4 CI` CERO' ON THE(THEATRE) STAGE The earliest dramas in which ‘Cicero’ appears on stage as acharacter date from the last quarter of the sixteenth century: apiece in France, one in Germany and (at least) three in Britain were produced in fairly quick succession. In all of these ‘Cicero’ is not the protagonist after whom the plays are named; instead, he is a more or less important figure involved in the dramatic action. 4.1 Robert Garnier, Corne´ lie (1574) Context Robert Garnier ( c. 1545–1590) studied law and did legal work in Paris before becoming amagistrate in his native district of Maine (a region in France) and later amember of the Grand Conseil du Royaume in Paris. From his student days onwards Garnier wrote literary works, starting with lyric and later turning to dramatic poetry.Heisnow regarded as one of the most significant French dramatists of the sixteenth century. The majority of Garnier’splays dramatize stories from the ancient world: Porcie (1568), Corne´ lie (1574), Hippolyte (1574), Marc-Antoine (1578), La Troade (1579) and Antigone (1580). At the same time the themes have contemporary resonance: the pieces share an emphasis on civil war,are characterized by arepublican outlook and were published during the turbulent period of the French Wars of Religion.1 As for their form, Garnier’splays feature little dramatic action and rather consist of an alternation of rhetorically developed speeches and choruses; they are based on the model of Seneca’sLatin tragedies.2 28 R EVIVING C ICEROIN D RAMA Corne´ lie was first performed in 1573; it was first published in 1574 and then included in an edition of Garnier’stragedies in 1585. In the introduction to the print edition the poet claims that the favourable reception of his earlier works encouraged him and that he therefore spent his last vacation writing Corne´ lie. 3 The piece is meant to illustrate how a great republic falls through internal conflicts among its citizens.4 Corne´ lie is dedicated to the courtier Nicolas d’Angennes (1533–1611). The dedication is followed by poems in French, Latin and Greek about the poet and his work, contributed by other writers. The author mentions Plutarch’s Lives of Pompey, of Caesar and of Cato as well as books of Caesar’s commentarii and of Appian’sand Cassius Dio’shistorical works as sources;5 some allusions to Cicero’sworks have been identified.6 An English version of Corne´ lie was published as Cornelia in 1594, without an indication of the source or the name of the English writer on the title page; the dedication (to Bridget Morrison Radcliffe, Lady Fitzwalter and Countess of Sussex [1575–1623]) is signed ‘T.K.’ and mentions Garnier as the basis.7 Asecond edition in 1595 identified Garnier’splay as the starting point and Thomas Kyd as the ‘translator’. Thomas Kyd (1558–1594) was an important Elizabethan playwright, best known as the author of The Spanish Tragedy ( c. 1580s). Kyd’s ‘translation’ of Garnier’splay (based on the 1585 or alater edition) is not atranslation in the literal sense, but rather an adaptation, not meant to be performed; it appeared after the first genuine English play featuring Cicero (ch. 4.2).8 Bibliographical information texts: CORNELIE, j TRAGEDIE j DE ROB. GARNIER j CONSEILLER DV ROY j au ſ iege Preſ idial &Sene- j chauſſee du Maine. j A MONSEIGNEVRDE j RAMBOVILLET. j APARIS, j Del’Imprimerie de Robert E ſ tienne. j M. D. LXXIIII. j AVEC PRIVILEGE. [available at:http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k70810x/f2. image] CORNELIE, j TRAGEDIE. j AMONSEIGNEVRDE j RAM- BOVILLET CHEVA- j lier de l’ordre du Roy,Conſ eiller en ſ on j Conſ eil priue´ , Capitaine de ſ es Gardes, Se- j neſ chal &Lieutenant pour ſ aMaieste´ au j pays & Conte´ du Maine.,in: LES j TRAGEDIES DE j ROBERTGARNIER j CONSEILLER DV ROY, j Lieutenant general Cri- j minel au ſ iege 4.1ROBERT G ARNIER 29 Preſ idial j &Senechauſſee j du Maine. j AV ROY DE FRANCE j ET DE POLONGNE. j APARIS, j Par Mamert Patiſſon Imprimeur du Roy, j chez Robert E ſ tienne. j M. D. LXXXV. j Auec privilege. [available at: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86256333] modern edition (of 1585 edition): J.-C. Ternaux (ed.), Robert Garnier, Corne´ lie. Trage´ die. E ´ dition critique, e´ tablie, pre´ sente´ eetannote´ e ,Paris 2002 (Textes de la Renaissance 53; Robert Garnier The´ aˆ tre complet III). English version: CORNELIA. j AT LONDON, j Printed by Iames Roberts,for N. L. j and John Busbie. j 1594. [available on Early English Books Online] Pompey the Great, j his faire j Cornelias Tragedie: j Effected by her Father and Hus- j bandes downe-cast, death, j and fortune. j Written in French, by that excellent j Poet Ro: Garnier; and tran- j slated into English by Thomas j Kid. j AT LONDON j Printed for Nicholas Ling. j 1595. repr.in: The Works of Thomas Kyd. Edited from the original texts with introduction, notes, and facsimiles by Frederick S. Boas, M.A., Oxford MDCCCCI (pp. 101–160). [available at: https://archive.org/details/worksthomaskyd00kydgoog] characters: 1574: INTERLOCVTEVRS: M. CICERON. j CORNELIE. j PHILIPPES, Affranchy de Pompe´ e. j C. CASSIE. j DECIME BRUTE. j IVLE CESAR. j M. ANTOINE. j LE MESSAGER. j LE CHŒVR. 