Concepts, Challenges, Perception, Awareness And

CONCEPTS, CHALLENGES, PERCEPTION, AWARENESS AND IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN THE FIJI ISLANDS: A CASE STUDY OF NAYAWA VILLAGE, NADROGA AND VUAKE VILLAGE, YAWASA ISLANDS

Lasarusa Turaga Cawanibuka

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

School of Geography, Earth Science and Environment Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment The University of the South Pacific

July, 2016

Dedication

To Yahweh the Al Shaddai and Elohim of Israel, God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, Father of the Lord Jesus Christ, the Source and Main Provider of Knowledge, Wisdom and Understanding, unto whom ascribe Power, Majesty and Honor.

To the Memory of my Late Mother Ilisapeci Cawanibuka who was called to eternal rest on October 29th, 2013.

To my family, Alifereti Cawanibuka (father), Sera Cawanibuka (sister), Nacani Cawanibuka (brother), Nina Cawanibuka (wife), Keresi Cawanibuka (sister in law), Sera Hadassah Cawanibuka (niece), Alifereti Joshua Cawanibuka (nephew), Iva Tawake (aunty) and Orisi Rawaqa (cousin).

To the Vuniwai family (Tamavua), Cagiloaloa family (Gilford, Sydney), Danford family (Cambeltown, Australia) and Waqanicagica family.

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Acknowledgments

A special thank you goes to my parents, my father, Alifereti Cawanibuka and my mother, Ilisapeci Cawanibuka who passed away in 2013. Your love, prayers, support and teachings have been my source of inspiration and perseverance.

I must acknowledge my wife, Nina Cawanibuka who really played a major role in my success. Thank you Nina for always being there for me along the journey.

My brother, Nacani Cawanibuka and sister, Sera Seruvatu deserve a special thank you for always giving me the much needed advise, encouragement and most importantly, financial support during the course of my study.

I am greatly privileged and honoured to acknowledge the commitment and passion of my supervisor, Dr. Eberhard Weber, who guided me throughout the journey. A big vinaka vakalevu to you Sir.

I would also like to thank my co-supervisor, Dr. John Lowry. Thank you for the tremendous support and assistance given to me. It was an honour working with you Sir.

I must thank the Associate Dean, Dr. Sushil Kumar and the Faculty of Science, Technology, and Environment for providing the necessary funds which has enabled the successful completion of the study. I would also like to acknowledge Mr. Serupepeli Tagivakatini for always giving his time in sharing his wealth of knowledge and experiences during the study.

A special thank you goes to the Vanua o Madudu, Nayawa village, Sigatoka and Vanua o Drola, Vuake village, Yasawa for traditionally receiving me and approving my stay for the course of the study that was to be undertaken. I thank the matanivanua and all the families of Nayawa and Vuake who were very accommodative and supportive during my stay at the two villages. A big vinaka vakalevu to Aporosa Tabulawaki of Nayawa village and Jo Maraiwai of Vuake village for the great assistance and hospitality.

Finally, I offer a special thanks to Dr. Rosiana Lagi (FALE – Faculty of Arts, Law and Education) for sharing her experience in a similar study she accomplished. Her insight and professional advice inspired me during the course of my study. Vinaka vakalevu!

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to identify the livelihood and environmental challenges experienced by two coastal villages in Fiji. In addition the study also intends to highlight peoples’ perception regarding Climate change and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA). Implications of Climate change related hazards will be addressed and adaptive measures undertaken. The first study was conducted at Nayawa village located on the east bank of Sigatoka River in the peri-urban area of Sigatoka, Nadroga. The second study took place at Vuaki village, situated on the island of Matacawalevu in the Yasawa island group.

Focus Group Interviews and questionnaire surveys were used to collect qualitative as well as quantitative data. Content and statistical analysis was used for qualitative data while descriptive analysis was used for quantitative data. Results indicate that there is a high level of perception and awareness about CC. This is shown by the target groups in terms of having the ability to define and provide real life examples of climate change and its implications on the natural environment and society.

Findings illustrate that the majority of the community are involved in the tourism industry as well as fishing and farming activities for both food and cash income. The majority of key respondents are either formally employed or self-employed. In addition, results shows that most of the households have more than one source of income due to the many difficulties and challenges faced by the two coastal communities. Having only one source of income is not enough for a sustainable and secure livelihood.

Government and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have provided overwhelming support in terms of finances, logistics and infrastructural assistance towards the two study sites. Lessons gathered from the talanoa sessions and observations, oral tradition and traditional knowledge is very limited and climate change adaptive capacity varies significantly. It is concluded that a holistic approach towards planning adaptive and mitigation strategies is needed. The promotion of more consistent awareness programs and the documentation of traditional knowledge are highly recommended.

Abbreviations

ADB – Asian Development Bank

AUSAID – Australian Agency for International Development

CBDAMPIC – Capacity Building for the Development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries

CC – Climate Change

CCA – Climate Change Adaptation

CCE – Climate Change Education

CIDA – Canadian International Development Agency

COP – Conference of Parties

CROP – Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific

CVA – Climate Vulnerability and Adaptation

DRM – Disaster Risk Management

EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment

ENSO – El Nino Southern Oscillation

EU – European Union

FAO – Food Agriculture Organisation

FNCCP – Fiji National Climate Change Policy

GHG – Greenhouse Gas

GVI – Global Vision International (NGO)

IK – Indigenous Knowledge

IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

JICA – Japan International Cooperation Agency

LEK – Local Ecological Knowledge

NGO – Non-Governmental Organization

NH – Natural Hazards

OISCA – Organization for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement

PCCP – Pacific Climate Change Programme

PIC – Pacific Island Countries

PICCAP – Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Programme

PIFACC – Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change

PIFS – Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat

RMA – Risk Management Approach

SK – Scientific Knowledge

SL – Sustainable Livelihoods

SIDS – Small Island Developing States

SOPAC – South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission

SPC – Secretariat of the Pacific Community

SPREP – Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme

SPSS – Statistical Packages for Social Sciences

TC – Tropical Cyclone

TEK – Traditional Ecological Knowledge

UN – United Nations

UNDP – United Nations Development Programme

UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organisation

UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNISDR – United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

USP – University of the South Pacific

WHO – World Health Organization

WS – Western Science

WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature vii

Fijian Terms

Balolo – Acanthurus Auranticavus

Balolo lailai – Acanthurus Auranticavus

Bua ni Viti – Fragaea Berteroana

Buabua – Frangipani

Bulubulu – Juvenile shark

Cagoloya – Shampoo ginger

Cawaki – Sea urchins

Dairo – Sea cucumber

Dakua Salusalu tree – Retrophylium Vitense

Dalo – Taro

Dawa – Logan Tree

Damanu – Calophylium Leptocladum

Drala – Coral tree

Dilio birds – Golden Plover

Dilo tree – Callophyllum Inophyllum

Doi tree – Alphitonia Zizyphoides

Duruka – Saccharum Edule

Dri – Stonefish

Gasau – Reeds

Ika drokadroka – Green fish

Ivi -Tahitian Chestnut

I – Taukei – Major indigenous people of the Fiji Islands

Kaikoso – Seawater mussels

Kanace – Blue tail mullet viii kauceuti – Turrillia Vitiensis

Kaudamu – Nutmeg tree

Kaunigai – Canarium Harveyi

Kawakawa – Cod

Kavere – Sea noodles kavika – Malay apple

Kuasi – Podocarpus Neriifolius

Kumala – Sweet potatoes

Kuita – Octopus

Lairo – Land crabs

Lawa ni ika – Fishing net

Loliloli – Lollyfish (sea cucumber)

Lololo – Storage house

Lumi – seaweed

Mako –Trichospermum

Makosoi – Perfume tree / Ylang Ylang

Mata veitokani – Youth group

Matu – Blacktip silver

Maqo – Mango

Moli – Citrus fruit

Nuqa – Rabbit Fish

Oga – Traditional Obligation (occasion)

Tomanu tree – Emmenosperma Micropetalum

Ugavule – Coconut Crabs

Qari (mangrove crabs) Salala – Pacific Makerel

Saqa – Travelly ix

Sekoula tree – Flame tree / Delonix Regia

Solesolevaki – Communal work (working together as a group)

Soli vaka koro – Village money collection

Soli vaka misinari – Money collection for mission / church

Sucuwalu – Sea cucumbers (later dried and processed into beach-de-mer)

Talanoa – sharing of historical and traditional stories, myths and teachings

Tiri – Mangrove trees

Tivoli – Wild yam

Turaga ni koro – Village headman

Urau – Lobster

Uvi – Yams

Uvi Leka – Small yams

Vainaviu – Pineapples

Vaivai ni Vavalagi – Raintree / Monkey Pod tree

Vesi – Intsia Bijuga

Vola ni kawa bula - legal record of the genealogies of land-owning units in Fiji

Vonu / Ika bula – Turtles

Vula – Leopard sea cucumber

Vula i Nuqa Levu – January

Vula i Sevu – February

Vula i kelikeli – March

Vula i Gasau – April

Vula i Doi – May

Vula i Werewere – June

Vula i cukicuki – July

Vula i se na drala – August

Vula i vavakada – September

Vula i Balolo Lailai – October

Vula i Balolo levu – November

Vula i Nuqa lailai – December

Vutu – Barrington fruit

Walu – Spanish Mackerel

Wi – Polynesian plum

Yaka tree – Dacrydium nidulam

Yasiyasi – Syzygium Fijiense

Technical Terms

Following is a list of terms and their definitions that will be used in this thesis.

Adaptation – according to the IPCC (2010) is the adjustment of natural or human systems to a new or changing environment. Adaptation to climate change means adjustments of natural or human systems to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects. Adaptation is an adjustment to changes that have the potential to cause harm. Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, e.g. private and public adaptation, autonomous and planned adaptation and anticipatory and reactive adaptation. (IPCC – TAR 2001).

Adaptive Capacity – accordingly is the ability or capacity of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) in order to moderate / mitigate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or cope with consequences (IPCC – TAR 2001).

Community – is a group of people who live together under an organized institutional structure. Community can have a single or diverse cultural and religious setting. Community is often used for people living in a particular settlement. They are not necessarily related, but have an institutional command and decision making structure, which either is introduced by traditional rules, developed by the people or installed by outside authorities, such as governments.

Climate change – according to the IPCC refers to changes in climate over time, no matter if natural reasons cause this changes or the result of human activities. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on the other side sees climate change as a change of climate that is directly or indirectly the result of human activity. This definition suggest that climate change is only when humans alter the composition of the atmosphere in addition to natural climate variability.

Disaster Risk Management – The systematic management of disaster risks. This includes administrative decisions to reduce disaster risks (prevention / early warning), manage disaster that are just occurring and the immediate aftermath of disasters (search and rescue) and the immediate and long-term recovery process (relief and rehabilitation). An important task of DRM is to coordinate organization and operational field skills. In addition it requires abilities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the xii society or individuals. In an optimal way DRM reaches deep into societies with the goal to reduce impacts of natural and human-made hazards so that these do not turn out to become disasters. Today Disaster Risk Reduction is a major tool and goal of DRM.

Kyoto Protocol – Agreement established by the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change. (UNFCCC) with the goal to achieve CO2 reductions of the developed countries

Mitigation – any action to reduce future damages and losses from climate change. Mitigation recommends measures that should help to avoid dangerous climate change from happening.

Natural Disaster – A terminology that is often used, but strictly speaking incorrect. Disasters are events of society caused by natural hazards. Still the expression is used often meaning severe disruption to a society as a result of a natural hazard. Disasters cause loss of life and property and lead to the disruption of normal life. A natural hazard is a geophysical, atmospheric or hydrological event, or series of events, that has the potential to cause significant harm or loss.

Preparedness – Activities and measures to take up with the goal that a natural hazard does not turn into a disaster. Preparedness requires effective response to and recovery from the impacts of hazards. Preparedness includes early warning systems, awareness-building amongst the population about the signs of approaching hazards, and stock-piling of relief supplies, and evacuation plans.

Risk – refers to the statistical probability to suffer injury, death or loss from an event. Risks can refer to health, poverty, the environment, or other things of value.

Vulnerability – describes the condition of external shock, stresses and risks and the inability of humans to adequately respond to the external events. The IPCC includes any system that is unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. In this sense vulnerability is the “function of character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity” (IPCC TAR 2001).

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ...... iv

Abstract ...... v

Abbreviations ...... vi

Fijian Terms ...... viii

Technical Terms ...... xii

List of Figures ...... xvii

List of Images ...... xviii

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction ...... 1

1.0 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Purpose of Study ...... 2 1.2 Research Aims / Objectives ...... 3 1.3 Research Questions ...... 3 1.4 Assumptions ...... 4 1.5 Rationale ...... 4 1.6 Statement of problem and justification ...... 5 1.7 Summary ...... 6

CHAPTER 2 | Conceptual Framework and Literature Review ...... 7

2.0 Introduction ...... 7 2.1 Literature Review ...... 7 2.2 World View on Climate Change, Adaptation & Mitigation...... 9 2.3 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework ...... 14 2.4 Fiji Government | Adaptation, Preparedness and Resilience ...... 22 2.5 Regional Donor Agencies and NGO Assistance ...... 24 2.6 Summary ...... 29

CHAPTER 3 | Research Methodology ...... 30

3.0 Introduction ...... 30 3.1 Description of Study Sites ...... 30 xiv

3.2 Research Design ...... 31 3.3 Qualitative Research ...... 32 3.4 Quantitative Research ...... 33 3.5 Methods of Collection of Data ...... 34 3.6 Data Analysis ...... 36 3.7 Presentation of Results ...... 36 3.8 Limitations ...... 37 3.9 Summary ...... 38

CHAPTER 4 | Importance of Traditional Knowledge ...... 39 4.0 Introduction ...... 39 4.1 Fijian Social System (Structure) ...... 39 4.2 Importance and significance of Traditional Knowledge ...... 40 4.3 Uses of Traditional Knowledge during Natural Disasters ...... 42 4.4 Farming Systems ...... 43 4.5 Traditional Medicine ...... 45 4.6 Native Fijian Traditional Foods ...... 48 4.7 Summary ...... 51

CHAPTER 5 | Findings: Case Study on Nayawa Village ...... 52

5.0 Introduction ...... 52 5.1 Population ...... 52 5.2 Education ...... 54 5.3 Gender Roles and Responsibilities ...... 55 5.4 Livelihood Systems in Nayawa village ...... 56 5.5 Major Challenges experienced in Nayawa Village ...... 62 5.6 Perception and Awareness towards Climate Change ...... 65 5.7 Experiences of Environmental Related Hazards ...... 70 5.8 Evidence and Implications of Climate Change in Nayawa ...... 72 5.9 Adaptation and Mitigation Measures in Nayawa village ...... 78 5.10 Government and NGO Assistance towards Nayawa Village ...... 82 5.11 Summary ...... 82

CHAPTER 6 | Findings: Case Study on Vuake Village ...... 84

6.0 Introduction ...... 84 6.1 Population ...... 84 6.2 Education ...... 86 6.3 Gender Roles and Responsibilities ...... 87 6.4 Livelihood Systems in Vuake Village ...... 89 6.5 Major Challenges experienced in Vuake Village ...... 96 6.6 Perception and Awareness towards Climate Change (CC) ...... 101 6.7 Experiences of Environmental Related Hazards ...... 106 6.8 Evidence and Implications of Climate Change in Vuake ...... 109 6.9 Adaptation and Mitigation Measures in Vuake village ...... 113 6.10 Government and NGO Assistance towards Vuake Village ...... 115 6.11 Summary ...... 118

CHAPTER 7 | Summary, Conclusion & Recommendations ...... 119

Summary of Findings ...... 119 Conclusion ...... 124 Recommendations ...... 126

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 129

APPENDICES ...... 141

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Oxfom’s Sustainable Livelihood framework (modified by Weber 2014) 19 Figure 2 Conceptual Framework 32 Figure 3 Traditional Fijian Social Structure 40 Figure 4 Gender Population 52 Figure 5 Population count per age category 53 Figure 6 Number of people living in each of the sampled 35 Households 53 Figure 7 Level of Education 54 Figure 8 Land area used for crop and pastoral farming – Nayawa 57 Figure 9 Permanently fallow land 58 Figure 10 Reasons for permanently abandoning land 58 Figure 11 Types of Occupation in Nayawa 59 Figure 12 Number of years of employment 60 Figure 13 Sources of income – Nayawa 60 Figure 14 Types of Household Businesses – Nayawa 61 Figure 15 Major Challenges faced in Nayawa village 62 Figure 16 Perception about global warming 66 Figure 17 Perception about pollution 67 Figure 18 Perception – Climate change is stoppable 67 Figure 19 Perception - Importance of climate change 68 Figure 20 Causes of climate change 69 Figure 21 Frequency of cyclones has not changed 70 Figure 22 Frequency of flooding has not changed 71 Figure 23 Environmental hazards experienced in Nayawa village 71 Figure 24 How often do villagers witness environmental changes 73 (physical evidence) of climate change Figure 25 Physical evidences of climate change 74 Figure 26 Evidences / implications of climate change on economic assets 76 Figure 27 Responses – Relocation due to river/coastal flooding 80 Figure 28 Responses – Relocation due to cyclones 81 Figure 29 Responses – Resettlement if offered new homes 81 Figure 30 Gender Population for the 35 sampled households of Vuake village 84 Figure 31 Population count per age category 85 Figure 32 Number of people living in each of the sampled 35 Households 85

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Figure 33 Level of education – Vuake 86 Figure 34 Total land area used for crop and pastoral farming 89 Figure 35 Permanently fallow land - Vuake 91 Figure 36 Reasons for permanently abandoning land – Vuake 91 Figure 37 Types of Occupation in Vuake 93 Figure 38 Years of Employment 93 Figure 39 Income Source 1 94 Figure 40 Income Source 2 95 Figure 41 Income Source 3 95 Figure 42 Types of Household Business 96 Figure 43 The 1st greatest challenge experienced by the people of Vuake 97 Figure 44 The 2nd greatest challenge experienced by the people of Vuake 97 Figure 45 The 3rd greatest challenge experienced by the people of Vuake 98 Figure 46 People’s perception about Global warming 102 Figure 47 People’s perception about Pollution 102 Figure 48 Perception - Climate Change is stoppable 103 Figure 49 Perception - Frequency of cyclones has not changed 103 Figure 50 Frequency of flooding has not changed 104 Figure 51 Causes of Climate Change 105 Figure 52 Importance of Climate change 105 Figure 53 Frequency of Flooding in Vuake 106 Figure 54 Intensity of Flooding in Vuake 107 Figure 55 Informants affected by Flooding in Vuake 107 Figure 56 Frequency of Cyclones in Vuake 108 Figure 57 Intensity of Cyclones in Vuake 108 Figure 58 Details of other Hazards in Vuake 109 Figure 59 Physical Evidence of Environmental Changes 110 Figure 60 Evidence of Environmental Impact on Economic Assets 112

List of Images

Image 1, 2 Newly built homes provided by the government of Fiji after 116 the destruction caused by TC Evans 2012

Image 3 Water storage constructed by the government of Fiji in 1999 116

Image 4, 5 Water tanks installed by GVI 118

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List of Figures in the Appendices

Appendix 1

Figure 61 Assistance provided by Govt. of Fiji for Nayawa / Vuake villages 141

Figure 62 NGO Assistance provided for Nayawa / Vuake villages 141

Appendix 2 – List of Pictures in the Appendix

Picture 1. Botebotekoro also known as goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides L.) 142

Picture 2. Senitoa / Hibiscus (Rosa-sinensis L.) 142

Picture 3. Weleti or maoli (Carica Papaya) 142

Picture 4. Balabala (Cyathea Iunulata) 142

Picture 5. Sila ni vavalagi (Zea mays L.) 143

Picture 6. Via (Alocasia macrorrhiza) 143

Picture 7. Niu / coconut (cocos nucifera) 143

Picture 8. Tavioka / cassava (manihot esculenta) 143

Picture 9. Dawa (Pometia pinnata) 144

Picture 10. Drau tolu / beach bean (Vigna marina 144

Picture 11. Jaina leka / bananas (Musa nana lour) 144

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CHAPTER 1 | Introduction

1.0 Introduction

Global warming is a global warning. Climate change is one of the most pressing issues that we face in the 21st century and it is only deepening. Global leaders are prioritizing focus on climate change given the complexity of the issues that stem from it that covers scientific, environmental, political and socio-economic landscapes. The serious effects of the current global climate crisis is evident where we currently see an increase in global average surface and ocean temperatures, retreating glaciers, and ecosystems altered in many ways. It is predicted that these extreme weather patterns will continue its current trends and potentially increase in frequency that is of major concern. Climate change is not going to be a future occurrence; it is happening now and the scientific community agrees that we are already living in confusing and uncertain times, with unprecedented change occurring at a rate never experienced before (Adger et al. 2006; Weber 2011; 2012, 2014).

Climate change alters the physical environment. Its challenges are not only environmental, but it also negates economic sustainability, and requires new thinking in as far as governance and decision making is concerned. Large parts of the world’s population, in particular those living in developing countries, currently experience significant risks from climate variability. Some societies that are challenged with socio-economic issues face such risks. Climate change can be threatening if it continues to deteriorate thereby placing additional risk and pressures on societies that will only lead to increased insecurity in the future. Vulnerable groups in society such as the young, the old, the poor and all who depend on resources that are sensitive to climate change are exposed to these challenges. Farmers, fishermen and women are greatly risked as climate change has negative impacts on food security, leads to scarcity of fresh water, and exposes people to droughts and floods. People have to learn to cope with and adapt to such challenges in order to master the future.

Adaptation is increasingly the focus of policy action. Tackling climate change forces people to go straight into the heartland of industrial civilizations, energy and transport systems. This also means that powerful interests are challenged at all levels;

1 basic infrastructures in our societies have to be modified. In a world that is conflicted with so many issues, it will take time for emission reductions to have a real impact.

Therefore, adaptation to climate change is a major component of the climate change regime, especially as the scientific community today has accepted that mitigation will not bring required changes, at least not in the interim or immediate future. Adaptation best can be understood as such responses, adjustments and actions that accommodate the changes and / or reduce people’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. Some definitions of adaptation that relate to climate change focus on society while others have a much broader perspective and include natural systems and their adaptive responses. In contrast to mitigation, adaptation does not intend to alter climate change, but reduces vulnerability to the impacts of climate change (Dawson & Spannagle, 2009).

This thesis presents findings on the adaptive capacity of coastal villages in the Fiji islands. Climate change adaptation and mitigation approaches highlighting traditional and cultural methods are key issues being covered. For indigenous Fijians, it is vital to enrich the younger generation on Traditional Knowledge (TK) so that they are well prepared for an uncertain future that lies ahead. Government and non-government organisation (NGO) roles and contributions are vital in creating resilient communities and society. Funding programmes and initiatives positively reinforces urban and rural communities. The main purpose of preparation and precautionary measures is to ensure an orderly society and environment. Various institutions have to work with existing communities and their livelihood systems. To make these systems sustainable, they need to have the ability to withstand the pressures stemming from climate change and to change if necessary is a great feat to achieve.

1.1 Purpose of Study This study intends to investigate and document the perceptions and knowledge about the concept of climate change and climate change adaptation of native Fijians at grassroots level. The study includes the livelihood systems of two coastal villages and people’s perception of change and adjustments that are made to adapt to such changes in the environment. The fieldwork was conducted in two villages, namely, Nayawa village in Sigatoka, Nadroga and Vuake village on Matacawalevu Island in the Yasawa island group. Traditional Knowledge (TK) is considered a vital aspect of adaptation and mitigation against climate change hence, its uses will be investigated in a modern

2 context. Furthermore, the study also intends to highlight the contributions of past and present governments, non-government organizations and regional donor agencies.

1.2 Research Aims / Objectives Aim To assess the level of awareness and perception of climate change and climate change adaptation at village level considering people’s livelihood systems and Traditional Knowledge and determine the contributions by the Fiji Government, Non-Government Organizations and regional agencies to the communities in terms of policies, funding, and infrastructural developments to assist the villages against climate change related events and environmental hazards.

Objectives

To analyse the livelihood system in both villages.

To identify and assess the peoples’ perception and awareness about climate change at village level.

To identify any evidence of related climate change events and highlight the Adaptive measures undertaken by village communities.

To identify and highlight the contributions made by past and present Governments, non-government organisations (NGOs) and regional donor agencies towards climate change adaptation projects.

The ultimate objective is to investigate how peoples’ awareness towards climate change is socially and culturally constructed to enhance adaptation and mitigation processes.

1.3 Research Questions i. What are the important elements of the livelihood systems in both villages, and how are they potentially affected by climate change? ii. Do the villagers know or have heard anything about climate change before? iii. Is Traditional Knowledge (TK) still actively observed and practiced in the village today? If so, when and how are they being used? iv. What are some of the major challenges the villagers experience in their daily livelihood?

v. How does Government address climate change and how is it perceived and adopted at village level? vi. How have Non-government organisations (NGOs) and regional donor agencies assisted village communities against climate change?

1.4 Assumptions This study is based on three main assumptions:

Assumption 1: Climate change continues to accelerate at a rapid pace that can be paralleled with the increasing influence of information technology hence, increasing people’s knowledge and perception about climate change.

Assumption 2 : Traditional knowledge has been passed down from one generation to another through oral tradition. Traditional knowledge significantly assists village communities in their daily livelihoods.

Assumption 3: The Government of Fiji provides relief assistance and engages in rehabilitation works particularly during disaster periods in the country. The government prioritises disaster risk management plans and protocols, policy planning and implementation at all levels. Non- government organisations and regional donor agencies play very important roles in climate change adaptation and mitigation related activities from national to the grassroots level.

1.5 Rationale The thematic area of study is based on concepts, challenges, perception, awareness and implications of climate change adaptation in coastal villages in the Fiji islands. The researcher’s choice to undertake this study comes with the interest of combining traditional knowledge and modern science as relevant and effective measures to respond to the challenges of climate change.

As a researcher and a native Fijian the author takes interest in learning and gathering valuable Traditional Knowledge (TK) and skills particularly from the elders before they pass on. Increasing knowledge and ideas improves peoples’ perception and awareness, hence better responses towards climate change (CC). It would be interesting to evaluate

4 the contrasting levels of understanding and perceptions between the existing older generation and the younger generations in terms of climate change, climate change adaptation and most importantly traditional knowledge (TK) and its practical skills.

This study provides an opportunity to learn valuable ideas about concepts and perceptions of native Fijians at village level on climate change and climate change adaptation. The gathering and documentation of knowledge and experiences imparted by the older generation is also vital. The research is a way of finding out the existence of Traditional Knowledge (TK) and its uses at village level. The main priority is finding out how it is used to either adapt or mitigate climate change and environmental related events. It is vital to always reconnect ourselves with the land and sea as our ancestors once did.

The research seeks to highlight and acknowledge the invaluable support and assistance given by Government, Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and regional donor agencies. The communities rely on their support particularly through policy planning and implementation, funding, initiating of awareness programmes and projects on climate change adaptation or mitigation.

This study may inspire researchers to collect valuable sources of information on Traditional Knowledge (TK), document and then disseminate to ensure that the future generation is not deprived of the opportunity to learn about their own culture and how they may relate this knowledge to their daily livelihood systems and particularly in the battle against climate change.

1.6 Statement of problem and justification Climate change is a global phenomenon and its impacts can be felt at the local level. Local actions, such as land use changes that result from climate change and/or contribute to heating or cooling of the environment, can amplify or ameliorate larger scale climate forces (Schlesinger, et al, 2007). Challenges caused by sea level rise, coastal erosion, desertification, declining soil fertility are few of the implications caused by climate change (Burson, 2010). Displacement or re-settling of population through migration can occur as a result of sudden onset events such as storms, cyclones, and flooding to name a few or from slowly rising sea-levels that renders rural areas or even whole low-lying islands uninhabitable.

The displacement of traditional communities from original places of settlement may involve significant heritage and cultural loss, creating a profound sense of alienation and trauma (Burson, 2010). Since the majority of communities in Fiji are located in coastal zones, vulnerability is extremely high and communities’ future is at risk. There is a need to better understand how people cope with the shocks and stresses of climate change and climate variability and, in particular, the extent to which migration forms part of the adaptation strategy (Kniveton, et al, 2008).

