CENSUS OF INDIA 1961

VOLUME XX-PART VI -NO.

- HIMACHAL PRADESH

A Village Survey of RAJANA ( Rainka Tehsil, Sirmur District)

Field Investigation and l)raft by -

MOHAN LAL GUPTA

Editor RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH of the Indian Administrative Service Superintendent of Census Operations . -_ Himachal I:radesh . : . .: .. .. . ~ ··· :.··.. ······(i·::··· ····: ... ..

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« aJ ...a z J z 0 IJJ « 0 ..., 4 0 « ~ ::t 0 :r z Z ~ ~ 0 0 -- « III « • ... 0 ... :r « « j:;: Z ~ tr ~ 2 .... a¥ « « ... ; a« 0::: « ..J .... :l ~ ...... :i >( 0 0: 0.. ..: :l ..J 0 ~ ::t .., ~ a: 3: z 0 0 c( ..J « ~ 0 ... 0 « ~ .... III: « 0 ::t ~.. : -if ~ • 2 "- III ID ... :l ~ III: ID a >( 0 1966 PRINTED IN INDIA BY THE CAMBRIDGE PRINTING WORKS, DELHI AND PUBLISHED BY THB MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS, CIVIL LINES, DELHI. Contents

PAGES

FORE\fORD iii

PREFACf£ v

ACKNOW~EDGEMENTS vii

1. THE VILLAGE 1 \ lntroduction-fristory of the village--size of ,the village-physical aspects-climthe and rainfall-drin~ing water-kuhL and tank­ cremation gr~und-¥ommunication-post office-school-temple­ trade-flora an1fauna.

2. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 8

Castes-residential pattern-houses-furnUure and household goods -utensils-dress--ornaments-Jood and drink-fuel and /ighting­ birth, marriage and death customs.

3. ECONOMY 27

Economic resources-workers and non-workers-possession of land­ agriculture-horticulture-animal husbandry-forests-fishing­ weights and measures-tenancy system-price of the land-mortgage -redemption-;ndebtedness-village crafts-income and expenditure.

4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 46

Population statistics-age and sex distribution-family structure­ inheritance of property-social status of women-fairs and festivals -folk dance an4 songs-musical instruments-religfon-untouch­ ability-dialects-common habits-tatooing-superstitions-evi! spirits-education-medical and public health-casual visitors­ village organisation-panchaya(, cooperative society-community development. r CONTENTS

PAGES s. CONCLUSION 65

6. APPENDICES 67

ApPENDIX I.

ApPENDIX II.

ApPENDIX III.

ApPENDIX IV.

ApPENDIX V.

ApPENDIX VI.

ApPENDIX VII.

Ap PENDIX VIII. Foreword

APART ftom laying the foundations of demo­ give the reader a 'feel' of what was going on and graphy in this subcontinent, a hundred years of the some kind of a map of the country. Indian Census has also produced 'elaborate and scholarly accounts of the variegated phenomen of \ A brief account of the tests of selection will help Indian life s~metimes with no statistics attached, 'to explain. A minimum of thirty-five villages but usually with just enough statistics to give was to be chosen with great care to :represent empirical under-pinning to their conclusions'. In a adequately geographical, occupational and even country, largely illiterate, where statistical or ethnic diversity. Of this minimum of thirty-five, numerical comprehension of even such aJ simple the distribution was to be as follows: thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, an understanding of t,pe social structure was essential. (a) At least eight villages were to be so selected that each of them would contain one dominant It was more nec~sary to attain a broad under­ standing of what w?-s happening around oneself community with one predominating occupation, than to wrap oneSelf up in 'statistical ingenuity' e.g., fishermen, forest workers, jhum festivals and or 'mathematical tVanipulation'. This explains fairs. There were to be recordings, of course, why the Indian Census came to be interested in of cultural and social traits and occupational 'many by-paths' ami 'nearly every branch of mobility. This was followed up in March 1960 scholarship, from adthropology and sociology to by two specimen schedules, one for each household, geography and religion'. the other for the village as a whole, which, apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry suggested In the last few decades the Census has increasingly in the September 1959 conference, introduced turned its efforts to the. presentation of village groups of questions aimed at sensing changes in statistics. This suits ,the teqlper of the times as attitude and behaviour in such fields as marriage, well as our political :and economic structure. inheritance, moveable and immoveable property cultivators, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quarry Fo~ even as we have a great deal of, centralization ,on the one hand and qecentralization on the other, workers etc. A village should have a minimum my colleagues thought it would be a welcome conti­ population of 400, the optimum being between nuation of the Census tradition to try to invest 500 and 700. the dry bones of vjllage statistics with flesh-and­ blood accounts of social structure and social change. (b) At least seven villages were to be of numeri­ cally prominent scheduled Tribes of the State. It was accordingly decided to select a few villages in every State for special study, where personal Each village could represent a particular tribe. observation would be brought to bear on the inter­ The minimum population should be 400, the pretation of statistics to find out how much of a optimum being between 500 and 700. village was static and yet changing and how fast (c) The third group of villages should each the winds of change were ~lowing and from where. be of fair size, of an old and settled character and contain variegated occupations and be, if possible, Randomness of selection was, therefore, eschew­ multi-ethnic in composition. By fair size was ed. There was no intention to build up a picture meant a population of 500-700 persons or more. for the whole State in quantitative terms on the The village should mainly depend on agriculture basis of villages selected statistically at random. and be sufficiently away from the major sources The selection was avowedly purposive: the object modern communication such as the district adminis­ being as much to find out what was happening trative headquarters and business centres. It should and how fast to those villages which had fewer be roughly a day's journey from the above places. reasons to choose change and more to remain The villages were to be selected with an eye to varia­ lodged in the past as to discover how the more tion in terms of size, proximity to city and other 'normal' types of villages were changing. They means of modern communication, nearness to hills, were to be primarily type studies which, by virtue jungles and major rivers. Thus there was to be of their number and distribution, would also ,a regional distribution throughout the State of this IV FOREWORD

category of villages. If, however, a particular of tracing social change through a number of well­ district contained significant ecological variations devised statistical tables was once again recognised. within its area, more than one village in the district This itself presupposed a fre~h survey of villages might be selected to study the special in the adjust­ already done; but it was worth ·the trouble in view ments to them. of the possibilities that a close analysis of statistics offered, and also because the 'consanguinity' sche­ It is a unique feature of these village surveys that dule remained to be canvassed. By November they rapidly outgrew their original terms of re­ 1961, however, more was expected of these surveys ference, as my colleagues warmed up to their than ever before. There was dissatisfaction on the work. This proved for them an absorbing voyage one hand with too many general statements and a of discovery and their infectious enthusiasm com­ growing desire on the 'other to draw conclusions peled me to enlarge the inquiry's scope again from statistics, to regard social and economic and again. It was just as well cautiously to feel data as interrelated processes, and finally to examine one's way about at first and then venture further the social and economic processes set in motion a field, and although it accounts to some extent through land reforms and other laws, legislative for a certain unevenness in the quality and coverage and administrative measures, technological and of the monographs, it served to compensate the cultural change. Finally, a study camp was or­ purely honorary and extra-mural riguors of the task. ganised in the last week of December 1961 when For the Survey, along with its many ancillaries the whole field was carefully gone through over like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small and again and a programme worked out closely ,knitting rural industry and others, was an 'extra', over and the various aims of the Survey together. The above the crushing load of the 1961 Census. Social Studies Section of the Census Commission It might be of interest to recount briefly the stages rendered assistance to State Superintendents by by which the Survey enlarged its scope. At the way of scrutiny and technical co:rmrtent on the first Census Conference in September 1959 the frame of Survey and presentation of results. Survey set itself the task of what might be called a record of material traits, like settlement This gradual unfolding of the aims of the Survey patterns of the village; house types; diet; dress; prevented my colleagues from adopting as many ornaP1ents and foot-wear; furniture and storing villages as they had originally intended to. But vessels; common means of transport of goods I believe that what may have been lost in quantity and passengers; demestication of animals and has been more than made up for in quality. This birds; markets attended ; worship of deities; is, perhaps, for the first time that such a Survey plainly the intention to provide adequate statistical has been conducted in any country, and that purely support to empirical 'feel', to approach, qualitative as a labour of love. It has succeeded in attaining change through statistical quantities. It had been what it set out to achieve; to construct a map of difficult to give thought to the importance of 'just village India's social structure. One hopes that enough statistics to give empirical underpinning the volumes of this Survey will help to retain fOI to conclusion', at a time when my colleagues were the Indian Census its title to 'the most fruitful' straining themselves to the utmost for the succesS single source of information about the country'. of the main Census operations, but once the census Anart from other features, it will perhaps be con­ count itself was left behind in March, 1961, a series ceded that the Survey has set up a new Census of three regional seminars in Trivandrum (May standard in pictorial and graphic documentation. 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) restored The schedules finally adopted for this monograph their attention to this field and the importance have been printed in an appendix.

New Delhi ASOK MITRA July 30, 1964 Registrar General, India Prefo,ce

The Registrar General, Shri Asok Mitra, has so realise what a back-breaking assignment this would be kindly written a very comprehensive foreword to the for my colleagues and for myself. In our material village surveys which we are bringtllg out and this we give an idea of the economy~ income and expendi­ would explain the reader the variety of material which ture of the people. They were very reluctant to go we are dealing with. My thoughts also go back to on answering our questions year-after-year as there another very distinguished Administrator of his days were so many others asking them different questions. as Census Superintendent of Punjab. Denzil lbbetson, So with regard to the income and expenditure. the and I am quoting some material from the Original information may be taken as reasonable but can Preface to the Report on the Census of 1881, written hardly be 100 per cent correct. This village has from Simla in August, 1883. Sir Denzil lbbetson remained neglected in the past and many of the means lays dowI1 HIt has been my endeavour to furnish such of communications beyond Dadahu are foot~paths a sketch of the salient features of native society in the or hill tracks. One day when roads and other Punjab as will often supply the immediate need". amenities wouJd reach this area, I am sure, this This reiterates the value attached to any census would become very much more prosperous. With the opening of Extension Blocks and many reports. facilities that Government is providing here, the core In this brief monograph we are giving socio­ of stagnation would change in many of these villages. economic glimpses of Rajana, a village that lies No matter where and how J have blundered in assessing bevond Dadahu in Sirmur District. Dadahu is a details " of socio-economic aspect of changes, developing Tehsil Headquarter and Rainka has for broadly"' caste barriers are driving out, social taboos long been a place of pilgrimage for many from different are becoming loose and_ with the passage of times, parts of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and other parts the villagers would realise the phenomenon value of the country. It- takes a considerable time and that is attached to Education. patience to carry out these surveys. The selection of villages is not easy. It was by no means easy to take I would like to convey my warm thanks 10 my into consideration all the different aspects as has colleagues here. Durga Singh, Office Superinten­ been laid down by the Registrar General in his fore- dent, my colleague for over 6 years has put in very hard work at different stages and given advice and word. guidance to the investigators and others who had We selected this village beyond Rainka for a been working under us. Shri Rikhi Ram Sharma, number of reasons. No study had ever been carried Asstt. Supdt. of Census Operations has come to my out to our knowledge on socio-economic conditions rescue and taken up loads which baffled me. Om of people living around here. It would have been Chand Handa has taken an excellent lot of photo­ very difficult if we had taken up all the 35 villages in the graphs and prepared very attractive drawings and distant interior for our surveys. That would have maps. Mohan Lal Gupta has put in considerable taken more years for completion leave aside being hard and devoted work in carrying out field investi­ printed. Tn this village, there is polyandry, interesting gations of village surveys in different parts of Himachal agriculture, cultivation of ginger. There are crafts­ Pradesh. men and interesting legends, stories and folk lores. All this came in our way once the work started. Dr. Roy Burman was good enough to go Initially some work was done by one of our investi­ through our material. gators who had to leave. The most of the work had been done by Mohan Lal Gupta. I have been On looking through some of my monographs, to Rajana once and to Rainka a number of times: and I feel I should have improved my sentences but as wandered around many of these villages during English is not my mother tongue, and I have to push fairs and festivals and have met a large number of my material through with great stress and speed, people who helped me in giving bits of information. my readers would forgive my grammatical mistakes. There are glaring pit· falls in an enquiry like this and Very often when one goes through one's drafts a I was ambitious enough to bring out 35 monographs number of times, no matter how objectively one and a large number of other reports, little did I does it, certain sentences, grammatical mistakes or v VI PREFACE looseness in the structure may not occur straightway, different parts of Himachal Pradesh. The villagers And going through these objectively a year or two of Rajana received me most kindly and gave gracious latter, one may want to correct these grammatical replies to whatever questions were put up to them. mistakes or would feel like re-writing the whole It will always be a pleasure for me to hear of their work and there would be then no end to it. With welfare and over-all prosperity in this village as in these words, I leave the readers to move through other areas of Himachal Pradesh about which I have this part of Himachal Pradesh. w];'ltten. My colleagues and I have silent pride in I being able to write with devotion about a Pradesh It has been one of my greatest rewards to have that we have loved so much and if this comes up to had this very interesting assignment in which I am the expectations of the readers, that would be a starting my 7th year now and have seen so much in lasting reward for us.

BOSWELL, SIMLA-S. September 23, 1965. RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH Acknowledgements

OUR thanks are due to Uday Singh Pradhan, village history. 1 acknowledge their kind help Mohan Singh, Ujagar Singh and Surtu, the villa,ge extended to some investigator. youths and Bishna, the village Lambardar fpr We are grateful to the revenue officials of the their co-oper~tion in yielding out all sort of infori Rainka tehsil for showing different records and mation for the village survey. We are also gratefUl village paper. to. Mrs. Nanti wife ofSurtu, who was very helpfu g but shy in detailing out the information regardirl I would like to convey my sincere thanks to birth, marriage and death customs. Shri Dev Raj Sardana of the Cambridge Printing Babu Ram, th~ village patwari and Hem Chand, Works, Delhi for his· interest and Jabour over this the local teacher had wide knowledge about tIle monograph.

~'\)~L, <';:;N)._,)\.-~, September 23, 1965. RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGh

Vl!

1 The Village

Introduction During those days, Maharaja Mahi Prakash Bahadur of Sirmur State changed the name of the RAJANA lies 9 miles away from Dadahu and it IS lillage from Kailar to Rajana. The village grew one of the big villages. around here at 5,500 feet large by the passage of time. There is no fort in in trans-Git;i area of Sirmur District. The village th e vicinity". lies on a hi\! slope. The upper portion is known Upper Rajana is known as Kunder. The lower as uparla Rlijada and the lower portion is nichla portion is called Gadh. Rajana. According to a legend narrated by Ujagar After crossing the logar stream, there is a four Singh, a few hundred years ago, the Raja of miles steep a~ent on the khar-kholi-ki-ghati. Sirmur was visiting the ruler of lubbal State. Then one ascends and walking over a level path of Some misunderstandings suddenly cropped up three miles and by passing through village Maina, between the two rulers and matters worsened. one comes near Rajana. Raja of Sirmur had to flee for his life from lubbal. During this journey, the Raja had to take refuge I The predominant castes residing in Rajana are: in the house of a Brahmin in the village. Since Brahmins, Kolis and Rajputs. Other castes are then the village came to be known as Rajana Badhis, Dooms and ILohars. Their main occupation which appears to be derived from Raja-ana or is agriculture. Rutal crafts like weaving, basket­ the coming of a Raja. making, carpentry I and blacksD,lithy are their Tomar subsidiary occupati~6s. Polyandry and Polygamy are features ofthe social fabJic here., The. Rajputs were the first settlers who came from Delhi. Bishna Lambardar has narrated that orginally The area of Rajana is 1,860 acre:;. There are tHey were three brothers. Two of them settled in 161 households having a popUlation of 850 persons, lower Rajana and the third on a nearby spur of a 434 males and 41{l females. The density per hill. In the initial stages, they gradually got a grip square mile comes to 292.5 persons. Sinc~ Octo­ of the place and extended their influences over the ber, 1956 this is a part of the N.E.S. Block Sangrah. surrounding area and off and ·on quarrelled with local people and' finally conquered the area comprising fifty-two villages to which village History of the Village patwari testifies to the version by saying that the Rajputs of Rajana own landed property in fifty­ According to revenue records "About five two surrounding villages. The first descendents hundred years ago, one Puja came from Delhi of these Rajputs also settled in Kamrao and and settled at the present site of the village with Dagaihada villages of Paonta and Nahan tehsils. permission of the ruler of Sirmur State. He did Another version about the history of the village not pay for the land. At that time, the site was is that about five hundred years ago, Kanauj was uninhabited. There was a dense forest all round­ ruled by a Raja of Tomar dynasty and in a nearby A pine tree grew near Plija's house. The village state, ruled his two nephews named; Prithviraj was first known as KaiIar. This name was derived and laichand. These states were at constant from the pine tree-Kail". war with Sultans of Delhi and this fued continued for a long period. During Aurangzeb's reign, "After two hundred years, two men named Kadwa some of the families from Tomar dynasty had to and Dharwa, came from Palar village and reques­ flee this area via Punjab. In Punjab they spent ted Puja for some land. These Bhats were given some time but could not live peacefully in the face the land. Since then the Brahmin population of subsequent repeated Mohammadan invasions continued to increase. They gradually owned from the west. When they arrived in Rajana, some land". Tomars found families of Rajputs and Brahmins 2 THE VILLAGE already residing there. T)1ey fought with them Size of the village and four Rajput families managed to stay. The rest of Rajputs and Brahmins fled to nearby villages. The size of the village as recorded in the land Tomars in due course married with the remaining utilization statement is:- Rajput women from these four families which later on merged into the main Rajput stream under (i) Total area 1860 acres Chauhan gotra. (ii) Forest 44 acres Regarding settlement of Brahmins in the village, (iii) Barren and unculturable land 5 acres legend goes that about five centuries ago, this area (iv) Land put to non-agricultural uses 54 acres was under the suzerainty of the ruler of Sirmur (v) Culturable waste 24 acres State. He had no heir apparent. On the death of the Raja, a meeting of the State chieftains and (vi) Permanent pastures and othelj grazing ministers was held where the question of adoption land 849 acres of a successor was discussed. A party of high (vii) Land ,under Misc. trees, crops and officials was sent to Iaisalmer state to request the groves not inc1udep in net area ruler there to send someone to rule over the area. sown 534 acres fhe ruler of Iaisalmer sent one of his sons accom­ (viii) Current fallows 1 acre panied by few Rajputs with the party. The prince (ix) Fallow land other than current fallows assumed the rulership of Sirmur State. There '5 acres was a bhat who pleased the new ruler with his wits. The prince allotted a plot of land to him in (x) Net area sown 344 acres Maina village as reward. (xi) Total cropped area ',618 acres The Kalis in the village settled later on during (xii) Area sown more than once 274 acres the last three generations from Ghato, Dhamas Size of households in the village is given in .and other nearby villages. Table 1. \

TABLE I Total No. of Single 2-3 members 4-6 members 7-9 members 10 members households member and above r--"----. r--.A.-....., r---"--....., r---"--....., r--'""---. H M F H M F H M F H M F H M F

161 14 9 5 34 41 51 72 173 181 24 100 83 17 111 96

I Physical Aspects The area surrounding the village is dry, inhos­ pitable and poor in vegetation. The soil is thin Rajana nestles over a gentle slope of a hill, and stoney and not very fertile. Surat-ka-Tibba at 77°. 25' E and 30°. 14' N. The other peaks surrounding the village are Kamli­ Regarding the geology of the State, Mr. H. H. wala-tibba and Iamdagni-wala-tibba which are Hayden wrote :- branches of the Shiwalik hills. 12,000 feet high Chur peak known as Chur Chandni the mountain "The greater part of the Sirmur State lies on of the silver bangle, snowbound for most of the year, rocks of tertiary age, with beds belonging to can be seen towards the south, the summit of Surat­ the carbonaceous system (Krol and Bliani ka-tibba. groups) on the north-east. The ,lower tertiary rocks are particularlyl well developed and the A stream Barag-ka-khala, has derived its name Sirmur series which include the Sabathu, from village Barag, three miles away. This flows Dagshai and Kasauli groups, takes its, name about a mile away and gets flooded during rains. from the State. The upper tertiary or Shi- THE VILLAGE 3

walik series is largely developed into the neigh­ winters are cold. Sometimes there is snowfall bourhood of Nahan, where the lower beds which does not continue for a long time and the consist of great mass of sand-stones the Nahian snow melts soon. Rain and snowfall on high peaks group ; there are overlain by sand-stones and around are common. According to villagers conglomerates (middle and upper Shiwalik) the winter rain is useful for their crops. The containing a rich mamalian fauna of pliocene rainy season starts from early July and lasts upto age." the end of September.

Climate and rainfall The Average rainfall in the village during a During. summer it is pleasant and bracing while year is 80 inches.

TABLE 2 Rainfall stqument-Dadahu Motith 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 January 1·72 Inches. 9·90 Inches. 3p·l0 mm. 86·60 mm. 79·20 mm. 186·30 mm. February 8·05 87·70 259·80 2·38 0·06 " " " 26.00 60·60 26·00 5·00 March 2·56 1·13 " " " 10·30 19·50 April 1·83 6·4 " 18·10 " " " May 3·74 2·26 ,·,G 20·50 32·60 14·00 " " " " June 8·10 2·75 8A-1O 122·50 96·80 177·00 I " " " " " " 602·18 ,. 498·40 833·40 44·01 July 25.01' 21·56 " " .. August 586.07 407·70 356·30 436·8 15·8~ " 18·50 " " " " September 359·8 327·80 56·50 357·10 10·81 12·46 " " " .. J4'4.7 51·70 26·70 89·00 Octobe~ 22·r57 " 2·67, " " November 0·39 23·20 22·00 " 1·32 " December 48·80 65·30 0·26 " 3·52 " Drinking water Kuhl and tank

In lower Rajana villagers fetch water from a A small irrigation channel has been drawn from spring which a is furlong away. Cool and sweet tawana spring which runs a zig-zag way along water gushes out from this spring known as tawana. Dadahu-Rajana path and after passing through There is more water during the rains. The spring is lower Rajana terminates at the other end. Water surrounded by a stone wall with a raised platform is ayailable throughout the year for irrigating the in the middle. fields lying below the path. In upper Rajana, two springs are located at one Two more small irrigation channels have been end. One is used by the swaran castes while the taken out from another spring a mile away towards other by the Harijans. The water in the spring is Dadahu which irrigates fields between Maina and little and in summer it has to be fetched from Rajana. tawana. During the days of scarcity, villagers form a queue by arranging their brass pitchers in a One irrigation tank is under construction in lower row. The water from tawana is carried· during Rajana, when this is compieted surplus water will night when the peasants have no work and the be stored. The tank is being constructed near the weather is pleasant. school. 4 THE VILLAGE

Cremation Ground waves. She caught hold of the lamp. Immediate­ ly it was transformed into a small image. She The cremation ground lies near the Barag-ka­ thought this would be a good toy for her children khala in an open space. No platform has been to play with and took it home. On reaching home, built for cremation. Children are buried or she did not find her children at home as they had immersed in the stream. gone outside to play. So she placed this in a vessel containing some grains. After sometime when Communications her children returned home, she thought of giving that toy to them. To her great surprise she found the vessel full of grain. She felt this could be some During heavy rains, the path between Dadahu deity. ~he sent a message to the villagers of Rajana and Rajana remains in a bad condition. It is some­ telling them about the mystery. At this, all impor­ times repaired by villagers of nearby villages, or by tant persons of Rajana reached Tikri to see the the rich shopkeepers of Dadahu. The wooden mysterious image. After seeing it, they decided crossing over the Giri is washed away when the to place it at some holy place. The image was river is in spate. This is repaired afterwards. The placed at the fop of a hill near Tikri. After two shopkeepers undertake the repair work of foot or three days, some young men of the village paths and the bridge to control trade in ginger. began to die suddenly. This compelled the vill­ agers to think about the image again as they became Post office very suspicious, lest the idol be connected with some evil spirit. When villagers went near this, a voice One branch post office opened in February, 1957 was heard from the shed in which the image had is run by a post master and a postman. This been kept. The voice said that the im~e should post office serves fourteen villages within five miles. be placed inside a newly constructed teD:tple. A Prior to this, dak used to be distributed once a new temple in Maina-Ghairal was constructed week by a postman from Dadahu. Now dak is and the idol was placed ther~. A priest worshipped delivered on alternate days. the newly installed deity. After this there was no mishap, presumably because the deity had a temple of its own. Three more temples of this School deity 'fere constructed later on, the first in upper A government middle school is situated in lower Rajana, the second at the top of Surat-ka-tibba, Rajana. The new building (or the school has been and the third in ·Kando. This deity was then recently constructed at a cost of Rs. 12,000 named Brahrup and worshipped regularly. by the Himachal Pradesh Education Department. There is an equally interesting legend behind The nearest Higher Secondary School is at Dadahu. the origin of Shirgul deity. An extract from the Sirmur State Gazetteer (1934) says: Temples "One of the oldest and most important temples of Shirgul (whose name is probably a corruption There are three temples. Two have the Braharup of Sr!-guru) is in the 'Dhar Ghur' or Chur Peak and the third is of Shirgul. One of the temples of and regarding it a long legend is related in which of Braharup deity is constructed on the top of the Muhammedan emperor of Delhi plays a not Surat-ka-tibba. Tht; second one is in upper very dignified part. Shirgul, a devotee went to' the Rajana. The temple of Shirgul deity lies in lower Chur peak upon which Shiva dwelt. Having acquired Rajana and a small deity has been placed in an superhuman power from his association with the open space on a small stone shelf. There is a God, Shirgul caused all the boys of the neighbour­ temple of Gugga in lower Rajana where a small hood to be afflicted with worms: while he him~elf deity and a bunch of iron chains are kept. assumed the form of a Rhat and wandered from village to vii/age proclaiming that if t~e boys' parents According to the villagers, long ago Brahmin built his temple on the spur of a hill, he would cure inhabitants of Rajana had their hamlet in Tikri. them all. The temple was built and Shirgul began to Once a Brahmin woman of that village was on be considered a separate deity". her way to river Giri for washing clothes as usual. Suddenly, she saw a scene of a burn­ These two deities are worshipped on the lSlY ing lamp floating down stream on the crest of of every Vikrami month. During illness THE VILLAGE 5 and other difficulties, people consult the deity SHRUBS through its oracle who directs them to do different things. He goes into a trance and gives the reasons Bans (Dendrocalamus Strictus)-Grows on dry of illness or other difficulties and suggests remedies. places, almost completely deciduous, flowers fra­ Goats are offered as sacrifice. Braha-rup deity grant. Leaves fall in February or March. is worshipped on Diwali when the deity is supposed to enter the temple. A goat is slain and Brahmins Basooti (Adhatoda vasica)-Round at ends worship in turn till late at night. An outsider flowers wh~te, leaves used to cure bronchitis. ' cannot enter the temple on that day without per­ mission of th~ elders. He must wash his hands Bhang (Cannabis sativa)-Tall and erect, long and feet before. entering the temple. On Baisakhi flowers and pale greenish, the intoxicating drug commonly known as Bishu in this part of the used for smoking. country, it is believed that a wild animal which resembles a goat enters the temple and ,offers Kakho (Cfacourtia Ramontchi}-A shrub or small homage before th~ deity. deciduous tree, armed with axillary thoms, leaves orate, :flowers greenish yellow, fiuits globoso red There is another' belief that a spirit known as or dark brown, when ripe edible, wood hard and haid, believed to be '~he sister of Braha-rup devta, close grained. resides in the village. She has been forced by some unknown powerful deity to live in Rajana Kando (Carissa Opaca)-A spreading evergreen to look after the vi1lag~. It is said that when many shrub upt_o .12' hi&h, thorns upto 1-5" long, sharp, villagers are out to attend a marriage, a spirit woody, JUIce mIlky, flowers white tinged with roams in the village d~essed up in white. In the pink, very sweet scented. Much browsed by sheep beginning, she used to. visit the village daily and and goats, seldom used as fuel. harass the people, but now her visits are less frequent and harmless. Some Brahmins of the Karonda (Carissa carandas)-A. large shrub village worship her. than kando, shoots glabrous, flowers white scarcely scented, fruits very sour and edible in the form of pickles, makes good hedges. Trade Kashmal (Berberis chitria)-Almost deciduous Ginger is the chief agricultural produce exported 8-10" high twigs red or dark reddish brown, leave~ upto about 2' long, flowers open, tinged with red from here. Farmers carry ginger down to Dadahu fruits edible. ' in conical baskets or kiftas on their backs and sell it to the sllOpkeepers. From Dadahu, it is lifted NingaJ (Arundinaria /alcata)-Clumps erect 6- in trucks and sold at Nahan, Ambala, Amritsat 10' high and 3-6" diameter. Stems are used for and Delhi. Some of the shopkeepers send sales­ making mat, baskets and for the stems of pipes and men to Ra'jana from Dadahu where they purchase hookas. Saun (Crotalaria Albida).-An erect or the ginger at the rates prevailing at Dadahu. Thus, diffused' shrub, much branched, leaves simple. farmers are saved from the· trouble and time Flowers long, yellow. Common in the hills up involved in carrying their ginger to Dadahu. In 6,000 feet. return, they buy cotton cloth, metal-ware and other utensils, salt, cigarettes, jaggery and kerosene. Timber (Zauthoxylum alatum)-A shrub or small Villagers also purchase goods from a local tree, armed on the branchlets. Flowers small shopkeeper of Maina village and from the two polygamous and yellow. Woodclo se grained, shopkeepers of Rajana. h~rd, heavy. and yellow. Branches used for walking stIcks, tWigS as tooth brushes and fruits as a remedy for toothache. Flora Toong (Rhus cotinus)-A deciduous shrub, twigs There are quite a few trees in and around the reddish and grey when young, leaves simple 2-4" village. Different species found are given here. long, flowers yellowish, heart wood dark yellow. Some of these are mentioned in "Forest flora" Can be used for small carving and inlaying. Leaves by Upindernath Kanjilal, Rai Bahadur F.L.S. and bark used for tanning. 6 THE VILLAGE

CLIMBERS leaves 4-5" long and ovate, figs on short and leafless branches. Fruits edible and wood used as firewood Ban Gulab (Rosa rnoschata).- A large thorny / climbing shrub, bark greyish brown, flowers Khair (Acacia catechu)-A small or medium size sweet-scented, fruits dark brown. deciduous tree, bark dark grey, flowers pale or creamy white. Heart-wood dark red and very Karanj (Casesalpinia sepiaria).-A large pricky hard and hence durable. An excellent firewood climber. It is an excellent hedge-plant. The and best charcoal. Wood rich in katha-catechia bark is used for tanniI1g. which is used for chewing with betel leaves Bark also used for tanning. Maljhan (Bauhinia vahlii).-A gigantic ever­ green climber, flowers white. Its large flat leaves Kharik (Celtis australis)-A large deciduous tree are sewn together and used as plates, cups, um­ with smooth and grey bark. Twigs pubescent brellas and rain caps. Its bark is made into rough when young, flowers small greenish. ropes. Considered as one of the greatest enemies Sal (Shorea robusta)-A deciduous tree, bark of forest trees. dark brown smooth or with long cracks, leaves ovate or oblong, flowers yellowish. Yielps fire­ TREES wood and timber. Arnaltash (Cassia fistula).-A small or medium Sani (Terrninalia tomentosa)-A large de9iduous sized nearly evergreen tree, bark pale grey and tree, dark grey or black, flowers dull yellow, wood smooth upto middle age, leaves 8-18" long, flowers very hard and heavy but not durable. Used for 2" across, leaves not eaten by cattle and goats and building and many other purposes. pulp of fruits used as purgative, bark used for tanning. Wood durable and hard. Shir~sh (Albizzia doratissirna)-Art-.erect evergreen tree with straight stem, bark dark grey with darker Anwla (Phyllanthus emblica).-A small and patches, flowers pale yellow and fragrant. medium sized deciduous ,tree, bark grey smooth, Heartwood dark brown and fairly purable. It twigs glabrous, flowers minute and greenish, wood gives a good amount' of shade while standing. red, hard with no heartwood but a good fire wood, fruit eaten and usually pickled. Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo)-A deciduous tree, bark rough, wood hard, heavy and very durable. Ban (Quercus incana).-An ever-green tree, Much in demand for making furniture, wheels, dark grey, leaves 3-6 by 1-2 inches oblong, wood boats, carts and agricultural implements. very hard, reddish brown, used for ploughs, but its main value is fire wood and charcoal for which Sirnbal (Bornbax malabaricurn)-A large deci­ it is excellent. duous tree, trunk usually undivided, bark grey covered with short conical prickles which disappear Brass (Rhododendron aroborum).-An ever­ with increasing age. Wood soft and perisbable green tree, bark reddish brown, flowers very large, but durable under water. Planks and big poles showy and commonly deep crimson. These are are made out of it. Leaves not eaten by goats but sour to the taste, are eaten and ,:nade into preserves, leaves lopped for buffaloes. Flowers eaten believed to be good for dysentery. Wood soft, and cotton used for stuffing pillows and quilts. chiefly used for fuel and charcoal. Toony (Cedrela toona)-A large deciduous tree, Cheel (Pinus longifolia)-A large tree, bark 1-2 bark smooth up to middle age, afterwards rough, inches thick, leaves in bundles of 3. Heartwood leaves 12-18" long, usually glabrous. Wood red, is soft and not durable specially when exposed to even-grained and soft. It does not split, durable moisture. Used for buildings. Sapwood yield sresin. and not eaten by ants, 'Used for making furniture. Charcoal of bark much prized by black-smiths.

