadian relations and draw the readers’ attention to the varied appearances of Polish themes in Canada. These two texts also determine new directions and demonstrate new tendencies in migrant literature. While Krause’s autobiography demonstrates the successful life of a Polish scholar in Canada, it also includes unique discussions on Polish-Canadian scientific cooperation. Jaronczyk and Nowaczyk’s anthology is not only the first such an attempt but also offers an invaluable insight into the Polish and Polish-Jewish ethnic group in Canada and their literary achievements as well as redirects its readers to the fact that Poland and Polish culture may become a fruitful inspiration for writers who have no Polish antecedents but are definitely the embodiment of the Polish- Canadian connection.

Polish-Canadian Connections 181

This work was supported by the Polish National Science Centre (Narodowe Centrum Nauki) under Grant UMO–2017/27/B/HS2/00111.

Works cited

Borkowski, Andrew J. Copernicus Avenue. Toronto: Cormorant Books, 2011. Jaronczyk, Kasia and Małgorzata Nowaczyk, editors. Polish(ed): Poland Rooted in Canadian Fiction. Toronto: Guernica Editions, 2017. Kamboureli, Smaro. Scandalous Bodies: Diasporic Literature in English Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2000. Krause, Lucjan. From the Vistula to the Canadian Great Lakes: A Life’s Journey. Toruń: Nicolaus Copernicus University Press, 2017. Sojka, Eugenia. “Twórczość polskiej diaspory w Kanadzie a kanadyjski dyskurs literacki. Prolegomena do współczesnych badań.” Państwo-Naród- Tożsamość w dyskursach kulturowych Kanady, edited by Mirosława Buchholz and Eugenia Sojka. Kraków: Universitas, 2010, pp. 284-334. Stroińska, Małgorzata. 2003. “The Role of Language in the Re-construction of Identity in Exile.” Exile, Language and Identity, edited by Małgorzata Stroińska and Vittorina Cecchetto, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang 2003, pp. 95-109.

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIES

NEWSLETTER/BULLETIN DE L’APEC

15. 2017

TransCanadiana

GENERAL NEWS

New formula for the Secretary – Dr. Małgorzata newsletter Czubińska

To improve the process of distributing information, PACS decided to slightly change the newsletter formula. Since the 2012 Dr hab. Joanna Warmuzińska- edition the newsletter covers Rogóż receiving Pierre Savard information from the last calendar Award for the monograph year (2016 in the case of the present Szkice o przekładzie newsletter) or the information literackim. Literatura rodem relating to the year 2015, which was z Quebecu w Polsce not published in the previous newsletter. Dr hab. Joanna Warmuzińska-Rogóż –translation and Canadian literature specialist – was honoured with Pierre Savard Award in the category of the best Canadian Studies book PACS Executive written in foreign language. Pierre Savard Award is an annual prize of In May 2016 a new PACS Executive the International Council for was elected: Canadian Studies (ICCS/CIEC) given to authors of scientific monographs, President – Prof. Anna Branach- which significantly contribute to the Kallas promotion of Canada. Deputy President – Prof. Dagmara The subject of the award was Joanna Drewniak Warmuzińska-Rogóż’s monograph – Treasurer – Dr. Ewelina Berek „Szkice o przekładzie literackim. Literatura rodem

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 8/2016 z Quebecu w Polsce” a compound University of Silesia’s Publishing study of existing Polish translations House. of Quebec’s literature issued by the

PACS GRANTS

Until May 2012 PACS offered Details: programs allowing support for http://www.ptbk.org.pl/nagroda_ research trips within Poland and ptbk,18.html abroad, and for conference participation. The programs (incl. 2017 Nancy Burke Best M.A. conference, international travel, Thesis Award: library research, and lecture tours grants), however, were suspended Mgr Estera Wala (University of due to Canadian government’s Silesia) - A comparative study of decision to cease financial support Canadian - Israeli relations from of Understanding Canada Program theperspective of Canadian (incl. financial contribution to PACS government policies towards Israel budget). and the Jewish diaspora under the premierships of Stephen Harper and Justin Trudeau (thesis supervisor: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka)

NANCY BURKE BEST M.A. 2017 Honourable mentions: THESIS AWARD Mgr Michał Kapis (Adam Objective: to foster a new Mickiewicz University) Orality in generation of Canadianists by contemporary Canadian and South rewarding high-quality research at African aboriginal prose. (thesis M.A. level. The award is given every supervisor: prof. UAM dr hab. year to the author of the best M.A. Agnieszka Rzepa) thesis in Canadian Studies in Poland (written in Polish, English or French).

NON-PACS GRANTS

Nagroda Rektora Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Zawodowej w Research Grant: Bourse Gaston Koninie Miron 2017 offerte par l’AIEQ, en collaboration avec le Centre de Awardee: Dr. Ewa Urbaniak- recherche interuniversitaire sur la Rybicka, State University of Applied littérature et la culture québécoises Sciences, Konin. (CRILCQ).

Awardee: Katarzyna Wójcik (doctorante à l’Institut d’études romanes de l’Université de Adjunct professorship (Sept. 5, Varsovie) 2017 – for 3 years) – Department of English, University of the Fraser Valley, Canada - Adjunct Professor honorary position for three years related to research and Research Grant: „Kanada jako international co-operation. mocarstwo selektywne. Rola i pozycja międzynarodowa Kanady Awardee: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, po 1989 roku” (2011-2017). University of Silesia in Katowice Grant SONATA 2 - Narodowe Centrum Nauki Awardee: Dr. Marcin Gabryś (coordinator), Dr. Tomasz Soroka

PUBLICATIONS

Konstytucyjny z 1867 r. Ten liczący niemal 150 lat pierwszy z dwóch podstawowych dokumentów pisanej Marcin Gabryś Przewodnik po konstytucji Kanady zawiera podstawy Konstytucji Kanady. Część I. ustrojowe tego państwa. Ich Akt Konstytucyjny z 1867 zrozumienie jest bardzo trudne bez roku. Kraków: Księgarnia znajomości kontekstu historycznego, Akademicka, pp. 240 ISBN: ISSN: zapisów innych aktów prawnych, 9788376388335. a przede wszystkim bez uwzględnienia wpływu niepisanych elementów o charakterze konstytucyjnym, zwłaszcza konwenansów konstytucyjnych. W istotny sposób modyfikują one, a w niektórych przypadkach całkowicie wręcz zmieniają znaczenie zapisów powstałych w XIX wieku. Celem Przewodnika po konstytucji Kanady jest uzupełnienie polskich opracowań dotyczących systemu politycznego Kanady, poprzez interpretację wszystkich artykułów Aktu

Konstytucyjnego z 1867 r. Publikacja http://www.akademicka.pl/index.p nie ma jednak charakteru hp?detale=1&a=2&id=39456 wyczerpującego, a jej założeniem jest przystępne wprowadzenie Czytelnika Część pierwsza Przewodnika po w niezwykle obszerną problematykę konstytucji Kanady omawia konstytucjonalizmu kanadyjskiego. w syntetyczny sposób Akt

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

zrozumieć zapisy Aktu Konstytucyjnego z 1982 r., a w szczególności stanowiącej jego część Marcin Gabryś Przewodnik po Kanadyjskiej Karty Praw i Konstytucji Kanady. Część II Akt Wolności, niezbędne jest również Konstytucyjny z 1982 roku. sięgnięcie po najważniejsze Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka, orzeczenia i opinie wydane przez pp. 160. ISBN/ISSN: Sąd Najwyższy. Bez uwzględnienia 9788376389127. tych interpretacji niemożliwe jest zrozumienie wpływu kanadyjskich uregulowań konstytucyjnych na zmiany społeczno-polityczne, które dokonały się w ciągu ostatnich 35 lat. Tak jak część pierwsza Przewodnika po konstytucji Kanady, tak i druga nie rości sobie praw do bycia publikacją o charakterze wyczerpującym, przeciwnie ma stanowić solidną bazę do dalszego zgłębiania kanadyjskiego prawa konstytucyjnego

http://www.akademicka.pl/index.p hp?detale=1&a=2&id=39455 Marcin Gabryś, Tomasz Soroka Canada as a Selective Część druga Przewodnika po Power. Canada's Role and konstytucji Kanady omawia artykuły International Position after Aktu Konstytucyjnego z 1982 r. Celem 1989. Kraków: Księgarnia publikacji jest wyjaśnienie często Akademicka, pp. 332 ISBN/ISSN: suchych i technicznych zapisów 9788376387925 nowszego z dwóch najważniejszych dokumentów pisanej części konstytucji Kanady. Komentarze prezentują szerszy kontekst uregulowań konstytucyjnych, poprzez odwołania do innych aktów prawnych, jak również niepisanych części konstytucji. Co istotne, aby PUBLICATIONS

interests rather than the promotion of “untainted altruism” or stereotypical “Canadian values.” They argue that since 1989 Canadian foreign policy has moved from the more modest aims of a “middle-power” to a more self- assertive role of a “selective power” pursuing more narrowly chosen priorities – and often based on “simple profit and loss calculations” that have clashed with Canada's traditional favorable image in the world – even if few outside of

Canada seemed to notice. […] http://akademicka.pl/index.php?a= This is an essential read for those 2&detale=1&id=38524&lang=en wishing a greater understanding of Canada's rich history – or the The academic study of Canada has seismic global changes that have traditionally been the realm of shaken the international system Canadian scholars. For this reason it over the past three decades. In is easy for outsiders to view Canada as doing so they have provided a a semi-Nordic continental utopia superbly researched and highly existing peacefully under a benign readable work that provides a government that seeks only peace and crucial alternative to the mass harmony in the world. The reality is a media – that too often focus on the more complicated story. That is the personal traits of a specific leader at strength of this outstanding new book the expense of the more written by two young Polish scholars complicated and nuanced policies specializing in Canadian affairs. that actually determine a foreign They have put together an policy. This sort of dispassionate impressively researched monograph analysis is increasingly rare in an that combines a detailed analysis age dominated by the emotional outlining a rather basic premise: The arguments expressed in social world has changed dramatically media and opinion journalism and since 1989 – and Canada has these two young Polish authors are changed with it. In this well argued to be highly commended for this narrative they argue that in recent impressive accomplishment. years Canada's foreign policy has become one primarily based on