Negative impacts of climate change are likely to happen for communities which are particularly vulnerable. They have least access to resources, information and decision making power to actively work for adaption. They often inhibit marginal land and rely on the ecosystem and ecosystem services, which are susceptible to climate change (Burson, 2010). It is predicted that climate change conflict will soon not only become more important than the current war against terror but with an estimated one hundred million people on the move as a consequence, could see rich areas such as Europe and the USA becoming virtual fortresses against this people (Cromwell & Levene, 2007).

1.7 Summary Livelihood systems, perceptions, knowledge and awareness towards climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies are key areas of investigation. Identifying and learning the signs and implications of climate change is vital. Traditional knowledge is of great importance in the fight against climate change. Teaching the younger generation about traditional and cultural practices via oral tradition is key to survival. The researcher seeks to explore the fundamental aspects of traditional knowledge and its reliability in terms of climate adaptation and mitigation. Furthermore, identifying the physical evidences of climate change impact and learning how to adapt or mitigate these changes is the essence of the study.

CHAPTER 2 | Conceptual Framework and Literature Review

2.0 Introduction The global climate has changed significantly over time (Crowley & North, 1991). Climate change became a major environmental concern in the second half of the twentieth century. Around 1980 a debate about global warming (today the expression climate change is more common) started and continued in the twenty first century (Bolin, 2007). The debate raised general awareness about climate change and the preventative measures to curb its widespread however more recently, it became evident that these measures have been futile but it has become prevalent to learn how to adapt to it. Mike Davis considers the relationship between geophysical events and impacts on human society as living on the climate equivalent of a runaway train that is picking up speed (Davies, 2005). Today, climate change is one of the most crucial challenges in the field of environmental and sustainable development (Sanderson & Islam, 2007). As shown in the Stern Report (Stern et al. 2006) climate change has developed and transformed rapidly in recent years and has grown to become a global environmental, economic, and social problem that presents unique challenges for policies to be established to address these problems.

2.1 Literature Review Climate change has the potential to affect the Fiji islands through various events such as: storm surges, rise in sea level, constant change in temperatures, rainfall patterns and extreme weather events (Becken, 2005). It has adverse impacts on ocean eco-systems, in particular relating to the health of coral reefs, are important notable changes that coincide with climate change. As in other developing countries, this vulnerability is aggravated by limited institutional capacity, non-availability of technologies, ill-enforced regulatory frameworks, and lack of financing (Becken, 2005).

Many studies on climate change have been done in the South Pacific (Hay, et al., 2003) and the Fiji Islands (Nunn, et al, 1994). In comparison to atoll islands in the Pacific, Fiji mainly has higher islands that allow the shift of activities inland as a long term preventative measure against sea level rise (Feresi, et al, 2000). However, that does not mean that such movements are easy and without their own challenges. Coastal retreat and erosion resulting from changing wind patterns and strength, changes in shoreline features (eg. groynes and sea walls), and sea level variability and sea level rise are major

7 problems (Nunn, et al, 1994). Sea level rise in the near future may lead to the complete disappearance of low lying atolls and major damages to existing coastlines (World Bank, 2000). Hoegh-Guildberg et al. (2000) stresses the importance of preserving coral reef ecosystems and its biodiversity. Cesar et al. (2003) explains the huge economical loss the destruction of reef systems would bring. The degradation of coral reefs today is of great concern, and future predictions are worrying.

The impact of climate change is evident. Learning to co-exist with these impacts is a priority for human development (Pelling, 2011). Wilbanks (2003) suggests that climate change should be viewed in a multi stress context of wider environmental, social, and political changes and pressures. Pittock (2005) refers to climate change adaptation as a planned response to change that possibly assists in the mitigation of human induced climate change and sea level rise. On the contrary, Pittock also explains that there will be uncertainties about future amounts and effects of climate change and sea level rise, hence, adaptation must be a risk management strategy, which takes account of the probabilities as well as the costs and benefits. Methods of adaptation will vary with the activity or industry, with location, and on different scales in time and space (Kininmonth, 2004).

Adaptation emerges to be a key policy response to climate change, describing the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (IPCC, 2007). Adaptation can be a process, action or outcome in a system (ecosystem, household, community, group, sector, region, country), one which enables the system to better cope with, manage or adjust to changing conditions, stresses, hazards, risks or opportunities associated with climate change (Smit and Wandel, 2006).

A range of adaptation models have been used globally. Fankhauser (1994) sets the level of adaptation based on an analysis of the costs of coastal protection. (IPCC, 2001; Nicholas & Lowe, 2004) insists on having an integrated framework of adaptation and mitigation implemented. Mitigation has demanded by far the most attention as a policy option (Kaya, et al., 1993). Although climate change is global, adaptation and resilience will always be local, place based, and involve complicated decision making (Castro, Taylor, & Brokensha, 2012). The value of local knowledge systems for development efforts has been recognised by many development

8 practitioners and academics for decades, and its potential for climate change adaptation and mitigation is receiving attention (Salick & Anja, 2007). Rural people have developed and inherited complex traditional knowledge and practices over generations which help them to accommodate climatic variability (Altieri & Koohafkhan, 2008).

However, according to Leviston & Walker (2011) it is a great challenge to convert knowledge into action. With this the entire climate change response paradigm must be measured. Adaptation that works nicely in one place might be unsuitable for other places (Adger et al. 2005). Barnett & O'Neill (2010) writes about how to evaluate success and failure of adaptation and the ‘risks of maladaptation’. On the empirical side it is essential to measure and assess potential impacts of climate change by sensitivity and risk analyses. In such processes it is essential to identify critical thresholds and risks. Only then it is possible to draft greenhouse gas emission reduction policies under the terms of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is also crucial to identify and quantify those risks and threats that require a management or policy response. Once identified guides can be drafted that show the need for and ability to adapt (Lisa, Schipper, & Burton, 2009).

2.2 World View on Climate Change, Adaptation & Mitigation i. Climate Change Issues

Adger, Paavola, & Huq, (2006) argues that the changing river flows, retreating glaciers, altered ecosystems, and new patterns of extreme weather events indicate the presence of global climate change, one of the most serious challenges of the twenty first century. King, (2006) states that climate change poses a more serious threat than that of terrorism. Large parts of the world’s population already confront significant risks from climate variability in the face of pressing needs for survival, insecurity, globalisation, and global financial crises. As documented in McCarthy et al., (2001), and Parmesan Yohe, (2003), climate change is a reality and there are observed impacts of climate change on physical and ecological systems over the past century. Along with changes in mean climatic conditions, the earth potentially faces irreversible and catastrophic system feedbacks and impacts associated, for example, the collapse of thermohaline circulation, the melting of the Greenland ice sheet (Gregory et. al., 2004), or other singular events (Alley et al., 2003).

Researchers are putting enormous efforts in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). A lot of research is carried out around the world and majority of the researchers are coming to a clear conclusion that there is a ninety percent risk that climate change will be so serious that it will wreak havoc in the social and economic structures of our planet (Almlund et al., 2012).

Scientists and politicians reflect on climate change because they are worried about life support systems for virtually everything on earth. They look at the impacts a changing climate might have on the availability of food and water and the cost to fulfil these basic needs. Jarman (2007) suggests that climate change discourses shapes the nature of homes and livelihoods and community relations, hence, affect the life of every person on the planet. To fully comprehend how the planet’s climate is changing, it is important to take a global perspective and be aware of crucial changes for local levels. One cannot disqualify that the earth’s climate had always been changing. Today palaeo-climatologists investigate the earth’s pre-historic climate in order to learn for the recent situation (Silver, 2008).

Until very recently, much of the scientific discussion on climate change focused on mitigation (Weber 2011, 2012, 2014). The goal expressed was to limit greenhouse gas emissions in order to avoid dangerous climate change from happening. National emissions do not stop at national borders – they become everybody’s problem. For long it was hoped that the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions could avert dangerous climate change. On the contrary, all efforts to stop climate change has been rather time poor. Even if mitigation is deemed to be successful, the degree of climate change impact is inevitable and unstoppable. Sea levels are rising and will continue to do so for centuries due to surface warming of the oceans that has already occurred (Adger et al, 2004). Pollution in the old, pre-climate change paradigm, was perceived as dispersing quickly and usually concentrated / limited in the region where it was generated, ‘plus some areas downwind’ (Henson, 2006). Contrary to such perception, carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere for around a century and greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise as the gas accumulates, especially as carbon sinks are disappearing as well. Today’s climate conditions are also influenced by the emissions of previous generations. In addition, the emissions we produce today contribute to gas concentrations for future generations and the climate they have to live with.

According to a science academic statement at the 2005 G8 meeting, even if it would be possible to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions at today’s levels, the climate would still be changing for quite a while (Adger et al, 2004). Even if big declines in the emission of greenhouse gases can be achieved, the planet’s climate would continue to change for quite a while and countries, regions and people still must prepare for these changes. This preparation includes adaptation. ii. Adaptation

Many definitions of adaptation or adaptive capacity exist (e.g. IPCC, 2001; Burton et al., 2002; Adger et al., 2003); broadly speaking it may be described as the ability or capacity of a system to modify or change its characteristics or behaviour so as to cope better with existing or anticipated external stresses. We may view reductions in social vulnerability as arising from the realization of adaptive capacity as adaptation. The term adaptation is used here to mean adjustments in a system’s behaviour and characteristics that enhance its ability to cope with external stresses.

The UK’s Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research defines adaptation “as the adjustment of a system to moderate the impacts of climate change, to take advantage of new opportunities or to cope with the consequences” (Thomas et al, 2005). Furthermore, the IPCC (2001) defines adaptation as an adjustment in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to observed or expected changes climatic stimuli and their effects and impacts in order to alleviate adverse impacts of change or take advantage of new opportunities. The IPCC (2007) re-defines adaptation as “the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploit beneficial opportunities”.

Thus, adaptation is made up of actions or activities that people or communities can take collectively to reduce the impacts of climate change on both human and/or natural systems. According to (AOSIS, 2008), Adaptation is focused on adjusting behaviours so that people can cope with the effects of climate change.

Adaptation is increasingly the focus of policy action and concern in both industrialised and developing countries that feel under threat. Adaptation can be a process, action or outcome in a system (ecosystem, household, community, group, sector, region, country), one which enables the system to better cope with, manage or 11 adjust to changing conditions, stresses, hazards, risks or opportunities associated with climate change (Smit and Wandel, 2006). Most literature on adaptation to climate change explores adaptation options (see Smithers & Smit 1997; Smit et al. 2000) and the costs and benefits of adaptation (Frankhauser, Smith, and Tol 1999); Tol et al. 1998; Tol et al. 2004).

The November 2001 meeting of the parties to the (UNFCCC) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change recognized that the world’s poorest countries are most vulnerable to climate change (Jarman, 2007). According to Pantin (1994) land area, population, economic and environmental characteristics are used to define small island nations of the pacific. These small island nations are particularly susceptible to changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation (Pelling & Uitto, 2001) however, they are the least contributors in terms of emissions compared to first world countries. The emissions are largely produced by first world developed countries. Silver (2008) is concerned about food security and predicts that many countries will experience a decline in agricultural productivity because of droughts and flooding. Furthermore, the erosion of beaches and the loss of coral reefs will put pressure on people’s livelihoods in small Pacific island nations.

Pittock (2005) suggests enhancing adaptive capacity as a fundamental aspect that needs to be seriously considered in development, both in the lesser developed countries and also in the developed countries, which are still subject to growth and change. A good measure of technological innovation and resourcefulness is needed. Newell (2000) argues the importance of the media in shaping public opinion and the way they comprehend the complexities of global warming and climate change.

Furthermore, the issue of global climate change presents environmental NGOs with a particularly difficult set of obstacles and challenges (Newell, 2000). Besides the scientific uncertainties associated with global warming, which makes it harder to develop a consensus on appropriate policy action (Skolnikoff, 1990), there are also economic costs that are perceived to be involved, and the scale of economic restructuring (energy production and consumption) that may be implied by efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Adger et al., (2006) suggests that management systems need to incorporate monitoring, early warning, learning, and flexibility and seek to keep pace with the

12 dynamics of uncertainty and identify adaptation opportunities for the most vulnerable. Although exploration is yet to be done, there is already a full array of potential adaptation strategies for most foreseeable impacts. iii. Mitigation

Wollenberg et al., (2012) suggests that tackling climate change requires attention to agriculture. Foresight, (2011), also suggests that agricultural trends and food systems need to be re-designed in order to achieve sustainability and climate change mitigation. Mitigation will need to advance at the national, regional and international levels to achieve impact. How we use land, cultivate plants and raise animals has significant implications for greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, but shifts in agricultural practices can help to reduce gases in the atmosphere.

The potential for agricultural mitigation has been well summarised by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Smith et al., 2007a).

All three major greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) play a role in agriculture. Three options of managing greenhouse gases (GHG) exist:

1. reduce current methane and nitrous oxide emissions; 2. increase removals of GHGs from the atmosphere, mostly through increased carbon sequestration; or 3. avoil creating new emissions, eg., by protecting storage of carbon in existing biomass or soil carbon, or by substituting renewable energy sources for petroleum energy Wollenberg et al., (2012).

Improved land management practices systematically assists the mitigation processes of climate change particularly through the reduction of green house gases (GHG). IPCC, (2007) suggests that soil nutrient management, tilage and residue management, water management, agroforestry, pasture management, resoration of organic soils, restoration of degraded soils, application of manure or bio-solids and bioenergy are measures that needs to be implemented.

Agroforestry supports adaptation through diversified incomes from tree and field crops, increased resilience to climate extremes, and enhanced productivity. Trees

13 provide a higher carbon sequestration potential than pastures and field crops (Nair et al., 2009). Grasslands are estimated to store up to 30% of the world’s soil carbon, to which the carbon stored in grasses, shrubs, trees and bushes can be added (Grace et al., 2006). Declining plant productivity and soil organic matter can be reversed through grazing management, fallow systems, and sowing native or improved seeds, which also sequester atmospheric carbon and increase soil carbon (Conant and Paustian, 2002).

In crop farming systems, residue management, manuring, cover crops, nitrogen- fixing crop rotations, composting and the application of organic soil amendments, as well as organic farming practices can improve soil carbon sequestration. Due to increased input from crop residue retention, increased crop intensification and rotation, as well as reduced carbon decomposition, conservation agriculture has a positive impact on carbon sequestration (Ortiz-Monasterio et al., 2010).

2.3 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework The study looks into the livelihood systems of two villages in Fiji. As such the research has been guided by concepts that came up since the early 1980s. The questions focus on these concepts and its probability to negatively influence people and their livelihoods including their actions amidst such challenges. The sustainable livelihood framework is one way to understand economic, social and environmental aspects that play a crucial role for people’s well-being. A closer peak at the present livelihood system generates an understanding how environmental change, in this case climate change, can alter the system and put people and their well-being at risk.

In the beginning, people’s livelihoods concentrated on food (in)security issues and new ways to understand hunger, famine and starvation. These approaches are closely connected to publications of the Indian economist, Amartya Sen, on hunger, famine and starvation and the work of Robert Chambers in the 1980s (Chambers 1983, 1989). Approaches about social vulnerability have since become a crucial and central perspective in development thinking. In the 1950s to 1970s, development theories were based on macro level perspectives. However, in the 1980s micro-level perspectives and investigations are practiced. The latter (investigation) has been important for this study as it sub-divides people’s livelihoods into different categories / capitals and estimates the relative importance for people’s well-being in

14 the two villages under investigation. Early publications where this change in paradigm become obvious include Watts and Bohle (1993b) looking at vulnerability from a food (in)security angle. Others concentrated on (natural) hazards, environmental change and its social and spatial consequences (Blaikie et al. 1994, Clark et al. 1998, and Stephen and Downing 2001). When social scientists started to look into climate change related matter they often did so from a perspective of risk and vulnerability. Important authors include: Adger (2006), Adger and Kelly (1999), Bohle et al. (1994), Handmer et al. (1999), Kasperson et al. (2003, 2006), and Leichenko and O’Brien (2002). Different approaches reflecting on social vulnerability perceive it as a process involving exposure to shocks, stress and risk.

These approaches look at internal capacities that help to adapt (or at least to cope) with adverse environments and situation (Blaikie et al. 1994; Chambers 1983, 1989; Chen 1991; Davies 1996, Koch-Laier et al. 1996, Moser 1998; Perlman 1976). The people in the Pacific Islands become susceptible and vulnerable in such situations where the security of their livelihood is at stake. A close connection between livelihood security and well-being is drawn with a strong applied perspective, making Sustainable Livelihood approaches important not only for academia, but even more for the development practice: the intention is reducing risk and creating situations that provide security to people in difficult situations. Risk avoidance, risk management thus became an important element of development thinking and practice. Life in many places in the Pacific Islands can be characterized from the perspective of exposure to hazards, in particular natural hazards. Whether such hazards lead to disasters depends on the level awareness exists, on people’s preparedness to face such hazards, but also on the quality of their livelihoods that help to withstand hazards and well as more easily recover from disasters when people are endowed with much and appropriate livelihood capitals.

Two different perspectives are often combined: 1) what causes social vulnerability and/or livelihood shocks and 2) how can people respond to such shocks. Explanations around both issues that have come up since the 1980s resulted " in a considerable, often bewildering, confusion of competing intellectual frameworks and alternative paradigms using similar words in different ways" (Moser 1998: 2). Like mentioned above quite often, especially in the earlier stages, such concepts arose from research and debates around hunger, famine, and people’s entitlements to food. 15

For a much broader perspective, it remains worth mentioning that 'vulnerability' and 'sustainable livelihood security', focus on social actors, assets and entitlements.

Both concepts are far from being disciplinary approaches. They are clearly multidisciplinary with ‘bundles of perspectives’ reflecting on important social and developmental problems (Blaikie et al. 1994; Watts and Bohle 1993b; Chambers 1989) and enriched disciplinary discourses greatly. The following section focuses on some important aspects of these approaches especially those informed in the framework for empirical investigation of this thesis. The intention is not to discuss the approaches that came up by different authors and organizations, but to give a short overview of the major content of sustainable livelihood approaches and their usefulness for empirical investigation.

The reflection starts with Chambers’ (1989) important definition of vulnerability:

"Vulnerability has two sides: an external side of risks, shocks and stress to which an individual or household is subject; and an internal side which is defencelessness, meaning a lack of means to cope without damaging loss" (Chambers 1989: 1)

With this definition, Chambers (1998) puts two conditions that must be met before one can attest “vulnerability. 1) There must be something of great potential to cause damage (external side). This can be only insufficiently altered / avoided by people. 2) Whether this external event constitutes “vulnerability” can be only assessed by looking at the actors and their capacities and capabilities. If they are able to cope with the external events ‘without damaging loss’ then they are not vulnerable. In the past two years the Pacific Island region has witnessed two powerful tropical cyclones: first in March 2015 Cyclone Pam brought severe challenges to Vanuatu, Tuvalu and Kiribati, and then in February 2016 Cyclone Winston in Fiji.

Such cyclones can be seen as what Chambers (1998) calls the external side of vulnerability: an external event, which affects people. However people are only vulnerable, if they are unable to withstand, cope or adapt to such risks, shocks or stresses without suffering damages. If they have all means to withstand such powers, e.g. if they live in proper, stable houses in which the cyclone cannot do any harm to them, then they are not vulnerable. For others the very event can reveal their vulnerability, i.e. if they lack the means to cope, if they live in improvised houses,

16 with corrugated iron sheet as roofs and walls, which are blown away by the powerful storm. This is what Chambers (1989) means when he stresses that vulnerability has two sides.

Chambers (1989) definition puts people’s activities in the forefront, making them actors or agents of their fate. Coping means being active and doing something. Watts and Bohle (1993b) highlights that any event will alter people’s (baseline) vulnerability either to the worse or the better. Through a flood or a cyclone they might lose assets that strengthen their ability to cope (resilience). They might get hurt or a household might lose a breadwinner, etc. It is even possible to lose assets through the very event of coping, e.g. when nomads in Africa during a drought have to sell animals for their own survival and through this process they become poorer. Once the drought is over, they are in a weaker situation than before the drought because of the impoverishment that happened.

The study is embedded in discourses on uncertainty, risk and vulnerability that continue since the late 1980s. It often was criticised that the term 'vulnerability' was imprecise and vague, lacking theoretical rigour and a clear understanding of how to measure vulnerability (see Chambers 1989; Bohle and Watts 1993a and 1993b). These deficits have been partly overcome with the sustainable livelihood approaches. The introduction of (usually) five livelihood capitals brings the dilemma of how to measure vulnerability to some end, as all five (or more) capitals can be measure and indicators can be developed that help to construct indices and compare levels of vulnerability.

With this, vulnerability has become easier to measure. The concept, however, provides another interesting view: while poverty relates to deprivation and the lack of material resources, vulnerability is much closer linked to risks, shocks, stresses that come from outside and the inability to adequately respond to these (internal defencelessness). Poverty thus remains a static concept, a state measured at a particular time, excluding usually what has been before and what will come after, while vulnerability requires a complex measure and brings together many differing categories of indicators. With this, vulnerability takes a dynamic perspective, reflects on change and the relevant triggers of change. Poverty and vulnerability are two different things. Not every vulnerable person is necessarily poor and not all who are poor are necessarily vulnerable.

In a simplistic way, one could say that not only being poor constitutes vulnerability, but also the probability of falling into poverty. Like 'vulnerability', the term 'livelihood' came up first in famine / food-crisis research. Later, when aspects of sustainability were seen as crucial notions of food security were discussed closely connected with environmental degradation. Similar to what had happened in the vulnerability discourse, micro and macro perspectives have been included and different analytic categories have been combined to consider the complexity of development challenges. Looking empirically at the micro-level, looking at who are the most vulnerable, and looking into the local constituents of livelihoods, the macro-level still remains important, providing a justification to apply a multi-level conceptual approach. In the various sustainable livelihood approaches, this macro-level perspective is often expressed as the “transforming structures and processes (see Figure 1).

Much clearer than vulnerability, the livelihood security approach highlights the importance of agency. People make decisions; people are not victims, but actors. The perspective first and foremost is a local, a micro one. However, the perspective and analysis following from it would be incomplete, if macro levels would be left out. The following definition of ‘livelihood’ will be used during this study:

"A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base" (Scoones 1998: 5).

Rakodi (1999) notes that livelihood security increases with and declines with sensitivity to shocks and stress. Aspects that are crucial are the capacity of actors to at least cope with, adapt to and also recover from adverse events. Both concepts are very similar to each other. Of course they are different in language: while social vulnerability had analysed social actors from a perspective using negative expression sustainable livelihoods express same or at least similar matter much more positively. At times both concepts have slightly different purposes and emphasis but many still consider them complementary to each other. Sustainable livelihoods are a mean to provide security, i.e. to end social vulnerability (see Hoon et al. 1997; also Blaikie et al. 1994: 9).

Figure 1 - Oxfam’s Sustainable Livelihood framework (modified by Weber (2014)

The Sustainable Livelihood Framework provides a basis for the empirical analysis of livelihoods. It not only introduces and explains a number of livelihood capitals that can be seen as assets. In addition, it looks at relevant mechanisms and processes that alter access to these capitals and also change the quality of the capitals. A crucial aspect, which is often forgotten, is the following: how is access and quality of a particular asset / capital distributed amongst a population, a village, a community? Who have access, who don’t have, is the quality of the assets increasing or degrading, e.g. are fishing grounds overfished, is the productivity of the reef declining as a result of coral bleaching caused by climate change, is the productivity of the farm land declining because of sea water intrusion, erosion, or drought etc.?

Something can be an asset to someone, only, if this person has access to it. It is correct e.g. that Natural Capital means the natural elements like land, water, forests, fishing grounds, etc. However all these become only capital if one has access: a piece of land is a piece of land, a resource, however, it becomes a piece of capital, an asset, if one can use it, if one is the owner, if one has leased the land, or has any other form of entitlement to make use of it. Similarly, the question of quality: an asset can change: the quality of land can deteriorate, a fishing ground can be overfished, and access to it might be irrelevant, when no fish are there any more. So something is an asset to which one has access and which is suitable to make a positive impact on one’s livelihoods.

In the two villages, agriculture still plays an important role, both for food supply as well as the provider of livelihoods. However, other sectors have come up over time,

19 in particular the tourism sector, which today directly or indirectly provides a livelihood for majority of people.

What food production is concerned about is that it is legitimate to assume that climate change has its impacts as the cultivation of food plants is highly dependent on natural factors and conditions. This also has implications on food security as people cannot eat food that has not been produced. From the perspective of food security, however, it is equally important to reflect on the distribution of food, and people’s entitlements and way of access. Sen (1981) highlights that hunger, famine and starvation happen not because less food is produced.

When he studied the Bengal Famine of 1943, the famine of 1970 in Bangladesh and a number of famines in Africa in the 1970s, he found out that famine happened even in cases where enough food was for available for everybody. People were too poor to buy the food that was available. It was the decline in food entitlement, the decline in purchasing power. It is poverty which led to their hunger, famine and starvation. To end hunger, people’s capabilities, entitlements, rights over food have to be strengthened, meaning having access to land and/or alleviation of poverty.

This observation is central for the sustainable livelihoods approach although in the Pacific Island region, hunger and starvation are not as serious challenges than in many parts of Africa or Asia. When we reflect on livelihoods and how sustainable they are then we take a much broader perspective than looking at food security alone. Still entitlement is crucial. It means the endowment with different livelihood capitals. This provides an excellent entry point for investigation and research whereby this endowment could be looked into to find out if it looks differently for different groups in society.

Like Sen (1981) in his research on famines, discovered that not everybody is affected the same way and to the same extent. From a decline in entitlements over food, one can see that in every society, we have groups that are more vulnerable to e.g. natural hazards, or economic crises, or political instability than others. Such insights are crucial in understanding social, economic and environmental structures, process and challenges.

In Bengal of 1943, when almost 4 million people starved to death, not all sections of Bengal society were affected in the same way and to the same extent. “When rice prices skyrocketed in Bengal, farmers and grain merchants did very well. However, artisans, fishermen, landless labourers and other people suffered who did not grow

20 food, but had to buy it. Their income did not increase enough to compensate the high increase of food prices” (Weber, 2012: 86).

This “external side of risk, stress and pressure” people suffer constitute to the world of risk and hazards, i.e. whatever can happen to someone without little or no chance to avert it from happening. The internal side, the abilities/ capabilities of people and groups to cope with such external pressures is what can help to make a difference to a particular situation. People’s lives are full of potentially negative events: however, whether these events really turn out to be negative depends on how people respond. An economic crisis leads to an increase in unemployment, but this becomes a lesser challenge to those who have high quality education (human capital). It is impossible to make a cyclone disappear; still it makes a huge difference, if you are rich and are able to live in a stable house, or if you cannot afford more than a house made of corrugated iron sheets.

Looking at the potential implications of climate change and natural hazards on society, it is necessary to look at people who are exposed to such threats to provide answers to the questions of who is most exposed and possibly least capable to withstand such challenges. The various Sustainable Livelihood Approaches take similar views, but combining them into a much broader idea and concept (Bohle, 2009). The core of these livelihood approaches are different capitals that help people to secure their livelihoods. The following livelihood capitals are regularly mentioned: natural capital meaning access to land, marine and other natural resources and the quality change of these resources; physical capital, which are mainly asset/benefits relating from access to infrastructure, communication and information; human capital, the most individualistic of the livelihood capitals, stressing the importance of formal qualifications, skills, health; financial capital comprising all kind of incomes, savings which includes assets that can easily be converted into money. Finally, social capital, individual’s and groups’ connectedness in society and the benefits, such as solidarity, mutual support and assistance which are crucial to overcome difficult situations, especially when state support is not available and/or arrives late (Carney et al.; 1999, Yila et al. 2014).

These are the five livelihood capitals which are noted in all of the different livelihood approaches (see Figure 1). Legal capital refers to supportive structures and processes that have legal foundations (e.g. Human Rights, social security legislation

21 entitlements versus voluntary social welfare measures) and that enable people to enforce a claim (Weber: 2012).

The study aims to assess the impact of social, economic, political and environmental change on two iTaukei villages. Information was gathered on the livelihood systems and people response strategies, or to put it differently: on people’s action before the background of particular challenges such as climate change and its impacts. Knowledge about such “coping strategies” will help to formulate supportive policies to help to ensure the people’s livelihoods and thus reducing risk and vulnerability.

