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The Influence of Contextual Aspects on New Zealand Muslim Males’ Environmentally Ethical Behaviour

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The Influence of Contextual Aspects on New Zealand Muslim Males’ Environmentally Ethical Behaviour http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXTUAL ASPECTS ON NEW ZEALAND MUSLIM MALES’ ENVIRONMENTALLY ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR __________ MASHITOH BINTI YAACOB 2009 THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXTUAL ASPECTS ON NEW ZEALAND MUSLIM MALES’ ENVIRONMENTALLY ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Philosophy at The University of Waikato by MASHITOH BINTI YAACOB __________ 2009 ii © 2009 Mashitoh binti Yaacob iii Abstract This study’s aim was to investigate the strength of contextual aspects’ influences on environmentally ethical behaviour (EEB). A survey method with a self- administered questionnaire was used and a cross-section of the Muslim male population of New Zealand was taken. The qualitative interviews and email questionnaires were also utilised to further explain the survey results. The linear regression analyses show correlations between contextual aspects (i.e., social, religious, economic, political, and demographic) and EEB (pre-cycling, re-use and recycling). Results indicate that the contextual aspects are influential on EEB in many ways and degrees. A model describing the relationship was developed. The economic aspect statistically significantly related to EEB the strongest. The qualitative interview and email questionnaire data support the findings of the survey. The relationship was positive, meaning that the more the consumers were influenced by the economic aspect to behave in an environmentally ethical way, the more they were likely to perform EEB. Compared to the economic aspect, white collar workers, number of household occupant, work involvement with the environment, type of house, and age had a weaker statistically significant relationship with EEB. The relationships were positive, meaning that the better the consumers’ occupation (i.e., white collar workers), the more household member they had (i.e., 4 and above), the higher their level of work involvement with the environment, and the better their dwelling (i.e., bungalow or semi-detached houses), the more they were likely to perform EEB. However, the relationship between age and EEB was negative, meaning that the younger the consumers the more they were likely to perform EEB. However, the results of this study, from both the survey and the interview methods, indicate that demographic characteristics were not as important as the contextual aspects, particularly the economic aspect, in understanding consumers’ EEB. This study shows that the economic aspect was very important in understanding consumers’ EEB compared to the other contextual aspects even the political aspect was statistically significantly related to EEB via the economic aspect. Thus, the economic aspect should be used optimally by public and private sector managers to promote EEB. iv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge all the people that have helped me to complete this PhD project. Their guidance, encouragement, ideas, and criticism are very much appreciated. First and foremost I would like to express my acknowledgment to Alastair Gunn, my thesis chief supervisor, who guided me to a better understanding of environmental ethics. He has worked diligently to assist me in finding and explaining connections between contextual aspects and environmentally ethical behaviour (EEB), leading to a comprehensive understanding of the New Zealand Muslims males’ EEB. My deepest gratitude goes to Michael Hills, my thesis second supervisor, who with his expertise in quantitative research method guided me substantially on conducting the quantitative survey for my thesis. Thanks also to John Paterson for his guidance, ideas and criticism on the qualitative interview method utilised in my thesis. Thanks also to Tracy Bowell for comments on my first chapter. Thanks to my thesis committee members Peter Donovan, Neil Pickering and Walter Looner, for their willingness to challenge my thesis and offer suggestions for improvement. Thanks also to Br Abdullah Drury for the quick supply of the list of information sources on Muslims in New Zealand at a time when I critically needed it. I would like to acknowledge my family members and friends for their undivided support especially when I was feeling a bit down at times pursuing this journey. I would also like to acknowledge the Muslim community members in New Zealand