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Kalina Kukiełko-Rogozińska, Grzegorz Godlewski – redakcja naukowa pierwszego polskiego tłumaczenia: Marshall McLuhan, Galaktyka Gutenberga. Tworzenie człowieka druku, tłum. Andrzej Wojtasik, Warszawa: Narodowe Centrum Kultury, 2017. 480 pp. ISBN 978-83-7982-269-0

https://wydawnictwo.umk.pl/en/pr oducts/4153/from-the-vistula-to- the-canadian-great-lakes-a-lifes- journey

The book is a memoir of Lucjan Krause, Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of Windsor in Canada. Born in Poznań in 1928, as a scout and Home Army soldier, he took part in the Warsaw https://sklep.nck.pl/pl/p/Galaktyk Uprising and after its failure was a-Gutenberga/765 sent to a POW camp in Germany. The first part of the book focuses on this period in his life and presents a vivid description of many dramatic

events from an eyewitness Józef Szudy, Anna Branach- perspective. In 1951, after Kallas, Mirosław A. graduating from the University of Supruniuk, eds. Lucjan London, Lucjan Krause emigrated Krause. From the Vistula to to Canada and was awarded his the Canadian Great Lakes: A PhD in Physics at the University of Life's Journey. Toruń: Nicolaus Toronto. Afterwards he created a Copernicus University Press, 2017. vibrant experimental centre for 245 pp. ISBN: 978-83-231-3870-9 atomic and molecular physics at the

PUBLICATIONS

University of Windsor. In the past la mosaique canadienne. fifty years numerous physicists 150 ans d’histoire. (Katalog), from Toruń and other Polish pp. 160. Gdynia: Muzeum Emigracji scientific centres have participated w Gdyni in research conducted there as postdoctoral fellows. It was possible thanks to the cooperation initiated in 1963 by Lucjan Krause and Aleksander Jabłoński, the Head of the Physics Department of Nicolaus Copernicus University. The second part of Lucjan Krause’s book presents his account of this cooperation which allowed many Polish physicists to conduct experiments with the use of advanced equipment, not available in Poland at that time. In this way, http://www.polska1.pl/pl/dzialania Professor Lucjan Krause /aktualnosci/polacy_w_kanadyjski contributed significantly to the ej_mozaice_150_lat_historii development of physics in Poland. Thus, Professor Lucjan Krause’s Jak pisze w słowie wstępnym Jeremy memoir represents not only an Wallace, Charge d'affaires Ambasady essential contribution to the history Kanady w Polsce Kanadyjczycy of the development of atomic polskiego pochodzenia przyczynili physics in the last four decades of się ogromnie do zbudowania naszego the 20th century in Canada and kraju w każdej dziedzinie. Są oni Poland, but also provides insight integralną częścią naszej historii into Polish-Canadian scientific i będą istotną częścią naszej relations. przyszłości.

Czytelnik sięgając po katalog dowie się, że:

Anna Reczyńska, Dagmara – Opowieść o Polakach na Drewniak, Michalina Petelska terytorium dzisiejszej Kanady Polacy w kanadyjskiej zaczyna się po upadku powstania mozaice. 150 lat historii. listopadowego, kiedy inżynier- Poles in the Canadian emigrant Kazimierz Gzowski Mosaic. 150 Years of nadzorował budowę mostu History. Les Polonais dans kolejowego na rzece Niagara. POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

– Masową emigrację z ziem polskich rozpoczęli Kaszubi w 1858 roku, osiedlając się na terenach dzisiejszej prowincji Ontario. – Najstarszą organizacją polonijną w Kanadzie jest Towarzystwo Krzysztof Majer – guest editor Bratniej Pomocy Świętego Józefa, of Literatura na Świecie 03- założone w 1872 roku przy 04/2017 “Nowa Kanada” (An niemieckiej parafii w Berlin (dziś issue devoted to recent English Kitchener) w prowincji Ontario. Canadian literature), pp.404. – W okresie międzywojennym do Warszawa: Instytut Książki, Kanady wyjechało 140 000 osób z ISBN/ISSN: 977032483017103 polskimi paszportami. – Polscy emigranci mieli ogromny wkład w historię i współczesność Kraju Klonowego Liścia: budowali drogi, mosty, pierwsze linie kolejowe i domy na preriach. Podczas II wojny światowej przybywali jako uchodźcy, a w czasach Solidarności jako imigranci polityczni. – Osoby polskiego pochodzenia są też obecne w życiu społecznym i politycznym Kanady, od parlamentu federalnego po rady miejskie. – Pierwszym w historii Kanady ministrem stanu ds. http://www.literaturanaswiecie.art. wielokulturowości był Polak, pl/archiwum.htm?ID5=480&ID=of Stanley Haidasz. erta – W 2011 roku polskie pochodzenie etniczne zadeklarowało ponad 255 000 mieszkańców Kanady, a polskie korzenie rodzinne jako jedne z kilku – 755 500.

ARTICLES / BOOK CHAPTERS / CONFERENCE PAPERS / INTERVIEWS

The list of articles and book Colloque : International Conference chapters, conference papers / Colloque International, «The recently published or presented by Americas in Canada/Les Amériques Polish Canadianists. du Canada », 20-21.10.2017 , Brno, République tchèque, Centre

d’Études Canadiennes; Université Berek Ewelina, Université de Masaryk. Titre de la communication Silésie, Sosnowiec : « Le roman sans aventure » à la « Entre Europe et États-Unis – François Blais. La nouvelle société tensions dues à la Seconde Guerre québécoise en manque d’American mondiale dans Le ciel de Bay City de dream. Catherine Mavrikakis » TransCanadiana 9 (2017): 186-198. Colloque : Zróżnicowanie języka Internetu / Les variétés langagières Colloque : La journée d’études - Les sur Internet, Université de Lodz, 20- littératures francophones 21 avril 2017. Titre de la d'aujourd'hui : communication : la « novlangue l'universel du et au quotidien, facebookienne » et l’imparfait du Université de Silésie, Sosnowiec, le subjonctif. Le langage dans les 24 avril 2017. Titre de la romans de François Blais. communication : « Les petits riens quotidiens ou l’univers de François

Blais »

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Branach-Kallas Anna, Nicolaus Bzdawka Marcin, Adam Copernicus University, Toruń Mickiewicz University

“Canadians in the Manichean Conference: X Łódzka Wiosna Universe of War: The Novels of Młodych Historyków, University of Ralph Connor.” Studies in 20th and Łódź, Łódź, 2017. Paper title: „Censés 21st Century Literature 41.2 (2017): et réputés naturels français”. 1-15. Polityka francuska wobec Indian w

Kanadzie w XVII w. “The Great War, Trauma, and Survivor Guilt in Selected Conference: VI Festiwal Kultury Contemporary Canadian Fiction Kanadyjskiej, Jagiellonian and Drama.” TransCanadiana 9 University, Kraków, 2017. Paper (2017): 23-36. title: Nowa (lepsza) Francja. Dwór „Zmienne obrazy traumy wojennej paryski wobec kolonii kanadyjskiej w anglojęzycznej literaturze o w drugiej połowie XVII wieku. pierwszej wojnie światowej.” Psychologia boju na przestrzenie Conference: Dzień Kanady, Adam dziejów Człowiek w doświadczeniu Mickiewicz University, 2017. Paper granicznym. Ed. Michał Stachura. title: Kanada Króla Słońce. Kraków: Historia Iagellonica, 2017. 87-100.

Conference: The Fictional First Czubińska Małgorzata, World War: Imagination and Université Adam Mickiewicz, Memory Since 1914, University of Poznań Aberdeen, 2017. Paper title: Women in War: A Comparative Study of « La renaissance de la légende Recent French, English and métisse ? Les enjeux de la Canadian Great War Fiction. traduction de la bande dessinée sur l’exemple de la version polonaise et Conference: Polacy i diaspora française de Louis Riel : A Comic- polska w Ameryce Północnej, Strip Biography de Chester Muzeum Emigracji, Gdynia, 2017. Brown ». TransCanadiana 9 Paper title: Inventing the Old (2017): 430-443. Country/Inventing Oneself: Portraits of Young Immigrants in Andrew J. Borkowski’s, Aga Maksimowska’s and Karolina Waclawiak’s Recent Fiction.

ARTICLES / BOOK CHAPTERS / CONFERENCE PAPERS / INTERVIEWS

Drewniak Dagmara, Adam Tekstowe światy fantastyki. Ed. Mickiewicz University, Poznań M.M. Leś, W. Łaszkiewicz, P. Stasiewicz. Uniwersytet w Between the global and the private: Białymstoku, Wydawnictwo the Second World War and the Cold Prymat, Białystok, 2017. 179-193. War in two novels by Lithuanian- Canadians. Brno Studies in English "Czekając na Sabrinę – analiza 43 (1): 127-141. wątków macierzyńskich w powieści https://digilib.phil.muni.cz/handle Margaret Atwood Ślepy zabójca". /11222.digilib/137080?locale- Bibliotekarz Podlaski 3.2017: 323- attribute=en DOI: 337. 10.5817/BSE2017-1-7 Conference: 50 Shades of Popular Conference: Polacy i diaspora Culture, Ośrodek Badawczy Facta polska w Ameryce Północnej, Ficta, Kraków 2017. Paper title: Muzeum Emigracji, Gdynia, Poland, Shakespeare Retold: Margaret 20-22.09.2017, Paper title: “‘[They] Atwood’s The Hag-Seed on the would say she was betraying Poland actuality of The Tempest. already.’ Themes and motifs in recent texts written by Canadian Conference: Wyobraźnia przestrzenna writers of Polish origins.” – przestrzeń wyobrażona, University of Bialystok, Bialystok 2017. Paper Conference: Redefining Australia title: Przestrzeń i jej funkcje w Rzece and New Zealand: Historical Złodziei Michaela Crummey’a. Heritage and Contemporary

Perspectives in Language, Culture Conference: Fantastyka a realizm, and Literature, Uniwersytet University of Bialystok, Bialystok Opolski, 24-25.11.2017, Paper title: 2017. Paper title: Dyktatura oczami “‘Storytelling is an ancient art.’ kobiet – analiza porównawcza Stories, Maps, Migrants and Opowieści podręcznej Margaret Flâneurs in Australian and Atwood i twórczości eseistycznej Canadian Literature” Herty Müller.