Danri (Cedrcla serrata)-A moderate size deci­ FRUIT TR~lES duous tree. Bark rough, leaves 15-20 inches . long, flowers pinkish. Its growth is very fast and wood used for furniture. Aadoo (Prunus per,sica)-A moderate sized tree, b;uk rougb, dark grey or brown, twigs glabrous, Faigooda (Ficus glornerata)-A large deciduous flowers pink, the commonest fruit tree, also .1lsed tree, bark smooth grey with a yellowish tinge, as firewood. THE VILLAGE 7

Akhrot (Juglans regia)-A large deciduous tree, Local names English names leaves and bark aromatic, timber moderately hard, even grained used for furniture and carvings and Chita Panther gun stocks, cultivated for fruits and for lopping. Ghol Goral Chooli (Prunus armeniaca)-A medium sized Gidhar Jackal . tree, bark rough and dark grey. Flowers white Langoor Himalayan langoor or pinkish, fruits edible and stone smooth. Culti­ vated for fruits and firewood. Lomri Fox Khargosh Hare Kainth (Py,¥,s pashia)-A moderate sized deci­ duous tree, balik almost black, flowers white, fruits covered with raised white dots. Wood brown, DOMESTICATED ANIMALS hard and durable. Used for walking sticks"combs and tobacco pipes. Fruits eaten when, half­ Bail Ox rotten. Leaves and twigs are lopped for fodder. Bakri Goat Kaphal (Myrica\ nagi)-A small evergreen tree, Bhaid Sheep bark rough and brown grey, ,fruit edible and Bhains Buffaloe bark used as an aromatic stimulant and externally Gai Cow as plaster for rheumatism. Wood hard and heavy but not used. Kutta Dog Nashpati (Pyrus cqmmunis)-A moderate size BIRDS deciduous tree, bark grey, leaves variable in size, flowers white, fruits I edible when ripe. Seldom Baaz Falcon used as firewood. Chadkoo Sparrow Fauna Chakor. Partridge Cheel Eagle WILD ANU.lALS Chibad Lizard Chimkadar Bat UJca/ names English names Kawa Crow Ban billa Jungle cat Kabootar Pigeon Bhaloo Black bear 00100 Owl Bragh Leopard Tota Parrot 2 The People

The village is predominantly inhabited by three make agricultural implements and household castes; Brahmins, Kolis and Rajputs. The other articles. They receive their customary share from castes residing are Badhis, Chamars, Dooms and farmers at every harvest. Badhis work as masons Lohars. More than fifty years ago the villagers and are engaged to construct houses. They play here were divided into two groups known as Shati on the village orchestra during marriages or deaths. and Pashi. Those residing in Rajana and surround­ Villagers regard these people as ,essential members ing villages 'Were known as Shati while those living of the village community. Rajputs often smoke in villages Sanala and Ganog and other adjoining with the Badhis. villages were known as Pashi. Relations between those two clans never remained cordial and were The Dooms prepare baskets and other articles strained to such an extent that a men of one clan for which farmers provide bamboo. would not dare to cross into the boundary of Chamar or Mochi is at the lowest rung of the another. society. He trades in leather. Castes Lohars and Badhis do not accept food from the Dooms and Chamars whom they consider lower Brahmins-There are 13 households of Brah­ castes.' A Badhi is regarded superior to a Lohar. mins who are known as bhats. One priest house­ A Doom may not like to eat with {l Chamar. hold refrains from ploughing. Others have laid their hands on the plough. They are good farmers Vaish-There are two households. Both of them like the Rajputs. A priest is held in reverence by have migrated from Dadahu in search of liveli­ villagers. hood. The shopkeeper is about 50 years old and is still a bachelor. He came here abo'ut 22 years Brahmins smoke, drink water and .eat together ago. Socially and culturally, this shopkeeper has with the Raj puts. Most of them are from the mixed up with the village people. The lady Bharadwaj gotra. They marry their daughters shopkeeper known as banyani is a recent migrant within their caste but not in the same gotra. and has kept her separate .entity. They sell articles like cigarettes, jaggery, mustard oil. Kolis-There are 87 households of Kolis. Many of them are tenants. Others plough their own Caste :-vise distribution residing here is :- land. A few of them weave and some are tailors. TABLE 3 Rajputs-In all, there are 51 households. Raj­ puts may be grouped into two classes. One class Caste No. of Males Females Total belongs to those four Rajput families who managed Households to live while some Tomar families intruded in 2 3 4 5 this area. They call themselves Chauhans. The others are the descendents of Tomar families. They Badhi 3 9 5 14 call themselves Tomars. In the past they did not mix with each other, but now there is no Brahmin 13 37 33 70 social distinction and they inter-marry. They Chamar 2 7 4 11 marry away their daughters within their castes but outside the gotra. Agriculture is their main Doom 2 9 7 16 occupation. Koli 87 243 239 482 Lohar, badhi, doom and chamar-There are Lohar 2 3 a few households of each of these professional castes who are engaged in trades besides agriculture Rajput 51 127 125 252 during the off season. Those who do not follow their traditional occupation, work as tenants to Vaish 2 2 the Rajputs. Lohar-(blacksmiths) and Badhis Total llli 434 416 850 8 THE PEOPLE

Residential Pattern some men volunteer to collect material for the new house. The owner would ask two or three In upper Rajana the houses are more closely Kolis to collect the material at the site. They are built, and the h~uses of Rajputs and Kolis are offered food and grains. When enough material intermingled. Tfie Brahmins have built their is collected, about 15-20 men from different castes houses at the upper layer. A majority of the Kolis' go and bring the material. For days, they are houses are found below the water channel in , busy fetching timber, stones and slates. Kolis are lower Rajana. Rajputs dominate the remaining ~ supplied cooked food. When the main material portion. No Brahmin lives in lower Rajana. is collected, the owner arranges for a grand feast. Badhi and Lohar own their houses in a lower por­ Meat, ghee, jaggery, rice and patinda are served. tion of the village. Chamars live away from the Sometimes wine is served. Timber of deodar, kail main habitation because they do tannipg work. gaihanoo, khadik are used for house construction. Foundation-After selecting the site, foundation Houses is dug up to two feet. Masonry work with· stones is started directly from the bed of the The houses are designed on the traditional foundation. The work of the foundation is gra­ pattern. One hduse is made of cement and con­ dually reduced till it reaches the plinth level. Fur­ crete and is well ventilated. Others are made ther masonry work is carried out according to the of stone, mud and timber. The houses are more thickness of the wall. Dry stones are laid uptu or less identical. The doors are very small. In the the plinth level which is hardly 6"-9" from the three houses belonging to Rajputs, the doors are ground. It may be put down here that the first more than five feet high. The house construction stone in the foundation is laid by the Badhi on an is mainly influenced by the climatic conditions auspicious day and time. and have a minim.'um 'of ventilatiOli and thick Labour-The village carpenter helps in building walls to keep the rooms warm during winter. and designing the house and other wooden frames. He is well-versed in wood and 'stone work. The con­ ·Material- The commoll materials used in struction of the house is done on a contract basis. construction of houses are stones, slates and wood. For a double storyed house having one room each, 1;'he rough slate stones which cannot be dressed the contract value may range between Rs. 500 for roofing, are uspd for the walls. Stones are and Rs. 1,000. For a bigger house having two gathered from nearby quarries. The nearest s1ate rooms in each storey, the contract may range quarry is in Bhalad village, twelve miles away. These from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 2,500. The owner of the are obtained after getting a permit from the forest house feeds the labourers. There may be one or department on payment. The thin layers of slates two Badhis and two or three unskilled labourers. are cut to a standard size of 8 X 10 inches or lOx 20 inches accordillg to the shape and size of the Ground floor-When the masOl.1},'y work reaches layers. These are used for the roof. plinth level, door frames are fixetl leaving a gap for openings. Masonry work is carried out upto Timber is not available locally and is procured the first floor. Small niches are kept in the walls from forests in Jubbal. Villagers of this area had for household goods. Beams of deodar or other their forests ages ago but these were cut. Now timber are inserted after every foot or so, while they depend on government forests. From their constructing the wall. These horizontal beams own forest, they used to get free timber for construc­ are gripped by vertical wooden beams. Horizontal tion after getting permission of the Divisional beams are fixed cross-wise. Forest Officer. The application had to be filed through the patwari. Now timber is obtained When the wall reaches a height of about five from Government forest at market rates and not feet, thick beams of 4 X 9 inches section are placed at zamindari rates, because they have no forest on the top covering their outer ends. Then. the rights. The market rates are fluctuating and masonry work is again carried out in the remaining costly. An application {or this is submitted wall to bring the top of the wall beams to the through the Panchayat. same level. The ground floor is used as cattle shed by some The material for the house is collected with families. Others have separate cattle sheds, mutual help. This is called hai/a legana. In this, adjoining to the house. Where the ground floor 10 THE PEOPLE is not used as a cattle shed, the space is used Stair Case-One goes to the upper floor by a for sleeping or for storing household goods and staircase constructed outside the house along a wall. grains .. Each step is a foot high. Stairs do not connect the upper floor directly, but reach a wooden Upper Floor-After constructing the walls, verandah in front of the upper floor. The verandah further construction of the stone wall is carried is covered with roof supported by a panel of poles on upto about four feet. The opposite side walls and has a wooden railing. From outer ~ side the are constructed to form a gable for laying the roof. gallery is decorated with carved image from During construction, space is left for doors, niches outside. and small windows. Compound-In front of-every house, there is a Roof Laying-On top of the gabled construct­ circular compound laid out. The platforQl is ed walls, a ridge pole of a round section is kept. known as ghana. The floor is paved like the ground Such poles are placed in the centre and ends of the floor. A low parapet wall is constructed around both side walls. After fitting the remaining gaps the platform. This platform has many uses. At in the gable and side long walls, a mud coat is given. the time of social and ceremonial functions, it serves The roofs of the houses are two-sloped. Wooden as a stage for gathering and dance. It serves 'planks are fixed on these. The slates are nailed as a barn for husking, threshing and winnowing. on the planks. The slates are kept from the end of a gable up to the ridge side. At the ridge, an Completion-In the final touches the materials overlap of about 9 inches is given from the opposite used are mud and makol. Mud is plastered on the gable to protect the house from leakage at the walls and given.a white,wash. This is applied on ridge pole. Round vents are kept at the corner the sides of the house. White washing is done of the roof. When there is rain or snow, thesl! twice a year on festivals like Bissu, Diwali or are closed with a slate. Maghi. Floors-When the external construction of the There are no bath rooms attached. Men house is complete, the .inner construction is taken generally bathe at the spring. Hearths are made in hand in which floors come first. In the houses, in one corner of the room. wh$:re a plinth level is kept a bit higher from the ground level, bits of stone are filled into bring DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HOUSE the hollow portion between the four walls to the plinth level. English names Local names Flat stones are placed over the stone bits which Cattle shed Obra or Mando form the finished surface of the ground floor. Compound Ghana Regarding the upper floor, planks of Ii incpes Door Dwar thickness are placed over the joints kept while Door frame Dewad constructing the house. Sometimes there are Floor stones opening~from the floor of the upper floor. Maid Grain Storage Kothar or Baday Doors and Windows-Usually the doors are Ground floor Mando about 3 feet by 2 feet. Windows are small and narrow. There are no windows in the ground IHearth ~hulhada floor. Door frames are made of -timber. One Kitchen Rosyane piece wooden plank of about 2-3 inches thickness Roof Chhapper is fixed on one side of the frame with the hooks Space between wall which are inserted in the holes made in frame. and ceiling Kandal From inside the door is _closed by fiXing a log of Space in walls Bhaiday wood in holes made in the walls. A handle and a Stone staircase - Phadkal chain are fixed from outside. Ventilator in the roof Sindwali The window frame is made 2 X 3 feet in dimen­ Verandah Jhee' sion. The area for opening is a small recess of Walls Bheet about 6 X 9 inches. The rest of the portion is covered with planks. The outer portion is carved Wooden beams Bada to depict the pattern of flowers, figures and birds. Wooden grips in walls Thaili and shor THE PEOPLE 11

House construction is taken up in winter when them.. This is done to provide a safe passage for villagers are free from agriculture. A day is the snake. This device may have been useful in selected by the family priest to start the work. letting out the subsoil water which would other- He is given about 5 seers of grains and one wise have dam~ged the foundation. • rupee. Badhi is given some grains and a rupee. Brief worship is held when doors and beams are While laying the foundation stone, a simple placed and construction on the upper storey worship is performed. Some local wine is starts. A rupee and cereals are given to the family distributed. Till the foundation is complete, priest and the Badhi. a day and night watch is kept, lest an enemy put some charni, and bring ill luck to the owner or his After completing the house, a ceremony is held family. Th€( owner takes his food pesides the before entering the house for the first time. This construction and keeps awake- during the night consists of a worship and a feast is served before a fire,\guarding the foundation. / to members of the household and the labourers 1 are invited. In the feast, special dishes like patinda, Apart from ,tne owner or the Badhi, no one ghee, jaggery and vegetables are served. During enters the area, of house foundation till it is com­ the worship, the priest ties red thread to the Badhi's plete. During this period, labour is engaged to implements and to the labourers and the owner dry masonry work from outside. The Badhi and applies tika to their forehead. attends to work from inside the foundation. If anyone trespasses, the Badhi has a right to claim Changes in the design of houses are not favoured, a compensation. This may include, allything the nor are paints, varnish and window panes used. intruder carries, be lit the cap, coat, shirt or stick. Four households have only one living room each. There is a belief ~at a snake circles the house. 87 households have two livwg rooms each. 13 Therefore' at the time of laying the foundation households have three living"rooms each and 54 stone, the Badhi secretly places first two stones households have 4 rooms each. Only 3 households in such a way as to \eave sOl}1e space in between have 5 rooms or more each.

TABLE 4. Households by number of rooms and by number of persons occupying ...'" .J:J Households Households Households Households Households H~ith~~~ds ., 8 with ODe with two with three with four with five rooms and "0 0 room rooms rooms rooms rooms. '0 8 more .c ., ,--..A...--.., ,-_..A._-, ,--....._-, ,-----J'--, ,---"--, ,...--..A._-, .,0 ~ 8 ., Caste ::s0 0 'S ...... '"... ~ '" '" '"0 0 '"0 0 .c ...... 0 0 0 ...... J:J .,0 0.J:J 0 .... .J:J ... .J:J 0 .... .J:J ~ .... .J:J 0 0 0 ::s'" 08 ::s .8 ::s'" 08 '"::s 08 ::s'" 08 ::s'" 08 0 0 0 0 0 0 .11) 0 .0 0 '0 0 0 0 .c Os .c .c .c 08 .J:J 08 .c 08 Z Z Z Z .... _Z8 .... ~s .... Z .:...... 0", .... 0., _.e. ....0", 0", t;l t;l t;l 0", cu:= 0'" -~ea·_ ~~ ~~ ... ."0 t;l== ."0 ."0 ."0 ~.- ."0 ~.- ."0 ~.- 0 0 0 0- 0 8 0- 08 0- 0 8 0- 0 8 0- "'8 0- 0 8 f-o f-o f-o Z] f-o~ z] E-<:! Z] f-o:! z] f-o:! Z] ~~ Z] f-o:! 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Badhi 3 8 14 2 4 1 10 Brahmin 13 47 70 3 5 1 8 59 f 5 Chamar 2 6 11 2 II Doom 2 6 16 6 10 Kolis 87 232 482 3 6 53 232 5 33 24 191 2 20 Lohar 1 2 3 1 3 Raj put 51 147 252 26 91 5 25 20 136 Vaish 2 3 2 1 12 THE PEOPLE

Furniture and household goodY-Villagers' fur­ houses have chairs. A few own cots. People niture is of the simplest kind. T..hey have ~mall live in a simple w.ay and sleep on the wooden floor. items like mats of paddy. husks, manjri of date Some Rajputs have few quilts and that too for their leaves bought from Dadahu and Pida-a wooden guests. .Single or double blankets are used. stringed scat. Two or tnree Rajputs and Brahmin

TABLE 5 Material Culture-Possession of furniture and other items. Number of households possessing.

Caste r------~------"------______, Charpoy Chair Table Wall-shelf Lamp Umbrella Lantern Sewing-Machine Stove Box Stool

Badhi 2 3 3 3 2 Brahmin 3 3 13 13 12 Chamar 2 2 2 Doom 2 2 2

Kolis 3 82 87 81 14 3 Lohar

Rajput 12 3 47 51 50 38 9 Vaish 2 2 2 2 2

Devtas A basket HOUSEHOLD GOODS Local name Remarks

Local name Remarks Cborkhi Churning Wooden rod. Diva Tin wick lamp Chaki Stone grinding hand-mill Lamp stand' Chhabbi Small basket for keeping Diyat bread. Fatkira Leaf umbrella Chinjra Small basket for keeping wool. Gaunda Hubble bubble made of bamboo THE PEOPLE 13

Local name Remarks Local name Remarks Ghooloo Grain strorage made of bamboo Shil bata Pieces of stone for grinding strips longish in shape pulses Ghilla Conical basket Suchavdey A wooden machine for making K;ili Hubble Bubble a special food Khaltoo Bag made of dry goat or ram Ukhal A type of wooden or stone skin. mortar for pounding grains or tobacco Khanjhri Small one-sided drum Tumbda A dried hollow :vessel made of Kothi Big-wooden box used for keep- gourd-long gourd for storing ing articles and also grains water and grains as well. Mussad Woodpestle Qda Big basket The grains are stored in ogadi fixed in the upper floor of the house. These are also stored in Odki A medium sized basket ghooloo and pacihda. Grains are weighed by the Paichda Grain storage made of bamboo paiha-a measure of different sizes. The measures strips but a big pitcher like are made of jron or bamboo. The dj1ferent pathos in shape. are soda, thakri and boru. Peeng One piece wooden cradle Utensils.-The common type of utensils used by Pida Wooden plank for sitting the people are :

Name. Local name Cost (Rs.) Durability (years)

j~ Big patiia Chambia 10 00 to 1500 12 Big tokni Tokna 15 00 to 18 00 12 Chhalni j Chainoo I 00 8 Chamach Chomcha o 40 5 Glass Glass 1 00 to 1 50 10 Kalchi Kodchi 1 50 8 Kauli Chhani o 75 8 Lota Lotadi 1. 00 to 2 00 9 Patila Daba 200 to 5 00 10 Patili-ki-dhakani Kodoni o 75 to 1 00 10 Thali Mugadi 1 00 to 2 00 8 Tokni Bantooa 8 00 to 1500 12

BP.ONZE

Bhadoo 'Bhadoo 10 00 to 1500 12

Kauli Bailooa 1 00 to 200 10 Thali Mugadi 2 .00 to 400 10 EARTHnN VESSELS

Medium-sized pitcher Kujji 050 For boiling milk 14 THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT

Name Local name Cost (Rs.) Durability (years) Pitcher Ghoda 100 For storing water Small pitcher Batoo o 50 For keeping curd Small surahi shaped pot Lotki o 7S For carrying ghee Small pitcher Ghayani 100 For boiling butter

IRON Balti Baltey 3 00 to 5 00 10 Chimta Chimta 050 6 Kadahi Kodahi 1 50 to 3 00 8 Parat Lohati 300 9 Sansi Sansi 200 10 Tawa Tawa 2 00 10

WOODEN POTS

Parat Kunadi 200 For kneading flour Pitcher Handa 300 For churning milk

The metal and earthern utensils are purchased Janghia-An underwear made of striped cotton from Dadahu, where utensils are made by the cloth mostly worn by school going boys and young village Badhi. men. 1 Waistcoat-A sleeveless cotton jacket worn out­ side the shirt. It has two pockets on either sides. Some times a pocket is added to the side. Coat-Ready-made second hand cotton coats are bought during Rainka fair. A collt is worn during winter or' on occasions when they come Patihla down to Dadahu or visit their relatives. Kalai-Tinning Qf the utensils is rarely done. A Loiya-This is a buttonless woollen coat, peddlar visits once a while and does some tinning. made of long strips of cloth. The stitched portion is 'kept exposed. Though it has sleeves but it Dress appears to be a custom that people simply wrap it round their body leaving the sleeves dangling on During winter, a man must have a loiya-woollen both sides. Loiya is warm. coat. FOR MEN FOR WOMEN

A white .cap is traditional and covers only Dhatoo-It is a square piece of colourful flowery the upper portion of the head. It is popular among cloth· used to cover the head by giving a simple the old. knot at the back. is a shirt. This has sleaves, a simple Jhogtu-It Chuni-Coloured duppatas are worn by young collar and a pocket on the left side of the chest. girls and women. It is gradually taking the place Sometimes a pocket is kept on the right. of (ali and dhatoo. The length of chuni is about Suthan-A cotton pyjama mostly striped. two yards. - 15 THE PEOPLE

Cholta-It is shirt having sleeves and collars. Shish/aol-It is a silver ornament weighing about This hangs upto the knees. Neck designs are of 50 grams. Used for the fore-head held by a hook different types. Mill made cotton cloth of different ].xed in the hair. patterns is used for cholta. Salwar-It is made of cotton cloth and worn by ORNAMENTS FOR THE EARS the women. Dharatoo-A gold or silver ear-ring. This wieghs Coat-Women put on a coat in winter. They lbout 8-10 grams. do not wrap a ioiya. Kantey-These are brass ear-rings. B,ecause of Sadari-It is like a waistcoat made of plain the many designs young girls and women like, cotton cloth having two or more pockets and these common ear-rings, which cost little can without slee~es. • be had ready made and changed often. Shoes-MeT! and women use local mad,e shoes. Uprali-These are silver ear-rings weighing about The upper p~rtion of the shoe is woven in 10 grams each. different designs with woollen and cotton tl1reads. Hair style-Men do not keep long hair and ORNAMENTS FOR THE NOSE keep them close'y cro'pped. This type of hair­ cut prevalent here is known as khur-mundu. Long-This is a round gold ornament studded But the young men like a hair-cut in Dadahu or with coloured stones and beads. WeighS about Nahan whenever they go there or they cut each 5-8 grams. others hair and manage it as best as they can. Murki-:-A small gold or silver ornament studded Women keep long hair in their traditional style. with coloured beads or moonga. Covers the After dividing the £air in the middle and giving mouth, weighs about 10 grams. four or five ·plaits pn each side, they are tied Nath-It is a big nose-ring made of gold having at the back a little over the neck like a pony tail. 3-4 coloured beads in the centre. It is worn on the The hair are tied with black cotton jutti known as side of the nose and held by a thin silver chain chanduk. The bunch <;If hair at the back are fastened round the right ear. known as gujati. The plaits, are known as gudiya. The hair are combed after every'ten days. Women ORNAMENTS FOR THE NECK re9uire each others help to tie their hair. Mustard oil or butter is used as hair oil and Hansli-It is a silver ornament weighing about for washing «heap toilet soaps are now common. 300-400 grams. / In some cases whey and rithe are used. Haar-It is a big silver necklace consisting of many silver chains. Weighs about 300 grams. Ornaments Kandi-A small necklace made of silver. In Trans-Giri women are fond of ornaments. This is quite close to neck, and weighs about 150 In most cases, money is lavishly spent on these. grams. Economic position of a family is reflected by the number of ornaments, a woman possesses. Some better off women wear gold ornaments, others use silver. Kolis were not allowed to hllVe gold orna­ ments. Now there are no social restrictions.

ORNAMENTS FOR THE HEAD Chak-It is a silver ornament for the head and weighs about 100 grams. PoplacheY-These are a pair of silver band con­ sisting of chains weighing about 60-100 grams each. It is tied with chak and ears on both sides of the head. Tabees 16 THE PEOPLE

Now-a-days, men do not wear any ornament. A few put on rings. About two decades back, some Rajputs used to wear ornaments. These were- Buttons (for shirts), Kangan (Silver karas for fore­ arms), Kanthev (Silver necklace), Murkey (Gold ear-rings), Nanties (gold earrings). There is no silversmith. Ornaments are,. made by ~ilversmiths at Dadahu or Nahan. With the change for light ornaments, families have been converting their heavy silver ornaments like hansli or batteys in lights ornaments like chudis and ,kandi.

Food and drink The staple food is maize and wheat and some rice. Coarse grains like manduwa\ barley and kangni. Manduwa and barley-jo are first ground into flour and served. '\. The routine diet for the different cla~ses of people are the same, with the difference that better off Pendant families can always afford milk, butter or grains like rice and wheat. Better off families take Tandnoo-It is a silver necklace made of 4-8 annas rice and wheat almost daily. Others have these and one rupee silver coins all tied with a thread on festive occasions. Villagers have three meals to hooks. Some silver or cQloured beads are used. a day- Juthalnoo-A morning meal taken at about ORNAMENTS FOR THE HAND 9 or 10 A.M. This is taken either after a family Battey-It is a heavy silver bracelet known as member has returned to the house with fodder or dhagloo. These are single' or double. Lion or after doing some work or while leaving the house for a day's labour in the fields. The timings may crocodile heads are carved and weighs about 200 change according to convenience. Usually the grams. food consists of breads prepared the previous Chudi-These are thin silver bangles weighing day, pulses or vegetables, curd or whey. about 15 grams each. I Dopahri-The afternoon meal usually served ORNAMENTS FOR THE FINGERS in the fields, or at home when young-folk return with fodder or fuel. School-going boys and Chhap-It is made of gold or silver and weighs little children take dopahri at home. The meal aQout 5-10 grams each. This _is a single ring. consists of sattu, whey or cur~ and bread. Bayadaj-It is dinner, the principal meal of the ORNAMENTS FOR THE TOES day. All sit together and eat. In bayaday, rice pulses and vegetables are served. Phooli-Silver rings on the toes of the feet, are worn by women of all, classes. Maize and monduwa are taken in winter. Wheat and rice are consum~d in summer~ may be taken OTHER ORNAMENTS in winter, if some one can afford to. Buttons-Silver buttons are chained together Pulses-The principal pulses consumed are urad, by two or three silver chains and are put on shirts. masoor, moong. Kulath is taken during winter. THE PEOPLE 17

Vegetables-Gogti or arbi is taken during the year. Wheat is boiled, dried and then ground. summer and the monsoons, whereas kachoki is Chalai is parched and then ground. Some families served during summer. Onion is taken mostly relish sattu with ghee and jaggery others eat it with in March and April. Many varieties of vegetables salt or whey. . grown ·during rains are consumed for two months. Muda-lt is made of wheat, maize or rice. Wheat They are cholai-ka-sag, pumpkin, (ur, phoont, and maize are parched. In the case of rice, some chachrindey, loki, tori, sarson-ka-sag, leaves of gog!i. paddy is first soaked and then parched. It is then Leaves of some wild plants are collected and husked and winnowed. Muda is consumed cooked. These are khankoova-scorpian grass, with jaggery or illachidana. off-shoots of faigood, kimoo and khaddik. When Gulli-Meat is known as gulti and villagers cooked and ',fried, these are very delicious. Ramban are very fond of meat. Goat's meat is common. and Suronyalare used as vegetables. Beaf is absolutely prohibited. It is customary Patinday-This is the most liked form of bread. for every household to slaughter at least one goat This is very fine, and made out of wheat f1;our well in the month of Magha, when relatives visit them. kneeded into a thin paste. It is taken with ghee, These slaughtered goats are hung with a rope in the jaggery and uraq pulse. upper storey of the house. This dries up and is relished throughout the winter months. Fish siddu-These are known as roto. Thick breads known as moshhi is also consumed by the geo9te like buns and sandwitched with ground chang or after catching it from Giri, Jogar streams and till are made from flour. These are steam cooked. Barag-ka-khada. They are eaten with pulses or ghee and jaggery. There are other dishes like, halwa, khir and Dharoti-Urad is .soaked in water for-one J,J.ight. praontha which are popular. Eggs were not used After cleaning, it isl ground into a thick paste on previously and even now old people do not like shil-batta, salt andl spices are added to taste. anyone eating eggs. But younger people like This is cooked like liddu after placing on lemon to eat eggs whereas fowls are eaten by all. Jaggery leaves. This is a most liked dish of the people is liked more than sugar. Whenever a villager and is prepared on festh{e occasions. visits Dadahu for selling. his ginger, he brings some sweets like [addo, baisan-ki-barfi and pakoda. Askali-Is another preparation which is made Fruits like pears, plums, peaches and apricots from wheat, maize and koda flour. This is made are taken. whenever they are available. Tea is with the flat stone having some round depressions taken by almost all the households. Some better called sacha. Kneaded rice 'flour is put into the off families have tea daily while others only during holes of the sacha and is heated. A small thick the winter. Tea made with jaggery is liked very bread is made and is served with pulses, ghee and much. Pure desi ghee is used in the daily diet by jaggery. This preparation is tastey. the people. Vanaspati ghee is also used. But on special occasions like marriages or religious Suchavday-This type of food is like sewian pre­ katha, pure des; ghee is lavishly used. Infants pared in plains. The method of cooking is different. and children are provided with milk but a major It is made of wheat flour or of mandawa. Flour portion of it is converted into curds and ghee. of these grains is first cooked in steam as small breads. These are then put into the sochavdo. Smoking-Men and women enjoy a puff on the These are relished with pulses, or ghee and jaggery. hukka. Old people confine themselves to smoking tobaccoo. The younger generation is fond of Biloi-These are known as kanjan. Tehse are cigaJ;ettes. Even small school g~ing children smoke. prepared from rice. Rice is boiled with whey and Wine-In local dialect wine is called sur. A few a paste is made.This is poured over broad banana people are in the habit of drinking wine. It is leaves and spread in a basket and covered. When distilled by fermenting jaggery or barley or manu­ the preparation gets cool, it is taken with ghee and wad. jaggery. Atta-Some wheat is mixed with boiling syrup .. Fuel ~nd Lighting After being cooked, it is taken with ghee. Rajana is not electrified. Tiny kerosene lamps Sattu-These are made of maize, wheat and are used. A few families have lanterns. A bottle chalai. This is relished with whey throughout the of kerosene oil costs about fifty paisa. 18 THE PEOPLE

TABLE 6

BRAHMIN FAMILY Food habits in respect of each member of the family Relation to No. of Weight of Quantity Any other s. Name the head of Sex Age M/S/W breads rice if of milk substance No. household consumed consumed consumed consumed 2 3 4 . 5 6 .7 8 9 10

,---"--. MNE Mecn Singh Head M 65 M 6 8 8 400 grams 120 grams Whey, each time sattu and 2 Ghedda Brother M 50 W 5 7 9 vegetables " 3 Masto Wife 60 M 5 7 ,7 100 F " " Son 4 Shoulloo M 35 M 6 9 9 420 " 5 Najroo Son's wife F 32 M 6 7 8 " 11 2 180 6 Budh Ram Son's son M S 4 4 60 " 7 Gita Ram .. M 9 S 2 3 3 180 ., 50 .. S 8 Devi Ram Son M 11 2 4 4 180 " 50 .. 12 4 5 180 9 Bali Ram M S 3 50 " Keyadghu , Daughter 2 10 F 4 S H 60 Chb. 100 " 11 Amar Singh Son's son 5 S 2 2" 60 100 M " " 12 AtmaRam " M S 150 .. Column: (6) M means Married, S means Single and W means Widowed. Column: (7) M means Morning, N means Noon, E means Evening.