for participating in this project; and the mosques, Islamic centres, and Islamic associations of New Zealand for assistance with the survey. And, I would like to acknowledge my sponsors the Public Service Department of Malaysia (JPA) and the National University of Malaysia (UKM), and the staff of the University of Waikato for their assistance starting from my enrolment until the finishing of this project. Syukur Alhamdulillah v Table of Contents Page Abstract iii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents v List of Figures xiii List of Tables xiv Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Research Background 1 1.2.1 The Overall Field 1 1.2.2 Summary of Previous Studies 2 1.2.3 Indication of Research Gaps 7 1.3 Research problem 8 1.3.1 Research Problem and Solution 8 1.3.2 The Major Theory 8 1.3.3 Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses 11 1.3.4 Summary of the Research Contributions 12 1.4 Justification for the Research (Significance of the Research) 14 1.4.1 The Importance of Environmentally Ethical Behaviour (EEB) 15 1.4.2 The Importance of the Research Problem 16 1.4.3 The Importance of Research Methodology Used 16 1.4.4 The Usefulness of the Research’s Findings 16 1.5 Methodology 16 1.5.1. Types of Research and Designs 17 vi 1.5.2 Research Instruments 17 1.5.3 Data Collection Method 18 1.5.4 Data Analysis Method 19 1.5.5 A Summary of the Findings of the Data Analysis 21 1.6 Outline of the Thesis 22 1.7 Definitions 25 1.8 Delimitations of Scope and Key Assumptions 28 1.9 Conclusion 30 Chapter 2: Literature Review (Research Issues) 32 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Previous Studies 33 2.2.1 Social Intrinsic Aspect 33 2.2.2 Social Extrinsic Aspect 38 2.2.3 Religious Aspect 43 2.2.4 Economic Aspect 52 2.2.5 Political Aspect 55 2.2.6 Demographic Aspect 59 2.3 Conclusion 63 Chapter 3: Theoretical Foundation 68 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 The Islamic Worldview and the Concept of Tawheed 68 3.3 The Qur’anic Verses and Sunnah 70 3.4 The Requirement of Iman on EEB 72 3.5 The Religious and Social Functions of the Environment 73 vii 3.6 Islamic Sources’ of Ethical Prescriptions for the Treating of Every Aspect of Creation 74 3.6.1 Fauna 74 3.6.2 Flora (Plants and Trees) 77 3.6.3 Land and Soil 78 3.6.4 Water 79 3.6.5 Air 80 3.7 Islam on EEB (Pre-cycling, Re-use and Recycling) 81 3.8 Individual Responsibility as Khalifiah 83 3.9 Conclusion 90 Chapter 4: Socio-Religious Experience of Muslims in New Zealand 101 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Family Values 101 4.3 Role of Wider Community Values 103 4.4 Similarities of Environmental Values 107 4.5 Role of Mass Media 111 4.6 Conclusion 113 Chapter 5: Economic Experience of Muslims in New Zealand 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 Economic Migrants 115 5.3 Economic Values 120 5.4 Role of Vendors 123 5.5 Conclusion 125 viii Chapter 6: Political Experience of Muslims in New Zealand 127 6.1 Introduction 127 6.2 Environmental Policies, Laws and Regulations, and the Role of 127 New Zealand Local Government 6.3 The Role of Politicians and Political Parties 130 6.4 The Role of Environmental NGOs 134 6.5 The State of Muslim’s Involvement in New Zealand Politics 140 6.6 Conclusion 144 Chapter 7: Methodology 146 7.1 Introduction 146 7.2 Types of Research 146 7.3 Participants 147 7.4 Research Instruments 148 7.4.1 Secondary and Primary Data 148 7.4.2 A Questionnaire 148 7.4.3 Forms and Order of Question in the Questionnaire 149 7.4.4 The Scales for Survey Data 149 7.4.5 Pilot Study 150 7.4.6 Questionnaire Administration 151 7.4.7 Reliability of Survey Data 151 7.4.8 Validity of Survey Data 151 7.4.9 Qualitative Face-to-face Interviews 152 7.4.10 Email Questionnaires 152 7.5 Procedures 153 7.5.1 Pre-requisites of Data Collection 153 7.5.2 Sampling procedures 153 ix 7.5.3 Sample Size 154 7.5.4 Non-response Bias 155 7.6 Data Analysis 155 7.7 Conclusion 156 Chapter 8: Method 157 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Participants 157 8.2.1 Characteristics of Muslims in New Zealand 157 8.2.2 Characteristics of the Sample 157 8.3 Research Instruments 158 8.3.1 Concepts (Constructs) and Questions (Questionnaire) Construction 159 8.3.2 Pilot Study 162 8.3.3 Questionnaire Administration and Collection 163 8.3.4 Tests of Reliability 164 8.3.5 Tests of Validity 166 8.3.6 Qualitative Face-to-face Interviews 168 8.3.7 Email Questionnaire to Religious Figures 169 8.4 Research Procedures 169 8.4.1 Data Collection 169 8.4.2 Sampling Procedure 170 8.4.3 Representativeness of the Survey Sample 172 8.4.4 Sample Size 174 8.5 Data
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