Feldman-Kołodziejuk Ewelina, Jakubczuk Renata, Université Uniwersytet w Białymstoku Maria Curie-Skłodowska Lublin "How Fuck Became a Winged Deity: on the birth of a new religion in « Une „bande d’amis” dans les Margaret Atwood's dystopian pièces de jeunesse de Marcel trilogy Oryx and Crake, The Year of Dubé ». Ami(e)s et amitié(s) dans the Flood and Maddaddam". les littératures en langues POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017 romanes. Mélanges de littérature à rebours ? Le cas de Au retour des offerts à Czesław Grzesiak. Renata oies blanches de Marcel Dubé » Jakubczuk (dir.). Lublin : Wyd. Colloque : Współczesny dramat i UMCS, 2017. 323-334. teatr wobec wojny, przemocy i « Minorité francophone défavorisée uchodźstwa, Uniwersytet dans la dramaturgie de Marcel Dubé. Warszawski, Warszawa 2017. Zone (1953), Florence (1957), Un Communication: « W poszukiwaniu simple soldat (1958) ». Être en tożsamości: powrót do źródeł w minorité, être minorité. Anita Wybrzeżu (1999) i Pogorzelisku Staroń, Sebastian Zacharow (dir.), (2003) Wajdiego Mouawada » Łódź : Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, 2017. 221-231.

« Une Révolution tranquille : Kukiełko-Rogozińska Kalina, l’évolution de l’image du père dans School of Humanities of the Polish la dramaturgie québécoise », Association for the Adult Education Romanica Silesiana 12 (2017) : 95- in Szczecin 107. „Oblicza wojny w kontekście teorii « Le mythe d’Œdipe à rebours ? Le mediów MarshallaMcLuhana”, cas de Au retour des oies blanches (wspólnie z K. Tomankiem), de Marcel Dubé ». Romanica Adeptus 2017/10. (Także w wersji Cracoviensia nr 2/2017 : 117-123. angielskiej jako: “Faces of war in Colloque : Les littératures the context of Marshall McLuhan’s francophones d'aujourd'hui: media theory”). Tekst dostepny on- l'universel du et au quotidien, line: Uniwersytet Śląski, Sosnowiec 2017. https://ispan.waw.pl/journals/inde Communication : « Les ennuis du x.php/adeptus/article/view/a.1511. quotidien à l’aube de la Révolution „Obrazy emocji – emocje świata. tranquille dans Zone de Marcel Fotografie wojenne Rity Leistner”, Dubé et à l’aube du troisième (wraz z K. Tomankiem), Kultura millénaire dans Cendres de cailloux Współczesna 2017/2: 14-27. de Daniel Danis » „Gutenberg w galaktyce Colloque : Le passé et le présent : McLuhana”, Kultura Współczesna rencontre des idées à l’occasion du 2017/1: 196-206. 125e anniversaire de la philologie française à Cracovie, Uniwersytet Conference: Mury. Ruchy Jagielloński, Kraków 2017. migracyjne i uchodźstwo w Communication : « Le mythe d’Œdipe przestrzeni kulturowej i historycznej, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Kraków 2017. Referat: ARTICLES / BOOK CHAPTERS / CONFERENCE PAPERS / INTERVIEWS

Poza punkt zbiegu. Projekt Levant Romanica Cracovienisa, 2017, vol. Trilogy Rity Leistner. 17, cahier 2, pp. 125-135. Conference: III Seminarium « Schodząc na ulicę z gołymi rękami Młodych Medioznawców I (L.Trouillot” Niedziela 4 stycznia” Komunikologów: Do it yourself w », Nowe Książki, vol. 1/2017 cahier: mieście Know How, Collegium Da 1175, pp. 24-25. Vinci, Poznań 2017. Referat: „La Pologne”, L’Année Francophone Fotografia wojenna Rity Leistner. Internationale 2017-2018, vol 26, Conference: III Polski Kongres 2017 (http://www.agora- Estetyki: media, nowe media czy francophone.org/manifestations/an post-media sztuki?, Akademia nee-francophone-internationale- Sztuki, Szczecin 2017. Referat: Old no26-2017-2018/article/pologne- theories, new stories – Marshall par-jozef-kwaterko) McLuhan i jego teoria sztuki. Colloque : « Le passé et le présent: Conference: III Zjazd Polskiego rencontre des idées. 125 ans de Towarzystwa Kulturoznawczego: Philologie Roamne à Cracovie », 29- Kultury w ruchu. Migracje, 30 mai 2017, Kraków, Uniwersytet transfery, epistemologie, Jagielloński ». Titre de la Uniwersytet im. Adama communication: « ‘Le nègre Mickiewicza, Poznań 2017. Referat: debout’: l’esprit du jazz et du blues Prawie jak w domu. Projekt chez les poètes de la Harlem „Basetrack” i jego niespodziewane Renaissance et de la Négritude konsekwencje. franco-caribéenne ». Colloque : « ‘Je ne sais quoi?’ An Exploration of Humor’s 10-14 juillet Kwaterko Józef, Université de 2017, Montreal, , 29 Conference of Varsovie International Society for Humor Study & Observatoire de l’humour « L’humour: la maladie infantile de de l’Université du Québec à Parti pris ». Avec ou sans Parti pris. Montréal». Titre de la Le legs d’une revue (Gilles Dupuis, communication: « Humour en Karim Larose, Frédéric Rondeau et mode mineur : le ‘’je ne sais quoi’’ Robert Schwarzwald, dir.), Québec, dans les écrits essayistiques de Nota bene, 2017, pp. 407- 422, ISBN Dany Lafferière ». : 978-2-89518-561-8 Colloque : International Conference « ‘Le nègre debout’ : l’esprit du jazz / Colloque International, «The et du blues chez les poètes de la Americas in Canada/Les Amériques Harlem Renaissance américaine et du Canada », 20-21 pażdziernika de la Négritude franco-caribéenne ». POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

2017, Brno, Czech Republik, Storytelling and Storywork as Canadian Studies Center / Centre Reflections of Indigenous d’Études Canadiennes; Masaryk Ethnobotanical and University – Université Masaryk, Ethnoecological Knowledge Masarykovà Univerzit. Titre de la Systems and Practices. communication: « Négriture et ré- Conference: British Association for enracinement » : l’Amérique Canadian Studies Conference comme espace de compagnonage (BACS) 42nd Annual Conference. dans la poésie québécoise de la Canada 150: A Celebration of the Révolution tranquille » 150th Anniversary of Canadian Colloque : Le Centre de l’Académie Confederation, High Commission of Polonaise des Science à Paris en Canada, Canada House, London, collaboration avec Le Centre de 2017. Paper title: Narratives as Civilisation Polonaise, Université Pathways for Retaining and Paris-Sorbonne, le 16 mars 2018, Renewing Ethnobotanical and Conférence publique: « Les Ethnoecological Knowledge Polonais noirs en Haïti : une Systems and Practices. historie qui sort de l’oubli »

Majer Krzysztof, University of Madeja Rafał, University of Łódź Silesia in Katowice “A Loop of String: Storytelling Guest editor of Literatura na Across Language Barriers.” Bridges Świecie 03-04/2017 "Nowa Between Cultures: Ties and Knots. Kanada" (An issue devoted to Ed. Agnieszka Adamowicz- recent English Canadian literature). Pospiech, Ewa Borkowska, and Tomasz Kalaga. Cambridge Essays: “Śpiewki spod podłogi: Scholars Publishing, 2018. muzykalizacje M. A. Jarmana”, 34-46.

Conference: Indigenous/Local Interviews: “Pisarz postkanadyjski. Expressions of Culture in Z Rawim Hage’em rozmawia Storytelling, Drama, Theatre and Krzysztof Majer”, 347-365. Performance – Traditional and Contemporary Canadian and Polish Translations: Upper Silesian Perspectives. Rawi Hage, Karaluch (Cockroach, Conference organized by the 100-page excerpt, 265-346) University of Silesia and University Madeleine Thien, “Proste przepisy”, of the Fraser Valley, Sosnowiec, („Simple Recipes”, 97-110). Poland, 2017. Paper title: ARTICLES / BOOK CHAPTERS / CONFERENCE PAPERS / INTERVIEWS