TABLE 7

RAJPUT F AMIL Y Food habits in respect of each member of the family

Relation to No. bf Approximate Wcight of Quantity Any other s. Name the head of Sex Age M/S/W breads weight of rice if of milk substance No. household consumed each bread consumed consumed consumed

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ,-_...J'-_--. M N E Tulsi Ram Head M 55 M 7 8 8 50 grams 400 grams Whey, sattu and vege· 2 Jayano Wife F 47 M 7 8 8 .. 400 .. tables are consumed. M 28 7 8 ,J 420 3 Ram Singh SOD 9 " Sai Ram Son M 14 S 5 6 6 ., 300 4 " Son M 11 S 3 4 5 180 5 Sunder Singh " " THE P.EOLPE 19

TABLE 8 KoIi Family Food habits in' respect of each member of the family

"0 '­ '"0:1 o o ~"O z .os.... ~ ..... ;:1 0", :3.... • I:l ~ 00 rI) Zo 2 3 456 7 8 9 10 11 12 M N E Tbaplu Head M 60 M 6 8 8 50 grams 400 grams 50 grams Whey sattu, and vegetables are 2 Bbajo Wife F 56 M 6 8 8 50 gram~ 400 grams 50 grams consumed. 3 Galabu \80n ¥ 40 M 6 8 9 50 grams 420 grams 50 grams 4 Nainoo Son M 38 M 6 8 9 50 grams 420 grams 50 grams ~ 5 Jbooliya Son M 36 M 6 8 9 50 grams 420 grams 50 grams 6 Shalkie Son's wife F 35 M 6 7 8 50 grams 400 grams 50 grams 7 Muni S9n~s wif? F 36 M 6 7 8 50 grams 400 grams 50 grams 8 Kauja Sor's sod M 6 S 2 3 3 50 grams 180 grams 50 grams 9 Bishna Son's sQn M: 4 S 2 2 2 50 grams 180 grams 50 grams 10 Sanda Son's F 8 S 2 3 4 50 grams 200 grams 50 grams daughter 11 Sumpa Son's ,F 7 S 3 3 4 50 grams 200 grams 50 grams daughter

TABLE 9 Habit of taking sugar Number of households taking sugar with monthly income of Caste r------"------'------...... Above Rs. 150 Rs.101-150 Rs.76-100 Rs.51-75 Rs.26-50 Rs. 25 or less 2 3 4 5 6 7 Badhi 2 Brahmin 6 Chamar 2 Doorn Koli 6 9 24 40 3 Lohar Rajput 4 6 14 20 7 Vaish 70 THE PEOPLE

TABLE 10 TABLE 11 H(Jbit of taking tea Diet Number of households taking tea with monthly income of Caste ,--______.A. ______--, Total Households taking Above Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. number of -J Rs)50 101-150 76-100 51-75 50 or Jess Community households ,------. 2 3 4 5 6 in each community Two meals Three meals Badhi 2 a day a day Bahmin 5 5 2 3 4 Chamar 2 Doom I I Badhi 3 3 Koli 6 9 26 46 Brahmin 13 Lohar I 13 Rajput 4 6 14 20 7 Chamar 2 2 Vaish 2 Doom 2 2 KoIi 87 86 Lohar- Rajput 51 50

Vaish 2 2

Gonda (Huk1la) Wooden churDer Lamp stand THE PEOPLE 21

The fuel is brought from distant jungles. There idea behind this was that it brought success and is over all shortage. victory. The variety of wood used as fuel is beeyool, The mother's diet-After delivery the woman jaigooda, gainoo, khadig, khadki, shisham, tirmod is given jaggery boiled in water known as gurani and tuni. Among the lot gainoo wood is preferred ana ghee. Ajwain is given. For twenty four days, as it lights quickly. Some dry shrubs like bhankoy, ghinda and plenty of ghee as much as she can digest gooienj, kadai, kasitmal, kinkaido are used. forms the diet. At intervals over cooked rice Cow-dung cakes known as up/ay are used by ,is given. every house~old. Placenta-The placenta is placed in a clean broken earthen pot and buried in a corner of the Birth Customs house. The father digs the pit while the mother \ buries it. A small piece of silver is kept with the There are rejoicings wnen the first son is born. placenta. The mother has a bath three times Everyone offers\ prayers to their family devta and over the buried placenta. After the child's bath, ~oddess Rainka Devi. water is poured over that place. Early precautions-A pregnant woman is not Kundli-The time of birth is noted by a near permitted to go ~ear the crematjon ground or relative and communicated to the family priest. climb a tree or cross a stream. She is not supposed The priest notes the time in his register and pre­ to carry heavy loadll. During the advanced stage, pares the horoscope. Villagers consult a child's she does not go to Ithe jungle to bring fodder or horoscope off and on. The priest is given one fuel. All these pr~cautions are taken to avoid rupee and some grains. a miscarriage. Among some families, when the first son is Diet during pregn~ncY-A rich diet like meat, born, guns are fired in the air. The village Badhi halwa and kheer is given. Some women t:elish plays the music and beats the drums. He is given soft clay known as shakra. some cereals. Cash is distributed among the poor.

Delivery-Birth of the child can take place III any The maternal uncle comes after ten days. By storey of the house. S01l\e families use the ground custom, he must visit his sister's house within floor for delivery. The rooms are white washed three months. He brings some wheat flour, rice, and well broomed. jaggery, sugar, ghee and tobacoo and takes his food. Rs. 2.50 are given by him. In case the Close relatives mother-in:law and the husband's number of nephews and nieces exceeds 5, he sisters help. Some Rajput families engage gives only two rupees and a small earthen vessel their tenant's wives to do outdoor work like bring­ full of ghee. ing fodder and fuel and washing clothes. In It is considered a bad omen for the maternal return they are given food during the period they uncle if the child cuts his upper teeth first. work. Women who help in the delivery are After a name is given, the child is taken outside known as dhaien. In case a near relative is not on any auspicious day after 10 days. The name is available at the time of delivery, a koli woman given by the family priest. Among kolis, an is called for help. elder member of the family gives the name. On Nalwa-After delivery, the ohild is given a warm this day a brief worship is held. Near relatives, bath. The umbilical cord is cut with a razor after brahmins and small girls are entertained to a feast leaving some space and given a knot. It is dried consisting of patindas, ghee, jaggery and vegetables. and kept in a small silver casket and ti~d to. !he A rupee coin is placedi n oneh and of the child. On neck of the child to keep away evd spmts. the other hand, the child supports a weapon. The Sometimes, it is kept secure in the first shirt head is covered with a piece of black cloth and the the child wears. feet touch the floor, outside the main door. Breast feeding is carried on for about three years Baidoo-The first shirt the child wears, is called besides giving some food after the child is six bajdoo. In the past, there was a custom of tying months old. In case, the mother is again preg­ baidoo to the forehead of the man when he used nant, breast feeding is stopped. The child is to proceed to the battle field. The superstitious cradled for about two or three years. The cradle is 22 THE PEOPLE

locally made out of a longish concave type of a deration. Preference is given to a girl of a wood,known as peeng. nearby village. When both parties have agreed to the marriage, an auspicious day is found for the Shudhi-An outsider will not have food in the betrothal. The father of the boy accompanied house where a child is born till the day of purifi· by a priest and close relative visits the girl's house. cation. The days of impurity last upto 10 days. They carry one little vessel full of ghee, a lump of On that day, the priest performs hawan. He charges jaggery, five seers jaggery powder and rice. A some cereals and cash according to one's means. A feast is arranged to which near relatives, friends, silver chak, one ring, a suit of cotton cloth and some myrtle are given to the girl by th~ father of the Brahmins and small girls are invited. boy, after a brief worship. 'fhe fee of the priest With a Koli, hawan is performed by the priest consists of a rupee or two. The party stays for a outside his house and he receives cereals and cash. couple of days and returns t6 their village. He may have a feast arranged for some Rajput Among Kolis, the priest accompanying them has guests. The feast is arranged in a Rajput's house. food in a house of the Rajput family, to whom The room where delivery takes place is again the father ,of the boy gives foodgrains and ghee. white-washed and thoroughly cleaned. This is known as Baro. Miscarriage-If there is a miscarriage after 5 to After about 5 years or more, when both the 6 months, the family pri~st· is consulted. He parties agree to the marriage, an auspicious moment performs a hawan. Cereals and cash are given is found by the family priest. to him. . On the boy's side early preparations are held Mundan sanskar-A priest may not be consulted before the marriage, Batna is rubbed on the bride· for child's hair cut, In some higher castes a priest groom's body by his father's sister. He is given a is consulted. The first hair is cut when the bath while a priest chants vedic mantras. Myrtle child is two-three years old. is applied to his hands and feet. After bath, his head is combed. The women keep singinl? marriage Janeo-Cu~tomarily, sacred thread is worn by songs. a Brahmin. Twenty per cent of Brahmins wear it. Rajputs avoid wearing it, because it is said that On the girl's side myrtle is applied to her the wearer of sacred thread cannot plough the hands and feet and batna rubbed to feet. She, fields. Now-a-days this belief is not followed. given a bath 4-5 times and her forehead is Whenever a man visits Hardwar, he brings the decorated with coloured powder. The priest sacred thread. chants hymns while women sing marriage songs. The length of the sacred thread to be worn by The maternal uncles of the' bride and bride­ Brahmins and Rajputs is different. The length is groom must attend the marriage and bring measured in terms of chappas. A Brahmin wears clothes for both. Other relatives gather to a 96 chappas long thread. A Rajput wears a 48 celebrate the occasion. chappas long thread, spun into 3 thread. Kolis do not wear the sacred thread. Dress for the bride-The bride wears pinkish oi· yellowish clothes (;onsiding of a shIrt and a A sacred thread is worn after the age of sixteen salwar and a dupatta. During winter she may years preferably at the time of marriage. A simple wear a new coat. hawan is perfon:p.ed by a priest and food is served to relatives and friends present on this occasion. Dress of the bridegroom-He puts on a shirt, pyjama and coat. Then there may be a pinkish or Marriage yellowish turban to whioh a nuptial chaplet is tied. A sword is also carried. In marriage, initiative is taken from the boy's side. A suitable girl's name is suggested to the The bridegroom's party-The marriage party father. Relatives of boy play a signi~cant part usually consists of about 25 men headed by in bringing the two parties together. Before a musical party of {J-7 men. Sometimes, the betrothal, the parents of the boy and the girl; number of persons are fixed mutually by both verify about the character, youthfulness and beauty. the parties. The party is made. up 'mostly of re· The boy's.means of livelihood is taken into consi- latives, friends and villagers. Women do not THE PEOPLE 23 accompany. The bridegroom may walk on foot, arranged at the groom's home to which close or ride a horse. He may be carried in a palanquin. relatives and friends are invited. Rajputs use a palanquin carried by Kolis. Next day, close relatives lead the couple to the On reaching the bride's village, the marriage spring accompanied by a band. The couple party is well received by her maternal uncle, near walk under a piece of cloth held by the bridegroom's relatives and others. Arrangements for their board sister-in-law. At the spring the bride swears and lodgings are made in a big house. At the that she would b~ faithful to her husband. After entrance of the house, a big gate is erected. Some this brief custom, the party returns. bushes of paja tree are hung. Before entering, At night there are some dances. The groom's the bridegropm cuts the hanging bushes with 'parents distribute sweets. his sword while sitting in the palanquin. During this attempt b,ride's brother throws handkerchiefs Ghairrioo-fairnoo-Here maklawa is known as at groom's fa<;e to tease him. Somehow,.or the ghairnoo-fairnoo. This is held on odd days other, the groom manages to cut the bush~s while when the couple accompanied by relatives or there is mirth and: laughter. village men go to the bride's village. They stay for a couple of days and are entertained. The groom Ved-A rectangular ved is made of banana stalks. takes some rice, ghee and jaggery. Again at night, The priest performs a hawan. There are symbols there is singing and dancing. After a couple of and figures drawn \~ith wheat flour, turmeric and days, the groom returns either alone or with the red powder. bride. Kanya Dan-The bride and the bridegroom walk Jhajhra-Unmarried or divorced women can seven times rounddthe sacred fire. The vedic ha~e a jhajhra form of marriage. The main hymns are Chante. Music plays on. While reason for preference for jhajhra marriage is walking, the groom\ keepst his right hand over that it is cheaper. the shoulder of the br~de. An auspicious day is fixed for the wedding. The bride's mother applies powder to The bridegroom does not go to the bride's house. groom's forehead. After worship, she can see The family priest accompanied by the groom's him. Before that she veils her face. The bride's father and respectable villagers go to the bride's father entertains the marriage party to a feast. house. They take. one ornament and a pair of Pati[lda, rice, ghee, japgery, p,otatoes, pulses form clothes for the bride. A brief worship is held. the menu. Meat is not served. Some close The brid,e puts on the ornaments and the clothes. relatives and others apply red powder to the bride's After a night's stay, the party returns alongwith fore-head and give some money. the bride. About a dozen men from bride's side accompany them to the groom's house. The Dowry-The presents given to the bride are priest performs a little worship before a burning very few. This is due to the frequent divorces earthen lamp kept in a basket containing grains. that take place in the Transgiri area. Presents are a He gives little( rice mixed with jaggery to the light bedding, one or two silver ornaments, a few couple. They exchange this. One who eats utensils and a box. A medium size family gives first is cheered. The village women go on singing dowry worth Rs. 100 or less. Some well off families marriage songs. Feasts are held and in some cases go to the extent of giving a she-buffalo or a cow goats are slain. Villagers dance and sing. The in dowry. party froll} the bride's side returns after a night's Return of barat-Next day, the marriage party stay. returns to the groom's village alongwith the After 2-3days, the couple goes to the bride's bride. The bride's brother and about 5-6 kolis house and returns after 3 days. The bride's carry the dowry and accompany the party. father gives some dowry. It is not necessary to carry the bride in a palan­ quin. Some swarns use a palanquin. The Har-ki-shadi-Then there is a marriage by couple is well received by the groom's mother elopement known as har-ki-shadi. The girl and the and other relatives. The ceremony ends with a boy fall in love, and marry secretly without the brief worship. The bride's brother and Kolis parents permission. The boy's friends help in return after staying for two days. A feast is eloping which takes place either in a fair or in a 24 'THE PEOPLE field where the girl is working. The plan is pre­ Some villagers felt that the woman's parents arranged. When the girl's parents hear of it they demand money from the new husband. This are very upset and threaten to go to court. Their happens only in poor families. anger cools down by the efforts of some relatives of the boy. The amount of reet runs between Rs. 500/­ to Rs. 3,000/-. This is paid in cash. Reel-Is ?- form of remarriage common in Transgiri. A change of a wife or a husband is Recently a Koli of about 60 years married a common. When a woman does not like her woman a.bout 45 years. He paid Rs. 500 as husband or wants a change, she declares that she an amount of reet to the first husband. wants to leave him. She goes to her parents' house and does not return. In the meanwhile Widow re-marriage is permitted among certain she may fall in love. Both of them may decide castes. She is at liberty to marry after six months to marry. The new husband pays some money of her husband's death. to the former husband. This amount is known as reet. So far as the consent of the first husband Marriage takes place in the same caste but out­ to release his wife is concerned, it is never refused side the same gotar. Polygamous and polyandrous by him. By granting permission, he can also marriages are found among these people living get married. here. For polygamy, a man takes a second wife or more. One has more wives to help in agri­ The remarriage takes place on a suitable day. culture or when he has no male child froD;l the The groom does not go to the bride's house. She first wife. There are 34 men who hav~ more than accompanies the party sent from the groom's one wife living. 52 had married more than once. side. The party consists of 4-5 'men. Feasts There are 11 men who have divorced their wives, are arranged in which a goat is slain. Songs and and have not remarried. There m::e 40 widows dal1ces are held at night. No dowry is given to the and 23 widowers. Castewise distribution has been bride. given in Table 12.

TABLE 12 Marriage Table Monogamy Polygamy Polyandry ,----"--_--. ,---"-__.... ,--____...A....- _____--.

Man having Two brothers More than two Man having one moI'e than one brothers having Widows Widowers Caste living wife having one one or more living wife common wife common wives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Brahmin 19

Badhi 2 ... '" Chamar 4 Doom 5 Kolis 98 22 10 3 19 12 Lohar Rajput 58 11 4 2 15 8 Vaish THE PEOPLE 25

In polyandrous marriage, one woman has more A dying person is laid on the ground in the corner. than one husband or brothers share one wife. They Near relatives present in the house gather round may have common wives. K.M. Kapadia in his him while a message is sent to others. After book "Marriage and Family" in India says, "This breathing his last, limbs are stretched and the form of union was once practised by the people of mouth and eyes are closed. Panch-ratna is given. the Cis-Himalayan tract in northern India and A piece of gold is dipped in it and known as among some tribes of the pre-Dravidian or sanwani. Curd and Ganga Jal are given. Some Dravidian groups in South India. It is supposed families of Kolis place four anna silver coin in the to have once been a trait of the old culture from \mouth of the dying person. the classic instance of Draupadi having the five Pandavas of Mahabharta fame as her husbands \ The relatives and men gather around and chant and some vague allusions to polyandry in the ram, ram. In case the dying person utters some names of gods, the people repeat the same. The Vedic mytholo~." last wishes are strictly followed. In all, there are 21 polyandrous familtes. In Cremation-The village Badhi is sent for. He 15 cases, two bn;>tners have one wife and in 6 helps other villagers to prepare the bier. After cases, more than ,two brothers have one or more four or five hours, the dead body is laid on bier common wives. Qut of three more cases, in one and covered with a red cloth. Two men carry case, two brothers pad two wives common, (now the bier to the cremation ground. Near relath es one is dead) and in'two other cases, two brothers carry the bier and afterwards others help on the had one common ~ife (now dead). I way. The cremation takes place at the bank In such a marria~e, eldest brother is the re­ of Bharegka khala two miles away. The funeral presentative of all b.t:.~thers in matters of marriage procession is accompanied by musicains. At places and conjugal life. lie first marries the wife and the bier is placed on the ground while sad tunes other brothers have access to the wife later on. are played. To celebrate this lnarriage, sometimes y01.l~lger On reaching the cremation ground, the body brothers take the initiative and approach the s pl.aced on the pyre. It is prepared by the village elder brother that he should get married again Kolls and helped by Swarans. Each villager brings to increase the working hands. one piece of wood for the pyre. In case of short­ age, a gainoo tree is cut. The wood is supplied In some cases a wife does not like a particular for the pyre. It is said that wood from a green husband. She gets married to. some one of her gainoo tree lights quickly. choice. This is done with the consent of his other brothers, which of course is not refused. The No maha-brahmins accompany nor any rice new wife can either be the sole wife of her'husband balls are offered to the departed soul. Only or can be shared by other brothers in due course. A among Brahmins, rice balls are offered ·by the hint to and consent on the part of new wife, deter­ chief mourner. After the body is placed on the mines the relationship between her and other pyre, the chief mourner sets fire to it with his left brothers. hand. While doing so, he does not face the pyre. The shroud covering the body is removed and People argue that polyandry is necessary for ·given to a maha-brahmin whenever he visits the the security of family property. They say that this house. Ghee is poured on the pyre so that the keeps the family closely knit and I?revents divjsi?ns. dead body may be consumed quickly. It is favoured because people have small holdmgs for which joint living is necessary. This is secured Families who can afford to send the astu to by polyandrous marriage where brothers have Hardwar, collect them the same day. Others co-operation and the number of family members wash them in the stream. The musicians are given does not increase so rapidly. grains. After completion of the rite, everyone returns home leaving the chief mourner in his Death rites house. While returning they have a bath in the stream and wash their clothes. Whenever a Children below the age of ten years are buried. maha-brahmin visits the house, he is given some Persons dying of leprosy are also buried. Others old clothes of the deceased and some cereals. are cremated. If death occurs in the evening, funeral rites are 26 THE PEOPLE postponed till the next morning. Mourners do on the 3rd day. The family is purified for cele­ not eat fried vegetables and pulses till the day of brating the ceremony. On this day, hawan is purification. They sleep on the fioor. Other villagers performed and food is served to the Brahmin. do not have water or food from his hands till the Every year sharads are observed by" Brahmins period of mourning is over. and not by other castes. Special food is served Shudhi-The day of purification takes place on to other Brahmins. the 13th day. Relatives and friends ate informed A watch is kept .over the dead body during of this. Hawan is performed by a Brahmin. A night lest it shonld turn into a ghost. feast of patindas, ghee andjaggery is served to those present. The Brahmin who performs hawan One is remembered of Shakespeares words in is given some grains and cash. In case a marriage Hamlet. or religious katha is taking place in the house Ghost-I am thy father's spirit Doom'd for immediately after the death, purification is held a certain time to wake the night ...... 3 Economy

PEOPLE in Rajana earn their livelihood by agri­ TABLE 14 culture. Some artisan communities follow different traditional occupations. These are weav­ Workers classified by sex, age groups and ing, blacksmithy, ,carpentry, repairing of agricul­ occupation. tural implements and shoe making, practised by Agriculture Industry Business Service Badhis and ~hamars, Dooms, Lohars, Kolis. Age group ,.--__ .A--, ,.--_.A-, ,.--_..A.._, ,.--_..A.._, Some Kolis Have water mills. These are run P M F P MF PM F P M F by waters of the ,bharag-ka-khala. Then{ is a ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~ 9 10 11 12 13 Badhi tailor. Two ,households own sroall'shops. All ages 655 334 321 8 8 2 3 3 A gram sewak, a 'patwari and tWQ teachers are " " 0-14 government servan~s. Recently, a midwife and three 42 26 16 new teachers have pome. Besides agriculture and 15-34 251 119 132 1 1 3 3 some rural crafts, ~eopls rear 'cattle, goats and 35-59 295 147 148 5 5 .. 1 sheep. Some houseJ;lOlds also sell milk and ghee 60 & over 67 42 25 2 2 1 1 .. at Dadahu. Some young men work with con­ " tractors on roads and bUildings. Largest number of 295 agriculturists fall in the Villagers seldom purchase food stuffs from age-groups of 35-59 years. Then comes the outside. They go to Dadahu to sell ginger, their age-groups of 15 to 34 years, in which are 251 cash crop. In exchange they buy articles like agriculturists. In business and industry, some cloths, utensils, spices, cigartttes and salt. Dadahu men are engaged, . is a growing market. ' Possession of land Frequent visits to Dadah,u ~nd Nahan would grapually change the tastes, requirements and the Brahmins and Rajputs own land. They have stan~ard of ~living. Their economy would undergo Kolis and Harijan as tenants. Vaish households a change. I do not own land. Two Brahmins and one Rajput households have land from farmers. Following Workers and non-workers caste-wise statement indicates the extent of land holdings owned, or taken in or given out by Economy is dependent on man power. In Rajana, there are 668 workers. different households--

TABLE 13 Agriculture Workers and Non-workers. The principal kharif or autumn harvest or summer crops are- Total Populatipn Workers Non-Worker " Age group 1. Adrak Ginger 2. Chalai Millet P M F P MFPMF 3. Chawal Rice 2 3 -4 5 6 7 8 9' 10 4. Kawani Millet All ages 850 434 416 688 346 322 182 88 94 5. Kulthi Millet 0-14 220 114 106 42 26 16 178 88 90 6. Makki Maize 7. Mandowa 15-34 257 123 134 255 123 132 2. . 2 Millet 8. Sonak Millet 35-59 301 152 149 301 152 149 9. Tomacco ., Tobacco 60 Ii over 72 45 27 70 45 25 "" .. 2 10. Urad Black grain 27 28 ECONOMY

TABLE 15 Statement showing households in the possession of land

Households and extent of land ,------"------,

~ u ....'" II) t1 0 > til til 0 ~ 0\ .0 Caste Nature of interest of land I:l «I 0 ~ .....'" .... '"...~ '0 c '"c (.J 2 e'" c ~ ~ E til til '0 (..I (..I III U ~ j;l .... ~ '" II) 0 0 ~ .. '" N V) N 0 8 ... ~ ... 1"11 <.l (..I 0 «I 0 I I V) 0 2 .... 0 z N -V) N .,.. 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 Badhi 1. Land-owned 2. Land held {rom private persons or institutions 2 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions

Brabmin I. Land-owned 6 3 2

:2. Land held from private persons or institutions 2 , " 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions 2 3 2 ~ Chamar I. Land-owned 2. Land held from private persons or institutions 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions Doom 1. Land-owned 2. Land held from private persons or institutions 3. Land.given out to private persons or institutions Koli 1. Land-owned 2. Land held from private persons or institutions 5 11 57 to 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions Lohar 1. Land-owned 2. Land held from private persons or institutions 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions Rajput I. Land-9wned 27 19 2 2. Land held from private persons or institutions 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions 9 33 Vaish 1. Land-owned 2 2. Land held from private persons or institutions , 3. Land given out to private persons or institutions ECONOMY 29

These crops are sown in May, June and harvested before monsoons and are reaped gradually in in October. Of these, chalai, tobacco and potatoes August and September. are grown in small quantities. Rotation of Crops The rabi crops and spring harvest or winter crops include: Usually crops are sown by rotation. Rabi crop is not grown on land on which crops like Local name English name mandowa, chalai and kulthi has been harvested in the proceeding kharif. During the pel'iod, 1. Gehun Wheat when the land remains fallow, it is manured, and 2. Jau Barley rabi crop may be grown after rice and maize and 3. Lahson Garlic any kharif crop may be grown after wheat or 4. Piyaz Onion barley. Wheat or tobacco is sown on land on which ginger has been harvested. 5. Sarson Mustard 6. Tamaccqo Tobacco Jinswar Statements The Jinswar statements for kharif and rabi These are '~own in November. Wheat and for the last ten years have been taken from the barley are the chief rabi crops. patwari's lal kitab. In kharif, the largest area Valuable cropTThe valuaple cash crop of the is occupied by maize. Next comes paddy, mandowa village is ginger. It is carried on mules or by and ginger. Taking the figures for 1961, maize farmers on their backs in big conical baskets to was grown on 60% of the land. Paddy, mandowa Dadahu where \t fetches the price between and ginger were grown on 34, 44 and 30 acres. Rs. 20 to 3,0 per maund. Among rabi crops, wheat and barley are grown more commonly. During the year 1961, wheat Vegetables-Vegetables such as brinjal, cucum­ and barley were sown on 93 % and 8 %of the sown bers, garlic, onions, pumpkins and gourds are area. The area sown in kharif season is more than grown. These vegetables are sown in May-June, rabi.

TABLE 16 Jinswar Statement for Kharij. Year 1961-1961 .

...u ... co < is 1 12 18

1951 28 42 18 193 4 7 2 32 6 343 5 348 348 687 1952 23 49 ] .. 5 186 .. 1 2 7 30 4 310 310 310 687 1953 30 60 4 .. 219 .. 4 6 33 4 1 363 363 363 687 1954 35 37 8 .. 11 207 .- 2 8 " 28 3 334 334 334 687 1955 38 42 9.. 7 191 .. 2 2 38 5 334 334 334 687 1956 47 44- 6 9 202 .. 3 3 .. 39 3 356 356 356 687 1957 26 44 12 .. 214 6 5 4 29 6 346 346 346 688 1958 31 45 6 217 2 4 8 .. 22 5 346 346 346 688 1959 34 45 4 .. 4 -208 4 6 31 7 14 344 344 344 688 1960 34 44 5 4 6 195 .. 7 8 32 7 342 342 342 688 1961 34 44 4 5 4 210 7 3 .. 30 7 348 348 34B 68B 30 ECONOMY

TABLE 17

Jinswar Statement for R~bi, Year 1952-1961

fA t;.c~ .. ., ou .... '"0 8- 0...... 1"""10 ';;' ., .... 0 .... .0 ~ "' .... U'tl ... 0 (,) 0 8~ '"~.o '" 0 'tl B ...... '" 01': ~ (,) :0 .... 0 Uo .....0 :>. I': .S:! ~ 0 ~ .l ..... _ '" ;; '" cg, I': CdC'"";' «l .0 ,r:J Ill) '"::I ...... 0..2 $~ .... oo~ ~4)OO 0 cd 0 0 'c OJ'" 0", 00 "' ...... 0 >< ~ I=Q r.< > 0 c.. ;:?j 0'" r.<..c <.z: r.<", ~"'(,)", ~5~

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1952 269 14 2 286 5 291 291 688 1953 277 4 282 282 282 688 1954 270 8 280 280 280 688 1955 261 12 2 278 278 278 688 1956 259 14 276 276 276 688 1957 247 28 278 278 278 687/10 1958 79 2 326 326 326 687

1959 240 11 2 254 254 254 687 1960 253 15 3 2 273. 274 274 688 1961 248 17 2 267 267 267 688 Agriculture Calendar The annual agriculture activities have been shown as fo119w, which include domestic activities as well-

Month Activities

Magha (January-February) Hoeing and manuring wheat alongwith roughing and planting of ginger, sale of ginger, building houses,

Phalguna (February-March) Repairing and building houses, sale of ginger. Chaitra (March-April) Weeding of wheat, sale of ginger, ploughing fallow land for ginger, keeping a watch on fields, sowing rice. Vaisakha (April· May) Ginger sowing in the fields, harvesting of wheat and barley and threshing and winnowing crops. Jyaistha (May-June) Ploughing fields after Rabi harvesting and then sowing maize and other Khar;! crops. Asadha (June-July) Apply manure, sowing maize and other Khar;! crops. Sravana (July· August) Apply second dose of manure to maize. Earth up thin maize crop. Manuring of other Khari! crops.

Bhadra (August·September) Hoeing of Khari!crops alongwith manuring,

Asvina (September-October) Hoeing of Khar;/, harvestin~ of early sown Khari/ crops. Picking of crops from maize plants and bringing them home from the fields. ECONOMY 31

Month Activites Kartika (October·November) Harvesting of late sown Khari/ crop.~ Ploughing fields after maize harvesting. Sowing wheat, barley and other Rabi crops. Threshing of maize cobs. Harvest­ ing mandowa. Ploughing and collecting ginger.