This latter point however could be only partially incorporated in this thesis. It would require much longer time for fieldwork and a level of cooperation and communication, which could not be establish in a few weeks of research. In the centre of research is therefore the description of different livelihoods of the people in the two villages investigated. Although this is a temporary picture it is attempted to include in the livelihood analysis a dynamic perspective looking at issues that pose risk, threat and pressures on the existing livelihood components and which create insecurity.

The approach perceives people as actors, who act under the impression of opportunities and constraints. They try (and often manage) to shape their futures and by doing this they are overcoming adverse situations, structures and processes. An important aspect therefore is the support they are able to get from outside, from governments and NGOs. Stress and uncertainty are often external factors, i.e. factors which are outside the sphere of influence of people. However, support can also come from outside. Communities might experience changing economic and political backgrounds, social change (modernisation) in general or also in global/local environmental change. An important aspect of all studies are to elaborate, how people reflect the outside world, how they internalise these factors (i.e. how they convert factors that are outside their spheres of influence to factors that can be influenced by them,…) and how they are able and willing to negotiate with outside forces issues that are important for their lives.

2.4 Fiji Government | Adaptation, Preparedness and Resilience In Fiji, climate change is identified as one of the most important challenges. Fiji most recently has been exposed to el-Niño induced droughts, major flooding and tropical cyclones. Many natural disasters greatly affected Fiji’s economy, impact employment

22 levels, and the availability of natural resources and people’s resilience. With climate change, these hazards increase in intensity and people’s ability to adequately respond is compromised.

Climate change thus poses a severe threat to Fiji’s sustainable development – or one also can say: Natural hazards and their amplification through climate change cause a severe threat to the development of the country’s economy and to people’s livelihoods. This is particularly true with respect to Fiji’s coastal areas where many Fijians live and the marine ecosystems, which contribute to the livelihood of many rural communities. Because of such challenges, the Fiji Government adopted in 2007 the Fiji National Climate Change Policy Framework (FNCCPF). This document defines the country’s position on climate change (Filho, 2015). In 2011, the framework was reviewed leading to the Fiji National Climate Change Policy (FNCCP) in 2012, which provided the platform for different sectors of the Fiji government to coordinate climate change interventions, including adaptation and mitigation measures (Government of the Republic of Fiji, 2012).

The FNCCP outlines some adaptive strategies vital for climate change adaptation and mitigation: 1.) The integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into one policy. This strengthens the vulnerability assessments and climate change impact projections in resource management planning. 2) It incorporates climate change impact projections into infrastructure and rural development planning. This helps develop sustainable adaptation technologies and systems that incorporates traditional knowledge and uses an ecosystem based management approach, recognizing that healthy ecosystem services increase resilience. 3) Part of the policy sets up a Comprehensive Hazard Assessment and Risk Management (CHARM) tool to guide all rural development planning and the assessment of ‘poverty, health and food security issues to determine vulnerability to climate change’. These strategies were welcomed as they offer a guide and direction that all stakeholders can use (Qalo, 2012).

The reduction of vulnerability stands in the centre of Fiji’s National Climate Change Policy. The goal is to enhance the resilience of Fiji’s communities to climate change and natural hazards. The Fiji Government continues to conduct Vulnerability and Adaptation assessments for the entire country. At the same time, the government has

23 created policies, institutions and budgetary systems that help to mobilize resources for climate change adaptation and disaster risk management activities.

The Government has also improved early warning systems, frequently dredges major river systems and constructs flood water retention dams in the interior to reduce flooding risks. The construction of cyclone shelters should further protect people from the impacts of Tropical Cyclones such as Severe TC Winston that devastated major parts of Fiji in February 2016. Plans to rebuild after Cyclone Winston should prepare rural coastal and inland communities better for future hazards. Government also planned to make the country’s infrastructure (eg. roads, bridges), shipping services and facilities, (water and energy services) better prepared for such events and better capable to withstand future occurences.

In agriculture and forestry, planting traditional crops and trees should help to reduce soil erosion, land degradation and desertification. The afforestation of mangroves forests, construction / improvement and maintenance of seawalls are other activities that should contribute to adaptation. Also the resettlement of communities to higher ground has been announced, but so far only one village i.e Vunidogoloa has been shifted (Klepp and Herbeck: 2016).

2.5 Regional Donor Agencies and NGO Assistance

The following paragraphs provide an overview of projects and programmes that have been implemented by Regional Donor Agencies and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) in response to climate change. It focuses on projects that address adaptation, and examines in detail some of those that have offered positive lessons to learn from.

Barnett & Campbell (2010) records that following the publication of the IPCC First Assessment Report, in December 1990, the UN General Assembly established an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on the Framework Convention for Climate Change. This set the platform for the development of an International Agreement on Climate Change which was finalised at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. This led to the signing of the UNFCCC.

Pelling & Uitto (2001) states that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a complex institution that critically looks at issues from the perspective of developing countries. King and Sem (1999) records that its focus is to produce six major outputs: i.e 1) an inventory on greenhouse gas sources and sinks; 2) an evaluation of migration options; 3) national vulnerability assessments; 4) an evaluation of adaptation options; 5) a national climate chnge implementation plan; 6) first national communication to the Conference of Parties (COP). Pelling & Uitto (2001) suggests more emphasis be placed on adaptation as the impacts of climate change (sea-level rise and changed weather patterns) will be inevitable and it is essential for countries to reduce their vulnerability.

Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established in 1991 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to promote sustainable development projects in developing countries. It is the main financial arm of the UNFCCC and assists countries through written reports to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and capacity building (Agrawala et al., 2003). GEF funded programmes such as the Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Programme (PICCAP) which was introduced in 1997 and was also the first major climate change project in the Pacific region.

Major funding agencies in the Pacific include, Asian Development Bank (ADB), AusAid, European Union, Germany, JICA, NZAid, and UNDP (Barnett & Campbell, 2010). A Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific (CROP) was formed consisting of eleven organisations to look into matters concerning the Pacific region eg. Climate change adaptation and disaster risk management etc. Out of the eleven CROP agencies, the most actively involved in responding to climate change are the University of the South Pacific (USP), the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), and the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP).

The Pacific Island Forum is the dominant regional body where heads of state and governments from the Pacific island countries including Australia and New Zealand meet. The forum is supported by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS). The secretary general of the PIFS also chairs the CROP organisation. The forum serves an important function in providing an opportunity for the leaders of the independent

PICs to meet and discuss the issue of climate change with Australia and New Zealand. The forum endorsed the Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change (PIFACC) in 2005 (Barnett & Campbell, 2010).

(SPREP, 2005, 2006) records that the framework and the plan had six sets of objectives to be achieved by 2015: i.e 1) implementation of adaptation measures; 2) Governance and decision making (incorporating climate change into countries sustainable development planning); 3) Improved understanding of climate change (focused on scientific and technical data collection and storage, modelling, and analytical frameworks with a brief reference to use of traditional risk management knowledge); 4) Education, training and awareness (including capacity building and public awareness); 5) Contributing to global greenhouse reduction; 6) Strengthening existing and building new partnerships and cooperation.

Fiji and other neighbouring Pacific island states today have improved access to current climate trends and projections to draw upon in climate change communication due to recent investments in climate science. Donor agencies, NGOs, regional organisations and Pacific Island governments have increased their support to adaptation approaches over the past decade with a number of initiatives now seeing these agencies working in partnership with communities to facilitate Adaptation (Gero et al. 2011; Lane and McNaught 2009). For example, the Canadian funded ‘Capacity Building for the Development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries’ project (implemented by the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme – SPREP) (Nakalevu et al. 2005), the Australian government funded Fiji Climate Adaptation Project (implemented by the University of the South Pacific) (Dumaru 2010) and the Red Cross ‘Preparedness for Climate Change’ programme (Barnett and Campbell 2010) are but a few Adaptive initiatives from which important lessons are emerging at community level.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB), which conducts regional adaptation projects in Fiji and its member pacific island countries (PICs) prioritizes the need to integrate various strategic methods in its development plans so that local communities are better prepared to cope with continuous changing weather extremes. ADB developed the Pacific Climate Change Implementation Plan (PCCIP) which was later reinforced by an action programme named the Pacific Climate Change Programme (PCCP).

The main goal of these programmes is to enforce efficient modes of communication and responses through partnership. Funding is vital towards the administering of such programs. ADB ensures that the financial needs of Pacific island countries (PICs) are met in time to allow communities to take measures to respond to climate change. ADB provides technical assistance, grants, and loans. The bank is an implementing agency of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which provides finance to promote global environmental management (ADB 2010).

The ADB, (2010) focuses on integrating environmental sustainability against climate change which is guided by five strategic positions: That is 1) to expand the use of clean and renewable energy; 2) strengthen sustainable transport and urban development; 3) promote climate resilient development, especially in agriculture, irrigation and other water dependent sectors. The bank also supports and strengthens policies, governance, and capacities that aim to manage land use and forests for carbon sequestration.

In 2003, Fiji was hit hard by Cyclone Ami causing severe flooding which led to “losses in key development sectors such as housing, education, health, agriculture, tourism, sugar, business, infrastructure, telecommunications, and power supply” (ADB, 2010: 20). In 2009, the western side of Fiji experienced major flooding in low lying areas where agriculture and infrastructure were the hardest hit. ADB’s Emergency Flood Recovery Project was set up to minimize losses in the economy and work against social disruption that might result from future extreme weather events.

The major goal is to bring economic and social activities back to work in affected areas so that pre-disaster levels can be achieved. The project also implements the “rehabilitation and climate proofing of road infrastructure, agricultural drainage schemes, and water supply intake structures” (ADB, 2010: 20). The Master Plan for roads as well as the bank’s investment program intends to rehabilitate and upgrade roads (incl. replacement and upgrade of bridges), advocates civil works to achieve better road safety and promotes a road safety action plan in collaboration with the Fiji Roads Authority, which has been established with support from the ADB (ADB, 2010).

Already in the early 1990s, programs focused on monitoring change. AUSAID did comprehensive research on climate change and its impact on Pacific sea levels. It then established a regional adaptation fund which intended to fund adaptation

27 projects. The Environment Agency of Japan, together with SPREP looked into Coastal Zone Management. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), established by the Canadian government in 1968, started a regional climate change project in Fiji with community level and national mainstreaming components in 2006. The agency (CIDA) funded the Capacity Building for the development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries Project (CBDAMPIC) which was implemented by SPREP.

Its main aims are to build capacity in order to reduce climate-related risks at national and community levels. The main objective is to mainstream climate change adaptation and integrate it into national and sectoral planning and budgeting processes and create awareness among decision makers and resource managers. The second objective is to enhance adaptive capacity through community pilot projects with assessments of climate related vulnerabilities and potential solutions provided. The pilot projects in Fiji were implemented in three villages, Bavu, Tilivalevu and Volivoli in Nadroga. The project mainly focused on Community Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment in Action. The project funded the installation of 45,500 litres water holding tank at Bavu village. It also funded the changing of the piping systems and the installation of two rainwater-collecting tanks at Tilivalevu village (Nakalevu, 2006). The assistance would in the long-term help these communities adapt to the current and future climate change. AUSAID assists the Fiji government on climate change and sea level rise monitoring programs and vulnerability and adaptation programs (Agrawala et al., 2003). Its main focus is to implement efficient monitoring systems in different localities and having consistent feedbacks and analysis. AUSAID finances capacity building plans, awareness training workshops and pilot programs in various communities. In addition, it collaborates with other potential donors and intergovernmental agencies to co-finance various potential climate change adaptation programs. Their main goal is to provide effective regional support and cooperation to fight against poverty, climate change, variability and sea level rise (Agrawala et al., 2003).

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is another major donor agency that works closely with the Government of Fiji. JICA financially supports many climate change adaptation and environmental projects however assist on per request basis. There are lots of priority areas it looks after; hence, its assistance is based on specific needs or priority areas requested by the government.

NGOs that are well established in Fiji include the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Greenpeace, and the Organization for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement (OISCA). WWF and OISCA in particular have programmes in partnership at the village level. OISCA concentrates on training programs in agro-forestry. It mainly focuses on replanting of mangrove forests in villages along Fiji’s coral coast (Agrawala, et al., 2003).

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), looks after community based programmes on wetlands and marine areas. One of their wetland projects was carried out in partnership with Fijian women in Navakosobu and Korovuli. The aim was to restore wetlands supporting the Kuta plant, which is used in weaving. WWF works with other organizations [namely USP, Foundations of the Peoples of the South Pacific (FSP), and International Marine Alliance (IMA)], the ministry of Fisheries and Forests, and village communities to conserve marine areas through the Fiji Locally Managed Marine Areas Network (FLMMA) (Agrawala, et al., 2003).

2.6 Summary The world recognises that life is changing and large parts of these changes are caused by climate change. The obvious reason for climate change is human activity. A lot of money is invested every year into research, publications, awareness programmes and activities worldwide. Scientists, authors, world leaders, and individuals all have their own findings and little explanations on the causes and effects of climate change. The real challenge is the ability to manage, adapt and mitigate climate change. Livelihood systems are challenged in all parts of the world due to climate change. Fiji, one of the least contributors to climate change is no exception. Life in the islands is centred on communal living and ownership. Production is primarily focused at subsistence level. The sustainable livelihood framework is one way to understand economic, social and environmental factors that are vital to people’s wellbeing. The researcher gathers that a structure needs to be put in place to teach people how to be traditionally, culturally, socially, economically, and psychologically resilient and relentless towards climate change and any other environmental related hazards for that matter. Traditional knowledge is key to climate change adaptation and mitigation processes and protocols. Government, non-government organisations and donor agencies all contribute significantly to Fiji and other developing island nations via financial assistance, education and awareness programmes.

CHAPTER 3 | Research Methodology

3.0 Introduction This chapter provides a brief description of the two villages, namely, Nayawa village in Sigatoka and Vuake village in Yasawa, where the field studies were conducted. The researcher explains the research design which is critical for gathering specific evidences relative to the intended purpose of the study. The methods of data collection, data analysis, and presentation of results used in the research will be addressed. Furthermore, the researcher provides an overview of various limitations and challenges experienced during the field study.

3.1 Description of Study Sites Site 1 : Nayawa Village, Sigatoka, Nadroga

The first field study was carried out in Nayawa village in Sigatoka, Nadroga. It is located on the east bank of the Sigatoka River in the peri-urban area of Sigatoka. According to oral history shared by village elders, the early settlers originated from the ‘Vanua ko Nubu’ in the highlands of Navosa. The name ‘Nayawa’ was the name of the initial place where their first ancestors resided on the hills of Koroba in Navosa. Their ancestors were said to have journeyed down the Sigatoka River until they reached the river mouth. Overwhelmed by the unique lush, scenery and natural resources, the river plains became their new found home. From the few people who settled during the early days, the village has literally grown in geography and capacity. Today, there are approximately 80 households with 300 people. This does not include those who live in other places within Fiji and overseas.

Majority of the villagers are hotel workers and subsistence farmers. The village is also renowned for its sporting achievements particularly in rugby whereby young men have represented the provincial Nadroga team and the national team at international level. The village mainly consists of concrete with a few tin houses and a traditional bure at the centre of the village green as a meeting place for traditional gatherings. The chief is addressed as ‘Tui Madudu’ and his tribe or yavusa is called ‘Noimadudu’. There are five clans (mataqali) namely, Nasinumata, Noimadu, Nadruku, Djuanahali, and Raralevu and the extended families (tokatoka) are Nasinumata, Nakaitawarau, Tawau, Lakeba, Koro, and Navicilagi. Each of the clans is headed by the Turaga ni mataqali (head of the clan). There is a village headman or Turaga ni koro who is appointed by the villagers and looks after the village administration. 30

Site 2: Vuake Village, Yasawa islands, Ba.

The second field trip took a 4 hour boat ride via Denarau to Matacawalevu. The island of Matacawalevu is about 5 km long from north to south, and over 2 km across at the widest part. It has a total area of about 9 square km. The highest peak is Uluikorolevu (300m) towards the southern end of the island. Along the windward, eastern coast, streams flow into the sea through mangrove swamps or lagoons. There are two villages at present, Matacawalevu at the north of the windward coast, and Vuake village in Nasomo Bay which lies in the middle of the east coast. The field study took place in the village of Vuake. Vuake belongs to the district of Nacula in the Yasawa islands and the greater province of Ba. Vuake comprises of approximately 70 households and 200 villagers. There tribe (yavusa) is called Ketekete. There are two clans (mataqali), Sivitu and Ketekete and six extended families (tokatoka), Natabale, Davekadra, Ketekete, Taganikula, Bau, and Nasivitu. According to the elders, their ancestors settled at the current site because of its perfect geographical location, landform features and moreover, the abundance of natural resources, native trees, fruit trees, plants, crops, vegetables, animals and marine life. The name, ‘Vuake’, means ‘vua’, produced and ‘ke’, here. The direct translation would read ‘produced here’. Everything they basically needed for survival was readily available in abundance.

3.2 Research Design The Research Design was intended to gather physical evidence of past and present climate change events and to assess and evaluate past and present adaptation and mitigation processes. This research used both qualitative and quantitative research techniques to get a combination of thematic narratives as well as precise and quantified results. The different phases of the study involved observations, talanoa and listening to people’s views and perceptions about climate change and climate change adaptation. This includes stories and narrations from village elders reflecting on oral history and its importance to the various generation lines. Peoples livelihoods or social background information were gathered by way of talanoa and personal interviews through the use of questionnaires. The researcher used the qualitative technique of in-depth interviews, so that the subjects of the research would be free to share their stories, social livelihoods and experiences, perceptions, and feelings. Note taking and photographs were also used. The quantitative technique was used towards 31 the later stage of the research upon completion of the data collection and coding for quantifying results. A combination of primary and secondary data has been compiled for this research. Primary data was gathered from the field study and secondary data was sorted through online soft copy data and hard copy publications and genres from the USP library and other relevant government and NGO sources.

Figure 2 Conceptual Framework

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

CLIMATE CHANGE

VILLAGEAGE LEVEL GOVT. OUTPUT N.G.ON G O OUTPUT OUT

CONCEPTS

AWARENESS ADAPTATION

MEASURES PERCEPTION CE

IMPLICATION MITIGATION

MEASURES LIVELIHOOD

An illustration of the structure of this study is shown in Figure 2. The Conceptual Framework looks at the overview of the research as a process that objectively focuses on acquiring relevant information about climate change at village, government and non-government levels of perspectives. The framework emphasizes the use of combined qualitative and quantitative methods of research to investigate related concepts, awareness, perception, implications and livelihood patterns and moreover, identifying adaptive and mitigation measures.

3.3 Qualitative Research Qualitative research is laid on the foundation of our understanding about how the world works, what makes it what it is (ontology), and of how we, as human beings, can understand and learn about the world of people (epistemology). Qualitative research is intense, engaging, challenging, non-linear, contextualized, and highly

32 variable. “It is potentially productive of fresh insights and deep understanding” (Bazeley, 2013: 3). Researchers put emphasis on observing, making accurate notes. The intention is to document and understand the way people act and also how they think about themselves, their challenges and opportunities and the wider world around them.

Qualitative research helps researchers understand the social features of our world and enquires about how opinions and attitudes are formed, why people behave in certain ways, how people are affected by the events that happen around them and why and how cultures have changed the way they have. Qualitative researchers are interested in the opinions, experiences and feelings of research participants. Furthermore, qualitative research depicts social phenomena as they happen in a most natural way (Hancock, 2002).

A qualitative approach was used for this research because it is a relevant approach to be used when conducting a study that enquires about the Indigenous or traditional context of Fijian perception about climate change and how this knowledge is passed on to the younger generations. Data was collected through direct interaction with the participants through personal and/or group interviews alongside personal or group observations. Collecting data through interviews and observations is very time consuming. Therefore only a representative sample of people could be used in the fieldwork for this study (Hancock, 2002).

3.4 Quantitative Research Quantitative research methods aim to collect information which then is analysed in statistical form. Usually this information is in numerical form or in a form that easily can be converted into numbers and then analysed. Questions that start with ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘how old’ ‘how big’ ‘how many’, ‘how often’ are typical quantitative questions? Also questions about gender, age, and questions in a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ structure are typically analysed in a quantitative way. Things can be measured or counted, or questions are asked in a questionnaire that is made up in a way that answers can be easily coded and then statistically analysed. Quantitative techniques are useful in providing accurate, precise data, and having a broad view of the whole population or producing hard data to prove that a certain problem exists. Quantitative research models itself closely on the type of research done by the natural sciences where things can be carefully observed, measured and counted.

A Quantitative data analysis approach was used typically at the latter stage in the overall process for this research. However, prior research techniques of designing questionnaire, observation schedules, participant responses and coding frame have been implemented and measured accordingly. Techniques used have been appropriately matched to the variables created through the research. The ultimate goal of the researcher is to get precise and quantified results with accurate comparison of the different variables measured at the research sites. The data was analysed and processed using computer software packages MS Excel 2010 and SPSS 21 (Statistical Package for Social Science). Descriptive statistics was used for simplistic presentation.

3.5 Methods of Collection of Data

The methods for gathering data have been influenced by the purpose of the study and the research questions that were constructed. The field study was divided up into phases which were reflected on the data collected from the villages. The targeted audience mainly comprised of 35 adults who were selected from the 35 sampled households from both villages.

Phase 1 Cultural protocols are observed and sought. The researcher traditionally seeks the approval and blessings of the ‘vanua’ to carry out the study. On completing the protocols (sevusevu), the researcher engages in a talanoa (informal talk) session with the matanivanua (village spokesman) and a few elders. The talanoa provided the researcher with a general overview of the people’s perception, attitudes and behaviour towards CC.

Phase 2 The matanivanua (village spokesman) and a fellow villager (tour guide) takes the researcher for a walk through the village. The researcher meets and greets the villagers. To conduct observation is simply to watch what happens (Bouma, 2000). In this phase, the researcher spends more time listening to the stories by the two gentlemen and observed the environment, the people and their culture.

Phase 3 Thirty five households are randomly selected but only one person (key informant) is chosen from each of the households to respond to the questions. A total of 70 key informants were interviewed from Nayawa and Vuake village respectively.

Phase 4 The fourth phase of the research involved formal interviews of the selected key informants and recording of their responses. The interviews were conducted using the standard Bauan dialect but the responses were written in English in the questionnaire sheets. The tour guide assisted in translating some of the questions in either the Nadroga or Yasawa dialect for clarity purposes. There was no problem in the language or dialect differences.

Phase 5 The fifth phase specifically focused on coding and analysis of data gathered from the field study followed by the presentation of results. Secondary resources, namely, publications, journal articles, and photographs were obtained via the University of the South Pacific Library and credible internet sources as part of the additional data gathered.

Primary Data Primary data was collected during the field study by way of personal interviews (question and answer), questionnaires, talanoa (story telling), and field notes. Responses were given by the target population (35 key informants per village). i. Interviews The interviews were conducted at the key informants’ houses. The researcher and his tour guide pursued random house visitation for the interviews. The tour guide assisted in the interpretation / translation of words. ii. Questionnaires An open-ended questionnaire (appendices) was used. The questions were structured in a strategic way to allow the participants to express their opinions, perceptions and remarks iii. Talanoa (Storytelling) A talanoa session was randomly scheduled daily for the duration of four weeks. The researcher visited each of the 35 selected (sampled) homes and engaged in informal talanoa (storytelling). iv. Photographs Photographs were taken after obtaining permission from the village headman during the cultural protocol. The pictures complement the written content of this thesis.

35 v. Field notes For this study, the researcher used a notebook to record the responses by key informants during the talanoa and interview proper. This data was then broken down into thematic areas that will address the research questions. The main thematic areas were 1) social livelihoods and challenges faced by the villagers 2) perceptions and awareness about climate change 3) Traditional knowledge about climate change adaptation 4) Government and NGO assistance.

Secondary Data Secondary data was obtained from written publications and journals from the University of the South Pacific library. Credible internet sources were also accessed for additional information.

3.6 Data Analysis All fieldwork data were coded and analysed to ensure reliability, validity and authenticity. All qualitative data including questionnaires, talanoa discussions were coded and triangulated. Quantitative data were also coded and analysed using SPSS Statistics Version 21.

Coding Quantitative research often requires coding. Codes can be seen like tags data is transcribed into so that characteristics of people or other units can be easily quantified and analysed (Bryman, 2004). The process of coding is organized and sorted. Coding allows the researcher to assign particular, quantifiable data to variable. Each then is considered to be a category of the variable in question. Numbers are then assigned to each category to allow the data to be processed, e.g. with a computer. The researcher used software packages MS Excel 2010 and IBM SPSS Statistics Version 21 for coding and analysis.

Coding in qualitative research is a way of labelling, compiling and organizing data. In addition, coding helps the researcher to summarize and synthesize data before eventually relating the concepts and ideas gathered from the data. Moreover, data are broken down into component parts, which are given names (Bryman, 2004).

3.7 Presentation of Results Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used for this study. Qualitative data presented include field notes, observation notes, questionnaires used for interviews, 36 photographs and images. Majority of the quantitative data are presented using tables as the most effective and meaningful ways of illustration and explanation. Pie charts and bar graphs are also used for illustration where ever necessary.

3.8 Limitations A common attribute seen in both research sites is the absence of the older generation particularly the eighty to ninety years age group. The majority of the village elders are in their fifties or sixties. During the first field work some of the village elders had gone to the highlands of Navosa or to Lautoka to visit family. Two potential key informants aged above seventy were sickly and unable to comprehend conversation clearly due to loss of memory and speech disabilities. At the second study site, none of the villagers currently residing at the village is above seventy years. The oldest was around sixty nine years of age. Still the majority of the elder members of both communities provided valuable information and insights on TK and climate change adaptation. However, it is vital that similar studies are conducted in other parts of the country to record people’s experience, views, opinions and most importantly share knowledge before it is lost for good.

Some other limitations of this study include: i. Time - Conducting field research work in Fijian villages is always time consuming, hence, it is vital to allocate considerable amount of time talking and sharing particularly with the elders of the village. Such would take ideally around 12 months of constant interaction and communicating valuable information relative to the purpose of the study. Twenty days spent in two different localities and trying to get as much information as possible has been challenging. ii. Funding - As expected doing research in traditional villages is not cheap. Coming from the urban, villagers do not usually expect gifts in exchange for their hospitality. However, as part of the Fijian culture of (‘solisoli’) giving away of gifts as a token of appreciation and thanksgiving it is only customary that such tradition is observed. This may include clothing or groceries and even money to name a few. iii. Wealth of data and insights - A major limitation of the study was the wealth of data produced and the restricted space to present the findings. Village communities are complex, living organizations. The collection and analysis of data can only provide restricted insights into the structures and dynamics of such communities. The intention was to restrict the study on livelihoods and perception on climate change and climate

37 change adaptation, it soon became evident that a wealth of material was collected, and it was impossible to do justice to all information and insights collected. Some material is therefore presented in the appendix to this study and it was not always possible to refer to these aspects in the text of the study. However it was felt that the reader of the thesis should be provided with the information. iv. Traditional Obligations - there were two deaths and a wedding during my stay at Nayawa, thus, had to delay the research proper. In addition, on the first week of field work in Yasawa, there was a funeral in Yaqeta Island and most of the village elders from Vuake attended and were away for three days. These are uncontrollable factors that delayed the data collection process. More time and effort had to be invested to compensate for the loss time v. Absence of key informants - A few elders were away most of the time during my stay in Nayawa village. They had gone to visit extended families in other villages of Nadroga and Navosa respectively. According to family members, these elders were very well versed with Traditional Knowledge (TK) and experiences of climatic events from the past. Therefore, the researcher had to return at a later date to interview these elders.

3.9 Summary

This chapter emphasises the research methods and research design implemented in the field study. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are used to ensure a balanced approach and acquire the relevant information needed for compilation. Qualitative data gathered include field notes, questionnaires, and photographs. Quantitative data are presented using tables, pie charts and bar graphs. There are five phases of collection of data highlighted by the researcher where both primary and secondary data were collected. The researcher also outlines the limitations and challenges he encountered prior to and during the course of the field study. Despite all the difficulties, the collection, analysis and compilation of data were successfully completed.