John Gould, “Opowieści na dłoni; „Canada`s Cooperation with Poland Dwie prozy” (Selections from Kilter in the Face of the Crisis in Ukraine and The Kingdom of Heaven) 111- (2014-2016)”. TransCanadiana 9 120. (2017): 321-335. Mark Anthony Jarman, “Poparzeniec na teksaskiej Conference: “Zmiany w polityce werandzie”, („Burn Man on a Texas zagranicznej państw w dobie nowej Porch”), 5-22 (co-translated with administracji Stanów Jolanta Kozak). Zjednoczonych”, organized by Mark Anthony Jarman, “Prowadzą Polskie Towarzystwo Studiów ich głosy” („Guided by Voices”) 23-33 Międzynarodowych, Oddział w (co-translated with Jolanta Kozak). Łodzi, University of Łódź, 1 December 2017. Paper title: Renegocjacje NAFTA – perspektywa kanadyjska Marczuk-Karbownik Magdalena, University of Łódź „Canada will not stand idly by ...: Ukraine in the Foreign Policy of Petelska Michalina, University Canada”. International Studies: of Gdańsk Interdisciplinary Political and “Report : Poles in the Canadian Cultural Journal, 2/18/2016, Łódź Mosaic. 150 Years of History”, 2016, 121-131. Polish American Historical https://www.ceeol.com/search/arti Association Newsletter, September cle-detail?id=498080 2017: 7 – 8. https://www.degruyter.com/downl oadpdf/j/ipcj.2016.18.issue-2/ipcj- Conference: Sixth World Congress 2016-0013/ipcj-2016-0013.pdf on Polish Studies – 75th Annual Meeting of the Polish Institute of „Canada and the European Union in Arts and Sciences of America the 21st Century – Problems and (PIASA), Kraków, 2017. Paper title: Perspectives in the Transatlantic Polish heroes of Canada. The 150th Relations”. Global Challenges to the anniversary of the Canadian Transatlantic World. Eds. Cristina Confederation. Crespo, Daniel Silander, Donald Conference: II Międzynarodowa Wallace, Isabel Albella, Alcalá de Interdyscyplinarna Konferencja Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones Naukowa Muzeum Emigracji w de la Universidad de Alcalá, 2015, Gdyni „Polacy i diaspora polska w 103-113. Ameryce Północnej”, Gdynia 2017. Paper title: Reemigracja Polaków z POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Kanady po II wojnie światowej w Conference: Polacy i Diaspora świetle „Kroniki Tygodniowej” oraz Polska w Ameryce Północnej, „Związkowca”. Muzeum Emigracji, Gdynia.2017. Paper title: Fala imigracyjna lat Exhibition in the Emigration 80. i jej wpływ na polską grupę Museum in Gdynia: Polacy w etniczną w Kanadzie Gdynia 21- kanadyjskiej mozaice: 150 lat 22.09.2017 historii, Poles in the Canadian mosaic: 150 years of history, Conference: O życiu i twórczości Polonais dans la mosaique Bogdana Czaykowskiego. canadienne – co-author of: concept Międzynarodowa konferencja of the exhibition, exhibition naukowa w 85. rocznicę urodzin i scenario, texts. 10. rocznicę śmierci pisarza, Rzeszów 2017. Paper title: O życiu i twórczości Bogdana Czaykowskiego. Reczyńska Anna, Jagiellonian University Conference: Międzynarodowa konferencja naukowa w 85. rocznicę Kasper Pawlikowski, "Droga do urodzin i 10. rocznicę śmierci Rawdon", A. Reczyńska Ed. "Studia pisarza. Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny" 1(2017): 341-371. Współautorstwo scenariuszy i tekstów wystaw pt. Polacy w "Actions for Independence of kanadyjskiej mozaice.150 lat Poland Taken in Canada during historii: Gdynia (Muzeum World War One". TransCanadiana Emigracji), Warszawa ( Ambasada 9 (2017). Kanady).

Teksty do albumu Polacy w kanadyjskiej mozaice.150 lat Rzepa Agnieszka, Adam historii/ Poles in Canadian Mosaic. Mickiewicz University in Poznań 150 years of History/ Polonais dan le la Mosaique Canadienne. 150 and Lecture: V Anglosaskie Spotkania z d’histoire, Gdynia: Muzeum Kulturą, WSZ Konin, April 05 2017. Emigracji 2017. Lecture title : « Writers of the Conference: Sixth World Conges on Polish diaspora in Canada » Polish Studies, PAU Kraków, 2017. Conference : "Untold Stories of the Paper title: Canada and the Polish Past 150 Years, Canada 150 Diaspora's Assistance to Polish Conference", UCD, Dublin, Ireland, Immigrants Arriving in Canada in 28-30 April 2017. Paper title : the 1980s's. ARTICLES / BOOK CHAPTERS / CONFERENCE PAPERS / INTERVIEWS

“Polish diasporic experience in Barbara Łuczak, Alfons Gregori post-WWII Canada: writers and (dir.). Poznań : Wydawnictwo community” Naukowe UAM, 2017. 141-152. Colloque: Literatury „mniejsze” Europy romańskiej – pośród Sadkowski Piotr, Université literatur świata, Université Adam Nicolas Copernic Mickiewicz, 2017. Communication: „Dekonstrukcje wyznaczników « La Grande Guerre dans la literatury mniejszej i pisarstwa Littérature Canadienne-Française migracyjnego w prozie Dany’ego et Québécoise ». TransCanadiana 9 Laferrière’a” (2017) : 37-51.

« Exodes post-séculiers : réinterprétations de la figure de Sojka Eugenia, University of Moïse chez Michel Tournier, Gilles Silesia Rozier et Sergio Kokis ». Présences, Conference: A Suitcase of Her Own: résurgences et oublis du religieux Women and Travel. University of dans les littératures française et Silesia, Szczyrk. Poland. September québécoise. Gilles Dupuis, Klaus- 20-23, 2017. Paper title: Dieter Ertler et Alessandra Ferraro “Indigenous Women from Canada (dir.). Frankfurt am Main [etc.] : Travelling to Europe: Decolonizing Peter Lang Edition, 2017. 189-201. Perceptions of the Female

Aboriginal Other.” « Une danse macabre autour des tranchées de la Grande Guerre : Congres: Sixth World Congress on Makarius de Sergio Kokis ». À la Polish Studies, organized by The carte : le roman québécois (2010- Polish Institute of Arts & Sciences 2015). Gilles Dupuis et Klaus-Dieter of America, Polska Akademia Ertler (dir.). Frankfurt am Main Umiejętności (Polish Academy of [etc.] : Peter Lang Edition, 2017. Learning), 261-282. Uniwersytet Gdański, Kraków, June 16-18, 2017. Paper title: ”The Voice « Pod opieką Legby albo twórczość of the Post-Solidarity Other in Dany'ego Laferrière'a u granic Canada. Edward Zyman’s and literatury mniejszej, pisarstwa Marek Kusiba’s complex affective migracyjnego i literatury responses to their diasporic światowej ». "Literatury mniejsze" condition.” Europy romańskiej. 3: Pośród literatur świata. Mirosław Loba, Conference: Konferencja Kanadyjskiego Towarzystwa Badań POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Teatralnych (Canadian Association engage with both Indigenous and for Theatre Research / L’association non-Indigenous theories and canadienne de la recherche practices, in conversation with théâtrale (CATR/ACRT): indigenous scholars and thinkers” CATR/ACRT 2017: Performing the Conference: “Mikinaakominis / Anthropocene, Toronto, Drama TransCanadas. Literature, Justice, Centre, University of Toronto, and Relation”, University of Toronto, Artscape Youngplace, May 27-30 May 24-27 2017. Paper title: “Oh, 2017. Paper title: “Ex-settler, Canada! How have you been diasporic citizen of Canada living in constructed in Poland? Polish Eastern Europe, teaching Indigenous translators, writers, publishers and drama/ theatre and performance to scholars and their role in the non-Indigenous students - representation of Canada” in the alternative paths to settler- panel: “Transatlantic Literary and Indigenous relationships?” in the cultural perspectives. Past, Present, panel: “Terra Nullius: Charting Paths Future.” To Settler–Indigenous Relationships Guest lecture: “Indigenous through Theatre and Performance in theatrical sovereignty. Developing Academic Contexts.” Aboriginal theatre methodologies Conference: Konferencja and dramaturgies in Canada.” Kanadyjskiego Towarzystwa Badań Department of English, University Teatralnych (Canadian Association of Northern British Columbia, for Theatre Research / November 28th, 2017 L’association canadienne de la recherche théâtrale (CATR/ACRT): CATR/ACRT 2017: Performing the Soroka Tomasz, Jagiellonian Anthropocene, Toronto, Drama University Centre, University of Toronto, oraz Artscape Youngplace, May 27-30 Conference: Zmiany w polityce 2017. Participation in the zagranicznej państw w dobie nowej conference seminar– administracji Stanów “Decolonizing Methodologies and Zjednoczonych, University of Łódź, Settler Responsibility in Theatre 2017. Paper title: Wpływ retoryki i and Performance Studies: 3.0” polityki gospodarczej Donalda Paper title: “Indigenous theatrical Trumpa na amerykańsko- sovereignity: Decolonial thought kanadyjskie relacje ekonomiczne. and methodologies of selected Conference: Amerykańskie wybory Canadian Indigenous theatre prezydenckie w erze postprawdy – artists / researchers and the aktorzy, strategie, konteksty, SGH responsibility of settler scholars to ARTICLES / BOOK CHAPTERS / CONFERENCE PAPERS / INTERVIEWS

Warsaw School of Economics, Wiącek Michał, University of 2017. Paper title: Donald Trump Warsaw and Canada: The Impact of the Colloque: Ogólnopolska Trump Presidency on Canada. Konferencja Naukowa CETA, Conference: Festival of Canadian Faculté de droit, Université de Culture, Jagiellonian University, Silésie, Katowice, 2017. Krakow, 2017. Paper title: Relacje Communication : « Tymczasowe gospodarcze pomiędzy Kanadą a obowiązywanie postanowień USA za prezydentury Trumpa. CETA ». Colloque: Polityczne odpowiedzi na fenomen migracji, Centre de Urbaniak-Rybicka Ewa, State civilisation française et d’études University of Applied Sciences in francophones, Université de Konin. Varsovie, Varsovie, 2017. Communication : « Polityka “Introduction / Avant-Propos.”. imigracyjna a przyjmowanie TransCanadiana 9 (2017): 9-20 uchodźców. Newcomersi w (with Anna Żurawska). Kanadzie po 2015 r. ». “‘A War of Worlds’ – Timothy Findley’s The Wars”. TransCanadiana 9 (2017): 79-100. Żurawska Anna, Université Conference: Contacts & Contrasts, Nicolas Copernic à Toruń Wydział Filologiczny PWSZ w « Literatura na świecie. Nr 3- Koninie, 29 -31.05. 2017. Paper 4/2016 ». TransCanadiana. Polish title: Trans(De)Formation and journal of Canadian Studies / Transgression in Aga Revue Polonaise d’Études Maksimowska’s “Giant”. Canadiennes, 9.2017 : 496-503.

« La guerre dans Lignes de failles de Nancy Huston ». TransCanadiana 9 (2017) : 225-237.