Agrahayana (November-December) Harvesting ginger. Ploughing of fields. Pausa (December·January) Sowing Rabi crops like wheat and barley. Sale of ginger at Dadahu . • Agricultura~ Practices KHARIF CROPS Condition\ of agriculture seem a little/difficult. Rice-Rice is either' transplanted or sown. Types of land, soil components and texture, ¥ostly rice is cultivated by sowing, done in the topographic qonditions, temperature and rain­ mLddle of Chaitra after the rains. The cultivations fall determine the agricultural conditions. In are :- some cases, poJitions of the fields count. Two ploughings Here terrace ~ltivation is common. Frelds are Sowing and transplanting prepared after l!{velling. Terraces run by with Levelling small walls. Cothpost Manure is used. There is very little irrigation. Villagers have to depend Hoeing (in Asadha) on the rains. An9t~er feature of the agricultur~l Harvesting (in Asvina-Kartika) system here 'is the (dIstance of fields from mam After harvesting, the crops are stored in the village. Fields are f((atterfd. field in a heap with cobs facing the centre. D~chies are constructed near the fields situated Threshing is done in the field on big date-leave-mats at a distance. These ate a, sort of cattle-sheds. covered with cloth. Grains are carried home They facilitate carryi:qg l}1anures from 40chies in goat skins. to the nearby fields. ,I Local agriculture implements are used. First pl'Oughing is done to/ dig the land. As the comers of the fields cannot be r~ached by the plough hod, earth is unturned by a kasha. First ploughing, is undertaken to expose the earth to moisture and to soften the soil. Then land is levelled with a leveller. Clods are broken. For some crops, the general practice is to plough once. For others, two or three ploughings are given. Fields near water channel are watered before ploughing. Last ploughing and furrows are done to, facilitate sowing. In kharif, a wooden harrow is applied to remove weeds' after crops have sprouted upto five inches. Hoeing and weeding of crops are done when they are half-ripe. After crops are ready, they ate reaped and removed. On these days, men, women and children work till dusk. On the one hand, harvesting, threshing, winnowing of the crops is done and on the other hand, fields are prepared for the next sowing. The grain·is stored in kothar. The agriculture operations -for khari/ and rabi crops are as follows: Serdu. Seed. 32 ECONOMY

Maize-Is sown in months of lyaistha-Asadha. carried out by beating with wooden sticks. The The seeds are mixed with chalai, so that the crop grains are removed after winnowing. is not destroyed by pests. The cultivation is : Ginger-Is the main cash crop sown in Chaitra- Two ploughings Vaisakha, the cultivation is : Sowing Two ploughings Levelling Manuring Hoeing (in Asadha) Levelling Harvesting (in Bhadra-Asvina) Planting Watering Manure is applied twice or thirce. When the crop is a foot high, a simple ploughing is done Hoeing (Twice) to soften the ground. The big size grain-stalks Watering' are reserved for making sattu. The other quality Harvesting (in Magha) is kept for making flour. Eight to ten people gather at the request of one household and finish Ginger having three faces is preferred for sowing. the work of removing the crops .. While working, Fields are watered twice. A layer of dry ~rass tobacco is served. The~e is some singing. is spread when plants sprout. Ginger is grown on irrigated land and not grown on the same land Mandowa-Is sown in the month of lyaistha for two successive years. Roots are taken out in and grown on all types of land. The process is : Magha and removed to the house. S,oonth is made Two ploughing from it. ' Sowing RABI CROPS Levelling Wooden harrowing (Asadha-Sravana) Wheat-Is sown by broadcast method in the months of Bhadra-Asvina and is grown on all Hoeing (Sravana) types of land. Its cultivation is : Harvesting (Asvina) Two ploughings When the crop is a little high, the weeds are Sowing removed by a harrow. The harvested crop is Ploughing taken to the threshing floor. It is kept for a week to dry. Then the crop is threshed with the Levelling help of bullocks. Grains are winnowed, collected Manuring and stored. Hoeing Kawni-Is a millet sown alongwith rice. It may Harvesting (in Vaisakha) be sown separately. One or two ploughings are It is said that wheat sown in Asvina, yields a given. Hoeing is done in Bhadra. The crop good crop. After harvesting, the crop is spread is harvested alongwith rice. It is either threshed for a day in the fields. Next day, it is tied in bundles, with hands or with the bullocks depending on the removed and threshed. It is winnowed and grains quantity. Winnowin~ is done with a shoop. dried for two to three days and stored. Sonak-Is sown ~n Chaitra after a single plough­ Barley-Its cultivation process i~: ing. Hoeing is done in ~sadha and harvested in Asvina. Other processes ,are similar to mandowa. Two ploughings Sowing _ Urad-Is sown alongwith maize, but harvested Levelling after twenty to twenty-five days of maize reaping. After drying on the threshing fioor, threshing is Hoeing done with bullocks. The cereals are removed. Harvesting Kulthi-Is a millet sown in Asadha. It requires Sown by a broadcast method and crops are har­ rough ploughing and grows on 3,11 types of land. vested in the beginning of Chaitra. After threshing, The crop is harvested in Magha. Threshing is grains are collected and stored. ECONOMY 33

Tobacco-Is grown twice a year. The first crop The local measurement for ginger is gheela is sown in Jyaistha and harvested in Magha. The conical basket. A gheela contains 32 seers or 2 second crop is sown in Magha and harvested in kaccha maunds of ginger. Asadha. Two ploughings. are given. After sowing and levelling, fields are watered. Hoeing is carried Seeds when the crop is a little high. It is again watered six to seven times. When the crop is ready, leaves Improved variety of seeds are supplied at cheap are removed. Irates. These are giving good results. The farmers Onion-The seedlings are brought from Nahan. \who cannot purchase these seeds, use their own Mter one ploughing, small beds are made. These ~eeds. Seed for ginger is kept in big pits dug are watered ten to twelve times. Pla,nting is done in front of houses. in the monthl of Pausa-Magha, hoeing in Phat­ guna-Chaitra a:qd the crop is harvested in Jyaistha­ Irrigation Asadha. Secon~ njanuring is done when tbe crop i~ one foot high. There is no regular irrigation. Two springs near village provide irrigation to a few fields. This Garlic-After two ploughings, it is sown in the is by flow. The people are unsophisticated and months of Bhadra 'in beds prepared similar to that have not been adopting various devices for regu­ for onion. Fields are watered and hoeing is lating the supply of water. There is not much done in the mont~ of Phalguna-Chaitra. Crop silt except after heavy rains. is harvested in the ,onth of Jyaistha. Tobacco, onion and garlic are grown on irrigated The different parts of a plough are shown in the diagram- lan~s. I \ Agricultural Yields The approximate produc'e per bigha for different crops and the seed required for a bigha of 'land is also given below :

Yield per Seed sown in a Crops bigha bigha 2 3 Barley 3i maunds 71 seers Chalai Ii maunds 8 chhataks Ginger 12 to 15 mds. 3 to 4 mds. Gogti 4 maunds 30'seers Kawani 2 maunds 12 chhataks Kulthi 1 to 2 mds. 4 seers Maize 3 to 3! mds. 4 seers Mandowa 2 maunds 12 chhataks Onion 3 maunds n seers Rice 2 maunds 7i seers Sonak 2 maunds 12 chhataks Tobacco 2 seers 7i seers Urad 1 to 2 mds. 4 seers Wheat 2 maunds 6 seers Agricultural implement 34 ECONOMY

TABLE 18 Agricultural Implement!i The agricultural implements used are :-

Estimated Name of implement with Duration Price Use to which it is put Remarks English equivalent. (Rs.) (Years)

2 3 4 5 Bilanoochi (Smaller sickle) 3.00 5 Harvesting and for cutting Locally made. grass Dachh (Sickle) 4.00 6 -do-- -do- Dachh (Small sickle) 3.00 5 -'-do- -do- Gayane (wooden forked rake) 6.(,0 5 For weeding -do- Gheela (a conical basketl 3.00 3 For carrying grain and grass -do- Hod (Plough) 10.00 7 Ploughing -do- Joon (Yokes) 6.00 5 -do- -do- Kasha (Big hoe) 5.00 8 For digging fields Pu~ased Karadi (Axe) 5.00 6 For cutting wood Locally made Kushda (Small hoe) 3.00 6 For hoeing Purchaspd Moiyado (Leveller) 8.00 6 Levelling the fields after Locally made ploughing

Oda (Big basket) 1.50 4 Foi- keeping agricultural pro- duce and to take manures to -do- fields

Odki (Small basket) 1.00 3 -do- -do- Ramba (Farwa) 10.00 8 For removing earth Purchased Shupoo (Winnower) 1.50 4 F or winnowing Locally made Soaroo (Measuring vessel) 1.00 5 For measuring grains -do- Thoothany (Blinkers) 2.00 3 For cattle's mouths -do- Tokri (Small basket) 1.00 3 For keeping agricultural pro- duce and to take manures to :_do- fields

Plant Diseases and Weeds Name of Pes,ts and disease which prey the crop upon the crops Certain weeds, pests and diseases attack different Barley (i) Rust ;""':With this disease, leaves of crops. For wheat and barley, kungi weed is harm­ the plants becqme yellowish. ful. Augra is a weed grown in wheat and maize moda weed harms ginger while zhala grows in (ii) Loose Smut ;-This disease blackens chalai. the grains of the plant. Chalai-Crows, rats, parrots, porcupine and Ginger Red & White :-With this disease the stem of the plant becomes red or monkeys destroy. white and the whole plant dries up. ECONOMY 35

Maize The cobs of the maize plant get substituted for mandowa. This is kept filled up blackened with the disease. for about one week, the contents are taken out Paddy Root Rot :-This disease directly and the skin is dried in the sun and a bag common­ attacks roots of the plants and plant ly known as khaltto is made. begins to dry. A bull is yoked at the age of four years and cows Potato (i) Epilachnna Bittle :-This pest sucks begin to give milk at the same age or a little the leaves and destroys the whole plant. later. (ii) Black Hart :-It attacks the potato When an animal dies, the carcase is removed from inside arid potato begins to rot. by the cobbler. The skin is removed tanned and (iii~, Late blight and early blight :-rThis shoes made. These shoes are known as joday. is virus disease of potato. Due to this disease, the leaves dry up: The animals are set free in the morning along with a member of household and are driven home (iv) Fut-worm :-This worm eats potato under the ground. in the evening. This person may be a young boy or a small girl. If an elder goes along some spinning Urad Mash hairy catt~r piller :-This pest may be done in the forest. di~ectly attacks Ileaves of the plants ana chews the plants. Animals are given dry hay, green leaves, residue Wheat San)e.as in the case of Barley. of the flour after sieving and some dry bread left from the previous night. They are given salt at intervals._ Dry hay, is cut from pasture in Horticulture December and January and stored for the remaining period. The grass is stacked in an open ridge In spite of the continued supp,ly of fruit plants at or slopes near the village in high conicals stacks. cheap rates by the Comrimnity Development staff, Cattle are kept in dochie where a member of the people could not catch' up/with the horticulture. household looks after them. The physical condi­ We gather that Kolis get 'plants at concessional tion of the cattle is poor due to lack of nourishing rates. Plums, peaches, pears and apricots are the fodder. The average life of a buffaloe is fifteen varieties of plants provided. years while a cow or a bull may live upto 13 years.· Horticulture, jt was felt, was not profitable. Poultry is becoming popular, young men like Due to many reasons, Y,agaries of clirnate, birds to eat eggs. The Gram Sewak has distributed or animals, or the waiting of many years-there some improved varieties of poultry birds among a was a common feeling that Horticulture here few farmers. would not be of great help. There seemed to The nearest veterinary hospital is at Dadahu. be an apathy towards growing fruits. Villagers give local treatment to cattle in the village because it becomes difficult to take a sick Animal husbandry animal to Dadahu although Dadahu is not so far away. It is very rare that a cattle is taken to the Cattle are an indispensable asset to the villagers. veterinary hospital. Castration work is performed Bulls, buffaloes, cows, and goats reared by all castes by the veterinary stockman in the village. The are of hill breed and are small. Average milk local treatment given to animals for different yield of a cow is two to three seers in a day and that diseases are : of she buffaloes is 6 to 8 seers per day. They also rear up goats and sheep. Shearing is done twice 1. Nidada-In this disease the legs of the animal in a year; once in the month of Bhadra ·and the get swollen. The local remedy is to. charm second time in the month of Phalguna. The the animal with leaves of Sawadi. Chillies wool is spun, and woven by weavers to make and Karanday mixed in mustard oil is garments. When a goat dies by accident or due applied to legs. Gradually the limp dis­ to some illness, its meat is consumed by the family, appeared. and a bag is made out of its skin. To make a 2. Eating of poisonous grass-Villagers re: bag the skin is rubb~d with cow-dung and filled vealed that certain animals eat poisonous with mandowa grain. Ash or wheat straw may be Changoosh shrub. As a cure, charmed 36 ECONOMY

water is given to the animal. Another cure To cure it, phenyal, mustard and taramira for this disease is to gi~e powdered soonth oil is applied to hoofs.' mixed with ghee. 5. Cattle begin to loose hair in the month of Phalguna for which there is no remedy. 3. ConsJipation-For this, powder mixed with luke warm water is given to the cattle. 6. If an animal meets an accident and breaks one of its limb, it is at once tied with 4. Roda-It is said that this is a contagious flat thin pieces of wood. After few days, disease and spreads with the shoes. . This animal's limb may be cured. Table 19 disease causes the hoofs of the animal to below gives data about the cattle reared by bleed and sometimes they contain worms. different castes here.

TABLE 19. Live stock statistics Cows Calves Buffaloes Oxen Goats Sheep Fowl

,--"---, ,--''----. ,---"---, ,_-A-._-, ,_--A..-~ r---A--. ,--A-.... --. '0 "0 ..r::: IU rIl ;::s :Ii :i 0 :Ii :Ii :ci '. ~ ..r::: 0 :Ii 0 :Ii 0 :Ii 0 ci :Ii ci " :I: 6 .... Z Z .... Z ... Z ....~ Z .... Z ... Z 0 Ol ""'0 Ol 0 Ol 0 Ol 0 Ol 0 Ol 0 Ol ...... '...... ci '0 ci 0 0 0 0 0 ci 0 0 0 0 '0 Z Eo-< Z Eo-< Z Eo-< Z Eo-< Z Eo-< Z Eo-< Z Eo-< 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Badhi 3 9 3 6 2 3 2 3 2 Brahmin. 12 43 II 29 9 9 12 39 4 27 2 8 Chamar 2 6 2 2 2 Doom 2 4 2 4 2 4 Koli 85 214 69 141 12 15 84 192 40 302 11 28 9 32 Lohar 2 2 .. Rajput 50 162 49 133 10 J 12 48 141 20 157 9 32 10 53 Vaish

Forest from lubbal forest about 15-20 miles away. This is available at market rates. However, they It was in the reign of Maharaj Amar Prakash were entitled for free timber from their own (1911-1933) that villagers did not have any shamlat deh, for which application was to be rights in other adjoining forest because, they forwarded to Divisional Forest Officer through had their own shamlat. Now on the lines of that patwari halka. If any person was found cutting decision people have no rights in Government tree in shamlat deh without prior approval, the forest. Their own shamlat had dense forest.· Due case was referred to the Deputy -Commissioner. to ruthless cutting of trees in the past, their For obtaining timber from Government forest shamlat has become barren. They had been the application is forwarded through the Pan­ reported to sell timber to non-right holders not chayat. If any person is found cutting 'trees with­ belonging to Rajana. Now they bring timber out approval, he is fined. ECONOMY 37

Fishing (ii) Basu-Under this system, the land-lords give a small portion of agriculture land to the tenant Giri stream and Barag-ka-khala contain a and the tenant acts as a labourer on the land. variety of fish like masher, guji, launchi and The tenant does not pay revenue ·of the land and gunch. Some may go on fishing once a while. receives food during the period of labour. Weights and Measurements' (ii) Baigari-Is another type of tenancy. Big land-lords give sm:all strips of land to tenants. Theyare sent by the land-lords for any private . For sale of ginger, the maund weight is used work like carrying things to Dadahu. They are In the niar~et. But for purchases like salt, given some food. These are known as Baigaris. tobacco, ~pIces and other such commodities at Dadahu, kilograms and grams are used. For (iv) Boara-This tenancy is similar to Basu'. purch~sing' cloth, metre is used by ~hopkeepers The little difference is that a small house along­ and vIllagef\l are made to understand in terms with land is given to a Boara whereas only land of yards. is given to a Basu. In Rajana ~here are traditional measurements Food is given to tenants once a day with a which are cpmmonly used. These different thakri full of sattu. Tenants are poor villa­ measurements ,are:- gers having small houses. According ,to the patwari tenants who cultivat­ 1 Jooni = 16 pathas ed lands have started acquiring. land under the I patha 4 Kacha seer (wheat) abolition of big landed Act. After obtaining the or 1t pacca seer number of the land holdings under his plough from patwari, the tenant files an application with 1 ·Kacha seer ,- 6 chhataks. the compensation court at Nahan for the A patha is ~nO\vri as Boru and contains ownership. Th~ rates of land are fixed by the different quantities for different crops. court at Rs. 24 per bigha for a tenant having rights, maroosi and at Rs. 48 per bigha for the For instlJ.nce, it contains 2 kacha seers ~f paddy, tenant having no rights, gairmaroosi. 4 kacha seers of wheat :lnd Mandowa, 2t kacha seers of maiz~ grains apd '2 kacha seers of barley. Price of land

Tenanc~ The panchsala statement for the last ten years is taken from the Patwari. There were Here tenants are usually the Harijans. They fifteen mutation cases. The total deed value do not give produce to the land-lords, but came to Rs. 7,650 for an area of 40-4 bighas. work as agricultural labourer. There is four Out of this 30 bighas are cultivable. The large types of tenancy here. number of mutation cases took place in 1959-60 when the area involved was 43-11 bighas and the . (i) Hadi-These tenants do agricultural labour price was Rs. 5,160/-, excluding Rs. 18/10/9 as m l~eu of SOme unpaid interest of loan taken from revenue. The average price of land for panchsala th~Ir la~d-lords. They are given food during period for 1956-61 comes to Rs. 191/4/- per bigha. t~IS penod. Some pieces of old clothes are gIven. The total revenue for all the area comes to Rs. 23/10/6 is-

TABLE 20 Panchsala Statement (Rajana) Year No. of cases Total area Cultivable land Revenue Price 1956·57 2 2-5 2-5 1/1/9 14,440/- 1957-58 1959·60 12 34-11 24-15 18/10/9 5,160/ 1960·61 3-4 3·0 3/14/- 1,050/- Total 15 40-4 30-0 23/10/6 7.650/- 38 ECONOMY

From the mutation statement it appears that There is no fixed rate for the land. When- some Rajputs have ,sold their lands compared to ever a farmer needs money, he disposes off land other castes. More Kolis have been purchasing at the rea'dily available rate depending on the type these lands. of land. From the panchsala average price or land, it seems that the price is not high. TABLE 21. Details of Mutation Cases (Rajput). Name and caste of Name and caste of Year person selling land person purchasing Total area Price Revenue Remarks. land 234 5 6 7 12·2-1959 Rehnoo, Rajput Cheenta, Koli 2 - 1-2 400/- 3/2/­ Cultivable land -do- Maignoo, Rajput Maniran, Badhi 5 - 0 100/- -/3/3 Kalaoo & cultiva­ ble land

-do- Chenanoo, Rajput Hera & party, Koli 7 - 1 140/- 4/4/6 -do-

-do- Facknoo, Lohar Jalpoo & party, 1 - 19 500/- 1/10/6 -do- Koli -do- Meeno and party Jalmoo & party, 2-18 400/- 3/4/- C\lltivable & Barren Lohar Koli (12 Biswas land Barren) 14-12·1962 Chenanoo & party, Netar Singh & party 4-6 600/- -/5/- Barren Lohar Brahmin of Maina. 8-6-1962 Sham/at deh Nakta, Koli 15 -7 14i/- 2/7/3 Compensation Case (7-4 Maj­ rooha) 8-3 Ghasan) 8-6-1962 Chet Ram Rajput Meena & party Koli 0- 13 1001- -ll/t;i Ka/aoo 11-8-1962 Bookhiyan Rajput Chandoo Koli 3-1 101.25 P. 1/11/3 Cultivable (Com­ pensation Case)

-do- -do- Shedoo, Koli 3 -18 145.50 P. 2/6/9 -do- -do- Maindroo, Rajput Ram Singh Rajput 0-18 100/- -/-/6 Barren Mortgages A farmer is in ne~d of money and frequently The following statement shows the number of borrowing is common. If he is not able to get mortgages which took place during the period a money lender then he mortgages his land. 1951-62. TABLE 22. Area mortgaged in acres Year No. of mortgages Total area Cultivable area Revenue Mortgage debt 1951-56 1956-57 2 1/- '1200/- 1957-59 1959-60 4 2 4/­ 2020/- 1960-61 3 Sf- 1450{-

1961-62 2 1/- 1100/- Note: Area measuring less than! acre has not been indicated in the statement. ECONOMY 39

This statement in respect of agricultural land in the case of a division, he may get extra money has been taken from the village note-book. as a share of debt from his other brothers. During the last ten years there were only 11 mort­ In some cases, the debter continues to cultivate gage cases. The mortgage debt indicated in Col. the land with the consent of land-lords and the No. 6 does not show the actual market price. former does some work. This takes place' A greedy land-lord tries to give the lowest price of when the mortgager is not.able to cultivate the land. the land to the debter and on the other A mortgagee can sell the deed to another land­ hand a needy farmer mortgages his land at any, lord alongwith the rights. price available to him. There is one more reason for the high amount of mortgaged debt entered in the reve,nue papers. In case of an apprehension Redemption of division of property, the elder brother will mortgage the land at certain debt and . gets the The redemption statement given below has been high entrie'~ in the revenue papers. Because taken from village note book.

TABj.,B 23. Consideration No. of Total area Cultivated Revenue money paid on Year redemption redeemed area redeemed account of .-etll:lIIpUun

1951-52 5 5/- 185/-

1952.~3 8 12 9 10/· 918/- 1953-54 1956·57 1/- 80/-

1957-58 90/·

1958·59 2 6/- 281/-

1959·60 2 2/.

1960-61 3 2/- 380/-

1961·62 Note: Area measuring less than! acre has not been taken into account.

There were twenty one redemption cases during Better off Rajputs and Brahmin farmers are the the last ten years. Sometimes a part of the money lenders and their tenants borrow money. mortgaged land is redeemed. Col. No.6 indicates When they are not able to pay the loan, they the consideration money paid in cash on account work on the fields as tenants. Among the higher of redemption. No interest is levied on the castes, there is much co-operation and fellow feel­ mortgaged deb,t. ing with regard to borrowing. Whenever anyone needs money one gets it from the friends, relatives Indebtedness and neighbours, without going into any deed. No interest is generally charged. The amount Table 24'-shows the indebtedness to some extent. is repaid after the sale of ginger crop. Three households have indicated that they are If interest is charged, the rate is 12t %. There under debt. The principal causes for debt are is another way of charging interest k~own as marriage and miscellaneous needs. Villagers Takina Bayaz. The debtor pays one anna for each spend much on marriage to keep up their respect rupee. 64 % of the amount to the money lender in the community. No debt was taken for liti­ there and then. after it, the usual rate of interest gation or for illness. and Rs. 12i follows. 40 ECONOMY

TAItLE 24. Indebtedness by income group

Income groups Total No. of No. of households A verage indebtedness househol!js in debt per household to debt 2 3 4 Rs. 25 & below 5

Rs.26-50 62 1,000 Rs.51-75 51 100 Rs.76-1oo 25 Rs. 101 & above 18

Sometimes villagers sell or mortgage jewellery. a few artisans. This table gives a glimpse of Peasants lend half the money to the value of these~ jewellery. The money that is taken is returne~ at .tbc nr,nmi.li.!"..cl t~ _Pi'.asaDis.make..a mncS!SS.lilll »JP. p/ Cc?J/e of the time limit. No interest is levied at such Households deeds. Kolis who are victims of such loans work as labourers under obligation. In case the Basket making 2 Doom debtor does not return the money in time he looses Blacksmithy 1 Lohar the ornaments. Even household utensils are Carpentry 3 mortgaged. Loans that ar~ taken by th~ peop~e Badhi are noted in books by nch peasants m theIr Shoe making 2 ChamaI' own Sirmuri Tankri dialect. Weaving 7 Koli Carpentry-Three carpenters live in lower Raj ana. One has switched over to tailoring and Village Crafts agriculture. The other two make agricultural implements for the households and repair the Small crafts are produced. Then there are old ones. The articles made by them are-

Name Wages Wood Used Remarks Chorkhi 1·50 Paise Mohroo Churning rod

Gayan (fork) 3·00 ~anan or Shisbam Agriculture use Handa 15·00 Shinger or kher Churning vessel Joon (yokes) 2·00 Sanan or Shisham Agriculture use Kothi 20·00 Shisbam Big wooden box Kundaday 1·00 Shinger Wooden Prat Moydada (leveller) 2·00 Sanan or Shisham Agriculture use Plough 3·00 Sanan or Sbisham Agriculture use

Wood is supplied by the villagers. The crafts­ Farmers pay wages in kind at the two harvests. man is given food twice a day till the work is This obligation of doing skilled labour by the completed. Farmers pay little towards the cost craftsman and receiving grains at harvest is known of wood and get articles made cheap. as sakta. 41 ECONOMY Remarks The Badhi has no special workshop set up Name Wages for making articles, nor does he require any Chinjroo Rs.l·00 Domestic use for heavy investment. Simple tools purchased from keeping wool. Dadahu are bas, chainoo, ghoonia, randa, rathodi, Agriculture use. ret and thailoo. Gheela Rs.3·00 Oda (basket) Rs. )·50 Agriculture use. They also construct houses and work as mason's and carpenters. \ Odki (small basket) Re.0·75 Agriculture use. Blacksmithy-One lohar lives in lower Rajana. Odki (small basket) Re.1·00 Agriculture use. He is busy making or repairing iron agricultural implements. He is paid the customary dues. Shoopoo Rs.j·50 Agriculture use. The busy ~onths for him are May, June, Octo­ Thoonany Re 0·10 For tying round ber and November. The articles ma~e by him cattle mouth. are- \ Kiita Rs: 3·00 For carrying farm Article~ Wages Use produce. Bilanchhoo 0-40 PaiSe For cutting grass Topari (small basket) Re.1·00 Domestic qse. Chainoo 0·20 For Boring Shoe-making-Local made shoes are not popular. There are two cobbler families who Dach 0·50 Cutting wood and branches reside outside Rajana. Both of them are tenants of Rajputs. They do not own houses. Dachi 0·50 Reaping t Whenever a cattle dies, either of the cobbler is 0·Q5 Digging sent for to remove the carcase to a distant place. KoshIloo O.~o Hoeing After fleecing, the skin is rubbed with karada leaves and then boiled. The skin is filled up with Kulhadi 0·75 For chopping wood water and then hung in the open. Rajputs and Brahmins do not approve his skin work, Philla-and Kunda 0·50 Ploughing therefore, the cobbler is kept at a distance from Ramba I 0·75 Hoeing village. L Iron and charcoal are supplied by the farmers. A pair of new shoes prepared by the cobbler . Wages are paid in kind. Sometimes the farmer is sold between Rs. 5/- and 7/-. A pair of new helps on bellows and hammering. The farmer shoes is given free to house owner annually. supplies food in the morning and 16 thick rotis He is' given §akta at the harvests by all peasants for the night throughout the working days. for the minor repairs attended b~ him during the year. The lohar has no workshop of his own. He works in the shade under a big rock close to Rajana. The simple tools owned by him are- His workshop is known as Rad. There farmers go and get the work done. The sample tools are Moogra Hammer. ghan, hathoda, hathodi, kawai, khalain, oins, and sani. Rambi (Satari) For cutting leather. Basket-making-There is one Doom who makes Sinda. Needle. baskets and other articles of bamboo. He lives in upper Rajana. Whenever a farmer requires WeaVing-Some Kalis weave. One Raj put any article, the Doom is sent for. He works also weaves 'for himself. Sometimes a weaver in the farmer'S home and is given food twice a from another village visits Rajana. Local weavers day and wheat roti in addition to sakta which are given wages in kind. Hand spun wool is he receives at harvest. He has two simple tools, supplied by villagers. dochi and thailoo. The bans and negal are supp­ lied by the farmers. Following articles are made Weaving is carried out in an open space in the by him. compound. Handloom used is of very old and 42 ECONOMY

simple types. The weaver has Kunali (Reed). Fadi (Wooden beam). Rachh (Long comb). Kakdu (Wooden supporter). While 'weaving of certain articles, the owner supplies the weaver food twice a day. Articles .Khunlay. (Wooden paddles) . made by weavers are: - Article Wages . Weigh(of wool Remarks Dhohd 16'x5' Rs.I0/­ 15 kacha seer for covering Kutda9' x6' Rs.8/­ 10 ., " for covering Loiya 40' X I' Rs.3/­ 6 for covering " Patti 18' x 2' Rs.4/- 4·6 for making coat " * One kacha seer is equal to 6

Other occupations Villagers give sakta to him at two harvests a,s his charges. Gharat-Out of eleven water mills run by the villagers of different castes, one runs a gharat by the waters of Tawana spring. Others are Income located on the bank of Barag-ka-khala stream. Eight water mills are run by owners themselves, The main source of income among Rajputs Three have been taken on lease. Lessee pay the is agriculture except one househot'd. He is a revenue and repair water mills. They grind Government Official and depends on his salary. flour free for the owners. • 47 households are wholly dependent on agricul­ ture. One amongst them is the Post, Master. The farmer does not weigh the grains while From their monthly income data, only seven giving them to the gharati. He returns the flour households fall between the income range of ground after removing his share, which comes Rs. 25-50 per month and others can be placed to 13 seers for one maund of grains or 2 kacha above this range. seers for 1 kacha maund of grains. In case the gharat owner has to carry the grains to and from the house, his extra charges are I kacha seer for The Brahmin households are dependant on one maund. One person lives in the gharat agriculture and one is government" official. One 'at night. In~e from these are nominal but of the Brahmins is the village priest. He owns land sufficient to supplement their livelihood. in another village. Small bags of sheep or goat skin are used for carrying grains to and from water flour mill. Koli families are partly dependent on agricul­ tlfre and partly on agricultural labour, ghee There is a Badhi household, who is a village and milk selling and on water mills. There are a tailor. His charges in cash for different garments few weavers. 46 households are in the income are- group of Rs. 25-50. The remaining 43 are in the Cap 0.6 Paise. income groups of Rs. 50-75 or above. Coat Rs.5.00 Two households of Badhis are engaged in car­ Loiya Rs.4.00 pentry and agriculture. One is a village tailor Shirt 0.62 Paise who comes under the income group of Rs. 76-100. Lohar, Doom and Chamar are 'engaged in their' Trousers 0.37 Paise traditional occupations and partly depend on agri­ Underwear 0.12 Paise. culture and agricultural ,labour. These households except a Doom are in th'e income group of Rs. Waist Coat Rs.3.00 25-50. ECONOMY 43

The castewise broad index of monthly income by source and occupation of households is :--

TABLE 25

Occupation of a'Households ,-______Monthly income per--'L- household______in the range , Caste ~------~------~ Rs. 25 & Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.I0l Main Subsidiary Source of Income below 26-50 51-75 76-100 & above

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Badhi Carpentry Agr. Carpentry & Agr. 2 Carpentry Tailoring & lailoring & Agr. Agr. Carpentry Bra,.hmin Agr. Agr. 5 3 2 Agr. Agr. Labour Agr. & Labour Oovt. Service Govt. Service Priest Agr. Priest & Agr. Chamar Cobbler Agr. Labour Cobbler & Agr., 2 Labour & Poultry

Doom ~a~ket mak- Agr. Basket making, Agr. Ing &"Labour Basket mak- A&l' bamboo work .. ing & gr. Labour Koli Agr. Labour & Agr. Labour & 3 16 13 4 4 water mill Gharat Agr. Labour & Agr. & Animal 2 milk selling husbandry Agr. Agr. & Gharat 22 8 3 Weaving Agr. Labour Agr. Agr. Labour & Agr. 2 2 Basket mak- Agr. Basket making & ing Agr. Agr. Agr. Labour Agr. Labour & 3 Gharat Agr. Labour Agr. Labour & weaving Govt. Service Govt. Service Lohar Blacksmithy Agr. Blacksmithy & Agr. Rajput Agr. Agr. 7 20 12 8 Agr. Agr. Labour Agr. & Labour Agr. Service Agr. & Service 2 Govt. Service Govt. Service 44 NO-MY

Shopkeepers earn by selling commodities of Expenditure daily use against kind or cash payment, The rough expenditure has been grouped into food, clothi~, education and others, Others, There is a tendency among the villagers not to include smokIng, repairs to houses, amusement reveal correct income, They under-estimate and religious ceremonies and miscellaneous income and over state expenditure, items, Table 26 reveal that the main item of expenditure is food and clothing. TABLE 26. Monthly expenditure by income group.

Rs. 25 & below Rs. 26- 50 Rs, 51- 75 Rs, 76 -100 Rs. 100 &: above ,..----"-----. ,-__.A- __, ,-__.A-_--., ,----A. __--., ,.--_A_----,

Item of '0 '0 '0 '0 '0 alO alO 1)'0 uo Caste expenditure ... ..= ... ..= I~] .. ..= ... ..c:: '0 Qal '0"" '0'" ~ Eu :g'" ::Iu '0 '0 .~~ '0 .E~ '0. 0 ..t: GPl ,.::: :a~ '0::1 '0::1 :o~ '0::1 .... CO ...... c:: CO ...... = CO .... .d cO .... .c 0 00 OCII 00 0)"::: ou c:l III u"= u..= u..c:: o~ &..c:: 0';:I g, ... ':::I"" g,,,, ';:I'" ';:I '::;I 0 ":u °0 °0 Xu~'" 0 0'" ~'" 0 0 ..:'" Z..c:: {.Xj~ Z..c:: &l8. Z..c:: ~Q, Z.d &l8. Z.c ~g,

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Badhi Food 2 17 1 75 Clothing 2 3 1 8 Education 1 Others 2 8 1 12

Brahmin Food 6 24 5 40 2 \83 Clothing 6 2 5 2 5 Education 1 2 Others 6 13 5 14" 2 19

Chamar Food 2 32 Clothing 2 Education Others 2 11"

Doom Food 1 20 67 Clotbing 1 7 Education Others 5" 7

Koli Food 3 10 43 25 26 39 9 63 6 83 Clothing 3 43 2 26 4 9 7 6 8 Education I 2 2 2 Others 3 3 43 7 26 9 9 10 6 12

Lobar Food 1 14 Clothing 1 1 Education Others .4 " Rajput Food 7 22 20 37 14 43 10 78 Clothing 7 3 20 4 14 6 10' 7 Education 1 3 1 Others I .. Valsh Food 1 12 1 16 Clothing 1 1 2 ,. Education , . Others 13 10 ECONOMY 45

The expenditure on clothing .covers the mill The expenditure on marriage is on a higher made cotton cloth purchased from Dadahu and scale. Divorces are frequent. Villagers do woollen cloth. The taste for the mill made not indulge in litigations. Disputes are resolved cloth is increasing. School going children and by the Panchayat. Little is spent on travelling, young men and women wear this. repairs of the house and on cattle. Punnu Lohar is the village barber. He shaves with an old Under the head 'others', smoking and religious razor. His charges for hair cutting are 10 celebrations rank at the top. The younger genera­ \Paise and for shave 5 Paise. Villagers pay the tions like cigarettes. Older people smoke hubble \::harges in kind. He is given about 4 chattaks bubble. On religious .festivals, people incUr ~f sattu for each hair cut. expenditure in preparing good dishes and enter­ taining their A:lative~. On Maghi festival a goat \ A look at the expenditure tables reveals the must be slain..' variation of expenditure of different castes. This depends upon the income of such castes. 4 Social 'Q nd Cultural Life

Population comparison with 1961 Census Survey figure shows a rise in popUlation. Out I of a total population of 850, there are 434 males According to. 1951 Census, there were 435 males and 416 females. and 386 females in the village. The population figures for 1961 Census as compared to 1951 Cen­ sus population are :- Age and Sex distribution Year Males Females Total 195J 435 386 821 The following table will show the age-wise dis­ 1961 390 394 784 tributioJ;l of the people.

