The East German Revolution of 1989
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
The East German Revolution of 1989 A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Ph.D. in the Faculty of Economic and Social Studies. Gareth Dale, Department of Government, September 1999. Contents List of Tables 3 Declaration and Copyright 5 Abstract 6 Abbreviations, Acronyms, Glossary and ‘Who’s Who’ 8 Preface 12 1. Introduction 18 2. Capitalism and the States-system 21 (i) Competition and Exploitation 22 (ii) Capitalism and States 28 (iii) The Modern World 42 (iv) Political Crisis and Conflict 61 3. Expansion and Crisis of the Soviet-type Economies 71 4. East Germany: 1945 to 1975 110 5. 1975 to June 1989: Cracks Beneath the Surface 147 (i) Profitability Decline 147 (ii) Between a Rock and a Hard Place 159 (iii) Crisis of Confidence 177 (iv) Terminal Crisis: 1987-9 190 6. Scenting Opportunity, Mobilizing Protest 215 7. The Wende and the Fall of the Wall 272 8. Conclusion 313 Bibliography 322 2 List of Tables Table 2.1 Government spending as percentage of GDP; DMEs 50 Table 3.1 Consumer goods branches, USSR 75 Table 3.2 Producer and consumer goods sectors, GDR 75 Table 3.3 World industrial and trade growth 91 Table 3.4 Trade in manufactures as proportion of world output 91 Table 3.5 Foreign trade growth of USSR and six European STEs 99 Table 3.6 Joint ventures 99 Table 3.7 Net debt of USSR and six European STEs 100 Table 4.1 Crises, GDR, 1949-88 127 Table 4.2 Economic crisis, 1960-2 130 Table 4.3 East Germans’ faith in socialism 140 Table 4.4 Trade with DMEs 143 Table 5.1 Rate of accumulation 148 Table 5.2 National income growth 149 Table 5.3 Terms of trade with DMEs 149 Table 5.4 Oil imports from USSR; domestic lignite production 154 Table 5.5 Hard-currency debt 155 Table 5.6 Trade with DMEs 157 Table 5.7 Visits from West Germans and West Berliners 161 Table 5.8 Deutschmark ownership 162 Table 5.9 Car ownership 177 Table 5.10 Goods per 100 households 177 Table 5.11 Emigration applications 183 Table 5.12 Visits to FRG 184 Table 5.13 Identification with Marxism-Leninism (apprentices) 185 Table 5.14 Identification with the aims of the FDJ (apprentices) 185 Table 5.15 Trade growth 191 Table 5.16 Trade with Comecon 192 Table 5.17 Trade balance with DMEs 192 Table 5.18 Exchange rate of the Mark 193 3 Table 5.19 Trade and trade balance with DMEs 196 Table 5.20 GDR-FRG balance of trade 196 Table 5.21 Identification with GDR 202 Table 5.22 Identification with SED 203 Table 6.1 Emigration 216 Table 6.2 Leipzig demonstrations in 1989 252 Table 6.3 Perceived risks of demonstrating 262 4 Declaration and Copyright No portion of the work referred to in this thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. Copyright in text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies (by any process) either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with instructions given by the Author and lodged in the John Rylands University Library of Manchester. Details may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made. Further copies (by any process) of copies made in accordance with such instructions may not be made without the permission (in writing) of the Author. The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this thesis is vested in the University of Manchester, subject to any prior agreement to the contrary, and may not be made available for use by third parties without the written permission of the University, which will prescribe the terms and conditions of any such agreement. 5 Abstract This thesis analyzes the causes and processes of the East German revolution of 1989. The first half explains the demise of the USSR and its East European allies in terms of their insertion into a changing global environment. A Marxist explanation is given of the economic and social decay of East European ‘Communism’ in general and of East Germany in particular. The latter state was characterized by two fundamental contradictions. The first was between its economic nationalist form and the developing internationalization of the world economy. The second was between the attractive power of the economically superior West and the GDR’s dependence upon the USSR. East Germany’s rulers, despite being uniquely grateful for Moscow’s ‘bear hug’, were also tempted to embrace the West. The East German economy became ever more entangled with and dependent upon Western businesses and states. Albeit to a lesser extent than their counterparts in Poland and Hungary, East Germany’s rulers found themselves seduced by the superior technologies, commodities, and economic structures of the West. They were torn between loyalty to orthodox Communism and to Moscow, and a tacit awareness of Western economic superiority. This contradiction was compounded when, under Gorbachev, the Kremlin ceased to be identified with Communist orthodoxy. The second half of the thesis is devoted to the revolution itself. The interaction between the regime’s reaction to