CHAPTER 4 | Importance of Traditional Knowledge

4.0 Introduction This chapter will look at the traditional Fijian social system and structures and the roles it plays with regards to traditional knowledge. It also examines the importance and significance of traditional knowledge and its impact on society particularly in the fight against climate change and other environmental hazards that affects the Fiji islands. The researcher defines traditional knowledge and related concepts and elaborates further on socio-cultural aspects and traditional farming systems, medicine and most interestingly the native food calendar (planting and harvesting seasons of traditional foods) which significantly highlights the basis of the livelihood systems of our ancestors.

4.1 Fijian Social System (Structure) All native Fijians belong to a very complex social system that defines their status in society. Every Fijian registered in the ‘vola ni kawa bula’ has an identity and a sense of belonging within the Fijian social structure, i.e the ‘vanua’. The ‘vanua’ signifies a person’s origins meaning his/her village (koro), district (tikina) and province (yasana). Within this single setting (as shown in Figure 3a), there is the tribe (yavusa), clan (mataqali), extended family (tokatoka) and nuclear family (vuvale) which every native Fijian is a part of.

Furthermore, the vanua presents its people with ascribed statuses which every individual acquires through birth. These statuses are traditionally sacred and culturally very unique and have been passed through a legitimate line of succession from one generation to the next. They traditionally do not distinguish between males and females. Eg. If a chief has a baby girl, she automatically ascribes the chiefly status. The traditional statuses according to the hierarchy from top to bottom (see Figure 3b) consists of the chief (turaga), chief’s executive (sauturaga), herald (matanivanua), priest (bete), warrior (bati), craftsmen (mataisau) and fisher folks (gonedau). Every status has specific traditional roles and responsibilities.

The chief is the highest in authority and is well respected by the vanua. He makes decisions upon consultation with his executive (sauturaga) and herald (matanivanu). He also hears the voice of his people and listens to their wishes and meets their needs. The warriors (bati) are responsible for the peace and safety of the chief and

39 his people. The Craftsmen (mataisau) are traditional builders who ensure that the village church, community hall, and homes are built well to provide comfort and warmth for the people. Fisher folks (gonedau) are marine specialists who feed the village with varieties of fish and sea creatures during village feast and ceremonies.

This structure is still observed in Fiji today as this is the true identity of the Fijian people and their livelihood systems. The essence of the Fijian social system is its culture and heritage. The knowledge (TK) of historical events, ideas, concepts and experiences upholds and preserves the integrity of the vanua.

Figure 3 Traditional Fijian Social Structure a. Indigenous Fijian ‘Vanua’ Hierachy b. Traditional Status (Roles)

Yavusa (Tribe) Turaga (Chief)

Mataqali (Clan) Sauturaga (Chief Executive)

Matanivanua (Herald) Tokatoka (extended family)

Bete (Priest)

Vuvale (Nuclear family) Bati (Warrior)

Tamata ya dua (Individuals) Mataisau (Craftsmen)

Gonedau (Fisher folks)

4.2 Importance and significance of Traditional Knowledge The value of Traditional Knowledge, culture and capacities is increasingly recognised in the climate change ﬁeld (Ayers and Huq 2009; Kuruppu 2009). Many communities in small developing island states hold their own context-speciﬁc knowledge and belief systems, often encapsulated in variants of the word ‘Vanua’ referring to spiritual, cultural, social and environmental senses of belonging (Gegeo and Watson-Gegeo 2002; Nabobo Baba 2006).

Having lived with a climate characterised by variability and extremes for generations, Pacific communities, like many global indigenous societies possess valuable knowledge and capacity to deal with environmental change that is well embedded in cultural, social and subsistence systems (Berkes and Jolly 2001; Campbell 2006; Mercer et al. 2007; Green and Raygorodetsky 2010; Warrick 2011). As subsistence livelihood systems are prevalent in most rural Pacific communities, Traditional (Indigenous) Knowledge about climate resilience is an important aspect of adaptive capacity, i.e the ability of a system to adjust to and deal with climate change (Adger et al. 2007; University of the South Pacific 2011). Having dealt with significant social, cultural and political change through colonialism, World War II and various waves of donor-influenced development assistance, communities are also socially resilient (Kuruppu 2009; Barnett and Campbell 2010).

Veitayaki, (2004) mentions the realisation by the global population of the importance and relevance of traditional knowledge and wisdom as a means of survival. In Fiji, Traditional Knowledge concerns the inter-relationship of ideas, concepts and beliefs of the ‘vanua’ (land) and its people. Traditional knowledge (TK) or Native Science is the wisdom and know-how of more than millennia. It is the most essential possession of indigenous groups as it constitutes their relationship with their land, nature, and their natural resources. Traditional knowledge is mainly learned through years of practical experience and passed from one generation to the next through (oral tradition) stories, songs, poems, rituals and ceremonies.

It is used in various ways among communities, family units and across gender roles to address health and nutrition, customary laws and the use and management of biodiversity for their benefit and maintenance, and is central to decision making and planning, most especially in how territories are used and how community life plans are developed (Painemilla et al, 2011). Traditional knowledge plays a defining role in the peoples’ livelihood systems and allows for high resilience in times of natural disaster and most particularly when faced with the demands and challenges of government, business, and conservation interests in their lands.

Traditional knowledge in many communities is under threat and undergoing gradual erosion due to influences from western society. This occurs when vast populations migrate to urban cities in search of economic benefits, and most particularly when

41 communities are forced to move away from their lands, or are restricted in their use of them. In Fiji, traditional knowledge and practice is used to address climate change and related impacts such as sea level rise. The experiences of these indigenous people demonstrates above all how traditional knowledge respects nature, empowers communities, provides insights from traditional management and monitoring systems to improve contemporary approaches, and positions indigenous people more securely to address climate change through their own adaptive management practices.

Nunn (2007) highlights how the great vulnerability in these islands was matched by the equally high resilience that allowed people to quickly recover from disasters. People relied on their own resources to recover from calamities and only partially depended on the external assistance that is increasingly available today. Traditional knowledge of agricultural systems, medicine, food sources, social relations and traditional conflict resolution systems, construction and resource management provide relief in times of disasters and support people in their efforts to adapt to climate change.

4.3 Uses of Traditional Knowledge during Natural Disasters Becken (2005) describes Fiji as an island nation vulnerable to natural hazards and disasters, namely, earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, cyclones, and droughts. In addition, as a result of climate change, the Fiji islands are exposed to sea level rise, storm surge, alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events.

According to oral history, early Fijians were able to forecast or predict weather conditions through signs revealed by nature i.e trees, seas, animals, stars, clouds and wind direction to name a few. They could interpret signs in their environment that offer useful hints for planning. For example, when bees nest close to the ground rather than high up on the tree branches and turtles nest inland rather than on the beaches are widely known signs of impending storms (Veitayaki, 1995). In addition, when dogs or cats are seen fleeing uphill or inland and mongoose seen on trees, flooding is expected for inland areas and tidal waves and coastal flooding for coastal areas.

Wild food sources prevent starvation in times of disasters and famine, and offer immediate relief in times of need, but their use requires skills and knowledge. People need to know what to look for and where, how to harvest these foods, as well as how

42 to prepare them. During drought, people resort to known but unused freshwater sources, while fruits of vines (entada phaseoloides) [Fabaceae], walai), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and coconut (Cocos nucifera) provide back-up supply. People also produce syrup from certain plants as a replacement for sugar. Mangoes, kavika, oranges and molikana are highly consumed juicy fruits that take away hunger during droughts.

Succession planting is practiced to allow for variation and most importantly a consistent production that ensures steady food supply. However, after disasters, due to possible damages or destruction of food sources, people are cautious of potential food shortages and practice different ways to conserve food surpluses. Uto (Breadfruit) and tapioka (cassava) are buried in specially prepared holes to preserve them for times when supplementary supply is required (Aalbersgberg, 1988). Uvi (Yams) are stored in a specially built shelter (lololo) providing supply for up to a year. Fish and other protein sources are smoked so they can be preserved and stored for longer periods.

Traditional crops that are grown include yams (uvi), sweet potatoes (kumala), cassava (manihot esculenta), taro (colocasia esculenta), coconut, plantain (musa balbisiana), banana (musa nana), breadfruit, and mango (mangifera indica). Semi- permanent systems of irrigated taro (colocasia esculenta) and giant swamp taro (cyrtosperma chamissonis) ensure continuous supplies of food that are less affected by drought and are easier to keep free of weeds. This practice of relying on a variety of food sources reduces vulnerability and improves the chances of having food available at all times.

4.4 Farming Systems Three main traditional farming systems practiced in farming communities in Fiji are slash and burn, shifting cultivation and multi-cropping. These agricultural systems are appropriate and suitable for the local environment. With the simple and limited tools used, land clearing is restricted, hence, limiting people’s impact on their environment.

Slash and burn is generally known as slashing or cutting and clearing of land followed by burning. Farmers normally pile and burn after clearing. This creates a lot of space for planting. Burning slows the growth of weeds and trees and prevents

43 potential pests and diseases. The ash acts as a fertiliser and improves soil structure permitting the growth of seeds (Ketterings et al., 1999). After two to three crops, a plot is returned to fallow, which allows the land to revert to its natural state through succession (Veitayaki, 2004).

Shifting cultivation and slash and burn farming systems are inter-related and thoroughly used by native Fijians. In shifting cultivation, areas of land are cleared, burned (although this is not always the case for some farmers) and then cultivated. After harvest, the land is left fallow for a period of time (years) and new sites are cultivated for planting. Shifting cultivation has been a traditional conservation practice for the past decades which gives the land time to recover and replenish naturally. Veitayaki (2004) suggests shifting cultivation as a practice that renders unnecessary the use of fertilisers, pesticides and weedicides which are an integral part of contemporary farming.

Multi-cropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in a given area of land at the same time. This may involve growing cassava, dalo, kumala, bananas, pineapples, and sugarcane in separate places but on the same piece of land. Multi- cropping prevents mono-cultures and ensures that many different crops are simultaneously grown at any one time. This enhances production safety against pests, provides multiple crops to families that have different nutritional advantages. In a tropical country, this allows continuous food availability.

Organic farming is the major practice in Traditional agriculture as farms are smaller in size considering the farming implements people use. During weeding, grass is left in the field as a form of mulch for the crops. Animal waste (poultry), food waste, and leaves are commonly used as green manure (organic). Animal waste manure are easily accessible in local farming communities who normally have wild chicken and pigs roaming the farms and village.

Agro-forestry is practiced where farmers grow trees in sequential order along the boundaries of the farms. These trees act as windbreakers (protection from high winds), and provide shade to crops, vegetation and animals. Native trees are grown for sale and also for timber for building houses for the next few generations when they grow up. Fruit trees are grown in abundance as a source of food, medicine and income as well.

Integrated succession planting and crop rotation is a common practice in local farming communities. They act as a form of pest control, provides adequate supply of food, and ensures consistency in the retention of soil quality. Furthermore, irrigation, terraces, and swamp draining systems are still utilised in parts of Fiji today (Veitayaki, 2004).

“Solesolevaki” or communal work is still used in Fiji today. Communal work particularly in the farm or plantation increases efficiency and productivity. Less time is consumed but more effort and more work is implemented, hence, high production during harvest. Communal work is voluntary and may involve youth groups, mens fellowship group, or members of a clan or sub-clan or extended family in the village. Groups help each other particularly during clearing, planting, and weeding stages.

4.5 Traditional Medicine For millennia, herbal medicine was used throughout the world to keep people healthy and to help them in the fight against disease and sickness. Living in a region with abundant natural resources, Fiji like any other Pacific island nation traditionally use the plants growing around them as medicine. Although modern medicine is available, strong cultural beliefs, coupled with the easy availability and long recognised benefits of medicinal plants, mean that herbal medicine continues to play a major role in health care (WHO, 1998).

Traditionally, knowledge of medicinal plants and their use has been transferred orally from generation to generation. Medicinal uses are reported amongst all these categories of plants: endemic, indigenous, early and recent introductions (Cambie & Ash, 1994). World Health Organisation (1998) records about 2500 species of vascular plants in Fiji of which about 20 percent are used medicinally. The ‘medicine chest’ has been enriched by the introduction of the herbal system used on the Indian subcontinent by the Indians (Girmityas) who first came from India to Fiji during the indenture period (1879).

Medicinal plants in indigenous communities provide health relief in times of need. They are essential in times of environmental hazards especially post disaster periods (cyclones, flooding, and drought) where human life is at risk. The roots, barks, leaves and shoots of certain plants are used to cure or alleviate numerous ailments.

Traditional medicine curbs the increasing cost of medical services and ensures that people are not helpless even though they are far from medical posts and hospitals.

The following paragraphs provide a brief explanation on a few common medicinal plants that are easily accessible and widely used in Fiji.

1. Botebotekoro also known as goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides L.) are mainly used to treat constipation, infective hepitatis, eczyma, epilepsy, fresh wounds, dizziness, diarrhoea, dysentery, sore eyes, fever, headaches, intestinal worms, filariasis, vomiting and nausea, wounds and cuts. Sometimes leaves are directly applied to aid healing of wounds (Cambie & Ash, 1994). (See Appendix 2)

2. Senitoa / Hibiscus (Rosa-sinensis L.) is the most common garden hibiscus cultivated in Fiji, usually as a shrub up to 3m high. Smith (1981) suggests the pounded leaves, with a little water, is used to treat stomach ache, to bring on a delayed menstrual period, and is also given to expectant mothers about to give birth in order to promote labour and ease delivery. (See Appendix 2)

3. Weleti or maoli (Carica Papaya) commonly known as pawpaw. Parham (1943) writes that the white latex from the green fruit is applied to sores and ringworm. Parham also suggests that the roots can be used to treat boils, and the inner bark of the root is grated and boiled in sea water to give a drink which is reputed to cure neuralgia. Singh (1923) suggests that it can be used to treat poisoning by the stonefish and the stings of sponges, hydrazoa, and jellyfish. (See Appendix 2)

4. Balabala (Cyathea Iunulata) is the most common tree fern of open sites in Fiji. The juice from the stern is used externally to treat any kind of headache (Parham, 1943). A decoction from the pounded young fronds is taken by expectant mothers to shorten the period of labour. The stem is reputed to be chewed to alleviate sore throat. (See Appendix 2).

5. Sila ni vavalagi (Zea mays L.) commonly known as maize. A hot poultice made from the grain is used to treat urinary disorders while a drink made from the beard of the cob is used to treat retention of urine (Perry, 1980). (See Appendix 2)

6. Via (Alocasia macrorrhiza) is a large perennial herb with an underground stem and very large heart shaped leaves commonly found on river banks and damp places. Smith (1979) & Jogia (1984) suggest that the heated sap of the stem can be dripped

46 into an infected ear to treat earache or a boil in the ear. Singh (1981) also indicates that the roots are used to treat swollen lymph glands, and the wood is used as a remedy for stomach ache and diarrhoea. (See Appendix 2)

7. Niu / coconut (cocos nucifera) is found all over Fiji. There are many different names for the different varieties. According to Parham (1943), the kernel is grated, heated in the sun or oven and the oil which exudes is used to rub on stiff joints, to treat rheumatic pains, and to massage the body or limbs after a severe strain, especially the back or stomach. Garnock (1983) suggests that it is used as a base for ointment, to anoint the skin to preserve its softness and smoothness, and to prevent chills. (See Appendix 2)

8. Tavioka / cassava (manihot esculenta) is cultivated and widely used in Fiji and the Pacific. It has long tuberous roots which contains high starch content. Its leaves are infused in the bath water and used to reduce fever (WHO, 1998). The stem is folded and rubbed across the eye in the treatment of glaucoma (Weiner, 1984). (See Appendix 2)

9. Dawa (Pometia pinnata) grows 20m high with buttressed trunk. Common in lowland forest, forest adges, open woodlands, lava flows, and often cultivated in villages. They are traditionally used to treat deep pains in the bones, migraine headache, relieve aching of muscles and joints, fever, flu and cold. It also cures diarrhoea, cough, and constipation (Cambie & Ash, 1994). (See Appendix 2)

10. Drau tolu / beach bean (Vigna marina) is a creeping vine without tendrils. Cambie & Ash (1994) indicate that they are used to heal fractured bones, remedy for food poisoning, and treat weakness after child birth. Furthermore, they are also used to cure headaches and stomach aches. (See Appendix 2)

11. Jaina leka / bananas (Musa nana lour) is the shortened banana version with moderately long yellow berry with fleshy mesocarp and seedless. Cambie & Ash (1994) suggest that juice from the leaves is used to treat painful urination. Leaves are also used to treat dysentery. The roots are used to treat convulsions and the pitch of the suckers is used to treat burns. The stem is used to treat swellings of the armpit and groin and to treat haemorrhoids (Weiner, 1984). (See Appendix 2)

4.6 Native Fijian Traditional Foods Fiji possesses a rich heritage of information concerning indigenous foods. Farmers (‘Dau teitei’) know the different seasons of their produce from the time of cultivating and planting to the time of harvest (maturity). Farming in traditional Fijian communities is mainly carried out by individuals (tamata ya dua) including men and also females. People are responsible for their individual households and their daily livelihoods in terms of growing their food. In the traditional social structure, the fishermen (Gonedau) clan, led by the chief fisherman (Tunidau) are responsible for the gathering of marine resources. They are divided up into two sub clans: fishermen (dauniqoli) and seafarer (dausoko). The fishermen (Gonedau) clan are very highly skilled and experienced people who have vast knowledge of the marine system (from breeding to maturity). They are tasked to provide food (sea) especially during a traditional feast or ceremony in the village. All these knowledge and skills are acquired through oral tradition and practical skills.

Kleinschmidt (German trader & naturalist), Williams (missionary) and Seemann (botanist) all play instrumental roles in the compilation, documenting and publishing of vital information with regard to the traditional foods used by native Fijians prior to the arrival of Europeans (Jansen et al, 1990). John Williams arrived in Fiji in 1855 and did his own observations and research and recorded the customary uses of foods (Geddes, 1945). Berthold Carl Seemann arrived in 1859 and was the first botanist to work in Fiji. Seemann published a botanical catalogue on the flora of Fiji, entitled Flora Vitiensis (Frazer, 1863). Brewster (1927), states John Horne in 1881, conducted studies and wrote books on botanical, agriculture and economic resources of the colony. Lastly, Theodore Kleinschmidt spent one year living with the tribes in the highlands of Navosa, Fiji and wrote down his findings of the various food sources that were available on the upper river channels (Soderstrom, 1937).

Empirical knowledge of the environment and its dynamic nature is exemplified by the traditional food calendar, which is based on farming activities and the food sources that are available at different times of the year (Veitayaki, 2005). The following paragraphs thorougly explains the food calendar. These are the works compiled by Williams and Seamann in the 1850s (Jansen et al, 1990) and (Veitayaki, 2005). Additional information have also been gathered from participatory talanoa sessions with a few elders from Nayawa village and Vuake village. The calendar is still widely used by all Fijians today.

The month of January is known as ‘Vula i Nuqa Levu’. During this time there are large numbers of fish especially the ‘Nuqa’ (Rabbit fish). ‘Maqo’ (Mango) season ends in January and ‘Uto’ (Breadfruit) is ready for picking and the ‘Dawa’ (Longan fruits) are ripe at this time as well. In addition, the ‘Lairo’ (land crabs) becomes fully matured and crawls very slowly and there is also an abundance of ‘Kaikoso’ (seawater mussels).

February is the ‘Vula i sevu’ meaning the time to harvest. Staple crops such as ‘Uvi’ (yams), ‘Dalo’ (taro), and ‘Tapioka’ (cassava) are usually harvested and taken to church for a special thanksgiving service by the farmers. It is also the ripening season for ‘Wi’ (Polynesian plum), ‘Ivi’ (Tahitian chestnut) and ‘Dawa’ (Longan fruit). The ‘Uvi’ (yam) seedlings are normally stored in the ‘Lololo’ (storage house) after harvesting and preserved for the next planting season.

March (‘Vula i kelikeli’) is the main month for digging and cultivating soil to plant especially ‘Uvi’ (yams) and ‘Kumala’ (sweet potatoes). The ‘Gasau’ (reeds) and the ‘Yaka’ tree’ (Dacrydium nidulam) begin sprouting flowers. The ‘Qari’ (mangrove crabs) would have fully matured during this time while the ‘Dilio’ birds (Golden Plover) start arriving from its breeding habitat in the North Pole. ‘Duruka’ (Saccharum Edule) and ‘Vutu’ (Barrington fruit) are in season.

The month of April is known as ‘Vula i Gasau’ as this is the time when the ‘Gasau’ (reeds), ‘Kaudamu’ (Nutmeg tree) and the ‘Mako’ (Trichospermum), are all sprouting flowers. There is an abundance of the ‘Salala’ (Pacific Makerel) and ‘Moli’ (citrus fruit) and ‘Qari’ (mangrove crabs) comes into season. The ‘Dilio’ birds (Goldern Plover) fly back to their breeding habitat in the North Pole.

In May, (‘Vula i Doi’) the ‘Doi’ tree (Alphitonia Zizyphoides) and the ‘Yasiyasi’ tree (Syzygium Fijiense) begins to sprout flowers. Farmers usually slowly begin with the ‘werewere’ or weeding (clearing out the plantation) in preparation for planting in June. The ‘Uvi leka’ (small yams) is usually ready for harvest during this month. ‘Moli’ (citrus fruits) also ripens and the ‘Salala’ (Pacific mackerel) is in abundance beginning from April to May.

June is the ‘vula i werewere’ or month of clearing the land for planting. There is abundance of fish mainly the ‘Matu’ (Blacktip silver). The ‘Dilo’ tree (Callophyllum

Inophyllum) sprouts its flowers and the ‘Dakua Salusalu’ tree (Retrophylium Vitense) bears fruit. There is an abundance of ‘Ugavule’ (coconut crabs) but it hides under the sand. This is the beginning of the cold season and there is a lot of dew that falls to the ground. The ‘Duruka’ (Saccharum Edule) season comes to an end.

July is the ‘Vula i cukicuki’ or the month of digging the land for planting ‘Uvi’ (yams). The cold season continues and this is usually the flowering season for ‘Vaivai ni Vavalagi’ (Raintree / Monkey Pod tree) and there is an abundance of ‘Kuita’ (octopus) and ‘Matu’ (Blacktip silver).

The month of August is known as the ‘Vula i se na drala’. It is the time for planting ‘Uvi leka’ (small yams) and ‘Kumala’ (sweet potatoes) for the Christmas season. It is the flowering season for the ‘Drala’ (Coral tree), which is closed in a yellow covering before opening up into deep red. The ‘Damanu’ (Calophylium Leptocladum) and ‘Kauceuti’ (Turrillia Vitiensis) are also in full blossom. The ‘Vonu’ (turtles) begin breeding / mating around this time and the ‘Kuita’ (octopus) is in abundance. The ‘Tiri’ (mangrove trees) also bears fruit.

September is known as the ‘Vula i vavakada’. Digging and planting of root crops like ‘Uvi leka’ (small yams) and ‘Dalo’ continues. Many flowers bloom around this time mainly the ‘Bua ni Viti’ (Fragaea Berteroana), the ‘Kaunigai’ (Canarium Harveyi) and the ‘Makosoi’ (Perfume tree / Ylang Ylang). It is also known as the birthing season for the ‘Kawakawa’ (Cod). The ‘Maqo’ (mango) tree starts to bloom during this month.

October is known to indigenous Fijians as the ‘Vula i Balolo lailai’ or the month when there is abundance of ‘Balolo lailai’ (Acanthurus Auranticavus) that appears along the shorelines. The planting season continues for ‘Uvi’ (yams) and ‘Dalo’ (taro) while the ‘Uto’ (breadfruit) trees bears fruit. The flowers of‘Vesi’ (Intsia Bijuga) and ‘Cagoloya’ (Shampoo ginger) also blooms around this time. The ‘Makosoi’ (perfume tree / Ylang Ylang) is still in bloom.

Furthermore, November is the ‘Vula i Balolo levu’ or month when there is abundance of ‘Balolo’ (Acanthurus Auranticavus) that are driven into fish nets. This is also a time for spear fishing and net-fishing using traditional methods. There is an abundance of ‘Saqa’ (Travelly) and ‘Walu’ (Spanish mackerel) out at sea. Most plants like the ‘Kavika’

(Malay apple), mangoes and ‘Vainaviu’ (pineapples) bear much fruit. The ‘Tomanu’ tree (Emmenosperma Micropetalum) and the ‘Dawa’ tree (Longan tree) blossoms at this time.

December is known as the ‘Vula i Nuqa lailai’ when there is abundance of ‘Nuqa’ (Rabbit fish) at sea. This is also the shark season with many appearance of the ‘Bulubulu’ (Juvenile shark) along the reef. This is the flowering season for the ‘Sekoula’ tree (flame tree / Delonix Regia), the ‘Buabua’ (Frangipani) and the ‘Kuasi’ (Podocarpus Neriifolius). The ‘Maqo’ (mangoes) and ‘Vainaviu’ (pineapples) ripen in December and there is also an abundance of ‘Kavika’ (Malay apple) and ‘Dawa’ (Longan fruit), and the ‘Lairo’ (land crab).

4.7 Summary The study gathers the importance and significance of traditional knowledge. Traditional knowledge still exists although it is exposed to modernisation. The elders and adults in village settings and individual households play an important role and that is to impart their knowledge and experiences to the younger generation. The modern education system will not teach traditional knowledge. As a normal practice in the Fijian culture and tradition, it is foretold by the elders. The world is experiencing a critical moment of global climate change, hence, more negative results is to be expected on the environment. Traditional knowledge is a key aspect of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures.

CHAPTER 5 | Findings: Case Study on Nayawa Village

5.0 Introduction

The following chapter presents findings gathered from the field studies conducted at Nayawa village in Sigatoka. The researcher focuses specifically on the responses and insights given by the key participants. The findings cover the livelihood structure, looks into economic sustainability and challenges faced by the people. The researcher also highlights the people’s perception and awareness towards climate change including a thorough investigation into the evidences and implications of climate change. Furthermore, adaptation and mitigation measures will also be highlighted. Finally, the contributions of government, NGOs and donor agencies will also be addressed. Results from both villages are tabulated using SPSS 21 software version. Interview responses and observations are also presented.

5.1 Population The population count illustrated in this study focuses on the 35 sampled households and not the entire village of Nayawa. Figure 4 below suggests that the sampled 35 households records a total of 183 people whereby 58 percent are males and 42 percent are females. The statistics illustrated include family members who currently reside in the village and those who live in other parts of the Fiji islands and abroad.

Figure 4 Population according to Gender - Nayawa Village

42%

58% Males Females

Figure 5 Population according to age groups

6% 5% 13% 1 - 10 yr 13% 11 - 20yr 28% 21 - 30yr 15% 31 - 40yr 41 - 50yr 20% 51 - 60yr 61 - 70yr

Figure 5 above illustrates the population count for the different age categories of the 35 sampled households. The highest to lowest readings of population according to Figure 5 are as follows: eleven to twenty years (28 percent); twenty one to thirty years (20 percent); thirty one to forty years (15 percent); forty one to fifty years (13 percent); one to ten years (13 percent); fifty one to sixty years (6 percent); sixty one to seventy years of age (5 percent). The highest population is recorded for teenagers between the ages eleven and twenty one. The lowest are the sixty one to seventy age categories. Interestingly there are no eighty or ninety year olds recorded for the 35 sampled households.

Figure 6 Number of people living in each of the sampled 35 Households

No. of persons per Householdper persons ofNo. 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 No. of Households (35 sampled Households)

Figure 6 (above) illustrates the number of people that live or are members of each of the 35 sampled households. The finding suggests the following: 3 households (3 members); 8 households (4 members); 14 households (5 members); 4 households (6 members); 1 household (7 members); 4 households (8 members) and 1 household (9 members). An average of five members per household is recorded. The evidence suggests that majority of these households mainly comprise of smaller numbers (nuclear families).

5.2 Education Sigatoka provides educational opportunities at all levels. There are kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools as well as centres for tertiary studies for the Fiji National University and the University of the South Pacific. Students from Nayawa village have access to education at either of the schools for primary education, namely, Sigatoka Methodist Primary School, Sigatoka District School, and Saint Joan of Arc Primary School. For secondary education, the following schools are the most commonly attended schools by Nayawa children, namely, Sigatoka Methodist College, Sigatoka Andhra College, Nasikawa Vision College,and Cuvu College. Members of the households who reside in other parts of Fiji send their children to schools within their various localities. Furthermore, for tertiary education, majority of the students from Nayawa relocate to pursue their studies at the University of the South Pacific and the Fiji National University campuses either in Suva or Lautoka.