TABLE 27. Total of all age 5-9 10-14 15-19

P M F M F M F M F F 850 434 416 30 33 38 40 46 33 23 Contd. 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-44 45-59 60 & over

M F M F M F 1M F M F M F 32 37 35 31 34 43 72 65 80 84 45 27

Birth Death AGE AND MARITAL STATVS

~ ___.... .,----ft-___-, Out of 850 persons, there are 262 married males Year Males Females Males Females and 274 married females. 22 males and 40 females from the widowed group whereas 23 males and 1958 8 7 2 8 2 females fall under the divorced or separated 1959 9 6 10 7 group.

1960 6 3 3 6 Family Structure 1961 4 4 10 8 A joint family system is a form in which a 1962 4 3 11 7 number of close relatives live together. Villagers Up to 13-2-63 2 say it is the best kinship unit. It is strengthened " more with the polyandrous way of life. Usually Total ... 33 24 37 36 a joint family consists of parents, married and unmarried sons and daughters a~d grand According to the Secretary of the Panchayat, children. many a time, villagers do not report about births , I or deaths. They do all this reporting leisurely and The male head of the family is known as the Panchayat Chowkidar gathers as much in­ thagda, 'and the female head of the family thagdi. formation as possible. Bur some may be left out. The thagda 'commands respect from' others. 46 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 47

TABLE 28 . • Age and Marital Status Name of Village: Rajana Divorced or Total Population Never Marrie~ Married Widowed Separated

Age Group , ____.A. ___ -, f---.A.-_\ ,---A..__ , r--_.A.-_, ,-_..A..__, Persons Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 / All ages 850 434 416 ~127 . 100 2,62 274 22 40 23 2 I 0-4 63 30 33 30 33 5-9 78 38 40 38 40 . 10-14 79 46 33 44 24 2 9 ,15-19 45 22 23 10 2 10 21 2 20-24 69 32 37 5 23 36 4 25 -29 66 35 31 27 31 3 5 '30 - 34 ?"F '34 43 30 43 3 35- 39 78 3? 39 36 36 3 3

40-44 59 33 26 .) 29 23 3 3 45 -49 48 26 ;2.2 20 20 5 50- 54 77 37 40 32 28 2 11 3 55 -59 39 17 22 14 17 3 5 60 & over 72 45 27 39 10 5 17

The family economy depends upon the ability and division of families continues. Differences to manage the household affairs. The co-operation crop up either among the brothers or with the of other members is essential. Thagdi has her arrival of new wives in the family. It can be due hands on women of the family and directs work to the ill treatment received by a certain brother. at home or outside. The family purse is controll­ The separated family does not break relations with ed by thagda to which everyone has access. Mem­ the parent family but maintains social and cultural bers of the household are fed from a common relations in some sort of a cordial atmosphere. kitchen. Children born in a polyandrous family belong With the increase in the size of the family, to .all the brothers. In case there are two wives differences develop. This leads to fragmentation being shared by three or more brothers, the child­ of the family. Sons separate from their fathers ren of first wife are distributed but the first child and manage their own'separate household. There of second wife goes to the one, who marries is a tendency to have simpler families. In the be­ her. In case of division in' a polyandrous family, ginning, a family consists of the head of the family, children itre claimed by the man who keeps his wife and children. In due course this developes their mother or they may be distributed among into a large family. A stage reaches when further the brothers. In case the wife claims a divorce, fragmentation takes place. This cycle of formation the children stay back with the father. But if the 48 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

mother insists on taking the children with her to refuse, they are permitted to accompany her. new house and the first husband does not Table 29 shows the family structure of Rajana.

TABLE 29.

Types of families living in the household Caste Total No. of households Simple Intermediate Joint Others 2 3 4 5 6 Badhi 3 2 Brahmin 13 2 3 6 2 Chamar 2 2 Doom 2

Koli 87 23 9 48 7 Lohor 1 Rajput 51 11 12 26 3 Vaish 2 2

Simple Family-Consists of husband, wife and Now daughters are entitled to a share in unmarried children. their father's property. The divi~ion of property in the revenue records is made under provisions Intermediate~Married couple and unmarried of the Act. There is a feeling among the villagers brother, sister and one of the parents. that a daughter should not inherit her father's property. There is a feeling that the small agri­ Joint-Married couple with married sons! culture holdings would lead to further fragmentation daughters or with married brothers/sisters. ofland and there would be sharp differences between brothers and sisters and that the basis of this close INHERITANCE OF PROPERTY relationship would snap.

Before the enforcement of Hindu law of suc­ After her marriage, the daughter maintains pro~ cession Act, sons inherited the property and pertyat two places but the feeling was that she daughters were debarred from inheriting their could not be expected to look after the land at father's property. Generally property was equ­ both the places. ally divided among the sons. In case of some, disputes among the sons, the matter was settled But some married sisters of Rajana did not by elders of the village. The wish of the dying want any estrangement with their brothers. They returned the property that they had inherit~ father was respected. ed. In families having polyandry the division takes place on the basis of the number of brothers. SOCIAL ~TATUS OF WOMEN All sons have a claim' to inherit their father's Before we discuss the social position of the property. the women, we would like to define two classes A widow may inherit her husband's property of women. when she does not marry the second' time. On A married gir,l in the village ~s known as getting married again, she looses her claims upon Rayanti or Raihan and unmarned daughter the property which passes to her husband's and married daughter who belongs to the village brother or even to other relatives. is known as Dhyanti or Dhain. SOC.IAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 49

Dhain-When a Dhyanti is in her father's home with cowdung twice a week. She helps her husband she helps in agriculture and domestic work. in the fields. Then she looks after the children. Here she has a carefree life and is associates with Sometimes she carries her little child in one all her old friends without any restriction. A arm while bringing fodder, fuel and water. Ryanti woman in her husband's Irouse has·to work very is always seen busy in household work in her hard. She is given a free hand to amuse herself husband's house, whereas dhyanti in her father's in her father's house. house works according to her will and pleasure and Ryanti-On the other hand, Ryanti is a sober enjoy greater freedom. and hard working woman in her husband's house. Mahila Mandai She does nof,lead a free life. She receives beating at the hands" of her husband for any indiscreet In 1962 a woman from Nehra formed a union of acts. Rajana women, who rallied round her. The union was called Mahila MandaI. The aims Ryanti is not supposed to dance in a nati. were for social uplift among women and village Dhyanti is jnvilecl and applauded at her dance. welfare. Women clean water channel and narrow Dhyanti make \ fairs and festivals, a colourful paths. They have prohibited the washing of occasion pf the vi~lage. In her village she is accom­ clothes and bathing at the spring. Anyone violat­ panied by her husQand in colourful dresses with an ing the rules is fined upto Rs. 5/-. The MandaI umbrella in her hand and may have a lighted has collected a fine of Rs. 3/- from some officials. cigarette in other Hand. I A ban on dancing in the nati is imposed on the In the past, women were considered as inferior dhyanti. They settle the quarrels among them­ to men and had litt~e say in the household affairs selves. Once a Koli's wife cut'some wheat crop and other matters. Girls were debarred from from another's field and a quarrel developed. education, so that they might become competent, Mahila MandaI intervened and settled the issue by experf and hard-working house-wives. In the bringing round a compromise. Weekly meetings past, child marriage wa~ .cqmmon, and" the are held where problems of interest are discussed. married little girls had to' pass some years in their father's house where, the)' were negtected. Fairs and Festivals Koli women were not allowed to wear gold orna- mep.ts. ' Fairs and festivals are an important part of rural life while they provide a joyful occasion Now changes have taken 'place in the lives of to meet. There is mirth, songs and laughters and women due to general awakening and outer renewal of social contacts. There are a number influence. In all social and religious circle women of fairs and festivals held in the village which playa. significant role. Now girls are sent to school are described here- and child marriage is not favoured. Sometimes a girl has the choice to marry a boy of her liking. Bis~u-The first festival of the year according to . he Hindu calendar is known as Bissu. This falls A ryanti gets up early in the morning and goes on the first of Vaisakha in spring. This begins to the cattleshed to milk the cows. After this from the last two days of Chaitra and lasts for about she cleans the cow-shed and dumps the cowdung 3 days. The 3rd day·is known as saja. Houses at one corner from where it is carried to fields. Then are coloured and villagers wear new clothes. she churns curd and extracts the- butter later on, Delicious food is prepared and jyanti and dhyanti butter is converted into ghee and used for the are served with these. During the night natis are kitchen. This is served with sattu and roti held ~midst singing and of course, some drinks saved from the previous night. After a brief pause are served. the woman goes to the jungle to bring fodder or fuel and then take the afternoon meal which has Jhaith-Shadu ka Bissu-On the first of Asadha been prepared either by dhyanti or by herself before villagers collect babori grass from each household. going to, the jungle. Food is prepared before I[ this is not available two sheafs of dholu grass are sunset. The lady of the house takes afternoon collected. In lower Rajana, a rope is made out meal to the fields for the man of the household. of this grass near the village. In upper Rajana, She is helped by dhyanti in household work like the rope is made near the springs. Kolis are asked fetching water froIp a spring and bringing fuel to make these ropes. Next day, selected young and and fodder from the jungle. Ryanti rinse the floor old compete in a game of tug of war a~dst cheers. 50 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

In the evening, villagers relish their favourite food. and kanjan. Food is sent to their houses. For Patindas, ghee and jaggery powder are served. two or three days, tenants sing, dance and joyously shout the word zero-zero Relatives and guests Gugga Naumi-Is a festival of Kolis, but the visit each other. One rupee is collected from each upper class participate 'to make the occasion household to slay goa~ to entertain their guests joyful. This festival is held on naumi of Bhadra. with meat. Men in upper Rajana observe fast, but in lower Rajana, only certain section of the population Budi Diwali-This festival is celebrated by Kalis observe it. In the morning, villagers bathe and a month after Diwali. Rajputs do not participate. put on new clothes. The oracles of Gugga known Familiys of Kolis of Upper Rajana invite Kalis as Chailas go from house to house and collect from Lower Rajana for dinner once a year. Their grains. At night, Gugga is worshipped and the oracle gesture is reciprocated by families of Kolis of displays feats like keeping fire in the mouth, Lower Rajana the next year. piercing the cheek, and beating their backs with iron chains. These feats are done under the Maghi-T11is is the vary important and most influence of the gugga deity. Patindas, ghee and popular, of all festivals of Rainka Tehsil. Rich jaggery powder are served. On these days meat and poor, old and young, men and women;---·all is prohibited celebrate it. It commences from the 28th of Poh and extends well over the whole of month Next morning, gugga is worshipped. At night of Magha when Rabi crops have been sown and folksongs and dances are held. . people have little to do. Because of the cold Athoun-This festival is observed in Asadha. people want to rest and ehjoy. Bradi grass is collected from the jungle. This is On this festival, at least one go~ is killed in every taken to a spring amidst music. As a custom household. In large families, even two goats dry wood of boru is whirled by the young in the are slain. The goat is fed throughout the year. evening. It is provided fresh, green leaves and some pieces Delicious meals are prepared at night aud tenants of roti regularly so that it maYI put on fat. are given food. Food like ghee, jaggery powder and flo~r are a.lso stored and kept for the festival. Whlte-washmg Dewali-This festival of lights. is held in Kartika. I and minor repairs to the houses are done. \ In the early morning, villagers bathe and put on new and clean clothes. The braharup deity placed Celebrations begin a few days earlier. The in lower Rajana is worshipped. Prayers are held. first day is known as bujan~i. Badh~s beat. drums In the evening, Kolis wear a white embriodered in the temple and are gIven grams. VIllagers gown known as chailana. They visit villages where prepare parched grain for distribution among girls of their village are married. They dance the relatives. and sing whole the night and return next evening. The second day of the celebration is known as They are served with dishes like patinda, poli and badayanti. On this day people go to the jungle askodi, ghee and jaggery. Next day which is and fetch beeyed grass for their cattle. Rice and amavas fasts and lights of earth ern lamps are lit pulses are served for the evening meal. up in the night. Delicious food like, askodi, biloe and dharoti are prepared and taken at night. On the 3rd day known as deemlanti, villagers On the third day the deity of braharup is brought get up early and bathe. Women prepare gheenda from Kando and Maina villages in small baskets. and relish it. This is given to their tenants. This procession is headed by musicians. Their Fourth day is the busiest day and is known as coloured flags are carried along with the deities. utranti. Goats are slaughtered in the compound These deities are worshipped. Offerings are given of each household. In the morning men gather in cash and kind. After a brief stay, they return at one place and decide about goat slaughtering, to their villages. which continues till the night. Pigs are 1;1ot slain. First of all tenants send their children to their Any man can slaughter the goat. At night owner's house. Later on they visit them. Owners delicious food is prepared in which meat and al­ give children Rs. 1.25 Paise and in return receive cohol are important. Folk dances are held and parched grain from tenants as a mark of respect. folk songs are sung. All the villagers gaily Tenants are served with delicious food like biloi participate. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 51

The fifth day is known as saja. Everyone Ram promised to see his mother on every birth has a bath and puts on neat clothes. Food day. Rainka Ji asked him to visit on the tenth like patinda, kheer, hi/oi, poli are prepared and con­ of bright half of Kartik as it was on this day that sumed by the family. Meat is not cooked this Lord Vishnu was born. All the other gods day. awake from a four months sleep. She explained that it was a pious day. Parshu Ram promised Throughout the month, meat is prepared in and accordingly he visits every year on the 10th each household, particularly when the villagers have and after a day's stay on 11 th Ekadashi, he returns invited thyir guests and relatives. Every day, one on the 12th Dwadshi afternoon. finds villagers visiting each other. They carry a I'mall earthen pot full of ghee, and are entertained The deity of Parshu Ram is carried from Jammu with delicious preparations and meat. The village by priests in a palanquin and brought visit lasts for about two or three days. In some to the Rainka temple. Some carry coloured rich families, \cooked food like patindas .are sent flags. The procession is headed by musician to their marrie~ qaughters in case the)'! could and drum beaters. not come. Thousands of people gather to have a glimpse On utranti tl~ programme for folk dances is of the deity Parshu Ram Ji and Rainka Ji. The declared open by' the village Lamberdar when he procession starts from the Giri on the afternoon. performs the first, dance of the season admist a On arrival at the lake, the deity is immersed in large gathering in a compound. This is continued the lake to signify the son touching his mother's by other men. After every night's dinner, a dance feet in respect. People make offerings in cash is held in which llpny persons participate. This and grains. continues tm late ~t night. In the early morning of Ekadshi, oracl\!s of Phalguna-ki-Sank1ant-!fi celebrated with great Parshu Ram dance and answer questions. pomp and show on \he first of Phalguna. Suchau­ During the state regime, the District Board day a special dish is serNed in every household. used to man(}ge the fair. Now the Tehsildar This is relished with puslsys, ghee and jaggery. supervises the arrangements. Many persons come Holi-Known as hqdiya. Holi the festival of from the plains. For two nights, they stay in an colours is celebrated the saIQ.e day on which it is open space near the lake. Villagers from surroun­ ce1l!brated in the plains., If it is a sunny day, ding areas flock with their families to join the coloured water is sprinkled on each other with fair. The tenants are engaged to bring their bottles. Men and women play colour with each luggage, beddings and grains. They cook the other. Pinkish colour is preferred. Coloured food. They take meals in the way-side shops powder gulal is not available. At night villagers where sweets and tea are in plenty. eat well. Publicity department exhibits dramas and Rainka Fair-The important fair worth mention­ cinema Shows. The Agriculture Department ing near Rajana is held in Rainka. This is cele­ displays many stalls. More than a dozen Hindolas brated on the 11 th day of bright half of Kartika on are put up. Ginger, green turmeric, walnuts, the bank of Rainka lake. The shape of the lake cigarettes, salt, jaggery and utensils are sold. which has a circumference of about 12 miles Then there may be earthen pots, silver smiths­ some what resembles a human figure. According hukka sellers and indigenous medicines. to a legend, it symbolises the body of goddess Mocha-It is a sort of Satyanaran-ki-katha Rainka the mother of Parshu Ram. The fair is or hawan held'for various reasons like a celebration celebrated to commemorate Par shu Ram, who for the birth of a son. The investigator attended receives blessings from his mother Rainka Ji on a mocha held by Meena Rajput. This was in this day. fulfilment of a wish to have a son. A legend goes that after killing Sahsra-Arjun, After consulting the priest for an auspicious day, Parshu Ram .took leave of his mother and left preparations are made a year earlier. One goes for his ashram. After sometime,' when his mother from house to house and informs about mocha. A remembered him, he appeared and humbly asked word is sent to all married daughters of the village why he was remembered. Rainka Ji explained that about the date. A week earlier, men gather she could not bear the separation. On this, Parshu and arrangements are set afoot. Grains and ghee 52 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

are collected from every household and stored. is the dholak, ghada and khanjri. A man or a Jaggery is purchased. A day earlier about 16 woman 'dances in the centre. The musicians seers of wheat flour is given to each Rajput family sit around. Some others sitting in a circle around for making patindas. House wives get busy in sing. The dancer stretches arms side-ways 'Yith preparing patindas. A big kitchen starts, where hands open and fingers making gestures. The some elderly people prepare food like pulse feet, arms and the body move with the rhythms. potatoes andjrice. ' Only experts dare to play music. Jalmu Badhi A day or two earlier, married daughters in and the village Lamberdar are considered as the other villages start arriving along with their masters of the dholak. Uday Singh is an expert ~ husbands. On an auspicious day, hawan is perfor­ with gadha. The tune of music and folk song :he med in the morning. Then the Satyanarain-ki­ attractive and inviting. Sometimes the dancer katha is recited. The priest is given Rs. 5(-. He takes a handkerchief or a cap in one hand and claims the offerings for his services. After that, swings it about. food is served first to the marriea daugliters-­ The dance is held either in the courtyard or in dhyantis and then to the remaining villagers. a room. A tiny kerosene lamp burns in one Swarns are served first and then the scheduled corner and villagers fill inside. The more crowded castes. it is the more cheery everyone feels in the atmos­ In the morning rice, pulses, ghee and jaggery phere. are served. In the evening, patindas with vege­ The dance continues till late at niglit. Men tables, ghee and jaggery are served. Married and women of all age dance. A young dhyanti daughters are served food twice. During the or a ryanti dances to the music or song by her day and night, people dance. Women in colourful father or husband and to cIappings by others. dresses dance the pooduya. Or an old woman may dance to th¥ music and Villagers are freely served patindas, ghee and songs of her son and other young men. jaggery. A young and sturdy farmer may be Many folk songs are popularly sung at such consuming more than a kilo of jaggery and ghee. occasions. Some film tunes are adopted. Food is served on platers made of leaves. First of all rice or patindas, ghee and jaggery are served, Pooduya-In this dance only women participate. then saltish dishes follow. They dress up colourfully, and assemble in a Mocha is organised rather well and the occasion com.p0und. While standing, they sing and is a success. J:he cereals collected are returned clap. Two women dance in the centre stretching g~adually on eac~ harvest. It is customary among their hands side ways. No music is played in VIllagers to exchange cereals oq occasions like pooduya nor does any man join except lit%le boys. marriage or mocha. However men can enjoy all this as spectators. FolkDances Raso-Is another folk dance. Only men parti­ cipate and dance in a circle. Men line up with Folk songs and dances are one of the essence their arms on the waists of the companions on the of rural happiness which reflect their inner gay side. They move their steps, closely tuned to the mood and their way of life. In leisure hours, songs and music. The musical instruments consist men, women and children from all shades of life of dlamaitoo and halo ok played by the Badhi. assemble at one place and dance. Fairs and festivals are occasions when they dance. It is not their traditional dance but a copy of folk dance from Mahasu District and Jaunswar There are three types of folk dances­ area. This is becoming popular. Nati-Also known as Geeh. Men and women gather in the evening on an important festival Folk Songs or ceremony and dance and sing to the tune ?f the music. Usually this is held after the. dmner. Everyone here is fond of songs which they com­ In the initial stage, a couple of men sing and pose. Whenever an interesting legend or some play the music. This signifies the start of the love episode comes t6 light, a song is composed dance. Gradually people begin to assemble. and tuned.. Songs are simple and interesting. There may be a hundred persons or more. There Some of the popular songs in village are given here. 53 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE ;:nit JHURI (This is sung while cutting bay and returning ~TeT ilutr ~lfij ~ ij-;:iif) ~) 'CnC:T, to the village.) cr"'t~r ori't ~~ij q)~r "f4J]T ~,-rTI "flit I Jhuri's husband had grey moustaches. She went as a guest 'to another village after burying her lfT~

it 0 ror I '<1TGT '4'~rtr·· ...... • " ~ruits have ripened. I Nati ~T "fT~ qiT ffT;:rT Oh Rahno of Sainjo, do not disturb a bird in the jungle and \valk on the path you intend to go. ;r;rr?i ;r;rTi't ;r;rrl:)JT ~'{m I o Your attractive eyes· have pierced my heart, Ofr<:1 ;r;rril" co) ~T~, oh Rahno, they h'ave cut my heart deep. at ~;:rT 'IlT 'Il~' 'Cfrcfi'fT I Oh Rahno, a fe~ful person is even afraid of the noise of a flying bird. Ofr~ oftco) i;fT~T ~ I ~;:r IgT3 'IlT OftmT ~T~\9", "fT!T OfT~~ if; ~)~ ~, a=t lJ~ ~T ~ fCf~T ~lt t ~ ~

Oh Subidha, let use drink a sip of wine we ;r;r) ~q ~~tIT '<{)c:r q will go to Rainka fair and get ourselves photo~aph. ed, Oh Subidha. Cfri't ~4J]r ~

{fnTT f:qeT ~qT "RT~ m~T Nati i311T

Do not tease me as I have my eyes Religion fixed on all matters. . Local deities of Braharup and Shrigul are Sunder - Oh, there is cold water of Tawane worshipped on festivals like Lohri and Meghi-ka­ Gangi spring, Rajana is a nice village where Saja. Rainka Mata is held in higher reverence than there are plenty of beautiful daugh­ other gods special worships are held for her when ters-Dhyantis. one is in troubles and sometimes to achieve one's ends. Religious books like Ramayana and Mahabharata influence the people. They worship gods like Shiva on Shivratri and Laxmi and Rama on Dewali festivals. Hindu customs are followed ~TlfT at ;rRl~ q-mr ;r)lfifT qrT~nr ~ on marriage and death. 'The fatalistic view of a~T ~fl~T ~T at ~T;rT l'!"\T iiT~{!JT ;rTqT life karma and Puraney Janam-ke-Sanskar are common belief here. Many villagers keep fasts ll'TlfiiT·····'····· . on Puranmashi, Janamashtmi and Shivratri. Gfij- ~r eft qTCfi~T ~}crr at ~Rt ii qUifT Basti Ram Rajput living in upper Rajana ;r)lfifr .....••••.•• is a staunch follower of Arya Smaj. He is a vegetarian and does not like goat slaughter on ~T e:T m:fT ;r:q\1T \;fT~) e:T Maghi festival. fCfiaru ~ ~) U ntoucbability lI1'lIifT' ••••••• e.••• Those who form th~ Scheduled Castes belong to llT~

fabric. A distinction was observed niost scrupu­ Common habits lously between the different communities. Sche­ duled Castes were not allowed to participate in the . The people living in Transgiri have certain social and religious functions on an equal footing. peculiar common habits which require a brief Until recently, they were not allowed to enter the mention. temples as if the gods were the personal property of the higher castes. In the past if a Harijan came Smoking in the village is quite customary. Every across a Sawarn, he used to take off his shoes and grown up boy or girl smokes. Men and women bend in respect. In the houses of certain Rajput do not feel shy smoking before their parents or in­ families, Kplis, were not allowed to enter the com­ laws. Among youngmen, drinking is common. pound, not ~o speak of the house. Their women Men carry loads on their backs while women were not ~ermitted to wear gold orn,aments. carry loads on their heads. They joke if a women carries load on her back and a man on his head. Among the\'icheduled Castes, the Badhi occupies a slightly better place, with whom Rajputs smoke All little and unmarried girls wear chak on their and drink water. Even some Brahmins accept heads. A man from the Transgiri has his loiya­ water from the !,lands of the village Badhi. Food coat on his shoulders. is not taken from any low caste. Recently Rajputs Whenever a son is born, presents are given to the have started smdfing with Kolis. Now the Koli mother. The child's maternal uncle or the grand WOD2Cn wear orl¥ments of tnelr choice. Entry father visits her house with some presents. These into the temple is :t;to longer a barrier. In the past may be clothes and grains, including ghee and they had no voice ip the village community welfare. jaggery. A villager must carry a small earthern Now they .(re included in the Panchayat. Weak pot full of ghee whenever he visits his relatives. relations of the paSt amol}g upper and lower castes have now develobed ,into healthy and cordial Women do not feel shy in talking to a stranger ties. This would b'bnefit both the groups anq hence or the father-ilt-law or any other male member the village community' as a whole. Sch~duled of the family. Castes are now becoming" aware of their rights. As a mark of respect, Scheduled Castes pass Most of th'e persons ire aware that untouchability by the left side of a Swaran Caste. h_as been banned upder law. Men generally put on loin cloth- and not a pyjama. Even before a large gathering they dance Dialect with a shirt and a lion cloth on.

In Transgiri illaqa, Sirmuri pahari is spoken. Tatooing This differes from other pahari dialects of the dis­ Tatooing different parts of the body is common. trict. The Sirmuri dialect differs from place to When anyone visits Rainka fair or a fair at Nahan, place. Palvi dialect is spoken in Rajana, whereas they" get themselve tatooed with flowers, rirds, Sain-ki-boli is spoken in Saindhar illaqa. In the names and wrist watches. This may cost a bupes range opposite to Saindhar, Dharati dialect is . or so. The chest, cheeks, arms,thighs and anklee spoken. Slight vqriatiol).s in Palvi dialect and the are the parts where tatooing is done. other two dialects of the nearby ranges are :- Superstitions Hindi sentence ~

A broom is never kept vertical in the house. Vows are not taken in terms of parents. A vow It is a bad omen in the sense that gruesome dying is always taken in the name of younger brother. news is heard from the direction of the broom While taking a, vow, some salt is dropped in a when it falls. jug of water and oath is taken before a deity in One sneeze is unauspicious, two are considered atemple. good. A light itching on one's right palm brings There is a belief that a big snake controls some money or profits to one's business. But Tawana spring. The snake makes the people keep· sometimes it invites quarrels within the family or the spring clean. Some person have seen the snake. neighbours. Once a villager was sitting along with his com­ Regarding Agriculture, there are certain super­ panion on a platform near Tawana when a mule­ stitions. A piece of gold or silver is buried teer approached the spring to drink water with while ploughing a less productive land. After his shoes on. He was requested to take off the this, there is supposed to be more produce. A shoes but he did not hear. The moment he entered goat may be slain on a field, and the land might the water, he was bitten by the snake'. The victim produce ginger many times more than tne average was however taken to Dadahu hospital for treat­ produce. In case the owner avoids this, he cannot ment. Ujagar Singh narrates another story. extract ginger. If he tires, he or any member Once a young daughter of a Harijan entered the of his family is sure to die. Five years ago, spring to bring water. She saw numerous, snakes Jalam Singh's grand father collected twelve entering her pitcher. She screamed later: on it times ginger more than the average, and the story was discovered that the girl was having her menses. goes that he died after two months, because he The story goes that a few decades back, a did not slay a goat. Rajput saw a beautiful woman in his dream. If a man goes to the field to bring a clod leveller, She told him that she would co~ to his house left in a field on a full moon n~ht it appears the next day in the guise of a snake. She further to him like a corpse. And in· 'case he dares to told him that one room may be kept neat and clean bring it, then some evil spirits follow him and for her to stay. The moment, she \ entered the may create trouble. Some grains are given from room, she was to be covered with a sheet of white ~very harvest to a Brahmin family. An offeting cloth. A big snake entered the room and the may be made to the deity. Sometimes young ,Rajput covered the snake. Next moment, when Illlmarried girls are feasted he removed the cloth, he was surprised to find wealth ip. the shape of jewellery in place of the If wheat or ginger or any other crop does not snake, and the Rajput became very rich. grow smoothly over the entire sown land, it is considered inauspicious. As a remedy, some Evil Spirit grains are given in charity to a Brahmin or these are offered in a temple. There are many beliefs regarding the spirit If a pregnant woman dies, her soul turns into world. a witch, an evil spirit, haunting the family, ~~gend goes that on Puran Mashi some good Villagers do not slay a sheep or eat its meat. spmts known as paries or evil spirits known as They do not drink goat's milk. According to them, dains wearing snow-white clothes dance at the when Pandwas started' donating 7,100 cows in Tawana spring. These witches have long hair charity, they found one less than the number they teeth and nails. Their toes and heels ar~ had promised. Instead of cow they donated supposed to be on the reverse. Sometimes they in­ a sheep to compleJe the number. Therefore crease and decrease. They change shapes and turn some villagers attach a great deal of sanctity to into monkeys, leopards, cats and so on. If any this. one passes them at that time, they follow and torture. A few persons can charm a particular forest. By tbis act, the hunter is not able to shoot his There is a belief that a spirit known as haid in prey. Either his gun breakes or misfires. One t~e form of a man, rides on white horse during the may charm his prey so that it does not move mght and moves about. This spirit is supposed from its place and the hunter is able to shoot it to be controlled by Shirgul deity. Mohi Ram easily. There is a peculiar way of taking an oath. lumberdar was supposed to have come across the SOCIAL AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE 57

spirit. The belief is that it does not harm the One small play-ground is attached to the School. villagers but protects from any out-side calmity. Children play Kabaddi, Volley Ball and have a Tug-of-war once a while. A small garden has been If there is enmity among two persons and one laid out to one side. Training is given in crafts wants to kill the other, the former invokes the like making card board files, card board boxes spirits of dag or daini through some priest and and book binding. Cultural programmes are or­ directs the spirit to create trouble. Sometimes ganised where competition in folk songs, dances, jan tar man tar consisting of nails, hair, a piece debates and recitation of poems is held. Some of cloth and clay taken under the enemy's feet are ~oys and gilrs are enrolled as scouts and bulbuls. placed in some secure place near the house against 'Ilhere is a small library. whom there i~. enmity. To find out the exact cause There is a government High School at Dadahu, pf the tr6ubl~s after consulting a priest, the man to which a hostel is attached. sends a charmed gourd which strikes at the point where charmed articles are buried. The/gourd From discussions with villagers, it was gathered is tied to the lfnlucky man. At an au'spicous that they apprehended that their wards would moment, it 'is slWposed to start moving towards get out of control if they were educated. its destination. This process is known as chumba The headmaster and other staff visit the parents lagana. to send their children to the school. There is an interesting incident about Heera the cobbler In the case of som~ Koli families, there is a custom when he ,was approached by the staff to send of keeping hair of the eldest son in the name his son to school, he requested that he would of family deity known as 'Guru. Those wbo be grateful if they accepted a fowl from him and violate it are sure to meet some misfortune. In refuse admissi0n to his son. From this, one can Rajana, Cban~nu, Koli observes this. get· an idea about the out look of villagers. The age wise education table is given here. Educa'tion Medical and Public Health Villagers consider thatteducation imparted '·to children does not mak

TABLE 30. Education. Literate w'ithout edu- • p . . Total population Illiterate cational standard . nmary or BaSIC Age groups ,--___.A.. ____, ,----"----, ,-----"-----., ,----"----, P M F M F M F M F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 All ages 850 434 416 385 413 43 2 4 0-4 63 30 33 30 33 5-9 78 38 40 28 40 10 10 - 14 79 46 33 26 31 20 2 15 -19 45 22 23 18 23 2 20-24 69 32 37 31 37 25 -29 66 35 31 30 30 3 2 30- 34 77 34 43 33 43 31- 39 78 39 39 38 38 40-44 59 33 26 33 26

45 -49 48 26 22 25 22 {' 50-54 71 37 40 33 40 4 55-59 39 17 22 17 22 60 & over Age 72 45 27 43 27 2 not stated There are 2 teachers who are matriculates

Eye sore-Rasot is put into eyes. deity gave a charmed article to be tied round her waist. The woman felt immediate relief Stomach pain-Aiwain or kachoor is given to the within twelve hours and was ultimately cured in patient. la week's time. Tonsils-These are cured by jantar-mantar treatment. Another treatment is that a paste of Sometimes the oracle of Brahrup deity is sent peach tree root is applied externally. In case the for. He gets into a trance and tells the cause root is not available, the paste of a peach kernel of disease. After the cause is known, ways are is applied. adopted to do away with those bad causes and \he patient feels better. When allopathic and other treatments fail, villager switch their faith to the local gods. They offer goats and cereals to please the gods. Sanitation Ten years back when Surtu Rajput's wife Nanti was disappointed by the treatment of the civil In the village the, paths are cleaned by the hospital Dadahu and Nahan, she consulted a villagers. The village becomes sludgy and rather local deity of Jammu village. The oracle of the dirt~ during the rains. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 59