1594: INTERLOCVTORES: M. Cicero. j Philip. j Deci. Brutus. j M. Anthony. j Cornelia. j C. Cassius. j Iulius Cæsar. j The Messenger. j CHORVS. Comment Garnier’sdrama is the earliest identifiable play in which Cicero appears as acharacter. 9 Although Garnier was familiar with the preceding plays by Marc Antoine Muret and Jacques Gre´ vin (cf. ch. 3), who dramatize roughly the same phase in Roman history without Cicero’spresence, Garnier included Cicero among the characters, thus enhancing the political dimension from the start.10 The political emphasis can already be inferred from the list of characters since only two of them (the freedman and the messenger) are not historical. At the same time the piece differs from almost all later ones featuring Cicero by its title: it is named after an historical woman, who is not 30 R EVIVING C ICEROIN D RAMA typically associated with Cicero’slife or the historical events he was involved in. Yet, just like Cicero, the historical Cornelia, the daughter of Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica and the wife of P. Licinius Crassus and then Cn. Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), was affected by the political turbulences in the late Roman Republic. In the play Corne´ lie appears as awoman who, after Pompey’sdeath (48 BCE ), is initially determined to kill herself, but then decides to carry on living although she also has to deal with the news of her father’ssuicide. The drama is set in 46 BCE after the defeat of Caesar’sopponents. Corne´ lie’ssituation gives the playwright the opportunity to present Cicero and other figures of public life, alone or in conversation with her,reflecting on recent political developments and on the history of Rome, and to demonstrate political struggles extending over several generations. Thus, the piece privileges speeches expressing personal and philosophical views of life and considering the situation of Rome, particularly in relation to Caesar usurping the position of amonarch. Correspondingly,there is not alot of action in the play; no indication of scenery is given in the script. Although Cicero is not mentioned in the title and perhaps not expected in aplay about Corne´ lie, he takes centre stage: Cicero is the first character to make an appearance; the first act consists entirely of along speech by him (the only act to feature asingle character); he is present in three of the five acts (Acts I, II, III), in as many as Corne´ lie. In the speech in the first act Cicero bemoans the current political situation; he laments the degeneration in Rome, the power of ambition, the civil wars, alack of direction and government, vainglorious boasting of earlier deeds and the fact that the Romans are not able to maintain their empire owing to a lack of virtuous behaviour.Thus, Cicero emerges as arepresentative of well-organized republican times, marked by liberty; he analyses and regrets the current situation, but does not consider any action to change it. In the second act Cicero continues to bemoan the recent history of Rome; moreover,heacts as aphilosophical adviser,when he proclaims that Pompe´ ehas died in agood way and tells Corne´ lie that everyone and everything dies, but that one should not attempt to die before the appointed time and rather bear fate patiently.Alluding to Stoic doctrines, he advocates resilience in unsatisfactory political circum- stances. In the third act Cicero becomes more political again and reflects on the fact that Rome has conquered many external enemies only to be enslaved now by one of their own; he thus comes closer 4.2STEPHEN G OSSON 31 to Corne´ lie’sviews. Again, Cicero does not contemplate political alternatives. Apossible reaction is shown by Cassie and Decime Brute in the fourth act, when they think of assassinating Cesar. Writinginthe time of theFrenchWarsofReligion, Garnierpresents thephase of Romanhistory showninthe dramaasaconflictbetween republican libertyand asense of communityonthe onehandand tyranny andambitiononthe otherhand; he hasthe positive characters support libertyand take actiontopreserveitagainst individualsabusing positions of power.11 Within thedepiction of such politicalissuesCicerofulfilsthe role of arepresentativeofthe traditionalrepublicansystem, whichhas led to Rome’s growth,and of awisephilosopher;his politicalactivitiesasan individual andhis biographicaldetails aretherefore notparticularly relevant.Accordingly,there is little obviousreference to thewritingsof thehistorical Cicero.Instead,his philosophicalpleadingrecalls worksof Seneca theYounger,and theplotisbased on ancienttexts providing informationabout thehistorical context, as thesources givenbythe playwright suggest.