HABILITATION, PH.D, M.A. AND B.A. THESIS

Bebel Klaudia, M.A. thesis: “Racial discrimination and erasure of blackness from Canadian Trociuk Agata Helena, thèse de imagination. Socio-historical analysis doctorat: “Pour une approche in the context of selected African- linguistique des recherches identitaires Canadian plays”. Supervisor: dr hab. dans le roman québécois Eugenia Sojka, University of Silesia in contemporain” Sous la direction de Till Katowice. R. Kuhnle et de Micheline Cambron. Błażejewicz Aleksander, M.A. Thèse soutenue le 27 février 2017 thesis: “Visions of Poland: Eva à Limoges en cotutelle avec Stachniak's Necessary Lies, Andrew l'Université de Montréal. Faculté des Borkowski's Copernicus Avenue and arts et des sciences , dans le cadre Aga Maksimowska's Giant”. de École doctorale Lettres, pensée, Supervisor: prof. Agnieszka Rzepa, arts et histoire (Poitiers ; 2009- Adam Mickiewicz University in 2018) en partenariat avec Espaces Poznań. Humains et Interactions Culturelles (laboratoire). Buśkiewicz Natalia, M.A.

thesis: “Mother-Daughter Relationship in Selected Canadian Novels”. Supervisor: dr Ewa Andrychowska Monika, M.A. Urbaniak-Rybicka, State University thesis: “Diverse Techniques of of Applied Sciences in Konin. Visual Sovereignty in Canadian Aboriginal Cinema”. Supervisor: Dżumak Andżelika, M.A. thesis: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, University of “Dimensions of Gothic: Gender and Silesia in Katowice. race in Fall on Your Knees by Ann- Marie MacDonald and Kiss of the

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Fur Queen by Tomson Highway”. Składnik Tomasz, M.A. thesis: Supervisor: dr Ewa Urbaniak- Rola Williama Lyona Mackenzie Rybicka, State University of Applied Kinga w budowaniu relacji Kanady i Sciences in Konin. Stanów Zjednoczonych w latach 1935-48. Supervisor: prof. Anna Kapis Michał, M.A. thesis: Reczyńska, Jagiellonian University, “Orality in contemporary Native Kraków. Canadian and South African aboriginal prose”. Supervisor: prof. Matura Joanna, M.A. thesis: Agnieszka Rzepa, Adam Mickiewicz “Landscape as a signifier of University in Poznań. Canadian Identity; evolution of the

concept from colonial to Księżniak Dominika, M.A. thesis: postcolonial perspectives”. “The Great War in Canadian novel: Supervisor: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, changing perspectives”. Supervisor: University of Silesia in Katowice. prof. Agnieszka Rzepa, Adam

Mickiewicz University in Poznań. Popławska Aleksandra, M.A. Lipa Aleksandra, M.A. thesis: thesis: “Canadian Mètis Women's “Quebec Interculturalism in Voice in selected literary texts. Education and Immigration as a Expression of resistance agaist Unique Model of Managing various forms of oppression”. Diversity in Multicultural Canada”. Supervisor: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, Supervisor: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, University of Silesia in Katowice. University of Silesia in Katowice. Spinczyk Katarzyna, M.A. Łukowska-Ignaczak Maja, M.A. thesis: “Representation of thesis: “In-between Homelands immigrant experiences of Polish and Selves – The Process of women in the 20th century Canada. Immigration in Selected Canadian Complex negotiations of Polish Novels”. Supervisor: dr Ewa diasporic identity in selected Urbaniak-Rybicka, State University memoirs”. Supervisor: dr hab. of Applied Sciences in Konin. Eugenia Sojka, University of Silesia in Katowice. Mach Sandra, M.A. thesis: “Carnistic Canada. Two faces of Szkwarek Paulina, M.A. thesis: Canadian industrial farming: “Family at a crossroads: sojourns legislation versus undercover into South Asian-Canadian novel”. investigations of Mercy For Supervisor: prof. Agnieszka Rzepa, Animals”. Supervisor: dr hab. Adam Mickiewicz University in Eugenia Sojka, University of Silesia Poznań. in Katowice. HABILITATION, PH.D, M.A. AND B.A. THESIS

Tarmas Natalia, M.A. thesis: “Visions of Canada: A comparative study of Pierre Trudeau's and Justin Trudeau's foreign affairs and Baranowski Maciej, B.A. immigration policies”. Supervisor: thesis: “The motif of trauma and dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, University of silencing of ‘visible minorities’ in Silesia in Katowice. Obasan by Joy Kogawa and What we all long for by Dionne Brand”. Tyczka Agnieszka, M.A. thesis: Supervisor: prof. Dagmara “Women’s Fight for Emancipation Drewniak, Adam Mickiewicz in Selected Novels by Margaret University, Poznań. Atwood”. Supervisor: dr Ewa Urbaniak-Rybicka, State University Filip Agnieszka, B.A. thesis: of Applied Sciences in Konin. “Dystopia in Margaret Atwood’s novels The Handmaid’s Tale and Wala Estera, M.A. thesis: “A The Year of the Flood”. Supervisor: comparative study of Canadian - prof. Dagmara Drewniak, Adam Israeli relations from the Mickiewicz University, Poznań. perspective of Canadian government policies towards Israel Kakuba Patrycja, B.A. thesis: and the Jewish diaspora under the “The identity of Polish emigration in premierships of Stephen Harper Canada based on chosen works of and Justin Trudeau.” Supervisor: dr Polish-Canadian writers”. Supervisor: hab. Eugenia Sojka, University of prof. Dagmara Drewniak, Adam Silesia in Katowice. Mickiewicz University, Poznań.

Wolska Emilia, M.A. thesis: Kłopotowska Aleksandra, B.A. “Problems of the nation and thesis: “The Great War as a trigger national belonging in contemporary for dehumanization in Timothy Canadian novel”. Supervisor: prof. Findley’s The Wars and Joseph Agnieszka Rzepa, Adam Mickiewicz Boyden’s Three Day Road”. University in Poznań. Supervisor: prof. Dagmara Drewniak, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań. Zyska Agata, M.A. thesis: “Changing visions of Canadian Lewandowska Magdalena, B.A. identity. Critical study of selected thesis: “Rewriting the classics- Canadian prose and drama”. Margaret Atwood’s Postmodern Supervisor: dr hab. Eugenia Sojka, Versions of The Odyssey and The University of Silesia in Katowice. Tempest”. Supervisor: prof. Dagmara Drewniak, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań. POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Lis-Markiewicz Aleksandra, prof. Dagmara Drewniak, Adam B.A. thesis: “Postmodern features Mickiewicz University, Poznań. in Canadian literature on the basis of Michael Ondaatje's The English Skrzypczak Daria, B.A. thesis: Patient and Aritha van Herk's No “Image of a victim in Joy Kogawa's Fixed Address”. Supervisor: prof. Obasan and Margaret Atwood's Dagmara Drewniak, Adam Lady Oracle”. Supervisor: prof. Mickiewicz University, Poznań. Dagmara Drewniak, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań. Orlikowska Zuzanna, B.A. Supervisor: prof. Dagmara thesis: “The influence of Drewniak, Adam Mickiewicz residential schools on Aboriginal University, Poznań. identity in Kiss of the Fur Queen by Tomson Highway and Indian Horse by Richard Wagamese”. Supervisor:

CONFERENCES / SEMINARS / EVENTS / GUEST LECTURE

Ambassador of Canada to Poland Stephen de Boer visited Canadian Studies Resource Center Guest lecture: Alexandra and gave a lecture on U.S.-Canada Marchel, University of Warwick, Relations for the students of the UK, School of Theatre, Performance Faculty of International and and Cultural Policy Studies: “Re- Political Studies, University of Storying Canada: Tracing the Łódź, 20 March 2017 Politics of Indigenous and Settler Relations in an Age of Reconciliation”. University of Silesia, 2nd February 2017

Guest lecture: Magdalena Kazubowski-Houston, York University, Toronto, Canada „Słoń w pokoju: Szlakiem antropologii niewygodnej”, „Etnografia performatywna”, University of Silesia, 13 March 2017

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

VII Dzień Kanady na Alexi Marchel (University of Uniwersytecie im. Adama Warwick) ”Unsettling Celebrations: Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, 4 Canada’s 150th Birthday and the kwietnia 2017 Colonial Present” (wykład w języku angielskim)

Wydział Anglistyki (Pracownia Ewa Figas (Kolegium Języków Literatury Kanadyjskiej) oraz Obcych Politechniki Śląskiej) — Wydział Neofilologii (Instytut „Sacrés sacres, czyli o Filologii Romańskiej) przekleństwach w Quebeku” zorganizowały szóstą edycję Dnia Kanady, która odbyła się Marcin Bzdawka (UAM w 04.04.2017 roku w Collegium Poznaniu) —„Kanada Króla Słońce” Novum UAM.

PROGRAM

Michał Obszyński (Uniwersytet Gdański) „Krótka historia współczesnej literatury quebeckiej w manifestach literackich XX i XXI wieku”

Marcin Markowicz (UAM w Poznaniu) „Poetyckie dylematy buntowników z Vancouver. O (nie)kanadyjskiej poezji lat 60-tych”

Tomasz Sikora (Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie „Kanadyjskie futuryzmy filmowe i literackie” V Anglosaskie Spotkania

z Kulturą Małgorzata Bobowska (UAM w 5 kwietnia 2017, Poznaniu) „Pamiętając o PWSZ w Koninie zapomnianym: sytuacja

Japończyków w Kanadzie w latach PROGRAM drugiej wojny światowej w świetle 9.15-9.30 Rozpoczęcie: dr Ewa literatury pięknej” Urbaniak-Rybicka

CONFERENCES / SEMINARS / EVENTS / GUEST LECTURE S

9.30-10.15 dr Urszula Kizelbach Studiów Amerykańskich i (UAM Poznań): "Frank Kanadyjskich (dr hab. Eugenia Underwood as Macbeth: Sojka, dr Sabina Sweta Sen- Shakespearean undertones in Podstawska, mgr Rafał Madeja) House of Cards" oraz Polskie Towarzystwo Badań Kanadyjskich (dr Tomasz Soroka, 10.15-11.00 prof. dr hab. adiunkt w Instytucie Agnieszka Rzepa (UAM Amerykanistyki i Studiów Poznań): “Writers of the Polish Polonijnych Uniwersytetu Diaspora in Canada" Jagiellońskiego). W pierwszym dniu konkursu 11.30 -12.15 dr hab. Piotr finaliści zdawali egzamin ustny oraz Sadkowski (UMK Toruń): przedstawili prezentację “Quebec – literatura i tożsamość” multimedialną na temat „The Government of Canada’s Vision for 12.15-13.00 dr Krzysztof Majer the 150th Anniversary Of (Uniwersytet Łódzki): Confederation”. „Ćwiczenia z widzialności: tłumacz literatury w (para)tekście”

Guest lecture: Barbara Messamore, University of the Fraser Valley: "Canada at 150: What are we celebrating?”, University of Silesia, 7 April 2017

Konferencja “Indigenous Finał Konkursu „Discover Expressions of Culture in Canada”, 6-7 kwietnia 2017 Storytelling, Drama, Theatre and Performance –Traditional 6-7 kwietnia 2017 r. odbył się finał and Contemporary Canadian czwartej edycji Ogólnopolskiego and Polish Upper Silesian Konkursu Wiedzy o Kanadzie Perspectives)”, „Discover Canada 2017” w Miejskim 26-28 kwietnia 2017 Ośrodku Kultury w Żorach. Komisja Konkursowa składała się z 26-28 kwietnia 2017 r. na osób reprezentujących Zakład Uniwersytecie Śląskim odbyła się POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017 konferencja pt. “Indigenous Expressions of Culture in Storytelling, Drama, Theatre and Performance – Traditional and Contemporary Canadian and Polish Upper Silesian Perspectives)”.