Peddlars and Acrobats-Some visitors. Lumberdar-The next to command the respect of the villagers was the Lumberdar who collected The following peddlars visit the village off and the revenue and received panjotra as his share. on. On a reet deed and on marriage, he was given a rupee by both the parties. He was entitled to free Natowas-Every two qr three years, a team labour commonly known as baigar. He had to of jugglers visits Rajana. Every household make arrangements of the officers at the Tehsil or gives them a rupee each or some grains according at Nahan. When any of the Maharaja's order to one's means. \ was to be conveyed to villagers, he used to direct Badai/ay-A couple of sikhs come here every I the Dhimadar to announce the message loudly. year to sharpen swords. They come before the \His post was hereditary. Maghi festiv~l. The party stays for a couple \ Dhimadar-was the village servant. He used to of days. Their charges are from Rs. 3 j- to 5~- announce the ruler's message and arrange baigars per sword. \ / for Government officers after receiving order from Gaddis-In March-April gaddis visit Rainka the Lumberdar. On every harvest, he received Tehsil and camp fllong the Giri and Jogar streams. Rs. 2 from the Lumberdar. He was not supposed People from this \ illaqa go to their camps and to give barD to Government officials and buy goats, sheep anG rams. A pair of ram­ render baigars. For negligence in duties, he bulents is purchased for Rs. 50/- or more. was answerable to the Lumberdar. \ Thatharay-Two br three men 'lisit the village After merger, these posts vanished except that of every year and rellairs old utensils. Sometimes Lumberdar whose main function is to collect they are paid in ca&h and sometimes grains are revenue. given to them, Ther buy old utensils at cheap rates. \ There are some young men who take keen interest in the development programmes. They are spokes Ranga Swami-Twice a Jear, a party of 8-10 men of village community. men from Puruwala \b. Paonta'Tehsil visit Rajana. They are Brahmins and ar;e known as Ranga Swami. Gram Sudhar Committee They come in April-May and September-October. They stay for a couple of days and forecasie about In 1958-59 a Gram Sudhar Committee was the, stars. 'For telling the fortunes, they receive formed. The object of the committee was to grains from each househ01d. protect the crops from theft, to keep the village neat and clean and to protect the new plantation Village organisation. of forests. Uday Singh was elected Pradhan and Mohan Singh became the Secretary. All the Before the merger of Sirmur State, Rajana was villagers took an oath to abide by the rules and under the control of a few rich villagers. This the objects. The oath was taken by putting salt arrangement was made to facilitate the adminis­ in water. The important advantage of the com­ trative work. The posts were hereditary. Rajputs mittee is that their new plantation of trees growing used to get higher positions as they were the rapidly is under protection against the past practice influential men. of ruthless cuttings. Ban and (oong varieties of trees are grown. A few of the villagers from lower Zaildar-was the highest post. Only the Maharaja Rajana violated the rules. They were fined. could remove him and nominate another in his place. When the trees will grow up they will add beauty All incidents in the village were reported to him to Rajana besides many other material advant­ by the Lumberdar. He used to give directions to ages. the Lumberdar abOUt" the visit of any official. A few Patwarkhanas lying in surrounding areas A gram raksha scheme has been organised con­ were under his control. He commanded respect sisting of young men. Money is collected by in the area arranged labour for Government organising show and drama with the help of school officials. In return from the State Tresury children. The amounts were contributed to he used to receive cash e9ual to a Lumberdar's various welfare funds. It .was due to efforts panjotra. of these young men, that a 'recreation 'centre 60 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

is being opened here and an irrigation tank is under bers and elects a chairman for the proceedings. construction. The school was upgraded from The committee tries to bring III the compromise primary to middle standard due to their keen between the parties. If it cannot settle the dispute, interest and persuasion. the case is referred to the Nayaya Panchayat within three months. Besides, the Gram Panchayat Panchayats carries out development and welfare activities like, cleaning of water springs, foot paths, cons­ Before the- establishment of statutory Panchayat, truction of buildings like the school and recommend­ the study of Rajana shows that the vi11ag~ had its ing of nautors. The Panchayat maintains birth own Panchayat. The village disputes on land, and death records of the circle. cattle, theft or on social functions, were settled by elders of Rajana. To start with, the dispute The office is housed in a rented building. There was first reported to the village Lumberdar. He are a few -books. There may be a harmonium, used to call a meeting of five or six elderly people. a pair of khartal, ghungroo and tabla. Anyone A compromise solution was found. Sometimes can take these for recreation or for any Particular the defaulter was fined Rs. 24 or a goat was slain celebrations. There is a radio set in the panchayat­ in honour of the judgement. In case the villager ghar. Some agricultural implements are kept. refused to honour the judgement, the second These are given to farmers whenever they are party was at liberty to take the issue to court. required. Both parts of Rajana had separate Panchayats. Nayava Panchayat-Nayaya Panchayat Rajana In case the parties at dispute belonged to these was formed on 25.;G-1958 and covers eleven parts four panches from each part formed the villagers. After every three years elections are panchayat which used to decide the dispute. To held. head the Panchayat, an elderly person who comman­ \ ded respect was selected. He was known as the There are fifteen members, four seats are reserved thagda. for Harijans. No woman Panch has been elected to Nayaya Panchayat. Two Panchas are Harijans. Gram Panchayat.-In the past there were no The procedure for the election to this body is regular Panchayats. The Panchayat which covers similar to the Gram Panchayat. The difference Rajana is known as Gram Panchayat, Rajana. is that the Pradhan and up-pradhan are elected This came into existence on 26th June, 1954, with by general popular votes. The Sarpanch and headquarters at Maina. It covers eleven villages. Naib-sarpanch are elected by its elected members There are fifteen members. They are known as that is by indirect election. panches. Eight seats are covered by Swaran and seven are reserved for Harijans. A seat each from The activities of the Nayaya Panchayat are to Swaran and Harijan is reserved for women. From deal with civil, revenue and criminal cases. A Rajana, there are 11 panches in the Panchayat, committee of five members is formed and a chairman four Swaran and seven Scheduled Castes, two of is chosen. Members try to bring in a compromise. them are women. In some cases culprits are fined. In case the accused refuses to pay the fine, the case i~ referred There are separate constituencies for Swarans t9 the revenue authority for recovery. If it is not and Harijans. The last elections -to the Gram Pan­ possible to have compromise, members decide chayat were held in 1962. In the first date, the tbe case by votes. election had to be postponed, because the voters were less than 125 of 1/6 or the total number No major crimes are generally committed in of voters required for the election. The second Rajana. During the last ten years, few cases were date had to be fixed. On this date 209 voters registered with the Police Station, D<;tdahu. Even exercised their right. Casting of votes was by the Nayaya Panchayat had taken only two cases raising hands. For the president, there were two in respect of the village. contestants, one Swaran and another Harijan. The Swaran won. The election of the vice president CASES was nanimous. The first criminal cas~ was registered on 24-7-1962 Simple disputes are referred to Gram Panchayat. under section 323/504, in which both parties were The Pradhan constitutes a committee of five mem- Harijans of Rajana. They quarrelled over storing SOCIAL AND CULTURAL 'LIFE 61 of cow dung in the field. The parties scame to rates to shopkeepers at Dadahu. If a co-operative blows. The Panchayat brought in a compromise. shop is opened, it can be useful to the farmers as their crops will fetch high prices. The second case was registered on 15-4-1962 a Brahmin tenant of Bawnal village did not pay The farmers are not keen about the society land revenue to his landlord. Finally there was due to lack of understanding. Sometimes they a compromise. complained that they do not get loans in time \and thus many doubts arise. A,secretary has been appointed to look after the office work. He receives a salary of Rs. 60 P.M. \ There is a President, vice President and a secretary A chowkidar has been engaged at Rs. 15 P.M. of the society. The secretary is paid Rs.50 p.m. IJis job is to 1inform the members about the date of the meetings and to look after the Panchayat Community Development buildings, besides cleaning the office. This area is covered by the N.E.S. Block Sangrah Broadly, villagers do not favour caste Pa.qchayat since October, 1956. A gram sewak has been post­ and are satisfied\ with activities and programmes ed here. Very recently, a mid-wife has been of the present Paqchayat to which they offer their posted. Villagers are gradually becoming con­ fullest support. scious about the development activities of the Co·operative Socie(y Block. The development activities carried out in the There is a multi~.urpose co-operative society, villages are- Raj ana, with its hea'i!quarter lit Maina. We give here some infqrmatiQn of interest. An irrigation tank is being constructed in lower Rajana. This will store the water of Tawana Rs. spring. The tank is 5 feet deep and 45' x 25' in The working capital 6,276.49 dimension. The cost of the tank is about Rs. 3000 out of which Rs. 800 will be the public share Amount contritubetl by:ineIJ}.bers in the form of shramdan. The remaining amount from Rajana. 7~8.50 will be met by the Block Extension Service. At Total members 174 the time of survey, the work was nearing comple­ Members from Rajana 77 tion. 'This will irrigate fields lying below Rajana path. Loan given to 18 members 3,417.71 I Another work under construction at the Loan given to l} members from Rajana. 1,275.10 time of survey was of recreation centre in upper Rate of interest. 9 %only. Rajana. This is also constructed at a cost of about Rs. 3,000 by the N.E.S. block. Out of The society started functioning with a p~id up this, Rs. 800 will be public share. After com­ capital of Rs. 850/- contributed by about 73 pletion the centre will have musical instruments members and about 30 members hailing from and some indoor games. Rajana. Anyone from the circle can become a member of the society by purchasing a share of During 1961, an adult literacy centre was opened Rs. 10 each. A man can purchase 100 shares. to impart education to the adult population of Rajana. Due to lack of enthusiasm~ the centre Loans are given for raising crops. Some loans could not be run for more than 7 months and had are taken to purchase,,s.ullocks, cows or buffaloes. to be closed. Free books were supplied by the The extent of the loan is considered after assessing Block. A local villager Uday Singh known as the value of his assets. The loan is recovered Pradhan, was assigned the task of imparting educa­ after two years. The loan is repaid in cash and not tion. A very small honorarium was given. About in kind favourably after the harvesting season. 25-30 villagers received primary knowledge about The scope of the society can be enlarged Hindi. Block development authorities encouraged by opening a co-operative shop where articles at people to make the centre a success, but all efforts cheap rates can be available to farmers. Tyis went in vain. type of a step will be more useful to the farmers. At present, in the absence of a co-operative shop, A community radio has been installed in Rajana. farmers are obliged to sell their ginger at cheap A sum of Rs. 524 was given as an aid to the Pan- 62 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

chayat by the Block for the construction of a gram sewak. The produce is compared and spring. shown to villagers. Latest and scientific methods of sowing and harvesting of major crops are demon­ The gram sewak helps in execution of develop­ strated. Some agricultural tools may be given ment work. He is supported to maintain continuous on loan to needy and poor farmers. contacts with farmer, assist them whenever he can and to give demonstrations. He carries the grievan­ With regard to the cattle, castration of bulls, ces of the I villagers to the higher authorities. rams and goats is carried out. Poultry birds His very presence in the village ought to be an are exchanged. - Improved varieties of birds advantage to the people. They have excess to him are given to farmers. The local birds are taken and he should be of help. back. Fruit plants are distributed at subsidised rates with more concessions to Harijans. Agricul­ An attempt is made to keep tne village clean. ture and horticulture loans are extended to farmers. First aids and patent medicines are kept. These have a nominal interest of 3£ %. The gram sewak ought to be able to get better' . Once a while a drama may be staged. Dan:ces seeds, fertilizers and pesticides at cheap rates. and games are held. Pesticides are popular. Wheat and vegetable seeds are becoming popular. More and intensive A local youth took a keen interest in organising efforts have to be made along with reastonable drama and collected a sum of Rs. 150. There demonstrations before villagers to take up fertilizers. is a small library. Newspaper and magazines For demonstration some fertilizer is given free. subscribed by block development authodties No sale shop has opened. are also kept here for everyone to read. Demonstrations on agriculture are given by the Villagers repair fool paths that are of use to them. '\ 5 Conclusion . AN attempt has been made to throw light on Committee, Mahila MandaI, adult literacy centre, social and economical facets of Rajana. Since in making the irrigation tank and recreation centre. India became independent, there are some distinc~ Recently, the primary school has been upgraded to tive changes in the village. The old slumber was a middle school. Panchayat has made the people of letting thi~gs happen, somehow or the other­ democratic minded. They have started developing there is a challge in this tendency. This is the more a sense of their rights and duties towards age of planning. We are not sure to what extent, the village community. Disputes are settled here. planning here has ,been as it should be. ,Broadly If people understand the co-operative society, we feel, it has been/slow in these places. Ifwe look they can themselves market the ginger and export back into the broad panorama of the last seventeen it to Nahan. But publicity and education needs years and mord, these changes are becoming a great tempo. A co-operative society shop may a part of the rural life. In assessing details of socio~ be run where commodities can be available at economic aspect O~hangeS, broadly caste barriers cheap rates. The co-operative staff should be are driving out, so ial taboos are becoming loose, clear of what the movement stands for and help and with the passaqe of time, the villagers would the villagers to get beneftts steadily. realise the phenomenon value that is attached to Polyandry is on the decline. The witch-doctor Education. Should tthere be greater co-ordination, would lose his way. The amounts spent on in different fdrms 01 governmental activities there marriage and death would be less. More villagers would be overall pro~periiy, of Rajana may seek for work outside and look People themselves are push,ing forward which forward with dedication and hope to the era reflects in the establisnment 'of Gram Su'dhar that lies ahead. I

63

RAJ A N A IN PICTURES Dadahu

Crossing Giri River during Rainka fair Women from the village at Rainka fair

...

A couple Rainka La"\:

heep Grazing <.ainbl Lake

Across the Giri valley

A typical House

"

Par 'huram Temple

Image of Rainka Devi ; Dressed for the fair

Embroidered Chailena used during folk dances A typical household good

. Village Dhyantis

A dancer in typical dress The Lumbardar and his wife

At the loom

Carrying food for the farmers working in the fieldes .....II.> o .1 ~ro Z ro

Carved Panels

Nagaras Basketmaker

Household utensils Brass vessels for storing water

House construction

Weaver Soop-The winnowing fan

1 A typical door hand of bra s _ J Gingcr. Leaf co ering u ed during rains Mat from date palm

Mattress made from rice stalks

Folk dancers Appendices

APPENDIX I NAMES OF MONTHS IN A VIKRAMI YEAR

Chaitra First Vikrami Month (March-April) Baisakh Second (April-May) Jyaistha Third (May-June) " Asadha Fourth (June-July) Sravana Fifth (J uly-August) Bhadra Sixth (August-Sept.) " Asanj Seventh (Sept.-October) Eighth (October-Nov.) Kartika " Maghsar Ninth (Nov.-Decem.) - " " Pausa Tenth " (Decem.-Jan.) Magha (January-Feb. ) Eleventh" " Phalguna Twelth (Feb.-March)

APPENDIX II

CONVERSION TABLE

One Maund 37 Kilograms One Seer 930 grams One Chattak 58 grams One Tola 11.6 grams One yard 0.91 Mete One Sq. Mile 640 Acres One Metre 1.09 Yards One Kilometre 0.62 Mile One Sq. Kilometre 0.30 Sq.Mile One Sq. Mile 2.58 Sq. Kms. 65 66 APPENDICES APPENDlxm

KINSHIP TERMS m+rr Mother

~ Grandfather C:;R{1 Grandmother rrr-rr Mother's father

~ Wife's brother ~~I Wife's Sister '{I:fi\: Father's Sister ~ Mother's Sister itlT Son iit21 Daughter ~(.~) Married or unmarried daughter of the village.

~ Husband ~ Wife il:'R Husband's younger brother. ~ Husband's elder brother ;;ic{1~ Daughter's husband. m~ Sister'S husband. ~ Sister's daughter. Mother's brother Mother's brother's wife. Father-in-law Mother-in-law APPENDICES 67

APPENDIX ]V

RAMAYANA EXTRACTS IN LOCAL DIALECTS

~Tlf)~~ ~ ;:fTGlfT ;:frq--tr T? ;:fTlfJ, "£TOfT ~T CJi)1:!'~T lfTit ~ij"t iillor UGIT ~T+rT t U-5["m~T ~T~ crrif "fRT

~ ~taT ~1iT Abandonment of Sita

Gf)or ~n:r ~ ~ ~Htr;:rT it citlT~r cr)~ ~~ it~T qr~ When Rama enthroned, after a few days he heard some contradiction about Sita and himself. ~r~ U tftCfr t orr~ ~tGf ~rrcrr ~r '1'r 1 t);'lir This blame was heard from a washerman. One f~il) ~rij' ;a-'lir ~r~~) q~ ~) ~~ ~rit ~T ~r 1 I day Rama was strolling at night in disguise. He crT;:rrli ~iT ~r~ifr ~r qrf U 'li i{tr ~ ~r heard that some body was telling his wife - Oh unchaste woman, be off, I am not lustful like or)~ f.:r'li~;:;rr ~ it I "m -':Tif) ~r or)~-:) 'U Rama who allowed his wife again to live with him ~r;:r ;:r mlq"r GJ; mil; ~ ~h) ~t ~1 ~TG:l Gf)~~) being lived somewhere else. Rama was much afraid of this worldly contradiction. He gave it a iR"r~ '

Extract for' A Glossary of tbe Tribes and Castes of tbe Punjab and North-West Frountier Province' by H.A. Rose (Superstitions and ceremonies relating to dwelling in Punjab)

Tbe aspect of the house from a tiger's or a leopard's moustache for courage is often placed beneath the foundation stone. The astrologicar aspect-In Transgiri Sirmur, the nam ras of the village settles a the aspect in the \, Elsewhere in Sirmur four jars containing articles, first instance. If it is 'Kumbh', 'Tula' or 'Brichhak' , 'Prought from Hardwar or other sacred place, the house mu~t face west; if in 'Brikh', 'kunya' or are set at the four corners of the house, and on 'Makar', south: if tin 'Min', 'Kirkh' or 'Mithan', these are la.id the foundation stones. north. The house must' never face east. But north Completion ceremonies and south are also unlucky, as the north' aspect As the house approaches completion, a pirinda, brings poverty ~nd the south admits demons. a betel nut, and an iron ring, called the three Therefore when a house, according to the 'Nam­ shakhs, are tied to a beam and to the lintel of the ras' rule ought t6 face north, south or east, it is door. The iron ring is a protectio~ against evil made to face north-east or north-west, south­ spirits. east or south-west. Times for building Ceremonial decorations The auspicious mqment-In Sirmur a handful Figures of deotas-In Sirmur, a house is at once abandoned if the sign or image of a deota is painted of earth from the site ~electea is taken to a Brahman, who predicts the a~spic1ous moment" for laying on it, in the belief that it was thereby became sacred. the foundations, by declaring that a leopard, cow, In Sirmur, a house is at once abandoned if the fox or other animal or drum will be heard at the sign or image of a deota is painted on it, in the appointed time. The ,prophecy usually comes off, because it is made with due regard to local cir­ Ceremonial .marks and signs cumstances at time, but if it fails, the time is post­ poned and another d:{y'1ixed. Bandrawal-In Sirmur a bandarwal of red flowers is tied all around the houses on the first of Baisakh Foundation ceremonies to invoke the blessing of Sri Gu!. In Trasn-Giri Sirmur a betel-nut, for fertility, A common variant is row of (probably seven) and a 'Pirinda' for longevity, are always, and hair cyphers under a line. 70 APPENDICES

APPENDIX VI

Extract from the 'Assessment Report of Renka Tehsil' 1930 A.D.

Tenures and Proprietors.- Out of a total of Cultivating Occupancy-In the following table 250 villages 5 are zamindari Khalis, I is zamindari comparison is made of how the cultivating occu­ Bit Ajmal, 7 are Pattidari and 238 are Bhaiyachara. pancy stood at the last settlement and how it stands Barring a few villages of the zamindati types, 3 now. The figures are given in percentages of total belonging to State forests and one to Risal Singh cultivation. Sanjali of Nahan, the prevailing tenure is that of Bhaiya-Chara, in which possession is the measure of right. Originally it was of the ryatwari type, The average of cultivated area per holdiJg in which each cultivator had his rights confined is also given to indicate the size of holding which is, ,to cultivation, and grazing in the waste, which of course,' small. It is, however, shown even belonged to Government, but the allotment of smaller, than it really is, on account of one cultiva­ shamlat waste to the people and·separation of State tor having been counted several times according forests at the 1st regular settlement has converted to his being connected with several Khatoni it to the zamindari form. holdings.

Average of Detail Sain Pal wi Kangra Total cultivated area per holding

78 73 Held by owners Past 62 74 8 Present '61 m 70 68 5 Held by Occupancy Past 6 8 17 12 8 -7- tenants. Present 4 11- 7 -5 Held by tenants at will Past 12 1 1 1 6 paying Batai ~resent 9 4 2 4 1 Held by tenants at will paying at revenue rates Past 15 7 7 8 6 with or without Present 4 -3 Malikana 4 4 4

Held by tenants at will Past 3 4 paying lump sum cash - 2 3 4 rents. Present 2I -13 9 ir -3-

Help by tenants paying Past 2 2 2 9 no rents Present 5 4" -1- -1'

Total Past 100 100 • 100 100 Present 100 100 100 100

Rents.-Omitting the rents of Occupancy furnish no guide for assessment, the rented area tenants (who hold only 7 % of cultivation) wh.ich held by tenants at will stands as under- APPENDICES 7L

Held at Rev. rates or Held on cash concession lump rates Held on Batai Total rates

( Area in bighas 518 2,525 1,086 4,129 j~ Rental 4.442 I . l ,Incidence or rate per bigha 1-12-2 Area in bighas 3,105 11,115 3,740 17.960 ~J Rental ... / 11,802 Il

I There is an appreciable area under cash rents, Sain Palwi Kangra Total but the majority of the cash rents recorded as "Bilmukta" lump rents, are more or less fixed in Paying Zabti rents 11 3 3 terms of land revenue and are paid by tenffilts who help the owners in the pursuit of agriculutre. Paying t Share of True competitive cash rents are confined to a few produce 40 70 93 68 villages in Sain and Palwi, where owners are not Paying 2/5 1 able to cultivate their lands themselves. No value can be attached to such rents for the purpose of Paying 1/3 48 28 4 preparing an estimate of the landlords' assets, and Paying 1/4 no effort will be made to prepare such an estimate. In a country of self-cultivating proprietors the safest ------guide is the estimate based on produce estimates, and the rents in kind, and I propose to follow Total 100 100 100 100 this guide only. As shown in the preceding para­ graph the kind rented area held by tenants at will be applied in working out the owner's share as was amounts to 4 % of the total cultivation, the per­ done in Paonta and Nahan Tehsils. centage differing slightly in various assessment circles. How this area is held on payment of differ­ Assignment of Land Revenue-25. The amount ent shares of produce is shown in the following of Land Revenue assignment is insignificant being statement. The figures are shown in percentages only 287 comprised in 8 petty muafis of which of cultivated area held on kind rents. one is only till term of settlement and may be resumed during the present enquiry. The bulk of Half Batai is paid by such tenants to whom the the other muafis are connected with religious seed and bullocks are supplied by the landlord. beliefs and are more or less permanent, coming The prevailing rent is therefore 1/3rd which will under the definition of perpetual conditional. 72 APpENDICES

APPENDIX VII

Geological Survey of Sirmur ,District

Location-The district lies between latitudes 3,652 (11,982 feet) is located in the centre of the 320°20' and 31 ° 5' N and longitudes 77° 5' and northern area. Towards the north-east, the river 77°55' E with an estimated area of about 3,100 Tons, a tributary of river Jupma, forms the boun­ square kilometres. dary between Sirmur and' Dehradun. Physiography-With the exception of the Kiarda Valley in the south-easter part, the whole district Geology-Except the north-eastern anc\ south­ is hilly. Its Southern border runs along the crest western corners of the district, the entire district of the other Siwaliks. Dharthi range runs parallel has been surveyed. The formations of the area to the border with river valleys of Markanda and belong to the Sub-himalayan and Himalayan groups. Bata in between. North.east of the Dharthi range Sub-himalayan group comprises of unmetamor­ lies the valley of the Jalal river. The Giri river phosed Tertiary rocks and the himalayan group flows from north-west to south-east dividing the contains I metamorphosed formations of Pre-ter­ area into two natural divjsions, the Cis-Giri on the tiary age ranging down to Archaeans. Order of south-west and the trans-Giri on the north-east. superposition of the formations exposed into the In the middle of the northern area the Chaur peak district is as follows:-

Recent and sub-recent Aliuvlum, flood plain Terr!lce formations\gravels and 'dun' deposits. \ Dliocene to Upper Siwaliks Boulder conglomerate. [ Pleistocene. Pinjor sand-stones, sand-rock and pebble bed. c:I I ~p.1 Kasauli stage Fresh water grey sand-stone often micaceous. minor 0:I::s I clay intercalation usually of grey or violet colour with .§~H fragmentary plant remains. ~O I .0 I Lower Miocene or (Gansa Limestone) Purple and green sand-stones. bright pink clay, pisolitic clay conglomerates lower part occasiolnally ~ I fossiliferous. Dagshai stage Sand-stones and clays of brackish water origin with I clay conglomerates and gypseous nodue Eocene Subathu stage Red clays and sand-stones, olive grey and_ green spliiltery shales, impersistent shelly lime stones, l , carbonaceous beds, thin bands of impure unmmulitic shelly lime-stones, ferruginous sand-stones. r Permocar­ Krol Series Basic dykies and sills. Calcareous slates often I boniferous sheared. Dolomitic beds and lime-stones. Gritty I slates and quartzites. Carbonaceous ahales with quartz vens. Carboniferous Infrakrol Lime-stone andslates. Blaini series Boulder beds, lime-stone and bleach slates. Deoban and Shali limestone and shales.

Devonian Jaunsar series Chandpur slates, schis~ose phyllite and quartizite. Simla slates Pre·cambrian { ChaiI series APPENDICES 73

Archaean Group Jutogh series Boileaugani quartizities Carbonaceous schists and limestone Granites Granites and Gneissose granite, Chor granites) Late Palaeozoic age)

Himalayan FormaHon-The area around Rajgarh railway line appears intermittently at the base (31°51'): 77°18') is unique in several respects. of the Chails at the Chaupal spur and further south. Here the entire section from Vlaini to Jutogh series is expl;>sed. The local thrust faulting in the On the Chaupal spur and in the Hamal Khud, Blaini beds (imbricate structure) the uniformity the Chail Series overlie )aunsar beds. Below at the base of the Jutogh series, the repetitidn of the these occurs a considerable thickness of beds carbonaceuos peqs in the Jutogb beds by recum­ of doubtful age, which overlie the main out-crop bent folding, and the 'window' stricture in the of the Deoban lime-stone at Nerua (30°49: 77!38'). Gatogara nala 'showing the Blaini resting on the Jaunsar series, with the Chail Series thrust over Further south, at Tikkar (30°49' : 77°35') on the both of them are some·of the important geological E.S.E. side of the Chor, the Chail series directly features of this area. This ~rea is also remark­ overlie the Deoban formations. In the inter­ ably broken up by normal faulting and anumber vening area, the Deoban beds are overlain by. a of faults are locat~d near Rajgarh. fairly prominent but rather inconsistent boulder All the fa,ults tepd to bd parallel running in a bed. It closely resembles the Blaini boulder bed­ SW-NE direction,-and mostly have a down-throw but. there is ne lime-stone bed associated with jt. to the south-east. ~ Their, aggregate throw is not The Deoban Series, consisting mainly of massive less than 609.6 met~es (2,~00 feet). limestone with some inter-bedded shales, have a great thickness. It has on the whole, a very gently The Jaunsar Series ahd JllUnsar thrust, so well north to north-westerly dip, and shows no signs develQped on either side of the Giri Valley above of folding upto the Ton river. From Isu Tibba Kargaun m:e 'gradual,ly over-lapped by the Chail (30°52' : 77°4i')f the Series extend north-east­ S,eries upto Ranaghat. At har, they have been wards as a wide band. entirely cut out. rowards further north-east, the Jaunsar thrusV re-appears beneath the Chail At Chaur mountain, hornablende schists and thrust at Kufar (30°59' : 77°25') with Jaunsar amphibolites occur as dykes cutting "the Jutogh Series attaining their normal thickness. beds and less commonly as sills parallel to the The Blaini beds on the north-east of Chala bedding of Jutogh sedimentary formations. They (30°57' : 77°21') gradually become schistose. do not appear to invade the Chor granite and are The dense lime-stone undergoes little change never seen cutting the under-lying Chail or Jaunsar but dies out beyond Ghur Dhar (30°59' : 77°24'). series. Their extent is very limited rarely exceeding The boulders in the boulder bed are crushed 91 metres (loa yards). They neither have any and flattened out. The bleach slates show a particular direction nor horizon. prominent cleavage, often markedly oblique to the bedding. The peak of the Chaur mountain 3,647 metres (11,966 feet) from a prominent feature 'south­ On the north-eastern side of the Chor granite, east of Simla and is composed of a gneissose­ the Jutogh Series and the Chail Series are typically granite, the Chor granite which is probably of developed. Owing to the gentle dip, the boundaries late palaeozoic age. On the northern slopes, the are very sinuous, the Jutogh-Chail borindry Jutogh beds dip away in a north-easterly direction. roughly following the course Batewri, Chaupal, On the southern side, the Jutogh beds dip at about Khagna, Purwa, Kakra, Dhar, Bhalu, Chiama 30° towards north-east under the granite. To­ and Kulag. It is of interest to note that the lowest wards the east, the dip of the beds and the horizon of the Chail series, characterised by a dark foliation dip of granite become vertical. The blue banded limestone, which is such a marked granite is thought to have intruded along the syn· feature of the Chails to the west of Kalka-Simla clinal axis in Jutogh Series. 74 APPENDICES

Sub-Himalayan Formations-The Subathu beds of the Main Boundary Fault (Nahan Thrust) and are represented mainly by grey splintery shales, consists essentially of a vast thickness of fluviatile green clay shales, red clays, sand-stones and shelly sediments ,of fresh water orizin. Lithologically, nummulitic lime-stones. Other members are they are indistinguishable from the Upper Dagshais olivegreen shales, calcareous slates and impure and Lower Kasaulis. quarzites. To the north-west, the Nahans terminate near The Subath\l beds have a general NE-SW strike the nala to the east of Nibwala (30°37': 77°11' or occurs as discontinuous out-crops or inliers and exposures of these beds again commence in the Dagshai beds. At Dagshai and Kasauli, at the Majhyar-ki-Nadi section, north-east of they occur amongst Sirmoor formation due to Kaulonwala bud (30°36' : 77°12'). infolding. The Upper Siwalik formations are divisible into East of Dabsu (30038': 77°9') the S1'l. ~thus two conformable stages namely Pinjor Sand-stone lie unconformably over pre-Bocene I

Vertebrate remains and bone fragemen,ts occur The analyses of some baryte samples are as in two more localities from Pinjor formations follows laying perhaps in continuation of the same zone. One band runs between Dudhgarh (30°4]'30" Constituents 2 3 4 77°15") and south of Palasra (30°41'15" : 77°3') while the other one is 1.6 kilometres (1 mile) SiO. 0·38 0·20 0·06 0·04 nor'theast of Jauli (30°35'30" : 77°7'). R.O. 0·59 0·34 0·50 0·63 The fossils are ~lephas (archdiskodon) Plainforns. MgO Bos Sq. Astl'flgalus (?), Naviculo Cuboid ('!). 12·45 14-44 4·16 12·89 CaO 18·07 20·90 6·31 18·69 Minerals SO. 14·29 11·10 27·49 13-49