the developing crisis and the mobilization of protest is examined. Among the questions addressed are why the SED was unable to prevent mass emigration and why the security forces were unable to crush the protests. In the context of a narrative of the protest movement three aspects are given particular attention. The first is the transformation of society. Over the course of some five months of weekly demonstrations in which millions participated, political institutions were transformed as well as other core features of social and political behaviour. Secondly, the importance of conscious deliberation, debate and strategy is emphasized. Detailed consideration is made of how people became conscious of the developing national crisis, how they scented the opportunity to protest, and 6 how they acted to effect political change. Thirdly, the question of why a divergence developed between the ‘Citizens’ Movement’ and the rest of the movement is addressed. In particular the radicalization of the mass movement is examined, as are the strategies of the Citizens Movement and of the regime. Finally, the history of the overthrow of the forces of the old regime is narrated, culminating in the fall of the Berlin Wall. 7 Abbreviations, Acronyms, Glossary and Who’s Who Abgrenzung Demarcation, separation Aufbruch Uprising, departure, awakening Egon Bahr Leading SPD member; pioneer of Ostpolitik BDI FRG Confederation of Industry Gerhard Beil Foreign Trade minister; CC member; former NSDAP member1 Berthold Beitz Chairman of Krupp BKG ‘Workplace combat group’; militia units composed of the more patriotic sections of the workforce Ibrahim Böhme SDP leader and IM Bärbel Bohley Leading member of NF Willy Brandt FRG chancellor 1969-74, and SPD leader Bund der Vertriebenen Right-wing organization of Germans from Eastern Europe CC (ZK) Central Committee (of the SED) CDU FRG conservative party CDU GDR bloc party CM Citizens’ Movement; collective term for the opposition organizations (NF etc.) CMEA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) COCOM Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls; NATO-led organization to administer sanctions vs. STEs Comecon Association for economic coordination between USSR and allies, including Eastern European STEs, Vietnam, Cuba CPSU Communist party of the USSR CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe CSSR Czechoslovak Soviet Socialist Republic 1 cf. Kappelt (1981:35). 8 CSU A Bavarian arch-conservative party DA Democratic Aufbruch Friedrich Dickel Interior Minister; CC member DME Developed Market Economy DN (Dj) Democracy Now FDGB State-run workplace-based welfare and trade union type organization, and instrument of labour discipline FDJ Mass organization for youth Hans-Jürgen Fischbeck Leading member of DN; physicist and clergyman Werner Fischer Leading member of IFM Manfred Gerlach LDPD leader Gleichschaltung Organizational coordination by bringing all into line with those of the central state; regimentation; elimination of opposition (past: gleichgeschaltet) Wolfgang Herger Security chief; Politbüro member Erich Honecker General Secretary of the SED CC; head of state IFM Initiative for Peace and Human Rights IUG Initiative for Independent Trade Unions IM Unofficial freelance Stasi agent, or, possibly, merely a (knowing) source of information for the Stasi ISI Import-substitution industrialization Junge Welt Newspaper of the FDJ KoKo Kommerzielle Koordinierung; Schalck’s conglomerate combining methods of DME business and the Stasi Kombinat Major state-owned enterprise Egon Krenz Security chief; Politbüro member Werner Krolikowski Politbüro member; deputy chair of Council of Ministers LDPD Bloc party Liberman reforms Economic reform experiment in 1960s USSR 9 Siegfried Lorenz Politbüro member; Karl-Marx-Stadt district SED chief Ludwig Mehlhorn Leading member of DN Erich Mielke Head of Stasi; Politbüro member Günter Mittag Politbüro member responsible for the economy Rudi Mittig Mielke’s deputy; CC member MNC Multinational Corporation Ehrhart Neubert Leading member of DA; clergyman Neues Deutschland Newspaper of the SED NF New Forum NIC Newly Industrializing Country NÖS New Economic System nomenklatura Functionaries in positions at the apex of Party and State apparati Sebastian Pflugbeil Leading member of NF; scientist Jens Reich Leading member of NF; scientist Günter Schabowski Berlin SED chief; Politbüro member Alexander Schalck Stasi colonel; businessman; linkman to Brandt’s SPD and later, Strauss’s CSU Schaukelpolitik Traditional German foreign policy strategy of orienting towards West and Russia alternately Wolfgang Schnur DA leader, clergyman, and IM Friedrich Schorlemmer Leading member of DA; clergyman Gerhard Schürer Chief planner; Candidate member of Politbüro Reinhard Schult Leading member of NF SDP Social Democratic Party (GDR) SED Socialist Unity Party SOL Scientific Organization of Labour SPD Social Democratic Party (FRG) Stasi Gargantuan conglomerated secret service.