Główny prelegenci:

Tomson Highway, Naród Kri (Kanada), dramatopisarz, powieściopisarz, pianista, kompozytor, działacz społeczny

Jo-ann Archibald, Naród Stol:lo (Kanada), University of British Koncert Tomsona Highwaya, Columbia, profesor pedagogiki, 27 kwietnia 2017 pionierka badań nad pedagogiką indygenną, autorka Storywork: Koncert odbył się w Teatrze Educating the Heart, Mind, Body, Rozrywki w Chorzowie 27 kwietnia and Spirit o godz. 19:30. Tomson Highway to jeden z najważniejszych pisarzy Dr hab. prof. UŚ Zbigniew kanadyjskich wywodzących się z Kadłubek, Uniwersytet Śląski, ludności rdzennej Kanady (Naród kierownik Katedry Literatury Cree), który zdecydował o kształcie Porównawczej, filolog klasyczny, rozwoju teatru autochtonicznego komparatysta, eseista, tłumacz, zarówno w kraju, jak i na całym pisarz, autor szkiców o dawnej i świecie. 27 kwietnia zaprezentował współczesnej kulturze Śląska, recital jazzowy z satyrycznym retoryce, literaturze komentarzem o rdzennej ludności średniowiecznej, ekspresjonizmie Kanady. niemieckim.

Dzień Kultury Kanadyjskiej, Guest lecture: Jo-Ann University of Silesia: „Canada Archibald, University of British 150 – Celebrating Canada’s Columbia, Vancouver: “Indigenous Anniversary”, Storywork: Educating the Heart, 28 kwietnia 2017 Mind, Body, and Spirit”, University of Silesia, 26 April 2017 CONFERENCES / SEMINARS / EVENTS / GUEST LECTURE S

Wykład prof. François Vaillancourta

Wykład gościnny zatytułowany “American and Canadian Federations and the economic shock of 2007-2008: policies to 2015” został wygłoszony na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim na zaproszenie Zakładu Kanady Instytutu Amerykanistyki i Studiów Polonijnych Uniwersytetu

Jagiellońskiego w Krakowie Wernisaż wystawy „Polacy w kanadyjskiej mozaice. 150 lat historii” w Muzeum Emigracji w Gdyni, 1 lipca 2017

1 lipca 2017 roku, w 150 rocznicę zjednoczenia trzech brytyjskich kolonii w Ameryce Północnej uznawanego za początek kanadyjskiej państwowości, w Obchody 150-lecia Kanady w Muzeum Emigracji w Gdyni odbył Ambasadzie Kanady w Polsce, się wernisaż wystawy „Polacy w 1 lipca 2017 kanadyjskiej mozaice. 150 lat historii.” Do opracowania 1 lipca miały miejsce huczne scenariusza wystawy została obchody 150-lecia państwowości zaproszona wybitna polska Kanady. W Polsce zostały one kanadystka badająca historię zainaugurowane 29 czerwca diaspory polskiej w Kanadzie Prof. uroczystym przyjęciem, które miało zw. dr hab. Anna Reczyńska z miejsce w Ambasadzie Kanady przy Zakładu Kanady Instytutu ul. Matejki. Polskie Towarzystwo Amerykanistyki i Studiów Badań Kanadyjskich było Polonijnych Uniwersytetu reprezentowane przez prof. A. Jagiellońskiego, a wśród autorów Reczyńską, prof. R. Rybkowskiego, tekstów plansz opisujących dr E. Urbaniak-Rybicką oraz dr M. dokonania polskich emigrantów i Marczuk-Karbownik. ich potomków znalazła się, obok Profesor Anny Reczyńskiej, także Prof. UAM dr hab. Dagmara POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Drewniak z Pracowni Literatury zaproszona także pani dr hab. Kanadyjskiej Wydziału Anglistyki, Joanna Warmuzińska-Rogóż, zajmująca się badaniami nad adiunkt w Zakładzie Badań twórczością literacką polskich Kanadyjskich i Przekładu emigrantów w Kanadzie. Wystawa Literackiego, autorka licznych została objęta patronatem artykułów naukowych na temat Ambasadora Kanady w Polsce Pana literatury quebeckiej oraz Stephene’a de Boera. monografii pt. Szkice o przekładzie literackim. Literatura rodem z Quebecu w Polsce.

Arlette Cousture gościem honorowym Międzynarodowych Targów Książki w Krakowie,

27 października 2017 VI Festiwal Kultury W dniu 27 października br. w Kanadyjskiej – „Z Kanadą Krakowie odbyły się przez wieki. 150-lecie Kanady”, Międzynarodowe Targi Książki. 16-18 listopada 2017 Jednym z honorowych gości była quebecka pisarka – pani Arlette PROGRAM Cousture, która będzie promowała I Panel Prelegentów 14:00-15:30 swoją najnowszą powieść pt. „Dzieci (16.11.2017) stamtąd”, opowiadającą o losach Krzysztof Oliwa Jaki wpływ miał powojennych emigrantów z udział żołnierzy kanadyjskich w I Krakowa, szukających nowego życia wojnie światowej (1914-1918) w Kraju Klonowego liścia. Do Przemysław Winzer Terytoria w udziału w wydarzeniu została systemie prawno-politycznym CONFERENCES / SEMINARS / EVENTS / GUEST LECTURE S

Kanady. Historia, teraźniejszość, perspektywy Emilia Meres What are you? On borrowed, inherited, and referenced Wykłady gościnne – identity in Canada vs. Poland Colonel Demers oraz Kaja Łuczyńska What is wrong dr Jeremy Wallace, with the Canadian film industry? Problemy i szanse kina Toruń, 27 listopada 2017 kanadyjskiego w perspektywie 27/11/2017: guest lectures: historycznej Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w

Toruniu: Colonel Demers: Canada II Panel Prelegentów 16:00-17:30 and NATO; dr. Jeremy Wallace, (16.11.2017) Political Counsellor, Canada at 150

Przemysław A. Lewicki Flame in the True North – charakterystyka toryzmu kanadyjskiego Stephena Leacocka i George’a Granta Kuba Serafin System opieki nad weteranami – analiza sytuacji kanadyjskich weteranów po 2005 roku Izabela Świerkot Specyfika systemu prawa prywatnego Nunavut Konrad Mzyk Kanadyjska sportowa zależność od USA; Przyczyny i problemy

III Panel Prelegentów 12:35-13:45 (18.11.2017)

Jakub Trubiłowicz Europejska Dzień Kultury Quebeckiej, koncepcja narodu i obywatelstwa a Uniwersytet Śląski, Kanadyjczycy Kamila Brukwicka Once upon a 19 grudnia 2017 time... there was a town in British Spotkanie z Kanadą uroczyście Columbia... otworzył prof. dr hab. Krzysztof Marcin Bzdawka Nowa (lepsza) Jarosz, Dziekan Wydziału Francja. Plany dworu paryskiego Filologicznego oraz Kierownik wobec kolonii kanadyjskiej w XVII w. POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Zakładu Badań Kanadyjskich i Warmuzińska-Rogóż przybliżyła Przekładu Literackiego, inicjator zgromadzonym słuchaczom odbywających się dorocznie spotkań wykraczającą poza tradycyjne ramy wokół kultury kanadyjskiej i rolę, jaką w kontekście kanadyjskim quebeckiej. Gościem specjalnym odgrywa przekład (Niezwykła tegorocznego spotkania był pan tłumaczka. Susanne de Lotbinière- Jeremy Wallace, chargé d’affaires z Harwood i jej przygoda z Le Désert Ambasady Kanady w Polsce, który mauve Nicole Brossard). W ze swadą opowiedział licznie ostatnim bloku wykładów dr Marcin zgromadzonym studentom o Gabryś, kanadysta z Zakładu kanadyjskiej polityce Kanady Uniwersytetu multikulturalizmu. Drugi blok Jagiellońskiego, wieloletni prezes wykładów poświęcony został Polskiego Towarzystwa Badań literaturze. Słuchacze wysłuchali Kanadyjskich oraz propagator interesującego wykładu dr hab. wiedzy o Kanadzie w radiu TOK Anny Czarnowus na temat FM, wskazał różnice między twórczości Margaret Atwood (The polityką rządu quebeckiego oraz Monstrous and the Inhuman in rządu federacyjnego (Czym różni się Margaret Atwood's 'Maddaddam Justin Trudeau od Philippe'a Trilogy' and 'The Heart Goes Last') Couillarda, czyli jak się uprawia Dr Ewa Figas (Politechnika Śląska), politykę w Ottawie i Quebec City) Z związana z Dniem Kultury kolei dr Aleksandra Chrupała Quebeckiej od samego początku, (Politechnika Śląska), przedstawiła zbudowany wokół współtwórczyni wszystkich edycji pojęcia fraktali świat powieściowy DKQ, z pasją i zaangażowaniem quebeckiej pisarki i tłumaczki opisała specyfikę języka Hélène Rioux („Le monde francuskiego w Quebecu. romanesque fractalisé de Hélène Rioux”) . Na koniec dr hab. Joanna

ICCS PROGRAMS

Canadian Studies Postdoctoral Fellowships

Graduate Student Scholarships The fellowships are aimed to enable young Canadian and foreign The scholarship is aimed to academics who have completed a facilitate the renewal of the doctoral thesis on a topic primarily community of Canadianists by related to Canada and are not supporting the work of young employed in a full-time, university scholars, by enabling successful teaching position to visit a candidates to spend 4-6 weeks at a Canadian or foreign university with Canadian university or research site a Canadian Studies program for a other than their own doing research teaching or research fellowship. related to their thesis or dissertation in the field of Canadian More information on ICCS website: Studies. http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/canadian- studies-postdoctoral- More information on ICCS website: fellowships.php http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/graduate- student-scholarships.php All applications must be submitted to PACS by October All applications must be 24th. submitted to PACS by October 24th.