1. Baryte-I, OJ::curs in the form of veins, lenses BaO '::5·97 20·79 51·15 24·99 and pockets in the Upper Krollimestone. Loss on ignition 27·31 31·64 9·36 28·78 (1) Kanti (30°37' : 77°39')-The baryte deposit is situated about .8 kilometres 0 mile) S.S.E. Total: 99·06 99·41 99·03 99·51 of Ktwti of the 'northern slope of the hill. The mineral occurs' in a steep dipping vein asso­ (3) Rajpur (30°32'30": 77°4')-A thin vein ciated with the Kro\ limestone. The vein is trace-\ of barytes occurs in the infrakrol shales, about able for a distance tOf about 53 metres (175 feet) .8 kilometres (t a mile) north of Rajpur. The with an average w1dth of about 7.6 metres (25 reserves are estimated at 127 metric tonnes (125 feet). Besides this, there '{lre two or three other tonnes). out-crops in the are sligq.tly to the east but they are comparatively sniall. ' (4) Khajar (30°37' : 77°40')-About 1.6 kilo­ metres (a mile) south of Khajor, there is a small The mineral is white i» color and fine-g:cained. deposit of barytes in the Upper Krol limestone. The reserves are estima,fed at 13,,900 metric tonnes. Here the mineral occurs associated with crystalline Some samples from these deposits have been ana· dolomite and calcite. These deposits are not lysed and the results are as follows: of any commercial importance. 2. Copper-Malachite (copper carbonate) Constitueuts 2 3 stains are noted at the junction of Blaini boulder SiO. 0·16 Trace 0·38 bed and Subathus in a nala east of village Sataun (30°33' : 77°38'). RIO, 0·42 0·30 0·30 3. Coal-Very small lenticles and stringers of MgO 0·19 0·11 0·15 coal and carbonised plant remains occur mainly in the green sand-stone and occasionally in shales CaO Trace Trace Trace near Khairi (30°30' : 77°30'30") and Sirmur Tal SOa 33·75 34·00 33·81 (30°32'30" : 77°38') in Paonta tehsil of Sirmur District. These occurences are too small to be of any BaO 64-40 64·88 64·24 economic importance. loss on ignition 0·44 0·22 0·39 4. Gypsum-A number of fairly large pockets Total 99·36 99·51 98·97 of gypsum are recorded from the formation of Krol Series at Korga, Bharli, Shilorna and Ridana. (2) Tatyana (30°38': 77°38') : The Tatyaan Out of these, Korga and Bharli deposits are of baryte deposit is situated about .8 kilometres 0- considerable extent. Working of these deposits mile) south-east of Tatyana. The zone of baryte need the removal of enormous portion of dolomite is confined to an area of about 366 metres>.< 122 and shale. metres (1200 feet x 400 feet) on the slope of the hill. It is found as lenticular deposits at three or four (1) Korgam (30°36' : 77°35')-It is reported that places in the neighbourhood of Tatyana. The quantity of the material with 60 %gypsum is abollt mineral is associated with dolomite at these places. 951,000 metric tonnes (936,000 tons). 76 APPENDICES

(2) Bharli (30°33': n045')-The deposit 3 metres (10 feet) depth from the exposed part of occurs about 1.6 kilometres (1 mile) north-west the deposit. of Bharili located at a height of 1,332.89 metres (4,3113 feet). The reserves of Bharli are 1.2 million Average sulphur content is about 38 %. Arsenic tons (1.23 million tonnes) of ore with average is absent. The analyses are given below: gypsum coqtent of 41.71 %. The pure gypsum available will be of the order of .5 million tons Constituent 2 3 4 (.51 million tonnes). A number of s'amples from this deposit has been Fe. 35·33 32-84 14·06 35·19 analysed and the average gypsum content of the S. 38·84 36·75 38·06 38·58 deposit is 40 % with high percentage of magnesia. Because of its low grade, the deposit is unsuitable Cu. Trace Trace Trace Trace for the manufacture of ammonium sulphate. Pb. Ph. 0·81 0·21 Trace Trace Analysis As. Trace Trace Trace Trace Range of composition Ni. Trace Trace Trace Trace ,-___--A- __----, Constituents Deposit at Diyamdon,-This deposit is situated at From To Anyar, 3.2 kilometres (2 miles) north-east of Diyandon (30°43' 77°43') on the right bank of the 1 2 3 Tons river. There are three or fo.pr abandoned Insoubles ·28% 10·85% adits. Pyrite occurs lin shales an\:! limestones. The thickness of the pyritiferous band is hardly RaOa (AI.OaFe.Oa) Trace% 3-40% .6 metres (2 feet) an\i is not traceable for long CaO 16·10% 31·93% distance. The Sulphur content is 34.12 %. MgO 1·78% 20·62% The analysis are given below :- S03 Trace% 30·12% Constituents 2 Loss 29·30% 42·26% Fe. 31·13 29·69 HIO Trace% 13·56% S. 34·12 32·77 CO. 18·28% 43-82% Cu. Trace 30·10 Calculated Gypsum 7·0% 64·76% Ph. Trace Trace 5. Iron Pyrites-Occurences of pyrite are re­ As. Trace Traa corded in the form of lenses and veins in the lime­ stone and slates at Sayasu (30°41' : 77°45') and at Ni. Trace Trace Diyandon (30°43' : 77°43'). 6. Iron Ore-At Kanjari (30°47': 77°21'30"), Deposit at Sayasu-At Chamri about a mile the iron ore occurences were exploited by ancient (1.6 kilometre) N.N.E. of Sayasu, the deposit smelters. But these deposits are too small to be is situated on the western side of Tons river. The of any economic impdrtance. pyritiferous band is exposed in the bed of river Tons for a distance of about 152 metres (500 feet) 7. Limestone-Occurences of high grade lime­ in a NNW-SSE direction. Pyrite is found associat­ stone at Naura (30°49': 77°25'30"), Bhangari ed with the carbonaceous slates and limestone. It (30°47' : 77°24'30") an~ Jarag (30°50' 77°21'30"). occurs 'as veins, patches and lenses generally admised with carbonaceo.us shales. From Jutogh Serie~ are recorded. The reserves of Naura deposit alone exceed 17,272,000 metric Assuming the average thickness of the vein to tonnes (17,000,000 tons). Deposit of limestone be .9 metres (3 feet) about 2,032 metric tonnes suitable for the manufacture of cement occur in (2,000 tons) of pyrite may be expected for every the Giri-river Valley of Sirmur district near Sataun APPENDICES 77

(30°34' : 77°38'30"), Bhatrog (30°33' ramifying veins of dacite as noted in the area 'and Kyari (30°34' 77°34'30"). between Bhatrog and Sataun. The thickness of the exposed limestone varies in different parts ,of the deposit but a thick-ness Samples of Sataun limestone and of Mandhali of abo1Jt 60 metres (200 feet) can safely be limestone were analysed and the results are as taken as an average for the entire deposit. follows: The limestone is massive in nature. It is usually grey in colour but at places is also brownish. The Analysis of Sataun Limestone grey limestones are of superior quality whereas the brownish limestone is dolo mit. A characteris­ The range in composition of 25 analyses is given tic feature IOf this limestone is the presence of below:

Insol'llbles RaOa CaO MgO SOa Loss

2·94 -,17 - 30% 75 - 6·24% 38 - 17-53·65% Trace -7·7% Trace 32·85 -52·22%

Average 25 samples is given below :- Assuming the average thickness of limestone to be 60 metres (200 feet), the reserves of limestone are Insolubles R,O, CaO MgO SOa Loss estimated at 15 million tons (15.2 million tonnes). 6·92 0·97 Trace 39·52 Sataun to Nadi-The deposit of limestone is exposed for a short distance on both banks of the Analysis bf Mahdhali Limestone \ Giri river. An average thickness of about 60.96 Average and rangs t of 5 samples are given metres (200 feet) is assumed. The reserves are below:- estimated at 5.6 million tons (5.7 million tonnes).

Constituents Range .t\verage Nadi to Kyari-Between Nadi and south of Mana] (30°34' : 77°37') limestone is not exposed, but Insoluble ~.28-32·90% 20·28% further to the west limestone forms steep escarp­ ments on the southern side of the Giri river. In RO 2-00-12·67% 4·87% places, the limestone rises for more than 304.8 CaO 30·72-47·04% 39·79% metres (1,000 feet) above the bed of the river. The thickness varies at different places but an MgO 0·44- 2·81% 1·42% average of 61 metres (200 feet) is assumed and the Loss on ignition 26· 72-38·83% 32·78% reserves are estimated at 75 million tons (7f.l.6 million tonnes). For calculating the reserves of the limestone Dadua to Kyari-In this area the limestone band in this area, the whole belt has been divided into rises to a height of 91 to 122 metres (300 to 400 four parts given below- feet) above the Giri river valley level but in some places, it is exposed in the bed of the river as at (i) Sataun (30°34': 77°38'30") to Bhatrog Bajhon. (30°33' : 77°40') The reserves are estimated at 45 million tons (ii) Sataun (30°34' : 77°38'30") to Nadi (45.7 million tonnes). (30°34' : 77°38') The total reserves of the entire belt are estimated (iii) Nadi (30°34' : 77 !38') to Dadua at 141 million tons (143 million tonnes). The (30°34' : 77°35' 30") Sataun limestone is suitable for the manufacture Sataun to Bhatrog-The limestone is traceable of cement. The Mandhali limestone in places, from the junction of the Bhiter-ka-Khala with is siliceous but it can be blended with Sataun the Giri river to Bhatrog, a distance of about limestone to make it suitable .for cement. .8 kilometres (1 a mile). The elevation difference Oth'er high-grade limestone occurences are at is about 121.9 metres (400 feet) from the level of the Naura (30°49': 77°25' 30"), Bhangari (30°47' : giri river. : 77°21'30"). The limestone beds at Naura and 78 APPENDICES

at Bhangari are traceable for a distance of 10 analysis of six analysis of samples from the Naura to 11 kilometres (6 to 7 miles) each. The average area is given below-

Insolubles CaO NgO Loss Calculated CaCOs 1.19% 54·09% 1.11% 42·18% 96·59% Several other limestone bands are recorded crag in full view of the traveller reaching the village from lalmuse-ka-Khala, Kansar area and Khair from the west. The western extremity of the band areas in the Sirmur district, Himachal Pradesh. starts as a thin band on the eastern precipitous slope above the Shila-ka-Khala. A maximum Jalmuse-Ka-Khala Band-Out-crops of lime­ thickness of about 213 metres (700 feet) is attained stone occur about 1,280 metres (l,400 yards) at the prominent ridge between the Khala and east of the confluence of lalmuse-Ka-Khala and Kansar. Daghera-Ka-Khala and W.S.W., of Barthal The analysis of samples are given below: village, in the bed of Ialmuse-Ka-Khala. The average analysis of four analysis of samples SiO. RsOa MgO Cao Leos on ignition Total from this band is given below- 3·)L 2·"10 1·41s SlJ·bl 41·"9lI "99·13 SiOI 6·78 3·52 0·90 1·19 Sl·68 42·56 99.75 RIO, 2·72 2·60 1·60 2·03 50·28 42·52 99·03 MgO 1·79 The reserves are estimated at 15 'million tons CaO 48·21 (15.2 million tonnes). Loss on ignition 40·21 Another small band is exposed about 3fi5 metres (400 yards) west of the village. The analysis of The reserves of the band over a strike length of the sample is given below: 3,700 feet (1,127 metres) are estimated at 3.7 million _tons (3.76 million tonnes). SiOs R.Oa MgO CaO Loss on ignition Total Daghera-Ka-Khala Band-In the Daghera-ka­ Khala section, a 7.62 metres thick band oflimestone 2·86 '0·50 Trace 53·09 43·20 99·55 is seen to continue to the west to the Tina village for about.4 kilometres (t mile). Khair Deposit:- South-east of Khair limestone form a spur. Analysis of the sample is given The analysis of a sample obtained from the. below: Daghera bed is given below: SiOs RsOa MgO CaJ Loss on ignition Total Loss on SiO. MgO CaO ignition Total 8·08 3-60 1·22 47·01 39·22 99·83 7-48 1·60 0·56 49·07 40·66 99·37 The reserves of this 411 metres (450 yards) long Kansar Deposit-The main Kansar band is in the band are estimated at 7.72 million tonnes (7.6 nature of an a void out-crop exposed as a prominent million tons). APPENDICES 79

APPENDIX vm

BUDHA-A SIRMUR FOLK DANCE

Budha is an interesting pance from Rapika tehsil. a brass plate, bansh/i-aflute and dhak-a small This owes its origin to the bygone days when the type of haluk. higher castes used to dominate the low castes, their On the appointeq day, Kolis from each household tenants, in the part of the hills. In this dance at the collect in the open compound of the village time of Diwali festival, Thakurs and Rajputs send temple. They carry their musical instruments. their greetings to their relatives in another village The special dress is, however, not put on at this through the pancing party consisting of harijans. stage. A prayer known as sew a is first sung Tl:e dancers ,also get a chance to wish a happy before the village deity. After this they break 'into Diwali to their relatives and friends while their arri­ two or three groups and go to the houses of their va! is eagerly "waited in the village. landlords. They sing songs in their praise. This The tenants used to please their landlords in too is known as sewa. After singing for about many ways. One of them was by performing two houses, they seek permission. The landlord Budha dance in 'their honour. This dance has then asks them to visit the particular village where become a part of their cultural life for the last so he has his own daughter or sister married. The many decades andjs continuing even now, though dancing party then begins its journey to that the time has changed. It is' performed during village, reaching there before dawn. Rainka fair which \is held about ten days after Before entering the village boundary, mUSIC IS Diwali. On various cultural meets at State and' played. First, they call at the village deity and at the Natioljlal leVel, this dance has been per­ after singing the sewa, they move towards the formed and is highl~ accl~imed. particular house as directed by their landlord. Here they sing sewa in honour of the family for Budha dance is held on ~ej and chauth following one hour and then retire for a short rest. Diwali festival in the month of Kartika. It may, however, be prolon~ed for a: day or so. The After a brief pause, the budha dance begins. minimum number of men ta)cing part in the dance The eader of the party directs others to put on th~ is ten while the maximum may be fifty. The entire dress and jewellery as described above. The party is divided into two groups, one performs other dance to the tune of the music. The dance the dance and the other plays the music. Songs is held in a circle which goes on moving slowly. are sung in chorus by both. They wave a handkerchief or a dangra from time time to time. The steps are not subject to any The men in the dancing party wear a special rules. The tempo of the dance goes on increasing type of a dress. The other party wears the usual slowly with the music. The dance continues till clothes. The special dress consists of pagree­ in 'the evening. After interval, they go to the a white tu,rban, kurta-shirt, pyjama-which is village deity and again sing the sewa. tight at the ancles and a cholna- a white gown extending upto the knee having fine embroidery The family serves the party with delicious work with coloured threads done at the back and food like rice, potanda, ghee and jaggery. The on the sides. Round the waist a kamar dawal party distributes -parched grain or muda, to .the is wrapped. This is a big coloured piece of cloth. married daughters of the village. In return they receive double the muda and grains. The landlord The members of the dancing party wear orna­ gives them one rupee each. At night, they sing ments mostly borrowed from' their landlords. and visit other houses: These are dharaitoo and baley-ear-rjp.gs having coloured stones, har- a heavy silver necklace, Next .morning, the party returns to their village. kandi-a small silver necklace worn quite close On theIr way back, they first visit their village to the neck and battey-heavy and thick silver deity and sing sewa. Then they go the landlord's bracelets. house and sing songs. He receives muda and walnuts at the hands of the members of the dancing The orchestra consists of haluk-a longish type party. In return, Thakurs serve them with good of small drum, damanu-a small nagara, chhunku- dishes and give them one rupee each. Thus the 80 APPENDICES budha dance comes to an end. The photograph ~lT~1lfT :q~T 'l:T~~ would give an idea about how it is held. The sewa and other folk songs sung during the dance are ~({l1 T ~T ifT ij'\3"~ given here. Of late, light film songs have made ilf'TCfT ~T ~~T ~crr~T their way into this dance. ~1 :qm(HT~ Sewa in honour of the village deity: Gf~lTT ~T~T ~ ~~'U ttHT ~To ~ 'T9crT~ ~cr~T ~TifT {tit l1~~1 <=:T CfiT~r ~~~T~T :;:rT,! :q~T ilfGf illa ~Tl- aTTlf(!J ~~ oTCfiU G:T ~T3 ml- .n:J~T ~T ~~T '~T i5fTlr' ~crTlTT :q~ ~"'{~ .nl- aTFH!JT GT '{TiOfT t1)lr' 'iji~ij' ~~T3 ~Ta lT~ ~~T olfTlr' ~T~ ~ ~r Gfr~~T ifTq~T ~ Cfi=t ~~r olfT~ ~ ~T~ U~T \iFTCf ~Tlr ml" ~ GfT~~r ~ ~ilfT GT qr~T· qT~T ~~T ~Tit 'l:TTij' .nl- {1'rlr ~Tl" U arrq~T ~crtT GT ~Tlr' ~Tl" ~Tm orT'I1~ qrrTlf=t ~T ;;;nlr' ~qo')' l1T<({) ~Ta:; ~~) Gist-This is another song sung is praise of ~cr~ ~ 'll:iOf~) m~ Thakur, when harijans visit the house of their landlords. The song is the form of questions Gist-This is in question and answer form. and answers. Whose house is it? This is Thakur's Whose place is this? It is devta's place. Who house. Where is Thakur? He is fast asleep. worships the deity? Brahman worshiN it. Where All elders and children are also sleeping. Who will is he? He is sleeping. Is it about to dawn ? wake them up? His wife would wake them up. Yes, Brahman has got up. Has he put on the Who will kill the lice in his beard? His wife will clothes? Yes, he is going to spring to take bath. do the job. She will also apply the mustard oil FIe !Jas also tilled the jug of fresh water. Now to his beard and comb it. In the closing lines, he enters the temple and worships the devta with they sing that they have sung enough in praise of incense. Thakur's family and house. Sewa in prai~e of Thakur : Song tuned during dance : rr<':l]; ~~a ,!~T6T '

~lfT~T '

IDlfT '

;;;rr~ :q~T ~T~ ~n:~ ,{TilfT '{) ~T I

'l:T~aT :q~T ;;;r~({T ({fraT =t Cf;TifTl" '!~)~ I APPENDICES 81

~')';:~~TiOI"T <:r ~r I Gist-This is sung in the memory of two clans. About five decades ago, the people of this area ~=t ~T ~T ffi~T =t €t~ were divided iQto two clans known as Pashi and ~Tor ~r ~~T .r~ I Shati. Relations between these two clans were never cordial. People of Shilwadey village were ~ q~ oT~' ~m ~~, known as Pashi and those of Bhawai were known ~itu lT~ 'tt~~ aRT as Shati. Once aH the lumberdars of these villages and other villages gathered at a place Thapal OT~r cpr ij'CfT I near Rajana to bury the hatchet and to move ~T~T ~T m~Rh towards a compromise. ~~~r ~T mm During the course of this meeting, there rose a \ ~(!_TT lffl'T Ofrer quarrel and Chhicha sayana of Shati clan was killed by the other party. The meeting ended ~n~l 'trm <:T ~fTt without any result. His dead body was cremated ij'T¥ IT :q~T Off'{Of~ at Ludhiana village. A message was sent to Maharaja at Nahan about the murder. He sent ~ 1{T

MohanLal Gupta, Research Investigator 82 APPENDICES

APPENDIX IX

GLOSSARY OF SELECTED WORDS

Abadi Habitation. Katha Religious narrative folklore. Ajwain A kind of aromatic seed. Kothar Wooden grain storage. Amavas Last day of dark side of moon. Kundli Horoscope. Ashram Abode Lohar Blacksmith. Banta Brass Pitcher Lotki A small earthen ghee pot. Badhi Carpenter Mang Central dividing line of woman Baisan Flour of gram hair Bhat Brahmin. Mantra Verses. Bhang Intoxicating leaves. Mahabrahmin A brahmin who performs. death Boru A measuring pot. rites. Batna A paste like substance made of Moonga. Coloured beads. gram flour, mustard oil, water and turmeric Nati. A folk Dance. Naumi. Chor Peak Ninth day of bright half of moon. Mochi. Cobbler. ' Chouth Fourth day of bright half of moon. Patha. Chamar Cobbler. A measuring pot. Paichda. Doom A Scheduled Caste doing basketry A storage bin. work Pujari Priest. Ghasni Govt. Pasture, where villagers have Puranmashi. Full moon. grazing rights. Reet. Money paid at the time of divorce Gotar Family lineage Shamlat. Govt. land where villagers have Gogti Roots like potatoes .. Some rights. Gulti Meat. Shudi. Purification. Raid She spirit Soda. A measuring pot. Ralka Area. Soonth. Dry ginger. Raila Collective way of doing work. Sulpha Intoxicating drug. Rawan A sacrificialladel. Tawana. Name of a spring. Illaqa Area. Thakri A measuring pot. Janeo A sacred thread worn by Hindus. Vaish Aggarwal sqopkeeper. APPENDIX X

Questionnaire ust:d by Investigator

Household Schedule

1. (a) Name of village (b) Name of Sub-Tehsil/Tehsil/Sub-Division (c) ,population O. (a) Serial No. of the Household (b) Name of Head of the Household (c) ~upation ' (d) Se{C (e) Age( ( f ) Religion (g) Whether belonging to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe (h) Informant (i) Relation of the Informant to the Head of the Household (j) Moth~r tongue

2-A. FAMILY COMPOSITION

Rela- Agein I tion com- Economic Serial !'lame Sex to the pleted Marital Age Educa- Physical Status No. (M/F) Head of years Status at tional Occu- defects, Remark the (last (MIS! marri- Stand- pation ' if any House- birth- WID) age ard hold day) h 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Earners . , Dependents living with family , Dependents living away from the family . Casual Members

2-B. FAMILY COMPOSITION

Q CJ M>' I Place of ,~ Place of 1::::: w~ bl) birth Occupation Occupation ..<:: "'Q 0- '> e >-C Economic Serial Name r--_,oI_---. °.. r----''-----, r---"--, .~ ~ ",;:I =e 11)"0 Status No. ..,'" ... . ~c!:: "0 0 11)'" '';: s:: ...... >. 3: ",'-_c'" u;:::; '" .,'" .t: ~ c:;.- E-< G ..::! u== 11)"'>. '" EII)\O '" ., -;;r '" II) c·- Q ... ",> ... :§ ",> -5~= II) .s::::' ... ., ]" .. II) s:: ... .., 8~ 3:"'~ 8 .;; Jj 8 "''''8 .. 8 oj .s:::: '" .s:::: ... ", ., Qi!:: 0'00\ '" ,~.s:::: '" '0 ;::l .~..c: '" ., C) ::;E ::::0 ..... p...... _ 0 z A'" u'" 0 til Z'" A'" til ::t:: - ~ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 (ConI:) 83 84 APPENDICES

2-B. Family Composition (Cont.)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Earner Dependents living with family Dependents living away from the' family • Casual mem­ bers

For casual workers Ccl should be written against the name of the earners and the period of employment during the last one year should also be given in 'Remarks' column. 2-A. Column 4:-M-Male, F-Female. Col. 7:-M-Married, S-Separated. W-Widowed, D-Divorced M/PD3CSO (HP)-IO

3. MIGRATION (a) Whether permanent settler? (b) If so , for how many generations,, counting from Head of the household backwards, has the household been residing in this village? (c) If not, place from where migrated? (d) Whether a displaced household? (e) Occupation before migration? (j) What are the causes of migration? (g) Whether a displaced household after partition? (h) If so, how and why this village was selected? (i) Has the household received any loan or grant for rehabilitation? U) Any comment (including whether the household considers itself to be adequately rehabilitated)?

4. RELIGION

(a) Is there a Deity or Object of Worship or a Sacred Plant in the House? (b) If yes, where is the Deity or Object of Worship lopated in the house? (c) What is the name of the Deity or Object of Worship or Sacred Plant and what is the form of worship? (d) Do you keep any regular fast? (e) If yes, (i) When (give actual days) \ (ii) Why (a) Due to religious reasons (b) Due to reasons other than religious (f) Do untouchables visit your house? (g) If yes, how frequent and for what purpose? (h) Do you know that untouchability, in any form, has been prohibited und,er Law?

5. INHERITANCE

(a) Do you know that there have been changes in recent years in Hindu Adoption Act? (b) Do you know that there have been cbanges in recent years in Hindu Succession Act? APPENDICES 85

(c) Which relatives, including male members and widows and daughters, married, unmarried in­ herit property on the death of married male person belonging to the same caste as that of your household? (d) What is the share of each member? (e) Are you in favour of inheritance of property br daughters equally with sons?

6. Agriculture \ (a) If the household possesses land, give total area in acres? (b) Arealcomprising household- (i) Owned ...... (ii) Leased in ...... (c) Totallincultivated follow (d) Total c~ltivable land- (e) Total land cultivated, with particulars as under (for the last 10 years)

Owned land culti- Leased in land Owned land leased vated cultivated Total out to others Situated r--_.A.-.. r---.A----, ,----"----. r---..A.-_"", I No. of Area No. of Area No. of Area No. of Area plots plots Plots plots ~ I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Inside the village Outside the village

(f) (i) In case of owned land, how and when the family came to own l~nd? (ii) What'is the land revenue for the land owned, has there been any recent change? (g) In case the household has leased in land- (i) Who is the landlord? (ii) Where does he stay (if outside the village, the distance should be given)? (iii) What is his occupation? (iv) Since when has the land been leased in? (v) On what terms the land has been leased in? Has there been any recent change? (h) If the land has been leased out-;- (i) To how many tenants? (ii) Since when ? (iii) On what terms? Has there been any recent change? (i) If there is any cultivable land which is lying fallow- (i) Since when it is lying fallow? (ii) Why is it lying fallow? U) Is the household cultivating any land by hired labour? If so­ (i) Quantity of land cultivated through hired labour (ii) Agricultural operations in which hired labourers were engaged (iii) No. of man-days for which hired labourers were engaged 86 APPENDICES

(iv) Average wages per day paid to hlred labourers (k) If the household has irrigated land- (i) Source of water and nature of irrigation facility eii) Since when irrigation facility is available (iii) Through what agencies the facility has been provided (iv) Terms on which the facility is obtained (v) Whether there has been any change in extent of cultivation, nature of crop, yield etc., due t9 irrigation facility. (/) Do you borrow agricultural implements from others at the time of cultivation? (m) Do you take help of neighbours at the time of sowing or harvesting? (n) Do you assist your neighbours and receive help at the time of cultivation in the shape of manual labour? (0) How much did your father own at the time of his death­ (i) Land in acres (ii) Houses and other property (P) Have you got yourself recorded as share cropper during the last settlement? (q) (i) Have you been evicted in the wake of land legislation? (ii) If yes, state the quantity of land

7. LIVESTOCK :A.ND POULTRY 1. (a) Do you .own any livestock or poultry? (b) If yes, give numbers- (i) Milch Cattle (ii) Draught bullocks (c) How much milk or ritilk product do you sell? (d) What is the cost of livestock? (e) Expenditure on livestock in terms of grass and other fodder

8. CoTTAGE INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATION (a) Cottage Industries- (i) What are the cottage industries of the village? (ii) Which of these is practised by your household? (iii) How many members join in this work? (1) Male., ...... (2) Female ...... (3) Children ...... ,...... (iv) Have you adopted any Industry during the last five years? (v) If yes, name the industry (vi) What are the raw materials used? (vii) Have you adopted new tools for your industry during the last five years? (viii) What are the products? ' (ix) Name the Art and Craft in which you or any member of your household has earned proficiency ? APPENDICES 87

(x) From where do you get the raw materials? Distance ...... ••...... , .....• Miles (xi) Where do you dispose of the goods manufactured? Distance...... • Miies (xii) What is your monthly income from this source? (xiii) What are your difficulties in this regarl;l? (xiv) When and how did you learn the art o~ craft concerned? (xv) Do you consider further training necess~ry? (xvi, If yes, describe the type of training you desire (xvii) \ (a). If you are engaged in trade Qr business, mention the commodities dealt in? \','b)\~ H ow d 0 you get your fi?nance. (~) What is your approximate profit? (b) Occupation- (i) Have you changed your father's occupation? (ii) If YFs, Why? Voluntarily/forced by circumstances/other reasons (iii) Have you changed your own earlier occupation? I (iv) I If yes, state, Voluntarily Jforced by circumstances/other reasons (v) Are Yfu contented with the present occupation? (vi) Wh¥ was,your father's occupation? (vii) Which oc

9. EDUCATION

(a) Whether there i.s a School within the village? (b) Ifnot, what is the distance of the School from your home? (c) If the School is situated more than five miles from your home, whether free conveyance is available to the children? (d) How many of your 'Children are reading at School or College? School-Male ...... Female College-Male ...... Female ...... ••••...... •• (e) What tuition fees do you pay? Name of child Class Fee (Rs.) (j) Whether a. play-grbund exists in the School? (g) What games are played in the School? (h) Are you satisfied with the education of your children and arrangements at the School? (i) If not, give your reasons and suggestions U) Do you educate some of your children privately? (k) If so, give details-

I Name of Child Class Tutor's qualifications Tuition fee paid (Rs.)

(I) Does any member of the household'regularly read a newspaper or listen to news broadcasts through the community radio sets? 88 APPENDICES

10. HOUSING (a) (i) Structure of house (KachafPaccafMixed) (ii) What are the materials used for the construction of the walls? (b) (i) Structure of the roof (KachajPacca/Mixed) (ii) Whether roof is sloped, if so, how many slopes? 1 (c) No. of rooms in the house (d) Area of rooms-

Room No. Length/Breadth Area (Yds.)

(e) Surroundings of the house- (i) Whether open places are attached? (ii) Whether flowers are grown around the hORse? (iii) Whether paths and vicinity are clean1 (f) Whether there is a separate­ (i) Kitchen (ii) Bath Room (iii) Latrine (iv) Cattle Shed (g) Whether the cattle shed is clean? (h) In which direction is the main living room facing? (i) Whether the house is owned/rented (If rente~d give rent per month)? U) Give approximate age of the house (k) What materials have been used in construction of ,the house? (1) Whether such materials are available with facility? (m) Ifnot~ what are the difficulties? (n) Whether the village is electrified? (0) If so, whether your house is also electrified? (P) Whether drinking water supply (water taps) is available in the village? (q) Ifnot, what is the source and its distance from the village- (i) Source (ii) Distance (r) If water supply is not available, would you contribute if Government help is received in this regard? . (8) Whether 'bowlies' from where village people obtain water are clean and cleaned at regular intervals? (t) Do you spend any amount on- (1) Water Rs ...... per month (2) Electricity Rs ...... per month

11 UN-EMPLOYMENT (a) Is there any member of household searching for ajob? APPENDICES 89

(b) If so, give the following details-

Nature of Date of Reasons Any subsidiary Serial Name previous cessation for work doing No. employmeIlt, of previous cessation at present if any employment 2 3 4 5 6 (c) Do you know that Employment Exchanges help' in providing jobs? (d) Whether any member of your household has ~egistered his/her name with any Employment Exchange? \

12. MEDICAL AND FAMILY PLANNING (a) Medical m;atment- 1. Have you or any member of your household suffered from any disease during the last year? \ . 2. If yes, what type of treatment was received and how many patIents were treated- (i) Allopathic (ii) Ayurvedic (Ui) Homoeopathic (iv) Untni (vj Jantflr Mantar (vi) CO~bit;latrn of more than one system (b) Medical consultation' Have you contracted niedical consultation during last years­ (i) fn public hospitals or dispensaries (ii) In private hospitals or dispensaries (iii) By c~1ling in ,physicians, allopaths, hOIlloeopaths etc. I ( c) Maternity Cases- 1. How many maternity cases of your household were hospitalized during last year? 2. How many cases of your household were confined during the last year- (i) In Hospital (ii) By bringing doctor home (iii) By qualified midwife at home (iv) By unqualified dai at home (v) Without assistance (vi) Birth Statistics-

!fa • Age Abor- child or Sl. Name of the at tion, children No. woman marri· Children born Children alive if any died, at age ,----_-'------, r--_:__--..A----_~ what age M F T M F T Reasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 (d) (i) How often does the vaccinator visit the village? (ii) Number of members of the household, who have been vaccinated? 90 APPENDICES

(e) Family Planning- (i) Are you aware of the Family Planning Centre? (ii) Do you want more children? (iii) Does your wife also want more children? I 13. PANCHAYATS

(a) Is there any Panchayat functioning in your village? (b) If yes, since how long the panchayat is in existence? (c) Are you or any other member ofYQur household a member of Gram/Nyaya/Tehsil/Panchayat? (d) Is the Panchayat working properly? (e) If not, what improvements do you suggest? (f) Give general financial conditions of the Panchayat? (g) What are the main activities of the Panchayat known to you? (h) What are the difficulties in attending the Panchayat? (i) What are the main parties in your Panchayat and which caste is leading the Panchayat? U) Has any caste or tribe of your village got separate Panchayat? (k) If yes, what are the main functions of this caste or tribal Panchayat? (I) Since the statutory Panchayats are functioning, why do you think these caste or tribal p)p.chayats should still continue? (m) Has there been any improvement in your village since the establishment of the PanchaYflt? (n) Ify~s, what have been the improvements? (0) Can you cite a decision in which the Panchayat has not acted properly? (P) Have you always reported to the Panchayat of ahy births or deaths that might have occurred in your househqld?