Figure 7 Level of Education

Primary School 17% 37% High School 20%

High School with no graduation 26% Tertiary Level

Figure 7 above illustrates the different levels of education acquired by members of the sampled 35 households in Nayawa village. The data suggests that from the 35

54 sampled households, 37 percent attend primary school, 26 percent attend high school, 20 percent attended high school but without proper graduation while 17 percent completed high school and have progressed to tertiary level.

5.3 Gender Roles and Responsibilities Traditionally and culturally, all Fijian villages have their chief(s) (turaga), chief’s executive (sauturaga), herald (matanivanua), priest (bete), warrior (bati), craftsmen (mataisau) and fisher folks (gonedau) in the village. Likewise for Nayawa village, every villager has individual statuses as mentioned above and they are aware of the roles and responsibilities required.

In this paternalistic society indigenous iTaukei men are strongly bonded to their traditional roles and more importantly their ethnic ties centred on family and village community. The head of the household bears much responsibility in terms of decision making and providing all the basic needs for the family whilst ensuring they adhere to all village obligations and protocols. Men go out to the fields to plant or rear cattle either early in the morning or in the afternoons. Fishing is normally done late in the evenings. Boys learn from their fathers from as early as six and seven years as they are able to slowly understand things. When they reach fifteen or sixteen years, they’re able to do whatever tasks given to them. Men are expected to uphold the core values of the vanua (tribe) and lotu (religion). Daily devotion is a norm in the traditional Fijian village where the head of the households take the leading roles.

Women play vital roles in the running of the households. They look after the household chores which includes cleaning, washing and cooking. Women also help out with the gardening, gathering firewood and fetching water for drinking and washing. They are multi-skilled for the multi-tasks each day. Young girls learn through practical experience. They are given work to do and help at a young age and learn along with their mothers, aunties, or grandmothers. They are thoroughly prepared for marriage life and beyond. When a woman is married, she takes with her the teachings of her family.

The elders are inspirational in sharing their knowledge, wisdom and experiences to the younger generation mainly through story telling. They correct wrong ideas, concepts and teachings. They assist in decision making especially when the vanua

55 sits and discusses issues during village meetings. They ensure that traditional protocols, customs and manners are observed.

Children are taught from a very young age to strictly observe the village rules. They help in the daily chores in their family households each day before departing for school. When they return in the afternoons, they have set routines to follow. Their main priorities are education and lotu (religion). Teenagers who drop out of school prematurely go straight into farming, fishing and / or hunting. They are expected to adjust and adapt very quickly to the multi-tasking routines once they leave school.

5.4 Livelihood Systems in Nayawa village Livelihood in Nayawa village prioritizes the importance of securing the basic necessities of life, namely, food, water and shelter. The main sources of livelihood for the villagers are farming, employment, and micro businesses. i. Farming (Natural Capital)

Farmers mainly produce for subsistence use and for occasions such as weddings, funerals, birthdays, and other traditional obligations in the vuvale (family), mataqali (clan), yavusa (tribe) or koro (village) etc. Obligations are never ending in any village setting, hence, villagers increase production to meet the required needs.

Figure 8 illustrates the area of land used for croplands and pastures in Nayawa village. The finding shows that 10 households cultivated one acre lands, 8 households cultivated 2 acres, 8 households cultivated 3 acres, 5 households cultivated 4 acres and 2 households cultivated 5 acres mainly for crop farming. Succession planting is planned, practiced and monitored regularly. Families grow foods and ensure that they have sufficient supply of food all year round both for subsistence and for sale to support their families with. Majority of the households’ practice crop farming while only a few doing pastoral farming. Figure 8 indicates that 2 households have 1 acre, 2 households have 2 acres, and 2 households have 3 acres of pastoral land.

Figure 8 Land Area used for Crop and Pastoral Farming

8 Cropland

Pastures 6

4 Sampled 35 Households Sampled 35 Households

0 1 acre 2 acres 3 acres 4 acres 5 acres

Distance, availability of capital, soil quality, location, and accessibility are few contributing factors that determine the extent of farming development. Majority of the family households cultivate smaller land areas that are easily managed as they have other village obligations and work commitments.

The main crops planted are kumala (Ipomoea batatas) and cassava (Manihot esculenta). Fruit trees such as papaya (carica papaya), bananas (musa) and a variety of vegetables are grown and sold to the local market or roadside buyers. Families rear cattle mainly for subsistence use, however at times they are sold to potential buyers. On the other hand, they are usually given as free will for various occasions such as funerals or weddings in the village.

The findings suggest that majority of the land is owned by the mataqali (clan) and are shared among the members who are legally registered in the vola ni kawabula. There is no lease paid. The land is granted to its members for subsistence use but individual occupants may utilise it for income purposes as well. However, majority of the land is left abandoned for various reasons.

Figure 9 Permanently fallow land

6 Households 4

0 9 acres 10 acres 12 acres 15 acres 20 acres Size of abandoned land

Figure 9 (above) indicates that a total of 66 acres of land is permanently fallow due to various reasons. From the findings, 29 households abandoned potential farmlands. The data suggests that 1 household abandoned 9 acres, 12 households abandoned 10 acres, 2 households abandoned 12 acres, 2 households abandoned 15 acres and 12 households abandoned 20 acres of potential farmland. These figures are approximate estimation as indicated by the key informants. Majority of these lands are owned by the different mataqali (clan).

Figure 10 Reasons for permanently abandoning land

17% not enough capital

48% land is of low quality

too far for operation 31% other 4%

Figure 10 provides reasons for the abandoning of potential farmland. It is suggested that 48 percent of the households abandoned land due to the lack of capital to finance development plans. Thirty one percent could not manage since their land was too far for

58 operation and the unavailability of access roads was a major factor. In addition, 4 percent abandoned land due to low soil quality. This is mainly due to the over exploitation of resources and the lack of proper planning and implementation of sustainable farming practices over the years. Furthermore, 17 percent abandoned land due to other reasons such as pests and diseases and also theft. ii. Employment

Employment is a major aspect of economic sustainability. It positively impacts on the social wellbeing and economic livelihood of the people. On the other hand, unemployment is a risk factor in terms of social livelihood and coping with the increasing cost of living in the modern era. Less or no income decreases wellbeing and increases vulnerability. Figure 11 suggests that the most commonly acquired jobs are hotel work, farming and teaching jobs. The working population from the 35 households include 47 hotel workers, 9 farmers, 7 teachers, 4 military officers, 2 drivers, a gym instructor, a sign writer, carpenter, bank officer, and a school secretary.

Figure 11 Types of Occupation - Nayawa 50

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

Members of the 35 sampled households of the 35 sampledMembers 0

Job Types

Figure 12 illustrates the number of years of employment for the working members of the 35 sampled households. The highest category for the number of years of employment is 32 years. Many began work as early as nineteen and early twenties and secured their employment for the many years to ensure a consistent income and a better livelihood for their household. Forty three people have spent 10 years and

59 above in their different occupations. A wealth of experience is gained through the many years of working and also a sustainable livelihood in terms of income supply.

Figure 12 Number of years of Employment

9 8 (35 (35 7 6 5 4 3

sampled households) households) sampled 2

No. of working people No. 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 21 22 23 24 25 28 30 32 Years of Employment

iii. Income Sources – Nayawa The imbalance of income earned via employment with relation to the continuous high cost of living continues to increase and poses a great challenge for the people of Nayawa. People resort to other means of income apart from their usual occupation / employment to meet their daily needs and wants. The following illustration (Figure 13) explains the different sources of income for the sampled 35 households who have more than one income source.

Figure 13 Sources of Income – Nayawa Village

35 30 25 20 15 10

Key Informants 5 source 1 0 source 2

Figure 13 above illustrates the different sources and categories of income. Income source one is the primary source of income and income source two is the secondary source. The data suggests that one participant relies on pension as his main source of income. Three participants had farm sales as their main income source while 31 working participants had wages as their primary income source. In addition, ten participants had household businesses as their secondary source of income. Eleven participants had farm sales as their second source of income. Six participants received money from family or relatives living in other parts of Fiji while three participants received money from family or relatives living abroad. This was normally sent by immediate family or relatives as a form of assistance especially for the elders in the different sampled households.

Figure 14 Types of Household Business – Nayawa village

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5 Key Informants Key Informants 1

0.5

0 food processing handicraft grog sales rent house to tenants market vendor

Figure 14 (above) suggests that ten informants operated micro businesses to support their households. Four informants sold yaqona (kava), three sold handicraft items to tourists, one informant was a market vendor, one informant owned a house and was rented in a nearby suburb and finally one informant had a barbeque stall operating at nights. The main purpose of having more than one income is to adapt to the increasing cost of living and enhance their livelihood outcomes. Majority of the informants are employed but their income is not enough to pay all the bills and buy food and other things they may need or want. A key informant expressed the many financial problems faced in the village although people were working extra hard to earn from whichever sources was fairly possible at the quickest turnaround time.

Their priority is to provide the basic necessities but for households having little children incurred higher costs. Furthermore, as expected in a local village setting, there will be

61 obligations throughout the year which was compulsory for the villagers to adhere to. Apart from the vanua, there are family and church commitments through various functions and free will offering. Therefore, the income earnings illustrated in the data gathered is still not sufficient to guarantee economic sustainability in the village. As a result, villagers continue to heavily rely on subsistence farming particularly staple foods to complement whatever income is achieved.

5.5 Major Challenges experienced in Nayawa Village

Challenges exist in all societies regardless of locality, gender, age, and ethnicity. There are social, cultural, and environmental challenges that put a lot of stress on livelihood assets. Thus, human, physical, natural, financial and social capitals are vulnerable to risk. Adaptation and adjustments are critical if society is to strategically cope with the shocks and trends of vulnerabilities. Nayawa is presented with some modern day challenges that require holistic efforts of consultation and collaboration among the chief(s), heads of the mataqali (clan), and heads as well as members of the individual households. Figure 15 illustrates three major challenges which the people of Nayawa village face.

Figure 15 Major challenges faced in Nayawa Village

16 14 12 Challenge 1 10 Challenge 2 8 Challenge 3 6 4 2

Informants / Participants / Informants 0

The issues discussed are purely based on the informants’ perception according to their level of importance. The challenges identified are religious differences, kava abuse, school dropouts, obligations, parental support, time management, unemployment, air pollution, cost of living, teenage pregnancy, and social media addiction. However, the evidence suggests that the top four challenges are excessive kava abuse, unemployment, cost of living and obligations.

Religious Differences It was revealed during a talanoa session with a few of the elders in the village that a lot of religious differences occurred following the passing of their late chief the “Tui Madudu”, Ratu Isikeli Tasere. According to a villager, Ratu Tasere was a staunch Methodist and believed in having one religion denomination in the village. However, other religious denominations were formed after his passing which ever since has caused differences as people had different perceptions with regards to spiritual beliefs and teachings. These differences affect village activities where communal efforts are required as some households choose not to participate.

Kava abuse Kava abuse is a major challenge and a serious concern especially for many elders in Nayawa. During talanoa sessions, the elders expressed their concern about the excessive use of kava in the village. This includes both males and females and even school children. Such lifestyle has negative implications on their general livelihood as they tend to become vulnerable to health related diseases and sicknesses. Furthermore, they become less productive in the farms. This also leads to more peer pressure resulting in early school dropouts and unemployment.

School Dropouts During the study, the researcher spoke with some youths who had dropped out of school. They were former high school students who failed national exams and dropped out of school due to shame and lack motivation. Two young boys mentioned during the talanoa that they left school due to financial hardships. However, two common causes of early school dropouts were peer pressure for boys and teenage pregnancy for the girls.

Obligations Family, church and village obligations are a norm in village life. There is the ‘soli vaka koro’ (village money collection), ‘soli vaka misinari’ (money collection for church/mission work), weddings, funerals, to name a few. The researcher gathered from the talanoa session that many villagers were complaining of the financial challenges they had to go through in order to cope with the many obligations and its demands and expectations. The villagers expressed that a lot of sacrifices had to be made to meet the various obligations.

Parental Support Children roam the village green or road at night with incomplete or undone homework. There are working parents who are busy with work schedules and shifts working late at nights or right through to the early mornings. This is particularly for hotel workers. On the other hand, there are parents who spend long hours of socializing and drinking kava with friends and relatives in the village. Majority of the children who lack supervision and attention find problems coping with education because of the lack of guidance and direction to motivate them from home.

Time Management The slow paced life syndrome in Sigatoka practically influences the villagers of Nayawa. There will be students who are late every day to school and also workers who are late to work. People are late for village meetings, family meetings and devotions. Many students arrive at school after 8am daily for various reasons. The researcher observed a lot of movement by students late at night (10pm to 12am). A lot of time is consumed walking around and talking with their peers to the early hours of the morning.

Unemployment Unemployment is vastly increasing at a fast rate in Nayawa. Forty percent of the participants suggest unemployment as one of the greatest challenges experienced in the village. Peer pressure and excessive kava consumption are linking factors that greatly contribute to the high rate of unemployment. Youths as well as adults enjoy the comforts of village life. According to the participants, they don’t have any motivation to pursue a career in life. They enjoy drinking kava at night to the early hours of the morning and spend the day sleeping. Such lifestyle prevents them from doing constructive farming.

Air Pollution Air pollution is a threat to the long term health and hygiene of Nayawa village. Located along the industrial zone of Sigatoka, Nayawa villagers breathe carbon monoxide (CO) exerted from exhaust fumes of passing cars, trucks, and buses along the main Queens highway. The cement factory in Nayawa releases high emissions of

Greenhouse gases (GHG) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) daily due to the intensive heating and combustion processes occurring. Most homes are literally covered with dust when you have a closer look. At the nearby school, students have to wipe windows, desks and chairs daily particularly in the morning.

Cost of Living The increase in cost of living places a lot of stress on the household livelihoods. Some households resort to additional sources of income for their families but still do not meet the many demands and expectations. Large households that have infants or children struggle daily. Even though they resort to having meals provided by their plantations or fish from the sea or river, their wages are still not enough. Worse even if there are elders and unemployed people as this will incur more costs.

Teenage Pregnancy Teenage pregnancy is a critical issue in both rural and urban areas in this modern era. Young girls are the main victims in such circumstances. Many times, they get over excited and fail to make good judgment and appropriate decisions. Four participants rated teenage pregnancy as a livelihood challenge because of the social and economic repercussion it had on their family. They were low income earners and had to spend more looking after the new born baby in the family. The victims were in the lower forms in high school at that time of the incident and it really affected the families emotionally, psychologically, physically and economically. This caused high levels of stress in the family. A lot of sacrifice had to be made to ensure that the babies welfare was well looked after.

Social Media Addiction Technology in this modern world has completely brainwashed and controlled our society. The introduction of computer systems, laptops, iPads, and smartphones has impacted on the livelihood patterns of our society. The implication it has as viewed by two participants is alarming considering the time children spend on social media either at the internet shops in town or mobile phones at home. Children’s way of thinking and decision making is challenged on the wide range of information and images they have access to. Traditional values and teachings are exploited in the process.

5.6 Perception and Awareness towards Climate Change The researcher gathered evidence of the people’s perception and level of awareness with regards to the threats of climate change to their village. The participants acknowledged the fact that not only Fiji but the whole world is vulnerable to the impact of Climate change. The participants showed outstanding traditional knowledge and understanding about climate change. Majority of this knowledge (TK) was acquired through oral tradition. The existence of information technology and mass media also plays a major role. 65

The participants learned a lot of information through community talks, television and radio programs, newspaper and internet publications, and presentations by experts during awareness workshops. Furthermore, students at primary, secondary and tertiary levels have vast resources to gather and learn the latest information about climate change. This includes a range of data on the internet or in the periodicals in the library or the relevant text books and subjects they learn in their different classes. Other sources of information include family, church, and community gatherings where environmental changes and climate change are thoroughly discussed.

The participants also learn a lot of new information via social media. Furthermore, weeklong awareness workshops conducted by ‘Dialogue Fiji’ on environmental conservation methods and improving climate change adaptation and mitigation was a huge learning experience for the participants. Banners and posters that were used during the awareness campaigns proved vital learning tools. Living along the banks of the Sigatoka river and near the coastal surrounding, the villagers have in the past as well as in this present time witnessed evidence of climate change. The older generation have vast knowledge and experiences about the environment and changes that may have occurred from time to time as a result of climate change.

Figure 16 Perception about Global Warming – Nayawa Village

31%

69%

Very serious

Extremely Serious

Figure 16 illustrates the participants responses with regards to their perception about global warming. The study shows that 31 percent of the participants perceived global warming as very serious and 69 percent considered it as extremely serious. The data shows the level of awareness and concern in the local community. During

66 discussions, the participants were able to define and relate the concept to their everyday experiences and what they see on the television news daily.

Figure 17 Perception about Pollution – Nayawa Village

31% 23%

46% Not Serious

Very Serious

Extremely Serious

Figure 17 suggests that 23 percent of the informants do not consider air pollution as a serious issue. Their perception is that they live further inland and far away from the main highway and from the air pollution exerted from the local factories and the passing vehicles, hence they do not see it as a serious problem. However, 46 percent regard it as very serious and 31 percent consider it as an extremely serious issue. These participants strongly believe that the vast increase in economic activities, particularly mechanical, engineering, cement and tyre manufacturing industries in Nayawa will negatively impact on the environment.

Figure 18 Perception - climate change is stoppable

3% 9%

14% strongly agree

agree 71% neutral

disagree

strongly disagree

Figure 18 illustrates the informants perception about the possibility of stopping climate change. The data shows: 71 percent (strongly agreed); 14 percent (agreed); 9 percent (neutral); 3 percent (disagreed); and 3 percent (strongly disagreed) that climate change is stoppable.

The informants (71 percent) who considered climate change to be stoppable believe that it is human induced and can be stopped if humans did something about it. Humans should reduce excessive emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other related poisonous gases. They (informants) suggested that world leaders including our government and policy makers needed to establish environmentally friendly strategies for the peace and safety of the global environment and its inhabitants. The participants who disagreed that it is impossible to stop climate change because the global environment has been extensively exploited and altered for decades. Hypothetically, it is impossible and unrealistic to perceive that climate change can be stopped in the present age or the immediate future. It would rather be more practical to look at formulating policies and implementing adaptive and resilient measures for long term purposes.

Figure 19 The Importance of Climate Change

15% climate change controls / dictates our way of life 43% 14% relationship between climate, humanity and the environment is key to survival 14% climate shapes the environment and controls 14% the decisions humans make daily

extreme climate conditions such as el nino, el nina greatly affects humanity

all of the above

Figure 19 illustrates the responses given by the key informants about the importance of climate change. The data suggests that the informants (15 percent) consider climate change important and something that controls and dictates our way of life. Further, the informants (14 percent) suggested that climate, human beings and the environment have a strong inter-connected relationship that enables them to depend on each other for

68 survival. Another (14 percent) perceive climate change as something that shapes the environment and controls the decisions humans make daily. The informants (14 percent) believe that climate change is important because of the level of concern it imposes on humanity through extreme climatic conditions such as the El nino and La Nina. The evidence suggests that majority of the informants (43 percent) consider all of the above mentioned reasons as valid explanations towards the importance of climate change.

Figure 20 Causes of Climate Change –Nayawa Village

Pollution 23% 34% Industrialisation

17% Deforestation 12% 14% Urbanisation

All of the above reasons

Figure 20 illustrates the responses given by the informants on their knowledge and perception about the causes of climate change. The main causal factors outlined are pollution, industrialisation, deforestation, and urbanisation. The informants (34 percent) consider pollution as the cause of climate change. This includes exhaust fumes from vehicles, water pollution from factory wastes, and land pollution from excessive toxic waste and uncontrolled dumping of rubbish on the roadside or river. Furthermore, the informants (12 percent) suggested that the high level of industrialization in first world countries extensively impacts on the global environment. It is through industrialisation that pollution continues to increase in Fiji and around the world. The informants (14 percent) consider deforestation as a driver of climate change. The removal of trees causes soil erosion, wildlife extinction, increase in global warming, and climate imbalances. The informants (17 percent) also suggested that urbanization was a critical factor. The vast increase in rural to urban drift places a lot of pressure and stress on economic resources in the urban centers. Moreover, the evidence suggests that majority of the informants (24 percent) considered all the above mentioned factors as major causes of climate change. 69

5.7 Experiences of Environmental Related Hazards

The following paragraphs and Figures presents the responses gathered from the key informants on their previous experiences of the different forms of natural hazards that affected Nayawa village. Cyclones and flooding are the two major disasters that normally have great impact on the village. Very recently, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) induced droughts is slowing increasing in frequency and intensity.

Figure 21 suggests that the informants (5 percent) strongly agree and (3 percent) agree that the frequency of cyclones has not changed from the past. Three percent remain neutral. The cyclone season remains the same from November to April and cyclones continue to occur during this period over the years. However, other informants (46 percent) strongly disagree and (43 percent) disagree suggesting that the frequency has indeed changed over the years. Their views indicate that there are more frequent occurrences of disasters nowadays compared to the past.

Figure 21 Frequency of cyclones has not changed

Frequency of Cyclones - Perception

3% 3% 5% Strongly agree

46% Agree

Neutral 43% Disagree

Strongly disagree

The informants shared during the talanoa that a decade ago, there would only be a cyclone once in a while and at times, there would be no cyclones at all in a cyclone season. In the past five years, cyclones, flooding, and drought seem to occur every year.

Figure 22 Frequency of flooding has not changed

3% 3% 3%

46% strongly agree agree neutral 45% disagree strongly disagree

Figure 22 illustrates that the informants (3 percent) agree or (3 percent) strongly agree that the frequency of flooding has not changed. However, majority of the informants either disagreed (45 percent) or strongly disagreed (46 percent) that the frequency of flooding has not changed. According to the elders during a participatory talanoa session, they are experiencing more frequent and devastating floods in the recent years beginning from 2009 compared to the years before that. This is indicative of the changing weather patterns and increase in rainfall in one of Fiji’s tropical regions where there is normally more sunshine than rain.

Figure 23 Environmental Hazards experienced in Nayawa village

7% 4% 4% 4% 27% Cyclones Flooding 27% 27% Drought coastal erosion bush fire sea level rise landslide

Figure 23 illustrates the different types of environmental related hazards that the people of Nayawa have experienced over the years. The data shows that the informants (27 percent) have experienced cyclones, flooding and droughts. Cyclones and flooding frequently occur and cause major damages and destruction to the

71 village homes, farms and infrastructure. A drought occurred in 2011 and 2012. Crop farming and rearing of animals (pigs, cattle) were greatly affected.

The informants (4 percent) experienced evidence of coastal erosion towards the mouth of the river. Erosion of rocks and wearing away of land boundaries and dune sediments is seen. High wave action, tide, currents and high wind movements from the open sea passage are the main causes. Bush fire is suggested to have been considered an environmental related hazard. The drought was seen to be an instigating factor. The informants (4 percent) indicated that immense heat and coastal breeze permitted the quick spread of fire destroying livestock feeding grounds (pastures), trees, and crops.

Sea level rise is seen particularly during high tide. According to the informants (7 percent), sea level would rise way above the normal height. Furthermore, landslides occurred particularly during cyclones and heavy torrential rain. The informants (4 percent) stated that landslides mainly affected landscapes, farms and infrastructure.

5.8 Evidence and Implications of Climate Change in Nayawa Climate change is a global phenomenon, and over periods of several decades it will have appreciable impacts on many sectors and on the policy reactions required for these other problems (Pittock, 2005). There are great many pressing problems that include population problems associated with economic development and pressure on resources.

Near surface zone air pollution and the emissions that drive it are important contributors to climate change. Pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds lead to ozone pollution. This is particularly evident in urban and peri-urban environments such as Nayawa which is located near the Queens Highway road and the Sigatoka industrial zone. The reduction in Valued Added Taxes (VAT) and the low cost of vehicles has led to a boom in car purchases. Better road infrastructure motivates people to have vehicles of their own and improve mobility. This is clearly evident through observations during the study whereby a vast increase in vehicles traveling along the Nayawa road and Queens Highway is seen daily. This leads to the increased rate of emission of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides and other combustion processes that are either produced

72 indoors or outdoors. Therefore, dust accumulation is visible along the walkways, trees, flower gardens, plantations, school, homes and shops.

Furthermore, common fossil fuel burning appliances and equipment that villagers consistently use in their households regularly namely, gas water heaters, fireplaces, gas stoves, dryers, lawnmowers, and automobiles produce hazardous levels of carbon monoxide gas from inside their homes. Therefore, villagers are vulnerable to risks of respiratory symptoms, decrease in lung function, and other health effects. There is overwhelming evidence of the impact of climate change in Nayawa village. The findings suggest that a lot of stress is exerted on the physical, cultural and economic assets. The commonly experienced climate change related events are sea level rise, coastal erosion, weathering, drought, flooding, increased deposition rates along the river banks, low farm yields, and the short life span of farm produce.

Sea level rise continues to increase along the coast of Sigatoka and especially along the Nayawa area. This has raised concerns to the coastal dwellers, farmers and property owners. Saltwater intrusion is the main concern for the farmers in particular as they fear for their farm produce in years to come should this occur. Villagers say that during high tides recently, sea levels tend to rise above the normal height and washes through the banks. Furthermore, during constant heavy rainfall, it is certain that the river gets flooded and so do the river banks and surrounding areas including homes and farms.

Figure 24 How often do the villagers witness physical evidences of climate change?

6% 20%

Sometimes

Often

74% Very often

Figure 24 demonstrates the responses given by the key informants based on their personal observations on the different environmental changes that occur in Nayawa village. The data suggests that the informants either sometimes (6 percent); often (74 percent) or very often (20 percent) saw some form of physical evidence of climate change and/or environmental change.

Figure 25 Physical Evidence / Implications of Climate Change - Nayawa

Nayawa Village

sea level rise above normal

coastal erosion and weathering 11% 8% 43% 6% long drought spell affects vegetation

quality / quantity of farm produce diminishing 17% increased rate of deposition along river banks 9% 6%

farm produce - shorter life span

All of the above

Figure 25 depicts the different forms of physical evidence and implications of climate change observed by the key informants. The data suggests that the informants (11 percent) observed a continuous rise in sea level which at times rose above the normal height or the expected level particularly during high tide. Coastal erosion and weathering has been on-going for the past several years. The informants (8 percent) witnessed the wearing away of patches of land and removal of beach sediments. Furthermore, coral rocks have also lost its natural state and have gradually weakened in form and structure. These Coral rocks believed to have existed from hundreds or thousands of years ago have weakened but have eventually produced new geological materials such as rock fragments, sands, silts and clays that tend to be more stable in the new environment. Villagers usually witness this especially in areas towards the end of the river mouth.

Climate change impacts are complex in that they can be both direct and indirect (Pittock, 2005). For example, more rain during the cooling phase of El Niña or more

74 heat during El Niño may lead directly to either greater or smaller crop yields, depending on factors such as the type of crop, the soil and the present climate. Indirect effects may include changes in supply and demand as a result of these larger or smaller yields, and thus changes in commodity prices, the profitability of farming, and the affordability of food and effects on human health. Figure 25 suggests the informants (6 percent) were directly affected by the el-nino induced drought which lasted for months. Crop yield, vegetation lifespan and maturity and productivity were compromised.

Farmers (9 percent) experienced shorter lifespan in their farm produce. Certain varieties of vegetables died prematurely because of the changing climate conditions. The informants (17 percent) indicated a decrease in quality and quantity in farm production. For example, watermelons took longer than usual to fully mature before harvest. Farmers complained about not being able to achieve the standard size needed for a good sale. Fruit trees, for example, mangoes, that used to bear fruits previously, did not produce.

Farmers struggle to sustain their animals due to food and water shortage. During field observations, it was evident that animals lost a lot of weight and became sickly. Water sources were dried up and bush fires completely destroyed majority of the feeding grounds for the animals. It was highlighted that the highest agricultural and livelihood losses were recorded after Cyclone Tomas in 2010 and Cyclone Evans in 2012. Severe damages were caused by continuous torrential rainfall leading to excessive flooding from the hills of Navosa down to the river plains of Sigatoka where Nayawa village is located. There was massive destruction to subsistence and commercial farms, village homes and infrastructure.