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

Publishing Fund Pierre Savard Awards

The International Council for The Pierre Savard Awards are Canadian Studies (ICCS) has designed to recognize and promote established the ICCS Publishing each year outstanding scholarly Fund to assist with the publication monographs on a Canadian topic. and distribution in Canada of The awards form part of a strategy scholarly monographs on Canada that is aimed at promoting, written by foreign Canadianists who especially throughout the Canadian are members of a Canadian Studies academic community, works that Association or Associate Member have been written by members of belonging to the International the Canadian Studies international Council for Canadian Studies. This network. The awards are intended fund assists foreign Canadianists by to designate exceptional books, granting financial aid to a which, being based on a Canadian recognized scholarly press once the topic, contribute to a better work is published. understanding of Canada. There are two categories: The Fund may also grant financial 1) Book written in French or assistance for the translation from English; 2) Book written in a English or French into a third language other than French or language and from a third language English into French or English. In this case, conditions and procedures remain More information on ICCS website: the same, but instead of a http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/pierre- manuscript the press will submit a savard-awards.php published monograph that it would like to see translated. The All applications must be Publishing Fund does not fund submitted to PACS by October translations from English to French 24th. or from French into English.

More information on ICCS website: http://www.iccs- ciec.ca/publishing-fund.php Best Doctoral Thesis in Canadian Studies Deadline for applications: 24 November This ICCS Award is designed to recognize and promote each year an outstanding PhD thesis on a Canadian topic, written by a

ICCS PROGRAMS member (or one of his/her All applications must be students) of a Canadian Studies submitted to PACS by October Association or Associate Member, 24th. and which contributes to a better understanding of Canada.

More information on ICCS website: http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/best- doctoral-thesis-canadian- studies.php

CANADIAN STUDIES CENTERS IN POLAND

regular and often inter-disciplinary courses on Canadian topics. Among many courses taught there one can KRAKÓW find: Introduction to Canada, Canadian History, Society of Chair of Canada, Institute of Canada, Quebec Issues, Canadian American Studies and Polish Political System, Canadian Higher Diaspora, Jagiellonian Education System, Canadian Film, University and courses on Canadian Suffrage Director: Prof. Anna Reczyńska Movement, Native Peoples and Address: Rynek Główny 34, room 38 literature, Contemporary Canadian 31-010 Kraków Political Issues. The institute library Tel.: +48 12 429 61 57 has an extensive collection of Fax: +48 12 422 03 64 Canadian books. Academics and E-mail: [email protected] doctoral students do their research Website: in Canadian history, women’s http://www.iaisp.uj.edu.pl/ rights, multiculturalism, Canadian- zaklad-kanady/ American and Canadian-British relations. The Institute of American Chair of Canada is a part of the Studies and Polish Diaspora at Institute of American Studies and Jagiellonian University also serves Polish Diaspora. The head of as a statutory office of the Polish Canadian Studies Centre, Prof. Association for Canadian Studies. Anna Reczyńska, is one of the most There are 5 academics (Prof. A. prominent experts in Canadian Reczyńska, Dr. hab. M. Kijewska- history and diaspora studies in the Trembecka, Dr. M. Paluszkiewicz- region. Today the Institute of Misiaczek, Dr. M. Gabryś) and 2 American Studies and Polish doctoral students doing research in Diaspora offers a wide variety of topics related to Canada.

POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017

ŁÓDŹ POZNAŃ

Canadian Studies Resource Centre de recherche sur le Center, Department of Canada francophone, Institut American Studies and Mass de Philologie Romane, Media, Faculty of International Université Adam Mickiewicz and Political Studies, Director: Dr. Małgorzata University of Łódź Czubińska Director: Dr. Magdalena Marczuk- Address: al. Niepodległości 4 Karbownik 61-874 Poznań Address: ul. Lindleya 5A, 90-131 Tel: +48 618 29 35 66 Łódź E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +48 42 635 42 50, 635 42 54 fax: 42 635 42 60 L’activité du Centre de recherche E-mail: [email protected] sur le Canada francophone s’inscrit dans le courant multiculturel The students of the Faculty of dominant présentement dans International and Political Studies l’enseignement des langues attend a number of courses with the étrangères; face à un Canadian component such as U.S. développement dynamique des and Its Neighbors – Political, recherches portant sur les pays Economic and Social Relations, francophones, notamment dans le Political and Sociological Aspects domaine de la traduction littéraire, of Multiculturalism in North il est d’autant plus nécessaire America, Dilemmas of Selected d’intégrer ladite recherche au sein Multicultural Countries: Americas, des projets plus globaux, d’où la Africa, and Australia, création de notre Centre. Ses International Political Relations. objectifs se concentrent avant tout The Canadian component is mainly autour de l’élaboration des on politics, history and society of programmes d’enseignement en Canada. These courses are taught traduction littéraire prenant en (or co-instructed) by dr. Magdalena considération la spécificité de la Marczuk-Karbownik. traduction minoritaire, la popularisation du savoir sur la civilisation et la culture du Canada francophone, avec l’accent sur les minorités francophones de l’exiguïté, la coordination de la CANADIAN STUDIES CENTERS IN POLAND recherche dans le domaine de la conferences, workshops and traduction des textes littéraires teaching of Canadian Studies provenant des communautés courses. francophones du Canada, ainsi It hosts specialists in Canadian qu’autour de la promotion d’une Studies and Canadian writers, approche traductologique novatrice, critics and artists who give lectures, présentant la traduction des readings and participate in cultural littératures minoritaires en tant que events and conferences. processus culturel et ethnique qui prend en compte le discours RESEARCH PROFILE: identitaire dans les œuvres Indigenous and diasporic Canadian littéraires. fiction, poetry and life writing, Indigenous, diasporic and intercultural drama/theatre/performance; Transcultural, diasporic, SOSNOWIEC postcolonial/ decolonial/gender theories and methodologies; Canadian Studies Centre, Canadian film and visual arts; Institute of Verbal and visual rhetoric British and American Culture (interarts). and Literature, University of Silesia Two agreements of co-operation Director: Prof. Eugenia Sojka with Canadian universities: Address: Grota-Roweckiego 5, 41- Vancouver Island University and 200 Sosnowiec Wilfrid Laurier University, Tel: +48 32 364 08 92, Waterloo, ON., have been signed Website: and developed (e.g. a student http://www.csc.us.edu.pl/ research trip to Vancouver Island http://english.us.edu.pl/ University – a project entitled: E-mail: [email protected] "Transcultural dialogues between Canada and Poland. Educating for Canadian Studies Centre at the ethics of diversity" was completed University of Silesia, chaired by dr. in 2010). An earlier co-operation Eugenia Sojka, was founded in agreement of the University of 2000. The Centre functions within Silesia with the University of institutional structures of the Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, has Institute of English Cultures and been still active. Literatures. It is involved in the promotion of Canadian Studies via The Institute library boast a research, cultural activities, growing collection of Canadiana POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017 thanks to grants from the Canadian À présent, la plupart des chercheurs Embassy and donations from de la chaire ont orienté leurs various Canadian publishing intérêts vers d’autres aires, mais il y houses. a toujours des chercheurs francophones et anglophones qui Canadian Studies Student Circle travaillent sur la littérature et la affiliated with the Centre was culture canadiennes, notamment la founded in 2009. Regular meetings littérature contemporaine of students are devoted to selected québécoise. Récemment une Canadian topics. monographie sur la traduction en http://www.facebook.com/canadia polonais de la littérature québécoise nstudiesstudentcicrcle a été rédigée par une des chercheuses.

Chaque année, des étudiants de français peuvent participer aux SOSNOWIEC cours de littérature canadienne d’expression française. Des Chaire d’études canadiennes à mémoires de licence et de maîtrise, l’Institut des Langues notamment sur la traduction de la Romanes et de Traduction, littérature québécoise sont élaborés Université de Silésie Director: annuellement. Prof. Krzysztof Jarosz Adress: Grota-Roweckiego 5, Depuis 2005, les journées 41-200 Sosnowiec québécoises sont organisées et bureau 1.6 permettent à un grand nombre Tel: +48 32 3640 899 d’étudiants de se familiariser avec E-mail: [email protected] divers aspects de la culture du Québec. En 2003, la Chaire d’études canadiennes a été mise sur pied à l’Institut des Langues Romanes et de Traduction de Université de SZCZECIN Silésie par le Professeur Krzysztof Jarosz. Elle dédie ses activités en Szczecin Canadian Studies enseignement supérieur, en Group (SCSG), Katedra recherche, en publication et en Filologii Angielskiej, animation à son aire de Uniwersytet Szczeciński prédilection, la littérature al. Piastów 40B, 71-065 Szczecin canadienne postmoderne. [email protected]