According to the informants (6 percent) villagers experience massive deposition of sediments during post flooding or torrential rainfall along the river banks and coastal plains. Deposition adds value and nutrients to the farm plains. However, most times, existing farms are destroyed and the physical landscape is altered. Farmers lose out in terms of time consumed and money invested in preparation, planting materials and labour.

Today, an elevated portion of dry land has been formed on the outer part of the river banks which previously used to be the river channel near Nayawa village. The land formation has

75 been the result of constant periods of deposition of soil and sediments due to rainfall and river flowing downstream. The long drought has enabled the deposited soil material and sediments to solidify and form as a new physical landscape. Children have utilized the land extension area as their playground while some villagers have also planted root crops and vegetables to make good use of the rich soil and the space. Displacement also occurs. Trees that are planted or naturally grow are seen in different locations. For example, palm trees that were once grown along the edges of the river banks are seen in various locations further inland from where they were originally planted.

Figure 26 Evidence / Implications of Climate Change on Economic Assets

marine species are becoming scarce. eg. crabs, mussels, clams 28% 44% low agricultural productivity due to increased soil salinity eg. watermelons

Sigatoka river heavily polluted; affects 6% 22% tourism and fishing for income

Cattle / livestock farming - poor health/hygiene due to drought

Climate change places a lot of stress on economic resources. Figure 26 (above) outlines four factors that show evidence of the impact of climate change on the economic assets of Nayawa village. The vulnerability context of economic assets continues to rise at an accelerating rate. Sea surface temperatures, land pollution and over exploitation by human activity creates an unstable environment for marine species to survive. The informants (44 percent) indicated that marine species such as crabs, mussels, and clams are becoming scarce particularly due to over fishing. The concern is on the future generation. People fail to respect nature due to hunger for social and economic gain. Unfortunately, marine resources are not well preserved.

The informants (22 percent) stated that they experienced an increase in soil salinity which led to low agricultural productivity. These informants who are all farmers experienced this with watermelons. This may have been due to the increase in flooding or sea levels causing deposition of sea water into the fields over time.

Agricultural and livestock and cattle farming are major economic activities in Sigatoka. The informants (28 percent) suggested that livestock or cattle farming were greatly affected during the prolonged months of drought. Poor health and hygiene was due to scarce food and water sources to sustain the animals.

Sigatoka River is an economic asset for local residents and tourist businesses in terms of fishing and tourist attraction. Fishing is a major source of livelihood. The informants (6 percent) suggested that the high rate of land and water pollution was affecting the river system. Human and animal waste are dumped from neighbouring villages, shops, restaurants and vehicles poses huge threats to the preservation of marine habitats in the river system.

Today, people spend long hours fishing but with little catch compared to the past. There is a lot of inconsistencies in size and number. Whatever they catch is usually sold at the road side or at the markets. The leftover is taken home for family use, hence, when disasters occur, many of these families struggle. The informants believe that the extreme dry season may have exploited marine habitats and food supplies in the river system. Flash floods frequently occurs at critical levels, hence, can be catastrophic to in-stream and riparian habitats and resident fish assemblages.

Findings gathered from the field observations suggest that cultural features namely, schools, homes, factories, shops, and infrastructure – roads and bridges are vulnerable to climate change. Roads are constantly affected by sudden heavy downpours or longer wetter periods. Drainage systems do not have the capacity to channel water properly during sudden heavy pour or cyclones. Excessive rainfall and poor drainage creates deep holes on the surface of the village road, feeder road, highway and linking road through to the bridge heading to town. Excessive flooding causes structural damages to buildings, classrooms, homes and factories. Roof sheets, guttering, beams and rafters are examples of parts of buildings or houses that are damaged from high destructive winds during disasters. School buildings and homes are badly affected from flooding with river water over flowing into the school and village compound. Household items, appliances, classroom chairs, desks and teachers and students academic resources are either washed away or soaked in muddy water and badly damaged. High maintenance costs are incurred during such extreme weather systems.

5.9 Adaptation and Mitigation Measures in Nayawa village Adaptation is a defensive task of protecting core assets or functions from the risks of climate change (Pelling M., 2011). It is the process by which stakeholders reduce the adverse effects of climate on their livelihoods. This process involves passive, reactive and anticipatory adjustments of behaviour and economic structure in order to increase sustainability and reduce vulnerability to climate change, variability and weather/climate extremes (Neal Leary et al., 2008).

Traditional knowledge and its core values are vital in the implementation of climate change adaptation (CCA) strategies. Proactive Adaptation is essential for Disaster Risk Management and Reduction purposes. On the other hand, Reactive Adaptation is focused on disaster reconstruction during post-hazard phases. Mostly people are used to reactive adaptation which is more detrimental and costly. Nayawa village is one of the many villages in the Fiji islands that have become resilient to the severe impacts of natural hazards that occur in the form of tropical cyclones, drought and flooding in particular. Climate change adaptation is an opportunity for social reform that helps us identify what is to be preserved and what is expendable.

Based on the findings and talanoa sessions with the villagers, there is an increased level of knowledge and awareness theoretically and practically in Nayawa village today compared to the past. All participants/informants know about climate change and have heard about what climate change is through the different modes of media. Hypothetically, villagers are aware of measures that can be taken to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards. Practically, the study suggests that although the villagers have high levels of knowledge and awareness about climate change and its implications, there is a lack of pro- activeness by the people. They do not fully engage in practicing climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in the village. On the brighter side, work is in progress by those who are willing to take proactive approach towards a better livelihood.

The banks of Sigatoka River from Nayawa village to the river mouth are covered with vast mangrove forests. Family households living closer to the river mouth are replanting and replacing mangrove plants that people use for firewood and for other purposes.

Mangrove forests provide an enormous diversity of species of fish, crab, shrimp, and mollusc to name a few. It is also an essential source of food for coastal villagers and communities around the Sigatoka area. Furthermore, the mangrove system is also a form of protection for the village households from any form of wave action from the ocean through the river mouth which is within close proximity. Nayawa villagers acknowledge the importance and significance of preserving mangrove forests, thus, have limited usage.

Some villagers who live closer to the river banks where water normally rises up during high tides or excessive flooding and cyclones are using sand bags and large coral rocks and stones as seawall along the banks of the river. Environmental friendly seawalls as such are used to prevent against incoming sea or river water rising and spilling into the compounds of their plantations. . They also prevent slips or falls of portions of dry land that may potentially be washed out into the river by rising sea and river water levels. Coastal erosion is also preventable in normal circumstances and possibly to a certain extent during natural hazards depending on the intensity and severity of the hazard.

Majority of the farmers practice intercropping to fully utilize resources and produce greater yields. The main selection of crops includes tapioca (cassava), kumala (sweet potatoes) and uvi (yams). Plots run laterally in sequential lines which makes accessibility and husbandry practices easier. Planting is well planned and monitored regularly. This includes the condition or state of the soil, climate type in the desired planting period and forecasting the harvest period. Quality and quantity of crops selected is also considered.

Villagers and farmers do inter-planting in their backyard gardens or farms close by. This includes carrots, cabbage, lettuce, tomato, chilies, pumpkin, egg plants to name a few. The majority of farmers are trying to avoid the use of modern inorganic fertilizers but use organic fertiliser to sustain the soil and retain its quality for a sustainable period of time. Mulching is commonly practiced nowadays as it sustains the fields by preventing the growth of weed seeds. It reduces water use and protects the soil from evaporation. More nutrients are added to the soil and the plants once following the breaking down of the mulch. Mulching also involves soil aeration by worms which produce worm castings that provide fertiliser for the soil. This vastly contributes to soil fertility and better productivity.

Both commercial and subsistence farmers practice succession planting. Commercial farmers follow succession farming plans in order to maintain consistency of supplies to the market and make profit. On the contrary, subsistence farmers do succession planting mainly to ensure food security in the family households. However, produce are also sold at the local market, supermarkets, or school canteens sometimes to assist with daily expenses. This method enables the farmers to produce and reap abundantly with vast areas of land covered with agricultural produce grown in succession.

Farmers are free to plant whatever crop selection of their choice is best suited to the soil and climate conditions. On completing a harvest, crop rotation is practiced whereby a different crop or vegetable is grown on the harvested area. Succession planting and crop rotation are practiced accordingly to ensure better soil and crop management and most importantly to acquire high sustainable yields. Villagers of Nayawa have benefitted from this practice especially during post-cyclone or post-flooding periods where there is always enough supply of food available.

Figure 27 Responses – Relocation due to river or coastal flooding

14%

40% Agree

Neutral

46% Disagree

The responses in Figure 28 (above) shows that majority of the informants either disagree (40 percent) or remain neutral (46 percent) on the idea of relocating as an adaptive measure against flooding. A similar response is recorded in Figure 28 (below) with (17 percent) agreeing and (43 percent) disagreeing to relocate due to cyclones. The responses indicate that the villagers are content with their current

80 location and are not prepared to relocate any time sooner despite the circumstances they experience in times of excessive flood and tropical cyclones.

Figure 28 Responses – Relocation due to Cyclones

17% agree 43% neutral

disagree 40%

Furthermore, only a tiny percentage (9 percent) of participants interviewed is willing to relocate even under the condition to receive a new home (Figure 29). Relocating would mean moving further inland; hence, the villagers will miss all the benefits and opportunities easily accessible along the banks of the Sigatoka river. The current location is the ideal place of residence for the villagers and they are not yet ready to leave even if it means having to withstand the wrath of another major cyclone or flood. One of the villagers stated during a talanoa session that they preferred to evacuate if things got worse during disasters but that was okay because it was only temporary, however, to relocate was impossible.

Figure 29 Responses - Resettlement if offered a new home

9% Disagree

Neutral 51% 40% Agree

5.10 Government and NGO Assistance towards Nayawa Village The Government of Fiji provides quick responses during post-disaster periods. Assessments and surveys are done by DISMAC officers prior to assistance. Food rations are provided for every household in the village. The village has experienced a lot of devastation from previous Natural Hazards (NH) that hit the country in the past. Feedbacks from the participants suggest that from personal experiences, the devastation caused by TC Evans in 2012 was the worst they ever experienced as a village. The cyclone produced massive wind speeds and torrential rainfall that led to flooding and the destruction of farms, homes and infrastructure. Nayawa villagers had to be relocated to Andhra High School in Olosara, outside Sigatoka town.

The Government assisted with transportation, food and water supplies. Government also assisted with infrastructural rehabilitation works in the village and provided flexible financial assistance via the Fiji National Provident Fund (FNPF). However, the key informants highlighted that the only setback during the post-disaster is the completion of rehabilitation projects. Culverts were provided by the Fiji Roads Authority to reconstruct and improve the village drainage system. The drainage systems are still yet to be improved and the culverts to be installed.

Dialogue Fiji and Fiji Red Cross are the only Non-Government Organization to have provided assistance to Nayawa village. Red Cross provided food rations, clothing and household items such as tarpaulin for temporary shelter and basic farming tools namely folks, spades and knives. Dialogue Fiji conducted environmental conservation workshops and also donated school items which include books, bags, and stationeries.

5.11 Summary

The study shows that the sampled population of 35 households is male dominated (see Figure 4) but the majority are children (see Figure 7). Gender roles and responsibilities are clearly defined and every member is aware of it. The sources of livelihood for the people of Nayawa are largely based on subsistence farming. Majority of the villagers are employed in the hotel industry and support their families. There are other means that people resort to for extra income. Expectedly, villagers are faced with socio-cultural, economic, religious and political challenges daily. The key informants showed high level of understanding and awareness

82 through their responses on issues relating to climate change. They are able to define related concepts (climate change) and identify its implications. They are also able to use their own knowledge (traditional) to think of measures that will enable them to adapt and/or mitigate climate change. The implications of climate change and other environmental hazards such as flooding, droughts and cyclones has not convinced villagers to relocate even in the worst of situations they may go through. It was gathered from the responses given by the key informants that the government provides quick response and assistance particularly after cyclones, flooding or heavy rainfall. Food, water, temporary shelter, and infrastructural repair works are usually provided. Non-governmental organisations are also influential in the spreading of vital information through awareness workshops and assistance through donations (clothes, stationery, farm equipment etc).

CHAPTER 6 | Findings: Case Study on Vuake Village

6.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings gathered from the study carried out at Vuake village in the Yasawa islands. The findings are based on the responses and insights of the 35 key informants who were selected from the sampled 35 households. A thorough coverage of the people’s daily livelihood systems economic status and challenges experienced by the people will be presented. In addition, the peoples’ perception about climate change will be addressed including testimonies of experiences of natural disasters and observations of evidences and implications of climate change on the island. The researcher will also highlight any adaptation and mitigation strategies developed by the people of Vuake. Furthermore, any evidence of government and non-government contributions will be highlighted based on the responses given by the key informants.

6.1 Population

Urban migration, lack of funding and infrastructure to decentralise services has led to a decrease in rural population. Due to urbanisation and globalisation, people are either scattered in urban centres or have relocated overseas for greener pastures.

Figure 30 Population according to Gender for the 35 sampled households in Vuake

48% 52% Males Females

The population for the 35 sampled households in Vuake is 203. The data suggests that 48 percent are females and 52 percent are males (Figure 30). The data includes members of the sampled 35 households who currently live on the island as well as those who reside in other parts of Fiji and abroad.

Figure 31 Population according to age groups for the sampled 35 households in Vuake

6% 1 - 10 yr 8% 22% 10% 11 - 20yr 21 - 30yr 16% 31 - 40yr 22% 41 - 50yr 16% 51 - 60yr 61 - 70yr

Figure 31 illustrates the population for each of the age category for the 35 sampled households. The data suggests that the age group with the largest population (22 percent) are children between the ages 1 to 10 years and adults from ages 31 to 40 years. The second highest population (16 percent) are children and teenagers from the ages 11 to 20 years and youth from 21 - 30 years category. The third highest population is recorded for people in the middle age 41 to 50 years (10 percent) followed by the elders (8 percent) with ages ranging from 51 – 60 years and from 61 – 70 years category (6 percent).

The data indicates that the higher the age category the lesser the population. This shows that the elderly population are quickly reduced in numbers as many have passed on along the years past. However, the boom in children population ensures population growth and maintaining a consistent population count in the village.

Figure 32 Number of people living in each of the sampled 35 Households - Vuake

No. of persons per Household 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

No. of Households (35 sampled Households)

The smallest number of people in a household is two people (couple) and the highest number of household consists of ten people (Figure 32). Twenty six households have five or more members while 9 households have less than 5 members. An average of 6 people per household is recorded for the 35 sampled households.

6.2 Education

The people of Vuake geographically live in isolation and are disadvantaged in terms of having the latest technologies and resources for education. But this does not hinder them from persevering for excellence. The elders believe that education is the only way to succeed for their young generation. They ensure to nurture them well so that they may have a brighter future and explore the world using their God given talents. Education begins from home and the children are constantly reminded of the importance of hard work and being successful in life. Culture, customs, traditions, and the necessary values of respect, humility, obedience, honesty and loyalty are thoroughly taught from a very young age. Parents and teachers work collaboratively in developing their children mentally, spiritually, emotionally, and physically.

Children from six to thirteen years of age attend Namosolevu Catholic School which is a 3 minute walk from Vuake village. It is a boarding school that accommodates 15 boarders from Nanuya and Tavewa islands. Secondary school students normally travel 20 to 30 minutes by boat to Yasawa High School on Naviti Island daily. Many children attend catholic boarding schools in Viti Levu such as Saint Vincent College in Natovi or Saint Johns College in Ovalau. However, those who attend non-boarding catholic schools stay with close relatives on the mainland and mostly return for a visit during the Christmas holidays.

Figure 33 Level of Education - sampled 35 households - Vuake Village

primary school 17% 37% high school, without 26% graduation high school, general 20% tertiary institution

Figure 33 illustrates that 37 percent attend primary school, 20 percent attended high school but without graduation, 26 percent attended high school in general and 17 percent completed high school and made it to tertiary level. Majority of the participants who did not complete their studies are in their mid-thirties, forties and fifties. Many of them left school due to transportation challenges experienced during their time back in the 1980s and early 1990s. There were fewer boats operating and was costly.

There were a lot of inconsistencies in terms of attendance and punctuality because traveling out at sea depended on the weather. Parents never risked transporting their children through stormy seas. One of the elders mentioned during the talanoa that many students dropped out of school early during those days for a few reasons. School fees, uniforms, and transportation cost was the major challenge which many parents could not afford. In addition, peer pressure was a major contributing factor especially for the boys. Boys from the ages of 12 to 19 regarded themselves as men as they were involved in hard work with the older men in the village. They had a very close attachment to their village and especially the bondage in doing farm work or going out to the reef diving and spear fishing daily. Some may go out with the older folks late at night and would sleep in the next day tired. Nowadays, the elders do not want their children to follow their pathway, hence, are giving all the correct counselling and support for their children to have the right motivation and energy driven towards their education and a having a better career in life and explore the world. This has enabled a significant amount (17 percent) of students making it to tertiary level (Figure 33).

6.3 Gender Roles and Responsibilities

Gender roles are clearly defined and observed in Vuake. Elders continue to assist the adults with traditional protocols and customs. This may take place informally or during formal village gatherings and meetings. The village headman (Turaga ni koro) usually seek advice from the elders with regard to village administrative matters. The elders play a very important role in the village. They look after their grandchildren very well and teach them well. Oral tradition continues to be practiced and is well preserved by the elders. The imparting of traditional knowledge is a significant attribute of their presence in the village.

Similar to Nayawa, males and females have specific tasks to do daily. From the field observations, the researcher noticed how tasks were evenly shared among the members of the households. After morning devotion, the activities for the day would be carefully thought out and discussed between the heads of the household (husband and wife) before the members of the household are informed. Working men and women normally carried out whatever little tasks they could do later in the afternoons when they return home after work. Otherwise, majority of the hard work would be done in the weekend when they are free. However, those who did not have formal employment but resided in the village had daily tasks and routines to do. Eg. Men would have separate days for farming and fishing. They cannot have both tasks on the same day or on consecutive days. Such activities would have to be carried out on alternate days to ensure good rest and more productivity. They can only practice this in a day if there are more boys in the family where responsibilities will be shared between who will do farm work and who will go fishing. It is hard work but being the men of the households and village, they passionately carry their tasks for their livelihoods.

The women of Vuake deserve a huge amount of respect and appreciation for their level of commitment and perseverance. Water is a major problem on the island. According to stories shared during the talanoa session that in the past, women used to walk during low tide and at times during high tide swim or go on small wooden boats if they were available to fetch water for drinking and cooking from water sources on Matacawalevu island. Today, ENSO induced droughts have caused water sources to dry. Therefore, women walk inland to fetch water from bore holes for washing, cooking and bathing mainly for babies. In addition, they don’t completely rely on the men to do physical work. They also go out to the copra fields to collect coconuts and gather firewood from the plantation or along the beach. They also do the cooking, cleaning and washing as well. Boys learn from their fathers and girls learn from their mothers. Every task is a learning experience as it involves theoretical and practical lessons. Boys learn to cultivate, plant, rear animals and fishing at a young age. Similarly, girls learn household chores such as cooking, washing and cleaning but also take time to learn other practical skills like weaving, weeding, fishing, collecting muscles to name a few. The elders (grandparents) make learning very enjoyable for the young ones. They teach and give meaning to all the lessons so that the children are able to comprehend and remember for the rest of their lives.

The villagers continue to strictly observe and practice their traditional roles and responsibilities. For example, craftsmen (mataisau) helped in rebuilding homes that were damaged or destroyed by environmental related hazards such as coastal flooding or cyclones. The fisher folks (gonedau) normally go out to sea at an appointed time to get seafood and fish varieties during traditional village occasions or ceremonies. There are men who are appointed to go deep sea diving while women would gather seafood within the shallow waters. In a joint practice, men and women use large nets (lawa ni ika) to catch as many fish as possible. The chief’s herald (matanivanua) continues to perform his traditional protocol duties when observing traditional rituals, ceremonies or when a government delegation visits the island.

6.4 Livelihood Systems in Vuake Village i. Farming Farming is one of the main sources of livelihood for the village of Vuake. However, there are many challenges encountered due to environmental hazards and changes and the non-availability of proper farming machinery, modern tools and capital. Farmers in have found difficulties with soil quality due to the constant changes in the weather and climate patterns. Furthermore, accessibility to potential farmlands is a major problem. Figure 34 Total Land Area used for Crop and Pastoral Farming at Vuake

8 Cropland 6 Pastures 4 Participants/Informants Participants/Informants 2

0 1 acre 2 acres 3 acres 4 acres 5 acres Land Area

Cropland Farming Nine participants planted crops on 1 acre and 3 acre lands while fourteen participants planted on 2 acre lands (Figure 34). Two participants cultivated a 4 acre land and one participant cultivated a five acre land. Succession planting, inter-cropping or inter-planting techniques are the major farming practices used on the island. This technique helps the prevention of pests and diseases and enables sufficient and consistent supply of food all year round.

The main crops planted are cassava (manihot esculenta), yams (dioscorea), and sweet potatoes (ipomoea batatas). Breadfruits (Artocarpus altilis) and coconuts (Cocos nucifera) are grown all over the island and easily accessible for consumption.Farmers also grow a variety of vegetables namely cabbage (brassica oleracea), eggplant (solanum melongena), beans (phaseolus vulgarispalak), tomato (lycopersicon esculentum) and carrots (daucus carota) to name a few. Fruit trees include papaya (carica papaya), mangoes (mangifera indica), bananas (musa acuminata), lemon (citrus reticulata), mandarin, passionfruit (passiflora edulis), watermelon (citrullus lanatus), avocado (persea americana), sugarcane (saccharum officinarum) and pineapples (anansus comosus).

Pastoral Farming (cattle) Twenty four participants from the 35 sampled households rear cattle on the island. Figure 34 illustrates that nine participants utilised one acre of land each along the village peripheries to rear cattle. Five participants rear cattle on two acres of land and one participant used three acres of land. In addition, four participants used four acres and five participants used five acres of land. The researcher gathered from the field observations that farmers struggled to manage pastures and rear cattle due to the extreme drought conditions.

Hypothetically, pastures grow well in warmer months but with enough moisture. However, the rise in humidity and temperature rates and the lack of rainfall potentially leads to more soil evaporation causing stress to animals, pasture production and land health. Trees tend to die during the drought and pasture quality is very low. Furthermore, the lack of rainfall leads to the increase in weeds, pests and diseases. Food and water sources are compromised hence, the loss of weight, deterioration of health and at times death occurs.

Figure 35 Permanently Fallow Land - Vuake

10% 10 acres 10% 3% 44% 15 acres

20 acres

30% 30 acres 3% 40 acres

50 acres

The land in Vuake is owned by the clans (mataqali). The farm lands are fairly distributed among the members of the clans and are mainly cultivated for subsistence use. Figure 35 illustrates the different sizes of the land areas that are left fallow. The data provided is based on the participants’ approximate measurements. There is no modern technology, technique or materials and qualified personnel to conduct any form of land survey to justify the measurements. Therefore, there may be some inaccuracy on the land sizes mentioned. However, large portions of these farm lands have been abandoned for various reasons. Figure 35 suggests that 44 percent of the households abandoned 10 acres of land, 3 percent abandoned 15 acres, 30 percent abandoned 20 acres, 3 percent abandoned 30 acres, 10 percent abandoned 40 acres, and 10 percent abandoned 50 acres of land.

Figure 36 Reasons for permanently abandoning Land

7% Not profitable 30% Capital 36% low soil quality 7% Accessibility 7% 13% Location (too far)

other

Seven percent of the informants view farming production as non-profitable, hence, leave majority of their land fallow (Figure 36). Geographic isolation, competition from local suppliers and mainly climate change are potential contributing factors. Capital is the main driving factor for any business to success. Without capital, limitations outweigh progress. Thirty six percent indicated that they do not have the capital to cultivate such large areas of land for big farming projects that will enable them to produce at a large commercial scale and supply to all the resorts and hotels on the different islands in Yasawa. Furthermore, thirteen percent (Figure 36) abandoned land due to low soil quality. This is attributed to the current environmental and climate change.

Months of dry spell has diminished soil quality, crops and vegetation as a whole. Extensive bush fires triggered by excessive heat have only worsened the situation. As a result, villagers have abandoned these lands permanently but have utilized smaller areas closer to the village that are easily managed for subsistence use. Seven percent mentioned that accessibility was a major setback on the islands. There is no road access to farm sites situated inland with potentially high soil quality. Another seven percent indicated that the agricultural lands are too far for operation and most farmers walk inland and uphill to get to their farms. Horses are scarce on the island, hence, more time and effort is used walking to their farms to work and return to the village daily. During harvest, farmers may borrow horses if they need them. ii. Employment

Employment significantly contributes to the livelihood systems and outcomes of the people of Vuake village. Members of the households who earn income strongly contribute to the welfare of their families. Providing the basic necessities for the family and supporting education for members of the family household were prioritised. People acquired various jobs to ensure a consistent income supply for the households. Furthermore, family members had secondary jobs to ensure positive and sustainable livelihood outcomes.

Figure 37 Types of Occupation - Vuake

0 Members (35 sampled households) sampled (35 Members

The data suggests a total of 87 members of the 35 sampled households are employed (Figure 37). It also shows that the most number of people work in the hotel industry. Majority of them work for various hotels in the neighbouring islands of Nanuya Island, Turtle Island, and Yaqeta. Some also work for hotels in the Mamanuca group. Most of the other working people are either based in Lautoka, Nadi or Suva. Despite their different localities of employment or place of residence, they still actively support their households back in the island.

Figure 38 Years of Employment

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

households) households) 3 2 1 0 Working Working Population (members - 35 sampled 12345678910121516172021222325273033343540 Years of Employment

Majority of the working population from the 35 sampled households have vast working experience through the many years of service. Evidently, forty seven people spent either 10 years or more of employment (Figure 38). The highest population have served ten years of employment. The highlight of this finding is the three people who have worked forty years long. They started their working career at a very young age and have retired. iii. Income Sources

The 35 sampled households have various sources of income to support their daily livelihood. The major sources of income for the villagers are pension money received from the FNPF for retirees, farm sales, fish sales, employment (wages), and money received from family members either living in Fiji or overseas. Figures 39, 40 and 41 interpret the three categories of income based on the informants’ perception and evaluation of their income according to their importance.

Figure 39 Income Source 1

3% 6% 28% farm wages

63%

fishing other

The data suggests that the majority of the participants (63 percent) rely on wages as their first and major source of income (Figure 39). They are either working or rely on those who are working for their fortnightly wages to meet family needs and wants. On the other hand, 28 percent rely on fishing and 6 percent rely on farming as their first source of income.

Figure 40 Income Source 2

3% 3% 3% pension 28% farm

wages 56% 7% fishing

family (overseas)

other

Fishing (56 percent) is considered the second major source of income by a big majority of the participants (Figure 40). In addition, farming (28 percent), wages (7 percent), pension (3 percent), and financial assistance by family members (3 percent) are other options regarded by the informants as their second major sources of income.

Figure 41 Income Source 3

13% 33% farm

wages

40% fishing 7% 7% family (Fiji)

family (overseas)

The data (Figure 41) suggests that the informants receive money from family members working and living in other parts of Fiji (40 percent) and also families living overseas (13 percent). The informants indicated that the money is either used for the elders or for family obligations such as funerals or weddings. Additional

95 income from farming (33 percent), wages (7 percent), and fishing (7 percent) are categorised as their (informants) third income source.

Figure 42 Types of Household Business

6% 6% handicraft

11% 33% shop

grog sales

28% 5% canteen 11% seaweed farming

fish sale

backpacker resort

Household Business The informants operate their own businesses to earn and improve their household livelihoods. Figure 42 suggests that the informants (33 percent) earned weekly income from their handicraft business. Handicraft is mainly sold by women on tourist visitation days to the village. Other businesses include the village shop (5 percent), canteens (28 percent). Yaqona or kava sales (11 percent) is a success in the village as it is not grown on the island and not many people can make it to the mainland to buy it. Seaweed farming (11 percent) takes place every six months and is sold to Chinese buyers upon harvest. The participants (6 percent) practice deep sea diving and fishing and normally did business with neighbouring hotels (lobsters, octopus), Chinese buyers (sea urchins, beach-de-mer) and at times to local buyers (mainly fish) from Lautoka. Finally, the Longbeach backpacker resort (6 percent) is one of the major highlight of tourist attraction on the island. It is owned and operated by a family household who also run a farm production business on Viti Levu.