CANADIAN STUDIES CENTERS IN POLAND

The Group was created in the The Canadian Resource Centre was English Department at the established at the Faculty of University of Szczecin on November Languages in 1999 as a joint 29, 2011, by Prof. Hartmut Lutz, venture of Nicolaus Copernicus Prof. Uwe Zagratzki, and Dr. University in Toruń and the Weronika Suchacka. The main aim Canadian Embassy in Warsaw, with of this initiative was to create a the generous support of the dynamic centre of Canadian Studies International Council for Canadian at the said Department. In the last Studies in Ottawa. The Centre seven years of its activity, SCSG has performs a threefold task: teaching, organized a number of Canadian scholarly research, and promotion Studies academic events, which of Canadian Studies (hosts guest brought together major lectures and screenings of international experts in the field as documentary films on Canada well as such acclaimed Canadian which are addressed not only to the writers as Henry Beissel, Alison faculty and students of the English Calder, Warren Cariou, Myrna Department and the French Kostash, and Stephen Scobie. Department but also to the community of Toruń and the region). Thanks to generous grants from the Nicolaus Copernicus University, the Canadian Embassy, TORUŃ and the Polish Association for Canadian Studies, the Centre has Canadian Studies Centre, been conducting research, as well as Nicolaus Copernicus organising book displays and the University annual Days of Francophone Director: Prof. Anna Branach- Culture. The Centre library Kallas holdings, approximately 3,500 Address: Centrum Badań volumes, are available at the Kanadyjskich Uniwersytet Mikołaja Collegium Humanisticum library. Kopernika Toruń Collegium Humanisticum C 3.30 ul. W. Bojarskiego 1, 87-100 Toruń Tel.: +48 56 611 35 51 Fax: +48 56 654 06 85 WARSAW E-mail: Centrum.Badan.Kanadyjskich@ Centre d'études en civilisation maius.uni.torun.pl canadienne-française et Website: littérature québécoise, Institut http://www.fil.umk.pl/cbk/ POLISH ASSOCIATION FOR CANADIAN STUDIEM NEWSLETTER 15/2017 d’études romanes, Université de maîtrise y sont en cours de de Varsovie rédaction. Certains travaux de Director: Prof. Józef Kwaterko recherche portent sur un aspect Address: rue Dobra 55, 00-312 comparé (littérature québécoise et Varsovie franco-caribéenne). Le Centre Tel.: +48 22 552 04 32 possède un riche fonds Fax: +48 22 552 03 83 documentaire pouvant être consulté E-mail: [email protected] et par étudiant(e)s et chercheur(e)s [email protected] intéressé(e)s: autour de 2.000 textes et ouvrages de référence, 15 Depuis 1997, le Centre est dirigé par revues universitaires et périodiques le professeur Józef Kwaterko. A d'actualité littéraire et culturelle, partir de 1994, le Centre se consacre environ 20 films documentaires et à la recherche et à l'enseignement longs métrages. Le Centre collabore de la littérature québécoise au régulièrement avec des centres niveau de BA, MA et PhD. De 1994 d'études québécoises et à 2007, y ont été élaborés et canadiennes en Europe, au Canada, soutenus environ 25 mémoires de aux États-Unis et au Brésil. maîtrise et 3 travaux de licence portant sur le roman, le théâtre et la poésie du Québec. Actuellement, 4 thèses de doctorats et 4 mémoires

CONTACT INFORMATION

Polskie Towarzystwo Badań Kanadyjskich Centrum Badań Kanadyjskich Gabinet 3.30 Katedra Filologii Angielskiej Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika ul Bojarskiego 1 87-100 Toruń Polska tel. +48 56 611 35 51 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.ptbk.org.pl

SUBMISSIONS

All submissions to TransCanadiana must be original, unpublished work. Articles and book reviews should be double-spaced in 12-point font, and available in Rich Text Format (.rtf), or Microsoft Word (.doc, .docx).

Articles should follow MLA bibliographic format (MLA Handbook, 8th ed). Maximum word length for articles is 7 000 words, which includes endnotes and works cited. Submissions must include brief (max. 200 words) abstracts in English and French, a biographical note of approximately 90 words, and 5 keywords in English and French. Reviews should not exceed 3 000 words.

Peer – review: TransCanadiana uses a double - blind refereeing process (both the referee and author remain anonymous throughout the process), based on initial editor screening. Re ferees are matched to the paper according to their expertise, and are never affiliated with the institution with which the author is affiliated. The editor might seek further expert opinion in justified cases.

Referees are asked to evaluate whether the manuscript :  is closely related to the theme of the issue  is original  is methodologically sound  has sound structure  has results which are clearly and logically presented and support the conclusions  correctly references previous relevant work  should be published as submitted, published after revision or rejected

Language correction is not part of the peer review process.

After receiving review s of the article, the author is obliged to revise the text in accordance with the reviewers’ suggestions (changes shoul d be marked in red) and email it as an attachment to the editor within two weeks. The body of the message must include the author’s response to the reviews and it should list all the changes that have been made in the final version of the article.

Referees read the revised version and advise the editor, who is responsible for the final decision to accept or reject the article. 14

Ghostwriting, Guest Authorship and Plagiarism Policy

All cases of  ghostwriting: he intentional failing to identify an individual in a publication who has substantively contributed to the underlying research or the writing of the publication  guest authorship: including an individual in a research publication who has not made a substantive contribution to the underlying research or thecontent of the publication  plagiarism: using the ideas, data, or language of another without specific or proper acknowledgment will be documented, reported to the authorities and revealed to the academic community (i.e. the institutions with which the authors are affiliated, academic societies, etc.)

To prevent any cases of such academic misconduct the authors are required to:  sign a Publishing Agreement with the editor (see below)  reveal the names and affiliations of all individuals who have made substantial contribution to the submitted Work,as well as the nature of their contribution (concept, methodology, etc.)  include a financial disclosure statement with their submissions (i.e. report all institutions, societies or other parties that have financially supported research that has resulted in the submitted publication)

Obtaining External Permission on Copyright Materials

It is the author's responsibility to obtain written permission to use any previously copyrighted material, photographs, or artwork that may be included in the Work. The author is responsible for paying permission fees and costs of reproduction.

Publishing Agreements

The PA for scholarly articles signs the copyright over to the journal. In order to prevent cases of academic misconduct (ghost writing, guest authorship, plagiarism) the PA includes the author’s declaration that she is the sole Author of the Work; that she is the owner of all the rights granted to the Publisher; that the Work is original and does not contain fragments frompreviously published texts, which could cause the Publisher to infringe upon any previous copyright.

SOUMISSION D’ARTICLES

La revue TransCanadiana n’accepte que les contributions originales n’ayant pas fait l’objet d’une publication antérieure. Les articles et les compte-rendus sont à transmettre en format électronique : taille 12 points, interligne double, en formats Rich Texte Format (.rtf) ou Microsoft Word (.doc, .docx)

Les articles doivent être conformes au MLA Handbook, 8e édition. La taille des articles ne dépassera pas 7 000 mots, y compris les notes d’auteur et les références bibliographiques. Les articles en français doivent être précédés d’un résumé en anglais et en français d’un maximum de 200 mots, d’une notice bibliographique d’environ 90 mots et de cinq mots-clés en anglais et en français. Les compte-rendus ne dépasseront pas 3 000 mots.

L’ évaluation en double aveugle par les pairs : TransCanadiana fait appel à des experts selon la procédure du double anonymat (les rapporteurs ignorent qui ils évaluent, et les auteurs ignorent par qui ils sont évalués) et après une première sélection faite par les rédacteurs. Les articles sont envoyés à des lecteurs choisis par la rédaction en fonction de leur domaine de compétence, ceux-ci n’étant pourtant pas affiliés au même établissement que les auteurs. Les articles pourraient être soumis à une nouvelle évaluation dans des cas justifiés.

On demande aux lecteurs anonymes d’évaluer :  la correspondance étroite de l’article à la thématique du volume  l’originalité de l’article  sa qualité méthodologique  la solidité de la structure de l’article  la logique et la clarté des résulats présentés et la pertinence de la conclusion  l’exactitude des références aux ouvrages antérieurs en matière  si l’article est à retenir pour publication tel quel, avec modifications ou s’il est à ne pas retenir

Les auteurs sont priés d’assurer la révision linguistique de leur texte.

Le rapport du lecteur reçu, l'auteur est tenu de revoir le texte suivant les suggestions faites par le rapporteur (les changements apportés mis en rouge) et de l'envoyer en pièce jointe à l'éditeur dans un délai de deux semaines. Le message doit inclure la réponse de l'auteur au rapport du lecteur et toutes les modifications apportées doivent être énumérées dans la version finale du texte.

Après la relecture du rapporteur, la décision finale de retenir ou de ne pas retenir l'article est à l'éditeur.

Il est à noter que  toute pratique de « ghostwriting » (« écriture en sous-main ») : qui consiste à ne pas désigner une personne ayant apporté une contribution substantielle à la recherche ou à la rédaction de l'article publié  toute pratique de signature scientifique (« qualité d'auteur honorifique » ) : qui consiste à inclure dans un article scientifique le nom d’une personne n’ayant pas apporté de réelle contribution à la recherche principale ou au contenu de l’article publié  tout acte de plagiat : qui consiste à s’attribuer les idées, les données ou le langage d’une autre personne sans permission ou avec une reconnaissance insuffisante sera sanctionné(e), communiqué(e) aux autorités responsables et signalé(e) à la communauté scientifique (soit aux intitutions auxquelles les auteurs sont affiliés et aux corps universitaires pertinents).

En vue d’éviter tout cas de fraude scientifique, les auteurs s’engagent à :  signer un contrat de publication avec les rédateurs (voir ci-dessous)  indiquer les noms et les affiliations de l’ensemble des personnes ayant contribué de manière significative au travail ainsi que leur apport (concept, méthodologie, etc.)  indiquer la source de financement (signaler toutes les institutions, sociétés ou autres ayant aidé la recherche qui a abouti à la publication présentée).

Obtenir au préalable l’autorisation pour les documents protégés par le droit d’auteur

L’auteur est tenu d’obtenir l’autorisation écrite des détenteurs de droit d’auteur pour reproduire n’importe quelle photographie, illlustration, tableau précédemment publiées ailleurs et comprises dans l’article. L’auteur doit payer tous les frais impliqués par la reproduction.

Contrat de publication

Le contrat de publication exige la cessation de la totalité du droit d’auteur à la revue. Afin d’éviter les cas de fraude scientifique (pratique de « ghostwritig », pratique de signature scientifique, plagiat), le contrat de publication contient la déclaration de l’auteur qu'il estl'auteur exclusif du texte, qu'il détient l'intégralité des droits d'auteur sur son texte, que son texte est entièrement original et qu'il ne contient aucun emprunt aux textes précédemment publiés, ce qui porterait atteinte aux droits d’auteur antérieurs.