6.5 Major Challenges experienced in Vuake Village

The following Figures and paragraphs will explain the hardships and challenges the villagers of Vuake experience on the island. Majority of the challenges faced today are similar in nature but may differ according to geographical locations, social and economic backgrounds. The data illustration (Figure 43, 44, and 45) focuses on three

96 of the greatest challenges based on the informants’ perceptions and how they would categorize these challenges according to their level of seriousness.

Figure 43 The 1st greatest challenge experienced by the people of Vuake

Challenge 1 Kava abuse 3% 3% Parental support 25% Time management

43% 3% Unemployment

Water problem 20% 3% Communal effort

drought

Water Problem Water problem according to the informants is rated as the first greatest challenge (Figure 43). Water problem has been a major problem for so many years. Previous governments have repaired pipelines and provided bore holes. However, during long periods of dry weather, there are not enough water supplies for the whole village. There are water tanks installed by government and non-government organisations but they need adequate rainfall supply to fill them up. The village need proper lines and pipes channelled directly from water sources. There is a need for the construction of a dam to store water that would sufficiently provide for the island.

Figure 44 The 2nd greatest challenge experienced by the people Vuake

Challenge 2 3% Kava abuse 3% 6% School dropouts 34% 14% Time management

Unemployment

Water problem 20% 14% Alcohol abuse 6% Transportation

Soil fertility

Kava abuse

The highest count of informants regarded kava abuse as the second greatest challenge experienced in the village (Figure 44). Kava abuse is a lifestyle challenge that is affecting the youths of Vuake. The rate of kava consumption in Vuake is a major risk to human health. Kava is no longer a traditional but a social drink every person share almost on a daily basis. Kava is sold in the canteens at $1 a bag. Many fail to perform their duties competently due to long nights of kava drinking and long hours of sleeping the next morning. Kava abuse affects the performance of an individual in a given day as it causes stress, tiredness or laziness, hence, affects productivity.

Figure 45 The 3rd Greatest Challenge experienced at Vuake village

Challenge 3 Kava abuse School dropouts 9% 14% 3% 11% Time management 6% 9% Unemployment Transportation 11% 17% Power supply

20% Indebtedness drought Communal effort

Transport

Tansportation (Figure 45) is considered the third greatest challenge for the people of Vuake. People mainly travel by boat from one island to another or from one side of the same island (Matacawalevu) to the other. People may also take a 2km walk inland to crossover to the other side of the island where Longbeach resort is located. It is impossible to make a complete walk around the island because parts of the foreshore are mangrove swamps and other portions are rugged with limestone coral. Boat fares to neighbouring islands such as Nanuya Lailai, Nanuya levu or Naviti is usually $30 for adults and $5 - $15 for children. Boat fares to Lautoka is $50 per person each way. Cost of cargo depends on the type, size and weight of the item, For example, cartons are $5 each and 50kg flour or sugar is $8 per bag. Cost of transport on tourist boats such as the Adventure (Yasawa Flyer) is $80 per person for one way

98 only. Therefore, traveling or transporting cargo to the neighbouring islands or mainland is very expansive and a huge challenge for the villagers.

According to the responses by the key informants (Figures 43, 44, and45) water problem, kava abuse and cost of transportation are the three greatest challenges affecting the people of Vuake. However, the following paragraphs provide additional information on other challenges they experience on the island.

Other Challenges

Time Management Pace of Life in the village is slow as expected. A change in attitude and lifestyle is needed for a brighter future especially for the youths of today. Late nights around the kava bowl is a major contributing factor as people tend to sleep in the following day. This affects workers punctuality and attendance at work. For farmers, they are not able to go to the farm early in the mornings as a common task to begin each day.

Unemployment The rate of unemployment has increased quite quickly over the past few years according to some key informants. Most youths prefer not to seek jobs but to stay in the village and continue with the slow and easy way of life. They enjoy village life and are not concerned at all about earning for a living.

Drought The long dry spell has been a direct impact of ENSO. Villagers of Vuake have categorized the intensity and frequency of heat as that of a drought considering its implications on the physical and economic resources on the island. The colour and physical condition of the grass, trees and vegetation have deteriorated intensely for months due to the lack of rainfall. Water sources have all dried up and this has affected the well-being of livestock, vegetable and crop farming.

School Dropout Early school dropouts have been an ongoing issue in Vuake. Students drop out of school due to the influence of peer pressure. The lack of motivation from home is a contributing factor towards the lack of interest shown by children. Over the past few years, teachers frequently visit the village to create awareness and strengthen the parents and teacher relationship.

Alcohol Abuse Alcoholism or alcohol abuse is a challenge in the individual family households. Alcohol is normally consumed and abused by males in the village. Alcohol is sold in the hotel on the island and also can be bought from neighbouring islands or by villagers returning from mainland Viti Levu. Alcohol is commonly consumed by men from the age of 20 to 40 years. Alcohol is normally consumed after a night of social gathering around the kava bowl and lasts until the early hours of the morning. Youths usually spend days of drinking from their fish and farm earnings.

Soil fertility The loss of soil fertility is mainly caused by the long dry spells as a result of the El Niño effect in the Pacific region. Quality and quantity of produce continues to diminish. Crops and vegetation take longer than usual to harvest. Large areas are brown and dry similar to talasiga soils due to excessive heating and less rainfall. Trees and plants lose their natural colour and so do the grass. Cultivating large areas manually with ordinary farming tools such as folks and spades is impossible due to the condition of the land and soil beneath. Soil texture and structure is highly exploited.

Power Supply Rural electrification has not reached the Yasawa islands as yet. Most households use kerosene lamps while those who can afford use generators and solar power supply bought from Viti Levu. Hotels and resorts have their own power supplies. Children living in homes without proper lighting struggle doing homework and/or studies either at night or early in the morning. Most solar panels in the village are used for lighting purpose only as they do not have the capacity to accommodate high voltage electrical appliances such as refrigerators, television, iron to name a few. Villagers normally resort to the traditional ‘kerekere’ (borrowing) system to ask families who have refrigerators for storage of meats and dairy products. At times, they seek the approval of the long beach resort management staff for storage and/or charging of mobile phones.

Indebtedness Villagers usually take loan from either the working population or canteen and shop owners in the village. Loan is granted upon mutual agreement that repayment is done on time. Loans as such are normally used for traditional obligations or for boat fares to other villages for various occasions. However, according to key informants,

100

Communal effort Communal effort is considered a major challenge in Vuake. Most villagers indicated during the talanoa that they have heard and know about climate change and they clearly understand the impacts they currently face and the potential impacts in the future. However, they lack direction and motivation for them to be able to practically apply that knowledge. Village elders need to drive the initiative and engage all villagers to support the implementation of adaptive measures against climate change (CC). For instance, villagers need to work together in the planting of mangrove plants in new locations and replant in formally grown areas and / or build environmental friendly sea walls along the coast.

6.6 Perception and Awareness towards Climate Change (CC)

The level of awareness and knowledge in the village of Vuake is overwhelming. The people of Vuake are familiar with the concept of Climate change and its implications on the environment. Majority of the people learn via the different forms of media particularly radio, newspapers, and television. Children learn about climate change at school and they usually talk about it as well at home during evening devotion or meal times. Hotel workers are well informed and are aware as they receive continuous brief updates on the latest weather variations and climate change systems and processes occurring today.

Climate change is usually talked about around the yaqona bowl where villagers talk about the different challenges they face whether it be in the farms or out at sea fishing. They share experiences of challenges they encounter daily and come up with possible solutions. They learn from each other through such conversation and interaction. Through personal experience and observation, the researcher finds out that the villagers talk about sports and mainly rugby as the hottest topic. However, they also dwell on real life issues such as farming, social and cultural problems, history of their land and more interestingly current events about the changing climate affecting our environment today.

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Figure 46 People’s Perception about Global Warming

26%

Very Serious

74% Extremely Serious

Figure 46 illustrates the level of understanding and perception demonstrated by the participants about global warming. The data suggests that the participants described global warming either as very serious (26 percent) or extremely serious (74 percent). With regard to air pollution (Figure 47), 66 percent of the participants assumed that air pollution was not serious. However, other participants considered air pollution as very serious (26 percent) and extremely serious (8 percent).

Figure 47 People’s perception about Pollution

8% Not Serious 26%

Very Serious 66%

Extremely Serious

Discussions during the talanoa session mainly focused on the causes and implications of climate change. Possible solutions were also raised during the discussions. The question on whether climate change is stoppable was asked to the participants. Figure 48 illustrates the different views and perception of the participants.

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Figure 48 Perception - Climate Change is stoppable

23% strongly agree 40%

agree 6%

neutral

28% disagree

strongly disagree

Figure 48 indicates that the participants either strongly agreed (40 percent) or agreed (28 percent) that climate change is stoppable. However, more collaboration and awareness is needed from governance to the grassroots level in every country. We need to look after our own backyard first and control what we can. This will positively impact at a global scale. Such response indicated a high level of awareness and perception about climate change at grassroots level. On the other hand, other participants (6 percent) remained neutral and had no response while 23 percent indicated that there was no chance of stopping climate change and its implications.

Figure 49 Perception - Frequency of cyclones has not changed

20%

disagree

strongly disagree 80%

Every year the villagers expect natural disasters particularly tropical cyclones to occur. The cyclone season in Fiji is from November to April. History suggests that the islands of Yasawa, Vatulele, and Kadavu are normally the hardest hit during cyclonic seasons due to 103 its south easterly pathway. Like any other village in the Yasawa islands, the villagers of Vuake have become used to cyclones and know what to do before, during and after a cyclone hits the island. According to the data gathered (Figure 49), the participants/informants (80 percent) strongly disagree or disagree (20 percent) that the frequency of cyclones has not changed. In their view, the frequency and intensity of cyclones has changed and vastly increased in the past decade.

Figure 50 Frequency of flooding has not changed

20%

disagree strongly disagree 80%

Figure 50 (above) suggests that the participants either strongly disagreed (80 percent) or disagreed (20 percent) that the frequency of flooding has not changed. The evidence indicates that the frequency of flooding has changed. Coastal dwellings on either side of Matacawalevu experience coastal flooding. This often causes the washing away of land and vegetation. Villagers indicated that coastal flooding only began to occur recently and the intensity has increased. Flooding never used to be a concern for the village in the past because majority of the households are situated on the hill. However, for coastal dwellers, some of whom have relocated inland, coastal flooding is becoming a concern and it is becoming unsafe to reside permanently in these locations.

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Figure 51 Causes of Climate Change

20% 3% deforestation/excessive pollution urbanisation 77% all of the above

According to Figure 51, the participants identified the following factors as the main causes of climate changes; 1) deforestation and pollution (77 percent) and 2) urbanisation (3 percent). However, other participants (20 percent) considered all factors mentioned above as equally potential causes of climate change.

Figure 52 Importance of Climate Change

climate change controls / dictates our way of life 6% 12% climate shapes the environment and 17% controls the decisions humans make daily 65% extreme climate conditions such as el nino, el nina greatly affects humanity all of the above

Figure 52 illustrates the participants’ responses and perception on the importance of climate change. Six percent of the participants believe that climate change controls and dictates our way of life. Twelve percent suggested that climate change shapes the environment and controls the decisions humans make daily, therefore, people need to behave responsibly.

Proper disposal of rubbish should be encouraged rather than littering irresponsibly on the coastlines or in the ocean. In addition, 17 percent suggested that climate

105 conditions such as the extreme wet and dry seasons associated with ENSO greatly affects humanity and the natural environment surrounding us. Therefore, it is vital to make lifestyle changes for a better livelihood and more importantly in helping build a sustainable environment for the future generation.

6.7 Experiences of Environmental Related Hazards

The following paragraphs and Figures will present the responses gathered from the key informants on their previous experiences of natural hazards in Vuake village. The responses are based on their views with regard to their experiences of natural hazards. The major disasters normally experienced on the island are cyclones and coastal flooding. Villagers have become accustomed to such events and the stresses it causes to them.

Figure 53 Frequency of Flooding in Vuake

20%

48% far less 9% less no change a bit more 20% much more

Figure 53 show that 48 percent of the informants believe the frequency of flooding is far less than before and 20 percent less. On the other hand, 9 percent said there was no change while 20 percent felt that it had increased and 20 percent said that it had increased much more than before.

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Figure 54 Intensity of Flooding in Vuake

3% far less 20% less 48% 9% no change

a bit more 20% much more

The intensity of flooding as suggested in Figure 56 shows that 48 percent perceive the intensity of flooding to be far less and 20 percent less. Nine percent feel that there has been no changes seen while 20 percent said that the intensity had increased a bit more and 20 percent felt that it has increased much more than before.

Figure 55 Villagers (Informants) affected by Flooding in Vuake

23% yes no

77%

Figure 55 indicates that 23 percent of the informants were previously affected by flooding while 77 percent were not affected. The evidence suggests that these (23 per cent) informants are coastal dwellers who were normally affected by coastal flooding particularly during the event of cyclones or from continuous torrential rain coinciding with high tide.

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Figure 56 Frequency of Cyclones in Vuake

34%

66%

a bit more much more

Figure 56 indicates that the frequency of cyclones in Vuake has increased a bit more (34 percent) and much more (66 percent). The evidence suggests that cyclones have recently occurred in consecutive years compared to the past decade where there would be cyclone seasons where such events would not occur at all.

Figure 57 Intensity of Cyclones in Vuake

34%

a bit more +1 66% much more +2

The intensity of cyclones in Vuake (Figure 57) has increased a bit more (34 percent) and much more (66 percent) compared to the past. Observations carried out during the field study confirm the level of intensity previous cyclones had on the island with

108 visible sight of remains of damages and destruction caused. All the participants/informants indicated that they were affected by previous cyclones.

Figure 58 Details of other hazards in Vuake

skin diseases caused by contanimated 6% water - post-flooding/post-cyclones

28% 26% destruction of vegetation and farms due to wildfires either caused by excessive heat (drought) or unnecessary burning 40% livestock (sickly & mortality) caused by drought

Water pollution caused by tourist boats greatly affecting marine resources

The evidence suggests (Figure 58) that 6 percent were affected by skin diseases due to the use of contaminated water during post flooding and post cyclone periods. Vegetation and farms were either destroyed (26 percent) by the excessive heat during the drought season or unnecessary burning by the people. Livestock (40 percent) were also greatly affected particularly by the drought. Animals (cattle in particular) became very sickly, lost huge amount of weight and the mortality rate also increased. Furthermore, water pollution (28 percent) continues to increase and affect marine resources caused by tourist boats.

6.8 Evidence and Implications of Climate Change in Vuake

The following figures and paragraphs explain the evidences and implications that are seen to be possible impacts of climate change on the island. The data illustrations and interpretation are based on the information given by the key informants as well as personal observations and additional participatory talanoa sessions with villager elders and adults.

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Figure 59 Physical Evidence of Environmental Changes – Vuake

Physical Changes Sea level rise 6% 8% 6% 28% Changes in tidal patterns

Growth of rare seaweeds

Reduction in soil quality 40% 6% Coastal erosion 6% Scarce water supply

All of the above

Sea level rise Sea level continues to rise above its expected height according to observations made by the (8 percent) informants (Figure 59). During high tide, water overflows into the first few houses near the shoreline. This happens on the windward side of the island where Long beach resort is located. Large debris is normally left on dry land once water levels recede. During low tide, there would be a rare sight of an extensive area of dried coastline running approximately 300 to 400m to open waters. This mainly affects seaweed farmers. The seaweeds need to be fully immersed in sea water at all times so when the water gets completely dried out during low tide, villagers would have to transplant them into deeper waters. It is quite a tiring job having to bring the seaweeds back closer to the coastlines once the tide comes up again. Furthermore, movements are affected especially for the staff at Long beach resort who had to carry tourist luggage across the dried shore for boarding in the deeper waters.

Unusual Tidal Patterns The informants (6 percent) indicated that they were concerned about the rare recurrence of unusual tidal patterns (Figure 59). They explained that the island was experiencing a change in the time of the tide. At times, when villagers expect it to be high tide, low tide occurs. They indicated that low tides usually take shorter periods but nowadays, it may last for two to three days consecutively. The change in tidal patterns affects the villagers fishing plans.

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Growth of rare seaweeds A large growth of a peculiar type of seaweed is seen along the village shoreline (Figure 59). The seaweeds are of a rare species with hard and thorny edges that usually come with long black hairy like features. The seaweeds change the colour of the water and dirties the foreshore. The white sandy beach is predominantly covered with black seaweeds. It is believed that the dumping of waste by the Blue Lagoon Cruises into the water passage between Nanuya Island and Matacawalevu Island may potentially be a contributing factor to the appearance of the seaweeds. However, the informants (6 percent) indicated that over exploitation of the shorelines over the years is the major cause. Women pick seashells and clams daily in the past. These resources are excessively used, hence, alters the ecosystem and particularly the habitat for various organisms and marine life that feed on them. Once they disappear, the seaweed population increases to what it is today.

Reduction in soil quality The prolonged drought period affected soil quality and farm yields (Figure 59). There is a huge reduction in soil moisture, hence, soil microbial activities is altered. Soil quality is reduced via minimum organic activity and death of soil organisms due to excessive dry conditions. Soils are visibly dry and cracked, thus, affecting vegetation and crop yield and animal life.

Coastal Erosion The informants (6 percent) experience coastal erosion and the wearing away of land at a faster rate nowadays (Figure 59). Rising sea levels, increased wave action and high winds have been contributing factors. During high tide, water tends to push its way through the coastal boundaries reaching the hotel compounds and houses. Coconut trees, vegetation and parts of the land along the coastline are usually swept into the ocean causing shoreline cut platforms. It is noted that continuous recurrences of shoreline erosion will lead to shoreline extension inland and the formation of a new coastline platform. This may lead to relocation of current coastline dwellings as more land and space would be taken away from the overpowering wave and wind systems.

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Scarce Water Supply The informants (6 percent) indicated that the scarce water supply was mainly caused by the drought. Water tanks and bore holes were running low and streams have all run dry. The prolonged period of precipitation shortage resulted in water deficiency for human activities such as farming, irrigation, and domestic uses. Drought produces widespread devastation on the environment as evident on Vuake. Villagers are relying on government assistance to build their own dam as currently the water they use is sourced from a dam on another island. When there is less pressure, there is water shortage in the village.

Figure 60 Evidence of Environmental Impact on Economic Assets

marine resources diminishing eg. Kanace, 28% sucuwalu, dri, green fish, loliloli, kavere, cawaki, dairo, vula 43%

Salt sea water contamination

23% poor agricultural yield 6%

all of the above

Marine Resources diminishing The responses (28 percent) suggest that economic assets are now under a lot of stress and vulnerability (Figure 60). They can clearly tell that their marine resources are diminishing. They are able to make comparisons between the past and present time in terms of diversity. The data (Figure 60) illustrates the different marine species namely kanace, sucuwalu, dri, green fish, loliloli, kuita, kavere, dairo, and vula all of whom are diminishing at a fast rate. Although they are still accessible, their quality and quantity is not the same. Villagers spent longer hours to make a good catch unlike in the past where they were easily accessible in abundance. These species have been their major source of income and they believe that due to over fishing and the impact of climate change, these species are slowly diminishing in population.

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Low Agricultural Yield Land is an economic resource particularly for farmers in the village but at a smaller scale. Distance and Cost of transportation is a major challenge, therefore, people are discouraged to market their produce to the mainland. Farmers prefer to sell their produce particularly crops to the neighbouring island hotels, resorts, backpacker accommodation, and schools. At times, they also sell within the village to certain families who have yet to make a harvest. Copra is normally sent to Lautoka but does not really incur high profits. These farmers face a lot of problems particularly due to the extreme weather conditions. Yields are lesser nowadays and this is mainly due to environmental changes. Lesser yields led to less production and therefore lesser income.

Seawater contamination (salt) In the past, women and sometimes men and youths would go to sea, to harvest salt from the highly evaporated sea water. It used to be a source of income as well for them. Within the past decade, the increase in tourism activities in the neighbouring villages and islands has led to the acceleration rates of waste disposal by hotels and cruise boats. The vast spread of harmful substances has discouraged the villagers in pursuing further interest in the trade. Water had become dirty most times so people have therefore stopped from going out to get salt.

Intense heat, bursts of rainfall and seawater intrusion causes high corrosive effects on the structural foundations, pilings, walkways, and concrete walls of homes, classrooms, and hotels. Metal reinforcements of the concrete constructions of houses are exposed and shows evidence of weakness and instability. The high cost of transportation and materials are the main factors that hinder the progress of maintenance.

6.9 Adaptation and Mitigation Measures in Vuake village

The people of Vuake mostly experience tropical cyclones over many years. Yasawa is located within the commonly projected pathway for cyclones in Fiji. Villagers use previous experiences to adapt to hazardous situations. Indigenous Fijians are renowned for their reactive approach during natural disasters. However, adaptation and mitigation has improved thus far. Villagers have proactively developed adaptive strategies in the recent past due to increased knowledge and awareness of climate change and environmental hazards.

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Traditional Knowledge of practical adaptive skills are mainly taught through oral tradition. Villagers use traditional knowledge to monitor weather variations or climatic patterns. A very good example learned during the study is how the elders of Vuake usually referred to the physical appearance of the ‘void’ (banana) tree. If the void tree is slightly bent to either the left or right direction, this indicated that a disaster (cyclone) was nearing, hence, the village will be alerted and preparations carried out. Nowadays, through modern technology, more accurate forecasting is done by the meteorological office and provided via the different forms of media to the public.

Today, families living along the coastline have begun replanting mangrove plants. They have taken the initiative because their homes are highly vulnerable compared to other villagers who reside in the village on the upper hill terrain. Having lived by the sea for many years, they have seen a lot of changes unfolding, hence, have replanted mangroves to sustain the environment. These families have also constructed sea walls using sandbags. Sand bags are piled laterally along the coastline mainly focusing on protecting their homes. The seawalls have since assisted in preventing water from flowing into their houses. There are only about 8 households currently living along the coastline. Many other households have relocated inland following a destructive cyclone that led to massive coastal flooding and tidal wave action that devastated the village foreshore. Families living along the coastline of either side of the island have planted more crops, flowers and trees along the foreshore. At Long beach resort, stone walls are built using concrete, dead coral and rocks.

Men and women have specific roles when preparing for a cyclone. Men focus on work done on the outside which is normally to ensure that trees, flowers and shrubs near their homes are neatly pruned and cleared. Fallen branches, pieces of wood or any other items that are easily blown away during the cyclone or hurricane are removed. Firewood are gathered and stored appropriately. In the farm, cassava patches are pruned by cutting their leaves and leaving the stem so in times of stormy winds and heavy rainfall, the roots are unaffected. Yams are traditionally grown in huge mounds of well cultivated soils and sheltered under bamboo sticks and coconut leaves for their vines to creep on. Farmers normally have their yam plots on blocks of flat land surrounded by tall trees that act as wind breakers. Matured crops are normally harvested and stored appropriately in large containers or pots. Some households tend to cook the harvested crops in an earthen

114 oven traditionally known as the ‘lovo’ to preserve it for longer periods and ensure food security.

Men who rear livestock secure their animals at well sheltered spots surrounded by tall trees (windbreakers) and provided with sufficient fields of food supply and free from flooding. Village men also assist every household with the reinforcement of their homes. Bures (thatched houses) are usually covered with green coconut leaves and weaved with either banana veins or barks of traditional trees. Wooden houses are normally reinforced using the pulling effect whereby big hard ropes are tied from the top inside and outside of the house to the floor or to other stable structures such as trees around the house. Concrete houses are secured using sand bags and concrete blocks put on all corners of the roof. Windows and/or louver blades are secured by roofing iron nailed to the walls from the outside. Boat owners secure their boats inland on high ground. The boats are filled with water or heavy sandbags to add weight to prevent them from being washed away.

Women focus on in-house preparation in terms of securing emergency items such as torches, transistor radios, candles, matches, kerosene to name a few. Water is stored pots, bottles, and / or large drums for cooking and drinking. Firewood for cooking is normally stored in cooking places outside the house. They are also stored under the house at times. Food ration and clothing are sorted in case of relocation and evacuation. Elderly women, mothers and children are the first to be evacuated to the village hall or church if the cyclone or hurricane intensifies. As soon as the hazard disappears, village men work together in planting short term or fast crops such as kumala, (sweet potato) and Tivoli (yams) which normally takes 3 to 5 months to mature. Coconuts fallen by strong winds are picked, husked, scraped and used to make various traditional cooked foods for cyclone periods. In addition, matured cassava are normally peeled and grated to make cassava cakes and preserved for over a week. Breadfruits are also picked and stored prior to the cyclones and thoroughly used during post cyclone periods lasting for weeks.

6.10 Government and NGO Assistance towards Vuake Village

Government Assistance

In December 2012, TC Evans made landfall in the Fiji islands causing major damages. Vuake village faced major infrastructural damages to its water piping system, structural damages to many homes and crop destruction in the farms. Rehabilitation works took place in January 2013 whereby the Government of Fiji provided infrastructural 115 assistance through repair works on the village pipeline system. Government also provided house assistance mainly to those whose homes were partially or completely destroyed by the storm. House materials were bought from Viti Levu and transported via Government barge services. The engineering department from the Republic of the Fiji Military Forces carried out the rehabilitation works. Rehabilitation works included home renovations, building of new homes, and maintenance works to the water pipeline system.

Image 1 and 2: Newly built homes provided by government after the destruction caused by TC Evans in 2012

Image 3 (below): Water storage constructed by the government of Fiji in 1999

Non-Government Organization Assistance NGOs, namely GVI, MWH Global and OPUS played vital roles in the rehabilitation projects for TC Evan victims in 2012. They provided assistance to the village of Vuake including villages in the northern Yasawa group as well as schools from other districts and provinces. MWH Global Inc. is a worldwide water and natural company that provides finance and technical consultations. GVI is a non-political organization which operates in the fields of environmental and conservation research, education system and development programs at community level. GVI mainly focuses on aid and funding supply for global agencies and the capacity building of its human resources and the sharing of knowledge and equipment. Its projects are fully

116 sponsored by donors, fundraisers, paying volunteers, interns, and corporate donations, NGOs and international governments and funding bodies.

MWH Global and GVI worked in partnership in 2013 doing assessments and surveys on affected areas in Northern Yasawa. Volunteers from both organizations identified 10 villages and carried out the assessment processes of their water infrastructure resources. From their findings, they suggested that the drinking water capacity was not sufficient enough to provide for the increasing population. They also identified the need for infrastructural improvements. GVI and MWH Global then approached freight services to the Yasawas, general hardware suppliers, local manufacturers of water tanks and hardware suppliers specializing in water related products and filter systems in Fiji to assist them with the project in terms of providing discount prices and services.

GVI volunteers managed to install 14 tanks which have the capacity to collect around 122,200 litres of rainwater. Furthermore, two tanks with a combined capacity of approximately 50,000 litres were also installed. These tanks are mainly used to collect water from the bore hole on the other side of the island and links to various taps in the village community. Villagers use rainwater for drinking and tap water for cooking, washing and bathing. Volunteers assessed that the main pipe line connecting the two collection tanks linked to the bore hole was completely damaged and needed replacement. Due to the scarcity of water supply, villagers had to use rainwater tanks for washing and cooking as well. Afterwards, MWH funds had to be sorted to replace the vital pipelines that were beyond repair. The installation of the new pipelines was significant in ensuring water security and water capacity for the community.

OPUS DEI provided stationeries and teaching resources for the school and solar panels for various village homes. The timely assistance enabled students to have access to new stationery materials that really motivated their learning. Teachers were also provided with teaching resources and materials that were vital for an enjoyable and creative learning environment. The solar panels that were donated enabled children to do their homework and studies well at night. Some families were able to purchase a television set that was mainly used to watch the news in the evenings or sports during the weekend.

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Image 4 and 5: Water tanks installed by GVI

6.11 Summary

The study found that the Indigenous Fijians perception of climate change varies according to their gender, their traditional roles and their experiences. Contrasting views could be found between children and adults. While the younger generation perceives climate change as a change in weather that can be predicted through the use of basic traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), older generations’ view it as a change in weather that can be forecasted and to which they can adapt to. In addition, parents and elders repeatedly highlighted that climate change impacts their agricultural as well as their fishery productivity even though they could be reduced through the use of traditional adaptation methods. It was also gathered that government and NGOs have done great on providing awareness programs and funding various activities and services to the villages. Post relief assistance during hazardous periods in the past has been noted as efficient and effective. On the other hand, it is evident that there still is more room for improvements on enhancing people’s awareness and perception towards climate change. Looking at the present livelihood systems in the villages research was carried out; it is evident that climate change has the potential to create severe risks. Agricultural systems may be affected although it is still difficult to ascertain the details of these impacts. At the same time tourism, which provides a considerable amount of livelihood in both villages, is greatly affected by impacts of climate change such as coral bleaching, sea-level rise, natural hazards that intensify through climate change. It is difficult to quantify the potential impacts in such study, but it seems to be certain that people, governments and the economic sector have to give an increasing importance to the impact of climate change and better prepare for changes.

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CHAPTER 7 | Summary, Conclusion & Recommendations

Summary of Findings There has been an intensive investigation into important aspects of climate change challenges, the adaptation to these challenges in two villages in Fiji. The investigation included an overview of the livelihood systems in these villages, the traditional knowledge of the residents of the villages in particular around agriculture and fisheries, and related issues about the weather and seasons. Part of the investigation was the activities of past and present governments and NGOs to support the communities to strengthen their resilience against the impacts of climate change.

The investigation looked at people’s perception of climate change and related issues and their willingness to take up measures to adapt to climate change. People’s perceptions are crucial as people hardly would be willing to change their lives, make investments into protective measures, if their perception would not suggest that there is a major threat to their livelihoods. Perception is preconditioned to change; it equips people with the necessity to act.

Most of the traditional adaptive strategies are around agriculture. Here the continuation and/or return to old, established practices such as intercropping, mulching, use of organic fertilizer is seen by the people as important aspects to keep their natural capital in good shape. Also the establishment of marine protected areas (or other taboo areas) fall into such practices. Planting mangroves and building sea walls are other measure; measures to enhance protection against slow inset events such as sea-level rise and powerful events that happen quickly such as tropical cyclones (and tsunamis that are of course not an impact of climate change).

In Vuake village, similar practices are seen useful to enhance adaptation to climate change although the measures are more tailored towards agriculture. Here similarities between the two villages become evident: they protect their natural capital, the agriculture land and fishing grounds stands first in people’s action despite in the meanwhile their livelihood no longer comes first from agriculture, but tourism and other opportunities to earn cash income. The main employment (Figure 11 for Nayawa village and Figure 37 for Vuake village) puts traditional activities such as agriculture and fisheries far behind employment in the tourism sector and other

119 occupations. Still, in both villages people highlighted that the natural capital is their most important asset, maybe not in the provision of livelihood, but in the generation of security, or the feeling of security. Here the importance of land in Fiji’s traditional society becomes clearly evident, but also the fact that people although they earn a major part of their livelihood from other activities than farming and fishing, hardly have any impact on what is happening in these other economic areas. They benefit from tourism, but they hardly can influence, if tomorrow they are still able to earn a livelihood from tourism related activities and employment.

People seem to consider their traditional livelihoods important also from a security aspect. The land they hold, the rights they have over fishing grounds is a protection when other sources of livelihood dry up. Such attitudes one can find even amongst urban middle classes, who stress that when they lose their jobs, or retire with the age of 55 from government employment they can always return to their villages and earn a good livelihood. It seems that such happen rather often and that such attitudes are not just an idyllic view of village live and traditional kinship structures, which of course also provide identity to people; identify which has very much location in the centre of meaning. It is relevant were people come from, for themselves, but also for others who establish differing relationship with people depending on the locality they come from.

Such important elements to create and maintain identity require protection, and at times it appeared that people do not bother about the threats that arise from climate change to their livelihoods, but they more importantly interpret this as threat to the place they belong to. Of course, both are inextricably connected to each other.

Still agriculture is in decline and especially younger people from both villages prefer employment outside agriculture. At times one can observe that people have more than one source of income, a traditional one, such as agriculture or fishing, and a “modern” one, meaning working in the tourism sector or other employment that brings cash income in form of wages or salaries. One could argue that this is a strategic move to secure livelihood. Having more than one income reduces risk and helps to improve socio-economically. However talks with many people in the villages also suggests that often the outcome of having more than one income is not a

120 planned more, but taking opportunities when they come. Still the impact is advancement of socio-economic status and livelihood security.

An interesting finding is the challenges in both villages (Figure 15 for Nayawa village and Figures 43, 44 and 45 for Vuake village). In Nayawa village, a place very close to a major town of Fiji, unemployment is seen as the most important challenge, far ahead of excessive consumption of kava, which follows in second place. One would expect that unemployment and poverty are related, but in people’s perception of livelihood challenges poverty is not even named a single time as most important challenge. Unemployment usually is seen in the ability to get a formal, a well-paid job, but here agriculture and other primary activities act like a buffer. Also the family as social unit, where always some people have incomes from agriculture, tourism and other activities prevent that a feeling of poverty comes up.

Still the aspiration to get a good job dominates the reflection on livelihood challenges in Nayawa village. The picture is more complex in Vuake village. Much more isolated from the urban centres of Fiji the village still lies within an important tourist region. Also here unemployment figures high, but not highest; on top stand excessive kava consumption and water challenges. Another important aspect that rather often is highlighted as most important challenge is soil fertility. The people of Vuake village predominately earn their livelihood from tourism; still agriculture and fisheries plays a more important role in the livelihood system of this village in the Yasawa island group and water challenges and soil quality is therefore more easily seen as a challenge as it affects livelihoods considerably.

In both villages the vast majority of participants in the study voice serious and extremely serious concerns about climate change. This is a bit surprising as often the impression exists that poor people have other concerns than to be worried about environmental change. However, in both communities everybody is in some way or the other connected to agriculture and if signs of a changing climate are visible then in sections that closely depend on climate factors. What the high level of seriousness in Vuake village is concerned the drought caused by an El Niño event has surely contributed to people’s perception on the dependency of environmental factors what their livelihoods is concerned. In both villages, participants in the study were able to provide a big range of observations of changes they relate to climate change. It therefore seems to be plausible

121 to assume that their imagination of climate change is not foremost influenced by media reports on climate change, but more built on own experience. In both villages the single most important change participants in the study highlight relates to agriculture. In Nayawa, 17 percent of the response provided see the quality / quantity of farm produce diminishing (and another 9 percent see a shorter life span for farm produce) (Figure 25 ). In Vuake village, 40 percent of the response report a reduction in soil quality has led to low agricultural output and vegetation dying prematurely (Figure 59).

It is important from an academic perspective as well as from its policy implication that – although a vast majority of the participants in the study agree that adaptation to climate change requires a change in lifestyles, they are far less convinced that they should take proactive measures against climate change and they are in great numbers against the idea of relocation even if a new house would be offered to them.

People obviously expect other support from Governments and NGOs. When asked how adaptive capacities can be strengthened from outside, the majority of participants did not discount such support. However, in many discussions the role of the government was expressed as ambivalent. People often call for support from governments and NGOs, especially after disasters caused by natural hazards. However there is also much evidence that this not necessarily diminishes or destroys people’s own effort and the impact of social capital. Both are important and both are happening.

People are well aware that they have rights, e.g. rights to express when from outside change is initiated they do not want to happen. In Fiji many initiatives take years or decades to be implemented or are never completed, when people do not feel ownership of what is recommended from outside. From an academic perspective such external intervention should not compromising people’s initiative. This is crucial, but it remains an academic perspective, as people seem to be happy with whatever is provided by the government. Such aspect seems to be realistic as are not wealth by any standard. Destruction of houses and infrastructure by natural hazards is difficult for them to repair; similar is the provision of infrastructure such as roads, shipping service and also water supply. Here expectations are big, and rather concrete what the support governments should provide. Both in the survey as well as in many discussions with villagers it became very clear that expectations are much

122 more than just the general idea that “the government should help”; to the contrary people expressed concrete projects that would make a difference to their lives (see Figure 61, appendices). Governments and NGOs therefore need to observe highly sensitive approaches when they want to establish projects in villages. In both villages people appreciated governments and NGOs intervention and support, when challenges happened that were beyond their control and beyond their ability to manage such challenges themselves. People expressed their opinions that these initiatives were often very useful and they did neither wait until support comes from outside, nor do they think that such support in unnecessary. However, at times, Government support is slow and works are not completed. What NGOs contributed to the village communities can be expressed often as soft support. This includes workshops where people learn about the world and the challenges from outside or workshops where people receive guidance to adjust to changing environments. Participants in the interviews expressed opinions that the work of NGOs is considerably different than the work of government agencies.

The essence of the research in the two villages can be summarized as the following: 1) People are well aware of climate change and the challenges it holds for their communities; 2) although it was outside the scope of the study to assess in detail how livelihoods of the people in both villages are affected by climate change, it appears justified to argue that the changes meet highly sophisticated livelihood systems that are vulnerable to the changes, in particular the natural capital, represented in people’s resources (land, river, ocean) , and the quality of these resources (desalinization, seawater intrusion, erosion, coral degradation, decline of fish and other marine organisms, etc.). 3) Traditional Knowledge is suitable to contribute to adaptation. The diversification of livelihoods towards the tourism sector and other forms of wage income might even support traditional fo4rms of agriculture as the pressure to serve as the only, main income of households is declining. People use traditional techniques, but this needs to be strengthened and preserved so that also future generations benefit from the skills and knowledge that has been developed over centuries.

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Conclusion

The intentions of this study from the beginning were firstly, to assess the livelihood patterns of local coastal villages and finding out their knowledge and perception about Climate Change. Secondly, to assess any evidence of climate change and find out how locals have been able to use their traditional knowledge to either adapt or mitigate its impacts. Thirdly, to highlight the contributions and assistance made by Government and NGOs on climate change adaptation and mitigation measures against climate change in the villages. The research indicates that the responses at both study sites regarding their knowledge and perceptions about climate change are overwhelming. Findings gathered suggest the exceptional wealth of knowledge and awareness shown by the participants is indicative to the level of education and rate of dissemination of information through the various forms of media. People are better informed and well-resourced with the latest technologies existing in society nowadays. Also, more numbers are exposed to the employment sector where they learn new things through interaction and communication.

However, the study suggests varying perceptions of traditional knowledge particularly for the current generation. It is unfortunate to learn of the many limitations in traditional knowledge for middle aged adults and the younger generation. The lack of knowledge and awareness about traditional knowledge is due to the impact of this globalized world and the circumstances it has drawn our livelihood patterns into. Traditional knowledge is limited in the minds of our young ones mainly because less time and effort is invested in oral tradition. Social media has polluted the minds of both children and adults alike and driven them away from the land and the sea. More quality time should be spent with the elders and sharing their knowledge about customary and cultural practices and more significantly the skills of forecasting and predicting weather variations and climatic patterns and knowing how to adapt or mitigate its impact in this world of climate change that we live in. People who have traditional knowledge and how to use it need to apply the skills whether it is observatory, forecasting, predicting or practically doing things. The knowledge must be applied so that learning can take place.

Reactive Adaptation is the current norm despite the level of awareness acquired. Top to bottom approach is needed in the village context. Chiefs and village elders need to

124 lead and ensure communal efforts are enforced in the campaign against CC. Proactive Adaptation needs to be prioritized to safeguard humanity and the natural environment. The study indicates mixed reactions from the participants with relation to the extent of assistance and contribution made by Government. On the contrary, NGOs have played vital roles through assessments and funding of various projects and programs for CCA and mitigation purposes at both study sites.

In conclusion, a top to bottom approach from governance to grassroots level is vital in the fight against CC. The implementation of a Risk Management Approach (RMA) is recommended to ensure a high level of preparedness and mitigation. Disaster Risk Management (DRM) protocols needs to be strictly followed and monitored during Hazardous periods to lessen the likelihood of risk and vulnerability. Hypothetically, Climate Change is real and unstoppable at the expense of human existence, civilization and globalization. Long term planning and preparations should be directed towards combining traditional knowledge with western science.

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Recommendations The following recommendations are proposed based on the findings and foregoing discussions.

1. Government assistance needs to be implemented and completed with efficiency and supported with thorough assessments and reviews. Ministry of Works promised Nayawa village following the 2012 flood that culverts would be provided and a restructure and improvement in the village drainage system. According to the villagers, the culverts that were provided still remain today at the exact location where they were last offloaded, however, they still lay idle and no work was done yet. Villagers deserve proper explanation from the Ministry to ensure transparency and most importantly to retain the credibility of the government.

2. The Government needs to dredge the Sigatoka river as part of its Disaster Risk Management projects to allow proper access and exit of running rain and river water particularly during heavy rainfall and TCs. Improper drainage systems and waterway exits from the river to the ocean have led to massive flooding in the past years and mass destruction of farms and households. Dredging would be very helpful in preventing overflow of river and rainwater that normally floods the village, town and public roads.

3. More awareness programmes need to be facilitated by selected representatives from the iTaukei Affairs and the different government ministries namely Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Lands, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Forestry and Ministry of Finance. Global economic issues, climate change adaptation and mitigation measures, environmental conservation practices, traditional and sustainable farming systems need to be addressed at grassroots level.

4. The Village Council must impose stricter rules on the use of kava in the village. Kava restrictions need to be enforced. Social gatherings and kava drinking deprives quality family time together. Kava should be consumed in the weekends only. This will enable men to go out into the fields fully utilize land left fallow for years. 126

5. The Village Council needs to appoint a working committee to enforce communal work in the village. Communal work must not only focus on the usual cleaning up and beautification routines but also include resource management and conservation or rehabilitation projects that will assist in the fight against CC. For example, the construction of sea walls using sand bags, planting of grass, flowers, trees or mangrove plants along the coastline or river banks.

6. A Climate Vulnerability and Adaptation Team (CVA) should be appointed by the village council to conduct surveys and assessments and implement proactive adaptation measures as part of the Risk Management Approach (RMA). During post NHs such as TC or flooding situations, the team carries out its assessments and rehabilitation protocols. The team will need to attend disaster risk management courses and be acquainted by the National Disaster Management Committee. In this way, villagers are responsible and accountable, hence, will not need to wait for prolonged periods for the DISMAC to arrive and carry out disaster assessments / surveys before any form of assistance can be provided. The villagers do the ground work to help quicken the rehabilitation process.

7. Village Youth groups need to organize career talks by relevant personnel from successful business backgrounds or stakeholders potentially from the local fraternity to share success stories of their achievements. Since most of our villages survive on agriculture for a living, Ministry of Agriculture could work towards assisting these youths through consultation and counselling on how to become successful in farming commercially and not remaining a subsistence farmer for a lifetime. This is to encourage entrepreneurship in the village and most importantly to provide motivation for the youths to have an ambition on utilizing their resources well. This could possibly help landowners fully utilize land left fallow for long periods of time.

8. The Television Broadcasting Companies need to televise more awareness programs and documentaries about the realities of climate change and

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potential adaptive measures that can be implemented for different circumstances. For example, experiences of climate change in Nayawa will differ from Vuake due to differences in geographical locations, physical attributes, economic activities, and population density to name a few. Hence, climate change professionals from universities, NGOs or government ministries may elaborate on various issues in different episodes or segments on the national television. Through such awareness, people are better informed and will be better prepared in future.

9. Government needs to facilitate vigorous awareness programs via all forms of media and languages to assist all ethnicities in learning and knowing about the different types of NHs. People need to be aware of effective scientific and technological forecasting systems and also natural signs which normally require traditional knowledge. People of all works of life need to be aware of causes and implications of climate change and most importantly to know how to prepare and respond accordingly.

10. Documentation of TK should be reader friendly and accessible to all citizens especially indigenous Fijians. Calendars, posters, books, magazines, TV and radio programmes should be utilized as a way of re-engaging people in urban areas to their traditional heritage and its customs. It also acts a reminder and/or re-familiarization of rural communities on the importance and significance of knowing traditional knowledge and its practices.

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APPENDICES Appendix 1

Figure 61 Assistance provided by Govt. of Fiji for Nayawa and Vuake villages

Participants 6

0 culverts Repair Pipelines Building Materials Repair homes Food Ration Response Nayawa Vuake

Figure 62 NGO Assistance provided for Nayawa and Vuake villages

NGO Assistance 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

Key informants / Participants/ Key informants 0 food and clothing awareness farm tools / install water school materials built new homes building All of the above workshops household items tanks / solar materials panels Response

Vuake (OPUS DEI / GVI) Nayawa (Red Cross / Dialogue Fiji)

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Appendix 2

Picture 1 Picture 3. Fijian Name: Botebotekoro Fijian Name: Weleti or maoli Common Name: Goat weed Common Name: Pawpaw Scientific Name: Ageratum Scientific Name: Carica Papaya conyzoides

Source : (Cambie & Ash, 1994) Source : (WHO, 1998)

Picture 2. Picture 4. Fijian Name: Senitoa Fijian Name: Balabala Common Name: Hibiscus Common Name: Fern Tree Scientific Name: Rosa-sinensis Scientific Name: Cyathea Iunulata

Source : (Cambie & Ash, 1994) Source : (Cambie & Ash, 1994)

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Picture 5. Picture 7. Fijian Name: Sila ni vavalagi Fijian Name: Niu Common Name: Corn / Maize Common Name: Coconut Scientific Name: Zea mays L. Scientific Name: cocos nucifera

Source: (Cambie & Ash, 1994) Source : Cambie & Ash (1994)

Picture 6. Picture 8. Fijian Name: Via Fijian Name: Tavioka Common Name: Giant Taro Common Name: Cassava Scientific Name: Alocasia Scientific Name: Manihot esculenta macrorrhiza

Source : (Cambie & Ash, 1994) Source: galleryhip.com

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Picture 9. Picture 11. Fijian Name: Dawa Fijian Name: Jaina leka Common Name: Fijian Longan Common Name: Bananas Scientific Name: Pometia pinnata Scientific Name: Musa nana lour

Source: (ADB, 1998) Source : (Cambie & Ash, 1994)

Picture 10.

Fijian Name: Drau Tolu Common Name: Beach Bean Scientific Name: Vigna marina)

Source: (Cambie & Ash, 1994)

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HOUSEHOLD BACKGROUND A1. Number of persons living in household ______A2. Number of persons from the household who are away: ______Information about each household member Member code A3. Gender A4 Age A5 Status A6. Highest level of A8. Does the member A9. How many months A10. For those away for part or A11. Purpose of stay away from (number assigned to (in years) 1. Head of Household (HH) education completed currently live with the was he/she not at home in all of 2014, where did they home in 2014? family members (beyond 1 2. husband/wife of HH (put “s” in case the household 2014? live? 1. work throughout the year in 3. child person is still 1. yes 1. in other parts of Fiji 2. studies questionnaire) 1. male months) 4. parent or parent in law schooling, e.g. 2s = 2. no (if less than a month or if 2. outside Fiji 3. business 2. female 5. brother / sister in law schooling in primary member never left home 4. combination of above 6. other relative (state) school right now put zero.) 5. other 7. non relative (explain) 1. Participant*

16 Field codes for question A6 (education): 1. no schooling 3. high school without graduation 5. high school, agricultural 7. tertiary institution * list according to age, youngest last 2. primary 4. high school, general 6. high school, professional non-agricultural 8. postgraduate

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Cash Income through own Work

Main job (in terms of income) Secondary job (in terms of income) A13G. What was your main A13A. work A13B. Work Place A13C. How long has A13D A13E. Work Place A13F. How long activity before 2000? 1. This village he/she had this job? 1. This village has he/she had 2. Other village in this district work 2. Other village in this district this job? 3. Other village in another district 3. Other village in another district 4. Town / City Years / months 4. Town / City Years / months 5. Other 5. Other 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. C3-C13. Rank the four most important sources of income for your household in 2014 (1 most important, 4 least important) C3. Income from your own farm Please reflect from where all did you get cash (money). That C4. Income from agricultural services provided to others can be from economic activities (work), from family C5. Income from wages members through gifts, money orders, from pensions you C6. Income from Fishing receive. Try to include all sources and also give an indication C7. Income from own non-agricultural company of which one were the most important sources and which one C8. Money from family and relatives living in other parts of Fiji were less important. You don’t need to give figures of how C9. Money from family relatives or friends living outside Fiji much you received. C10. Profits, dividends, interest on bank deposits, etc. C11. Pensions C12. Rents C13. Income from state assistance C14. Other C15. Does someone in your household run any business? (other than agricultural activity) 1. yes 2. No C17-C20. If a member of your household has one a businesses, what type of businesses is it?

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A. B. C. List businesses according to First Second Third their contribution to household business business business income. Put the most important C17. What type of business do you have? as First business.

Food processing

Handicraft

Workshop, machinery repairs, etc

Shop Construction

Transport

(other)

C18. How many people (including all household members) are normally employed in this business?

C19. When did your operation begin? year C20. Where is your business located? 1. same village 2. other nearby village 3. other parts of Fiji

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D. LAND OWNERSHIP

D1-D4. How much total land did you cultivate in 2014? (hectares) Agricultural land D. Non-agricultural land (forest, aqua-farm, etc.) A. B. C. crop land pastures fruit trees D1 Total cultivated land area, including land that is temporarily fallow D2 Of which irrigated land

D4 Land permanently fallow or abandoned, not included above

D9. If you have land that is permanently fallow or abandoned, what is the main reason for this? (Circle only the most important reason)

1. Agricultural production is not profitable. 5. Too far for operation. 2. We do not have enough capital or other resources (labour, etc.) to farm the land. 6. Conflict over ownership or use rights of the land. 3. Land is of too low quality. 7. Land is located in a nature protected area. 4. There is no access road to reach the land. 8. Other

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Perception and Awareness of Environmental change This part of the questionnaire focuses on environmental changes which have occurred in the last years until today and their effects on island life. Please provide information how you perceive such changes, how strong such changes are according to your perception / observation. The first question wants to find out how serious you consider socio-economic and environmental challenges. Please give a rating for each challenge. If you think that a particular challenge is not serious then tick box 1. In case you think that the challenge is extremely serious then you should tick box 5. Other answers between these two extremes are also possible. 1. Please take your time to rate each of the challenge listed. not serious slightly serious moderately serious very serious extremely serious Challenges 1 2 3 4 5 Global warming Unemployment Quality of Roads Crime: theft, robbery, burglary Poverty Ethnic tensions Indebtedness Prostitution Price for Food Littering in the streets Road traffic injuries HIV / AIDS Air pollution water shortage Corruption Costs for Public Transport (bus fares)

1=not serious, not a problem 2=slightly serious, not a problem 3=moderately serious, a mild problem

4=very serious, a severe problem 5=extremely serious, a critical problem

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What are the three greatest challenges you see for your village? (Give the three most important challenges you personally feel that your village is facing according to their importance: Most important challenge first, second most important measure second and third most important measure third) 1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

In which way do you think that the following weather events have changed in your place far a bit much less less No change more more between the past and now? - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 Frequency of floods (floods happen more often or less often than before) □ □ □ □ □ Intensity of floods (floods are more severe or less severe than before) □ □ □ □ □ Frequency of cyclones (cyclones happen more often or less often) □ □ □ □ □ Intensity of cyclones (cyclones are more severe or less severe) □ □ □ □ □

Experience of Environmental Hazards YES NO I have been affected by flooding. □ □ I have been affected by storms / cyclones. □ □ I have been affected by other natural hazards. □ □ Please give details

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Climate change YES NO I have heard about climate change. □ □ YES NO I know what climate change is. □ □

What do you think is the cause of climate change? (write the answer)

The following question wants to find out how you see the causes of climate change. Please give a rating for each statement I read to you. If you strongly agree with the statement then let me tick a 1, if you strongly disagree then let me tick box 5. In case you think that your level of agreement is somewhere in between you should then tell me which number to tick. Strongly Strongly I think climate change is caused by humans. agree agree neutral disagree disagree 1 2 3 4 5 □ □ □ □ □ I think climate change can be stopped. 1 2 3 4 5 □ □ □ □ □ I do not believe climate change is a real problem 1 2 3 4 5

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□ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 Climate change is caused by the destruction of Ozone Layer □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 Climate change is caused primarily by carbon dioxide from burning coal, oil and gas. □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 Climate change is the will of God □ □ □ □ □

I will read some sentences and request you to please tell me on a scale of one to five how much you agree to each of the sentences. 1 means you strongly agree, three is neutral (neither agree nor disagree), 5 means you strongly disagree. The other numbers show your agreement in between.

Strongly Strongly agree agree neutral disagree disagree There have always been this many cyclones – their frequency did not change. 1 2 3 4 5 □ □ □ □ □ There has always been flooding – so nothing has changed. □ □ □ □ □ I think these environmental changes are a punishment of GOD because of people’s sins. □ □ □ □ □ I think these environmental changes are a reaction of nature due to air pollution caused by modern human lifestyle. □ □ □ □ □ I think I will have to change my way of life in the near future because of these environmental changes. □ □ □ □ □ I already have taken measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change □ □ □ □ □ I was already considering moving to another location because of flooding □ □ □ □ □ I was already considering moving to another location because of cyclones □ □ □ □ □ I have concrete plans already to move to another location because of flooding □ □ □ □ □ I have concrete plans already to move to another location because of cyclones □ □ □ □ □ If I would be offered a new house or flat similar to mine today I would accept resettlement from this area. □ □ □ □ □

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I already protect my house, belongings and myself against the consequences of flooding / cyclones □ □ □ □ □ If you already protect your house, belongings, and/or yourself against consequences of flooding, how do you do that? (Please explain)

How important are the following information sources for you to get information concerning environmental change (1 = very important, 2=important, 3=neutral, 4=unimportant, 5=not important at all). very important important neutral unimportant Not important at all

1 2 3 4 5 Observation with your own eyes □ □ □ □ □ Talks within the community □ □ □ □ □ TV □ □ □ □ □ Radio □ □ □ □ □ Newspaper □ □ □ □ □ Internet □ □ □ □ □ Presentations by experts □ □ □ □ □ School □ □ □ □ □ University □ □ □ □ □ other, which? □ □ □ □ □ ______other, which? □ □ □ □ □ ______

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Please tell me in a few sentences about the importance climate change has in your life

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often

1 2 3 4 5

How often do you watch TV? □ □ □ □ □ How often do you listen to the radio? □ □ □ □ □ How often you read the newspaper? □ □ □ □ □ How often do you attend public presentations? □ □ □ □ □ 1=never 3=sometimes (not more than every second day) 2=rarely (less than once in a week), 4=often (almost every day) 5=very often (every day)

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Evidences Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often

1 2 3 4 5 How often do you experience physical evidences of climate change in □ □ □ □ □ the village? Please describe the types of changes seen, when and where.

How often do you experience the impact of climate change on □ □ □ □ □ economic assets? Please describe the types of economic assets that are affected and how?

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Do you see the impacts of climate change on cultural features? □ □ □ □ □

Please describe type of impact and features affected.

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Government / Non – Government Assistance Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often

1 2 3 4 5

Did you get assistance from previous or current government? □ □ □ □ □

If yes. Please indicate the year. 2010 - 2015 2005 – 2009 2000 - 2004 1995 - 1999 1990 - 1994 □ □ □ □ □ Direct Infrastructural Housing Farming Awareness Financial What form of assistance was provided? development assistance assistance programs assistance □ □ □ □ □ Please further explain the different forms of assistance provided and its benefits.

Yes No Do you get assistance from any non-government organisations? 1 2 □ □

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Please indicate the year. 2010 - 2015 2005 – 2009 2000 - 2004 1995 - 1999 1990 - 1994 □ □ □ □ □ Which NGO provided assistance? What form of assistance was provided?

How have you benefited from the assistance provided?

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Adaptation and Mitigation

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often

1 2 3 4 5

Do you use traditional methods to adapt or mitigate the impact of □ □ □ □ □ climate change? Please describe the traditional methods used. (State how, when and why they are used)

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often Are cultural practices used to adapt/mitigate climate change? 1 2 3 4 5 □ □ □ □ □

Please describe cultural practices used. (State how, when and why they are used)

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How often do you carry out these traditional/cultural practices? □ □ □ □ □

Communally Family Small groups Individually How are these practices carried out? 1 2 3 4 □ □ □ □

Needs Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory improvement How effective are such initiatives taken in the village? 1 2 3 4 5 □ □ □ □ □ Yes No Do you think more improvements could be made? □ □ If yes. Please explain what better improvements could be made.

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If no. Explain why further improvements are not necessary.

Thank you very much for taking the time to respond to the questions asked.

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