14. Co-OPERATION (a) Is there any Co-ope~ative Society in,your village? (b) If yes, give the name and type? (c) Are you or any other member of the household a member of Co-operative Society? (d) If so, what benefits have you derived so far? (e) If not, why are you not a member of Co-operative Society? (/) (i) Have you ever obtained a loan from the society? (ii) If so, state the amount and purpose for which it has been obtained? (g) Give your general comments about the working of Co-operative Society? (h) Name any other agency, which provides loans in the village '1 (i) Have you ever obtained loan from such agency? (j) If so, give the following details- (i) Amount (ii) Purpose (iii) Rate of interest (k) Have you cleared debts which existed prior to 10 years from the income of the household'/ (I) If yes, give total amount of debts cleared? APPENDICES 91

15. TRANSPORT AND MARKETS

(a) Name and distance of the nearest Bus-StandfPlace/Motorable Road from your village (b) If-your village is not connected with motorable l'oad, would you like to contribute for its connec- tion? (c) Do you own BUl1ock-cart/Horse/PonYiMule~tc.? (cl) What is the mode of payment to the shopkeeper i.e. in cash or kind? (e) Ift~ere is no shop in your village, what is the \:listance of the nearest one? (n Is ~ere any weekly market held in your village? (g) If not, whether any such weekly II)arket is in the vicinity?

Give 'd'IS t' ance I (h) Ifnot,\i~ you think such an arrangement would be useful? 0) What are the important commodities of the village which can be transacted? U) What is ,the mode of bonveyance used in your village?

16. SOCIAL CUST'OMS \ A-DRESS AND ORNAMENTS

(a) , Whether t~ere is,4 distinction of dress for the majo; castes or economic classes and how? (b) What are {the qifIerept types of dresses used?, (c) Whether the dfess ,is. locally prepared or procured from outside? (cl) Wh,ether there is fillY change in the dress at the time of ceremonial occasions and festivals? (e) If yes, what is the dre~s on such occasions,? en What typet>f foot'Year is mostly used? (g) Is it manufactured locally? (h) What are the main items of ornaments used by ladies generally at the time of marriage? (i) Give local names of the ornaments with drawings, if possible? (j) Are these prepared with Gold/Silver/Brass or any other metal?

B-DIET

(a) How many times a day do the members of the household take their meals? (b) What is the staple food of the village? (c) Is the staple food used after being boiled or cooked withlfats? (cl) What are other important items of your food? Name of food (i) Foodgrains (ii) Pulses (iii) Vegetables (iv) Milk and Milk Products (v) Oils and'Fats (vi) Others (e) Does the household take sugar? 92 APPENDICES

(f) Does the household take tea? (g) What type of utensils are commonly used? (h) From where are these procured? (i) Types of food tabooed or prohibited? U) The number of vegetarians in the household- Male ...... ••...... •• Female ......

C-FUltNITURE

(a) What are the main items of furniture used in your house Names of the items (i) Charpoy (ii) Bed (iii) Chair (iv) Stool (v) Table (vi) Bench (vii) Almirah (viii) Mirror (ix) Hurricane Lantern (x) Torch (xi) Wall shelf (xii) Other items (b) Other important items in the home- (i) Watch (ii) Cycle (iii) Radio (iv) Petromax Lamp (v) Umbrella (vi) Stove (vii) Gramophone (viii) Other items (c) Has any of the items of furniture mentioned at (a) been acquired first time in the last five years. If yes, which are these articles?, (d) Does the household use toilet soap/washing soap? (e) Are clothes given to washerman to be cleaned?

D-SAVINGS

(a) Has the household acquired any property during the last ten years without incurring debt or selling any property? Ifso, give money value of such property and/or (b) Made any savings in cash and/or (c) Invested capital in any new undertaking 'or building. APPENDICES 93

E-MARRIAGE ETC.

(a) Has any marriage in contravention of caste or tribal law taken place in the household? (b) If such a marriage has taken place give details about the marriage? (c) With what castes or tribes other than the caste or tribe of household is arriage permissible? (d) With which of such castes or tribes would marriage be desirable? (e) Whether any dowry is given? ([) If yes, how much? (g) Wh~t is the custom of marriage in your family? (h) Do you want any improvements in the marriage custom? (i) Whe~er drinking is customary during marriages? (j) (i) Do you or your family memlJers drink? (ii) I~ yes, give number of those who drink (k) Whether polygamy or polyandry is allowed among you? (/) Have yo~ any objection to contract marriages for persons of your household with persons of same social and economic status as yours 'but belonging to other communities? (m) Customs about birth.

F-COMMUNITY

(a) Does the head Qf tne household know the names of the Panchayat/Thana or Tehsil/District in which his vi1lage/s'Situated? (b) Does the head of the, household know names of the principal rivers flowing through the district? (c) (1) Is the hOl,iseho1d aware 'of any legislative lor executive measures in post-independence period ea-e~tidg an change in the land tenure system with particular reference to the follow-' ing.- I (i) Abolition of Zamindari and intermediary rights (ii) Ceiling in ownership of land (iii) Transferring ownership right to the tillers of the soil (iv) Redistribution of land vested with the Govt. (v) Consolidation of holding (vi) Resumption ofland by owner (vii) Protection against alienationlof land (viii) Special protection to the Scheduld Tribes (ix) Revision of rent (x) Sanction against keeping the landlfallow (xi) Production of the share of share-croppers I (xii) Protection of the interest of the service tenant (xiii) Management of waste land (xiv) Collection of revenue (xv) Others (d) (2) Has the houser-old been effected in any way by any of the measures- (i) Is the household aware of any legislative or executive measures in the post~independence period either extending or restricting the rights of utilization of forest produce? 94 APPENDICES

(ii) If yes, what are the salient features of the same? (iit) How and to what extent has the householci been affected by the above? (e) (i) Is the household aware of any legislative or executive measures in the post-independence period either extending or restricting fishing rights in any water-logged area, river, stream

I lake? (ii) If yes, what are the salient feature of the same? (iii) How and to What extent has household been affected by the above? (1) (i) Is the household aware of any legislative or executive measures in the post-independence period either extending or restricting grazing rights over any area? (ii) If yes, what are the salient features of the same? (iii) How and to what extent has the household been affected by the above? (g) (i) Is the household aware of any legislative or executive measures in the post-independence period either extending or restricting rights of shifting cultivation of any people over any area? (.ii) If yes, what are the salient features of the same? (iii) How and to what extent has the household been affected by the above? (h) (i) (a) Does the head of the household know any person who is working as a forced labour or bended labour? (b) If yes, give the foowing particulars of the persons concerned-

Since Terms Name and Name Address. when of address of RemarKS serving service employer 2 3 4 5 6

(ii) (0) Is the household aware of any legislative or executive measures in the post­ independence period abolishing forced labour and bended labour? (b) If yes, what are the salient features of the same? (c) To what extent has it been effective?

17. PLAN ACTIVITIES AND GENERAL

1. (a). Is there a N.E.S. Block in your area? (b) Do you know what are the function~ of Gram Sewak? (c) If yes, describe his functons 2. (a) Have you benefited from the N.E.S. Blocks? (b) If yes, how have you benefited? 3. (a) Have you secured the following during the last ten years­ (i) Better irrigation facilities (ii) Better type of cattle (iii) More land for cultivation (iv) Land improvement measures like reclamation, soil conservation; consolidation of holding APPENDICES 95

(d) What benefits have you' or your 'village derived during the last ten years from National Extension Service or community project? (c) Have you participated in activities of work of community project by contributing land, labour, cash or material? 4. Are you or any member of your household taking active part in politics?

18. WAGES Whl:\t does an adult member of the household get as wage for a day if he is working as­ (a) ~n agricultural labourer (b) ~n unskilled worker in Industry (c) A'n unskilled general worker (d) A \skilled worker in industry (~nder this item the type of work also be mentioned).

19. SALE AND PURCHASE OF VALUABLE ASSETS DURING LAST YEAR

,--______A.-.A-- Sale______---, B. Purchase Type of Asset r------,---.A------.. Time of Buyer's ~Occupa- Areal ~ale Purchase Areal Seller's Seller'!t Date of Sale residence tion of No. of Price price No. of Occupa- residence purchase I buyer Plots Plots tion 1 2, 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

t Land .•.... ", ...... ' .••...... J ...... •...... •...... •...... •..••.....•.••.... :...... Livestock • ...... '" ...... ··M~~hi~~ry: i~~i~;- ~q~'i~:' ...... ' ...... ment. Buiiding~': ~i~~"':"'" ......

...... ~ ...... "...... 1...... _...... _ ...... Jewellery and valuables ...... \ ...... , ...... ' ...... Investments Other Assets Total .

20. SOURCE OF FINANCE FOR CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

Borrowing r------"------.. Personal Govt. and Other Total Sale of Other Total Item saving other assets sources financial institutions 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Expenditure on construction and improvement of building and other structure. Expenditure on land development • Expenditme on new capital goods . Expenditure on purchase of lands and other used assets. 96 APPENDICES

21. MAJOR HEAD OF INCOME AND EXPENDITURE DURING LAST YEAR

Gross Income Expenditure

Major Head Amount Source (in or Major Head Amount Incurred (in outside the or out~ide village) the village)

Cultivation Food (Cereal) (Non-cereal)

Livestock and Products Drinks

Wages Fuel and lighting ..

Arts and Crafts House rent and repairs

Fishery Clothing

Forestry Travelling

Trade Recreation

Transport Education

Professions Other misCellaneous services

Service Interest

Rent Rent

Investments Remittances

Remittances Hired labour

Interest Purchase for production, e.g., seed, manures, etc.

Others Others

Total Total

Borrowing ,Purchase of assets (total of table 20·B).

Principal received back Construction and improvement of building and other structures.

Sale of assets (total of table 20·A) Land development

Grand Total. ,. ,Grand Total APPENDICES 97

VILLAGE SCHEDULE AND FOLKLORE Name of the District Name of Village Name of Tehsil Area of Village Number of households What is the religion which majority of villagers·.profess? 1. NAMES AND PARTICULARS OF THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS WHERE CHILD1{EN RESIDING• IN THE VILLAGE READ Where. situated Since How many General notes ,--____J<-- ____-, when in students including his­ 81. Type Name of the Name of the Distance existence from the tory of the No. institution place from the village are institution, village enrolled STj its problem, 8CjOthers etc. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 II 1. Lower Primary 2. Upper Primary 3. Secondary (including Higher SecOnd~TY\. 4. College \ . 5. Adult Ed~cation Centre 6. Ot!:ter Ed9cational Institu- tIOns ,"

2. ORGANISATIONAL AND OPERATIVE DETAILS

Meeting of the ,-Composition______of Board .A. ______of Management----, Date of General meeting held board of manage- Registra­ after registration ment held during Name of the Officials Non-Officials tion last year Re- Society ,-___ .A. ___ , Others , ___.A._ --, , ___ J<--__, marks S.T. S.C. Date Number of Date Number of members members attending attending 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

3. IF THERE ARE SHOPS IN THE VILLAGE, FURNISH THE FOLLOWING PARTICULARS

Name of the If he is an When the Extent of business Nature of Side General Notes on the busi- Shopkeeper outsider, shop was ,---...- __ .A._ -- -, transaction business if ness including profiteering his home established Name of Approximate (Cash, any (Money ihny. trends of change in address main annual Advances lending, the quantity and method commodi- transaction barter etc.) contract of transaction etc. ties etc.) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4. FURNISH THE FOLLOWING PARTICULARS REGARDING EMIGRATION FROM THE VILLAGE

No. of families emigrated Area to Purpose of General note including whether Name of ,-______..A. ______----., where migration the families concerned still have caste Before During During During last migrated economic interest in the village 30 years 20-30 years 10-20 years 10 years and whether they occasionally visit the village 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 98 APPENDICES

5. FURNISH THE FOLLOWING PARTICULARS ABOUT IMMIGRATION INTO THE VILLAGE

No. of immigrant households Area from Purpose of General note including how Name of r------..A..------, where migration many families are only so-jour­ caste Before During During During last migrated ners in the village and go back 30'years 20-30 years 10-20 years 10 years to their original place from time to time 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

6. VILLAGE LEADERS, MEMBERS OF PANCHAYAT, PRIESTS AND OTHER OFFICE BEARERS

r-- --- Member..A.. ______-, Name Caste Occupa- Age Since How Remune- Other tion when gained ration if offices Name of organisation holding position any held in- Remarks the office side or outside the viJI~ge 234 5 6 7 8 9, 10 Statutory Panchayat Caste Panchayat (Name of caste) Other Leaders Members of Board of Directors of Co-operative Sooiety.

A-MEDICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTIi 1. Whether there is a hospital/dispensary in your village? 2. If yes, what type of facilities are available, i.e., Indoor/Outdoor? 3. If not, what is the distance of the nearest dispensary? 4. What is the number of private practitioners in the village? (i) Allopathic (ii) Ayurvedic (iii) Jantar Mantar 5. What are the common diseases in the village--

Names of Diseases Period when these break out

6. Is there any maternity child welfare centre in the village? 7. If not, how far such facilities are available? 8. Is there any Public Health Centre in the Village? 9. Whether the village has been sprayed with D.D.T.t 10. If yes, give the date of last spray 11. Whether there are any rural1atrines in the village? 12. If yes, give the number 13. Is there drainage system in the ,,:illage? 14. Con1ments on general Cleanliness of tbe village APPENDICES 99

B-MARRIAGE

1. Are marriage alliances contracted among only close relatives or even distant relatives or unknown persons of the same caste? 2. (i) Is the concurrence of the boy and girl taken for the marriage or decided by elders only? I (ii) Is there any other method adopted ~y which the girl chooses the bridegroom? 3. What is the age at which boys and girls ar~ generally married? 4. \ Are there any inter-caste marriages in the \vil1~ge? 5. Is there approval of relatives or friends in respect of inter-caste marriages? 6. If there is no approval how is the marriage performed? Is it under Registration Act or under the Jholy fire of sacrament?" 7. Is widow remarriage permitted in the community? 8. (i) Is there divorce/re-marriage? (ii) Cite the case of largest number for which a woman has divorced and remarried. 9. Is there any Polygamy or polyandry existing in the community even now? 10. Is a r~married, widow treated as an ont-caste for purposes of sacred functions? 11. Is ther'rany se~arate place used for Harijan marriage parties to stay? 12. tf the ll1arriage is performed under the Hindu Custom before the holy fire, is Purohit (Pandit) reques~ed to ,perform the marriage, or is it done even without the service of a Puro hit? 13. How nlany ~ays are spent on a marriage? 14. What are the main features of the marriage function? 15. Is there any practis:e of receiving gifts from relatives or friends in cash or kind? 16. Similarly are th~ relatives and friends given any presents like Dhoties and Saries? 17. Describ~ the dre,ss and ornaments prescribed for the bride and bridegoom (Take photographs) 18. (i) Is there any custom of giving dowry to- Bn'd e \ Bridegroom , (ii) Is it given in cash or kind, and how much? 19. (i) Is there any custom of taking the bride and bridegroom round the village in procession? (ii) Describe the various modes of processions 20. (i) During the marriage time or during the procession, are musical instruments played upon for entertainment?, (ii) What are those musical instruments? 21. Is there any special custom of the bride staying with her husband once for all without coming to her parents at any time later? ,22. Describe 'GAUNA' ceremony fully for different castes. 23. Is there any special' custom of singing songs some days before the marriage by relatives of­ Bride Bridygroom 24. Give the text of any special songs sung while sending away the bride from her-parents'-house 25. What is the probable expenditur,e incurred in a marriage­ (i) For bride (U) For bridegroom 100 APPENDICES

26. How is money procured­ (i) By Loan (ii) By sale of land (iii) Any other way 27. Any other details of interest about marriage customs 28. Do you want any improvement in the marriage custom? 29. Food for the pregnant mother 30. Articles of food prohibited for pregnant mother 31. Where does the birth take place? 32. Any celebrations customarily held to celebrate the expectant motherhood? 33. Who helps in the delivery of the child? (i) Mother and other relatives only (ii) Either Mother-in-law and other relatives only (iii) Either (i) and (ii) with the assistance ofa "Dai" (iv) A 'Dai; or a male attendant only (v) A Nurse in the Hospital 34. Describe in full (on separate sheet) the various ceremonies apd customs connected with "Nam­ Sanskar", "Mundan" and "Yagyo-Pavit" etc.

C-DEATH CUSTOMS

1. How is the corpse disposed of­ (i) By cremation (ii) By burying (iii) By throwing in the rivers 2. Is the corpse taken in procession for disposal? 3. Are trumpets and drums engaged to lead the procession ? 4. Is there any practice of constructing 'SAMADBIS ? 5. How many days after death do the obsequies take place? 6. Is it vegetarian or non-vegetarian food that is served at the annual sacrifices made to the spirit of the dead? 7. (i) Are the friends and relatives invited on the ~ate ? (ii) How many attend the dinner? 8. Is there any practice of changing the residence, if any member of the family (lies on an auspi­ cious day? 9. What is the expenditure on­ (i) Burial/cremation day (ii) Obsequies day 10. What are the important customs observed when a lady becomes a widow?

D-ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATIONS

1. (i) How do the villagers spend their leisure time? (ii) What are the leisure months in a years? APPENDICES 101

(iii) What are the leisure hours in a day? 2. Is there any Dramatic Club or Bhajan Mandli in your village? 3. What types of instruments are played upon? 4. Are cinema shows held in your village? 5. If so~ what is the frequency in a year? 6. Describe social recreation centre if any 7. (i) Do the villagers usefully spend their leisu~ time? (ii) If not to what extent do they spend their leisure time on unproductive activities such as gambling, playing cards etc.? 8. (i) 1\0 the villagers go to towns specially to tnjoy cinemas? (ii) If'yes, what'is frequency in a month (for those who do so)

E-CRIMES Village Disputes referred to Different Authorities last year

Leading members of each Nature of Decision of Nature of Remarks Nature of adjudica:· disputant party dispute the adju· sanction (Whether the decision ting authority . ;-___/ ___ ...A-_____-, dication was enforced or whe­ Caste Names Caste authority thc:.r there is preference Panchayat tribe for adjudication by particular type of case, place of trial etc.) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Caste Panchayat Informal Panchayat Statutory Village Panchayat Court Others (specify)

F-COMMON HABITS 1. At what time do the people generally wake up in the morning? 2. When do the people generally go to bed? 3. Do the people sleep in after-noon? 4. Do they'have opium habits and to what extent? Give percentage. 5. Do they make any beverages in the morning and evening? 6. What is the percentage of people who smoke? 7. What is the extent of 'Pan' ch~wing habit? 8. Is there any Purdah system among women of any particular caste? Give names. 9. Do the people get themselves tattooed? If yes­ (i) Whether males or females or both tattooed eii) At what part of the Dody (iii) At what age 10. Any customs/beliefs connected with tattooing? 11. Whether people of different castes have any restrictions i.n common use of water ffood/smoking? 12. Nature of Social Disabilities suffered at Different Castes in the Village 102 APPENDIOES

Access to Disability regarding service Avoided by caste Hindu in regard to ,-----J'---...... ,.----A..------. r--~--___. Shop, Temple Any Remark Name of caste Hotel, or place other Brah­ Barber Washer- Any Touch Serving Serving Restau- of place of man man other cooked water rant worship public priest village food / resort servant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

G-MISCELLANEOUS

1. What were the inheritance rights of an iftegitirnate SOR or daughter recognised in the past?· Are these still recognised customarily? 2. What are the recognised rights of a "CHAUKANDHU";? 3. Is there any trace of prostitution in the history of Tehsil in which the village is located? 4. What are the causes supposed to be responsible for prostitution? 5. What steps have been/are being taken to lessen or eradicate this evil? 6. Are there any Craftsmen in the Village? Serial Name of Trade work craft How many Daily average Sources If such No. Nos. income of raw services Remarks material are not available then who does " 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Blacksmiths 2. Gold and Silver Smith 3. Carpenter 4. Weaver 5. Potter 6. Cane and bamboo worker 7. Cobbler 8. Hair-cutter 9. Chatai-maker 10. Others (specify)

H-VrLLAGE CENSUS 'AND OCCUPATION Village ...... ••...... _ ...... '': ... Date ...... ••...... Tehsil/Sub-Tehsil ...... ~ Investigator ...... District ...... , ...... State ...... Size of the family Occupation Socio- r--J.--.:...... -...... ~ Economic Serial House Head of Caste· Family (Other Traditional Contemporary Group of Remark No. No. household casual ,--A--r--...... Household visitors) Main Subsi- diary 2 3 4 5(a) 5(b) 6(a) 6(b) 6(c) 7 8 APPENDICES 103

J-LAND AND CROPS (Information to be collected from the Patwaris)

1. Land utilization statements for the last 10 years, 2. Jinaswar statements for the last 10 years. 3. Kharif crop statements with class-wise prodube ot land per bigha for Kiar I, Kiar II, Bakhal I, Bakhal II, etc., for the last 10 years. 4. Rabi crop statements with class-wise produce of land per bigha for Kiar I, Kiar II, Bakhal r: Bakhill II, etc., for the last 10 years. 5. Rot~ion o~ Crops. . . " . 6. List of a,.gncultural Implements, theIr cost and quratlOn of bfe, local names and where are they. generally made. 7. Average Panjsala price of land per bigha of the v~llage' or nearest village (this related to affect the sale and purchase ofland during the last five Years). 8. Names of crops, indigenous crops and plant diseases and their cures including indigenous cures. I. FOLKLORE,

A-GENERAL

1. What are tpe beliefs:and practices connected Witll (i) Lahri, (ii) Shivratri, (iii) Holi~ (iv) Ram Nawmi (v) Baifakhi, (vi) Budh Purnima, (vii) DU~sehra, (viii) Dewali, (ix) Sarad Purnima and how these an! celebrated? 2. Which are other slgnificant days and ho'Y these ate celebrated? 3. What is the/difference between Saaka and Vikran:1j Calendar and when these begin? 4. Make a list of all good things to eat and drink thal are specially associated with particular days or seasons in the year.

B-AGRICUi:..TURE

1. What customs are associated with (i) sowing (ii) ploughing, (iii) reaping, (iv) threshing, (v) hay-making, (vi) other agricultural operations tn your district? Are certain months, or days of the month or days of the week considered specially favourable or ev~n lucky for conducting any of these oper:ations generally or in regard to some particular crops? 2. At what time of the year do sheep and cattle change their pasture ground, and~ what customs are observed at the time of change? Do you know of any beliefs connected with the time oflambing or' sheep-sheering?

G-MARKETS AND FAI~

1. Draw a rough map showing the market towns within about 30 miles of t1te village, and mark against each the day of the week in which each market is held. Are any special local products bought and 'Sold in th,ese markets~general1ylor at liarticular seasons? Or are any particular customs observed in connection with them? 104 APPENDICES

2. What annual fairs are held in your district, and at what dates? Are any of them connected with particular saints' days or with dates on the Calendar? Are any special products sold at these annual fairs, such as cattle, sheep, geese, etc.? Are any peculiar customs observed in connection with them? I 3. Is there any particular time of year at which people enter into contracts to engage in work in farms or elsewhere? 4. Do you know of any peculiar methods .of auctioneering products such as closing the bids in some unusual way? • 5. Names and particulars of the markets most commonly visited

Commodities exported to Commodities imported from General the Market the market note on Name of Distance Transport Weekly the the from the halt day ,.------"----, r------"------. market market village Item Appoxi- Approxi- Item I Approxi· Approxi· including mate mate mate mate its imp or- quantity value quantity value tance in the region; Operation of middle men; weights and measures, tools re­ creational activity ifany 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.1

6. Particulars about the fairs and festivals commonly visited by the villagers

General note including trend of changes in Name of Distance When Main How old Size of Commo- Recrea· Religious Cultural size of the fair held attraction gathering dities tional activities & social gathering, transacted activities activities main attraction, nature of commodi- ties and different activiti~s 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

II. AMUSEMENTS

A-DANCE AND DRAMA

1. What dance steps do you (informer) know? Descri~e them. Do you know any freak dances, such as the hom-pipe, the sword dance, or parts of these? I\.re the tunes played on the fiddle, or the pipe, or the drum or any oth~r such instrument? APPENDICES 105

2. What dance games do you know in Which th~ players move(a) in lines, (b) in a circle, (c) under arched arms, Cd) tn a spiral (winding up)? Are any of these accompanied by singing or dialogue? Write down the words, and hum the tunes. Do any·of these games act a story, if so, what is the story? 3. What other games do you know in which the players act a story and repeat a dialogue? Is the story one il} which some wicked person steals\a child, or a fox steals chickens? 4. Karyala 5. Folk Songs 6. Are any Folk-Plays acted in your ftistrict? Do people at particular times of year dress up in leaves or masks or in any other w,ay and parade the streets? I}escribe them.

B-GAMES OF SKILL

1. How many games do you know which are played with (a) marbles, (b) balls without bats, (c) bat and b~ll or stick,s, (d) nu~s, (e) buttoI\s, (f) pebbles, (g) pins? 2. What gafl1.es do yoP know, played wjth Cards? 3. Draw plans ofthe.ga.Q1es you know which are played in diagrams 4. How man~ ways do you know of aiming at a mark, such as throw by hand, shooting with bow and arrow;lor air~un, catapult, slings, etc.? Draw some of these, naming the parts. arrow; or airgun, ca,tapult, ~lings, etc.? Draw some of these, naming the parts. 5. Sketch the various kinds of kite frown in your district, showing their shapes and structures. Is there any special time of year for kite fiying? Is there any form of competition to decide which kite is the best, and which flier, the most skilful?

C-Q-AMES OF AGILITY

1. What gam~s do you know that involve running, jumping, carrying, hopping, wrestling, tug­ of-war, taking prisoners or catching anyone. What different ways have they of playing "Hide and Seek"? 2. What games are played in your district in which animals are imitated or' are supposed to take part"? Make a list of the animals showing the number of games in which each is represented. 3. Did the people of your district in olden times use, or· ill-use animals for ~musement i.e., for Bull running, Cock-fighting etc.?

D-WIT CONTESTS

1. What Guessing Games do you know? Does orie or more of the players have to be blindfolded in any of them? What is the penalty for a failure to guess right or the reward for a correct guess? 2. How many riddles do you know? Explain 3. What are your favourite Puzzles?, What card tricks do you know? 4. Do you know any word-traps, i.e., sentences which are difficult to pronounce rapidly, such as "She sells sea shells" etc. ? 106 APPENDICS

E-FORFEITS AND PENALTIES

1. What forfeit games do you knOW? 2. How many different kinds of forfeit are in use in your district? Can the forfeit giver choose w)lich one he prefers? 3. Do you 'know any games in which the players,pr~tend to hurt the losers in torture or to make fools of them ']

F-LuCK IN GAMES

1. Do you know of any games of pure chance. such as "Odd or Even"'] 2. Do you know of any words or actions that are belived to make you lucky in a game?

G-SEASONAL GAMES"

1. Are any games played at special times of year such as Republic Day, Basant Pancham~, Baiskhi, Independence Day, Prime Minister's Birthday (Children's day), Gandhi JaYlJ,nti etc.? 2. Are any games played in particular months such as Marbles, Kite-flying? 3. Are th~r:e any games or contests in which all the people of a street or quarter or v~lage take sides? If so, at which season, and how are the games played? If there are no sucn games now were there any played in olden times?

III. LOCAL LEGENDS THE COUNTRYSIDE, 1. Are there any tales about the hills and mounds or earth-works in your neighbourhood with megalithic monuments, with deserted or ruined buildings, with rocks or caves or ruins or underground passages or with moors or swamps' or fens? Are any of these supposed to be haunted? 2. Do you know any local legends regarding the hiding or finding of treasure or of the working of any curse associated with a family in the district or a tale about any building or bridge and its foundation? I IV. LUCK AND WIT

A-OBJECT AND ACTS 1. What things are lucky or unlucky to all? What colours, for instance are lucky or unlucky, and on what occasions? What signs or symbols bring good or bad luck? Is there any idea of luck associated with the sun, moon, planets. stars; with earth, air, 'fire or water; with the persons, or tools or household utensils or furniture, etc. or trees? 2. What things are lucky or unlucky to hear; such as winds or bells or noises made by animals, or birds, or the howling of the wind, or creaking of furniture, etc. ? 3. Do you know of any objects which are lucky or unlucky in themselves, gems, for instance, or metals, or bit of clothing? APPENDICES 107

4. Which numbers are considered lucky and which unlucky? 5. What sort of acts are supposed to be lucky or unlucky, such as spilling or breaking things~ or falling or tripping; or in eating or drinking, or yawning or sneezing, passing through or under or across any object? 6. Is entry of snake into the upper Bat of the \house considered to portend evil and is it driven out by pulling down the roof and not thropgh the door? Is' charity~also given Ito this effect of portend evil? I \ B-AMULETS L Do people in your part of the world believe in the Evil Eye? If so, what sort of people possess the evil eye and how do they exert the evil influence? How do people protect themselves or their possessions from the evil influence? 2. What dq people do to ensure good luck and ward off ill luck? What sort of mascots are in use, and how are they used? Are any objects worn on the person to bring good luck or prevents illness? Are any words or phrases considered protective? C-l?IVINATlON 1. What sort of dreams are considered lucRy and what sort unlucky? I 2. How many ways do you know of by which people tell your fortune; e.g., by cards, dice, pal- mistry, tl1e stars, hand-writing, by opening a page of a book, or drawing Jots, or in any other way? 3. Do you know of any forms of ordeal, by which it is believed you can tell whether a person is brave, or honest, or truthful, and so forth or by which a trial is made between two parties? 4. Black Magic. D-ANIMALS AND PLANTS 1. What animals are considered lucky or unlucky. Do you know any such beliefs connected with dogs, cats, cattle, goats, miCe, bats, or fowls, crows, cuckoos, magpies, peacocks, ravens, robins swallows, or bees, butterflies, gadflies, ladybirds, spiders, frogs, snails, or toads, or any other creature? 2. What plants are considered lucky or unlucky? Do you know any such beliefs connected with the ash, blackthorn, buttercup, cowslip, daisy, elder, deadnettle, hawthorn, hazel, mare's tail oak, mistle-toe, primrose, rush, yew, or any other tree or herb? 3. What plants or animals are believed to be cures for various ache~ and pains and illness, and how should they be used? E-TIMES AND PLACES 1. In what months is it lucky or unlucky to be born or married? If you are born in certain months, must you avoid certain things? 2. What days of the week is it lucky to cut hair or your nails? 3. Do you know of any days in the Calendar which are considered lucky or unlucky; e.g., for starting on a journey or undertaking any business? 4. Is· one time of the day or night considered luckier than another? Is any idea of luck attached to twilight, midday, midnight, dawn, etc. ? 5. Do you know of any places or positions which are thought to be lucky or unlucky either generally or f9T any special purposes? 108 APPENDICES

Village Survey Monographs District Kinnaur District Chamba !Cothi, Kalpa Sub-Division Price Rs. 3.55 Chitrari, Chamba Tehsil Price Rs. 3.60 Nachar, Nachar Sub-Division Devi Kothi, Chaurah Tehsil Price Rs. 3.10 Kanum, Poo Sub-Division Maingal, Chamba Tehsil Central Government Publications Lakkar Mandi, Bhattiyat Tehsil 1961 Census Report, Volume XX-Himachal Hat1i, Bhattiyat Tehsil Price Rs.3.15 Pradesh, will be in the following parts- Brahmaur. Brahmaur Sub-Tehsil . Price Rs. 4.20 I ...A General Report Kupha, Parmas, Palet and Karoti I-B Report on Vital Statistics of the (Thamoh) Pangi Sub-Tehsil Decade including reprints Price Rs. 4.40 I-C Subsidiary Tables District Mandi U-A General Population Tables and Chauntra, ,Jogindarnagar Tehsil Primary Census Abstracts' BiT, Mandi Sadar Tehsil PriceRs.I.75 Rawalsar, Mandi Sadar Tehsil II-B Economic Tables Kat, Sarka ghat Tehsil H-C Cultural & Migration Tables Panjain, Cbichot Tebsil III Household Econo~ic Tables- Nalag, Sundarnagar Tehsil IV Report on Housing and Establish­ Pangna. Karsog Tehsil me~ts District Bilaspur V-A Special Tables on Saheduled Castes Dari and Dabhla, Ghamarwin Tehsil and Scheduled Tribes (including Deoli, Bilaspur Sadar Tehsil reprints) District Mahasu V-B (1) Ethnographic notes on Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes Shakrori, Seoni Sub-Tehsil Price Rs. 3.00 V-B (II) A study of Gaddi Scheduled Tribes Batal, Arki Tehsil and affiiated castes by ,Prof. William Shathala, Kumharsain Sub-Tehsil (Present H. Newell Issue) VI Village Survey Monographs (35 Delath, Rampur Tehsil villages) Dodra and Kwar, Rohru Tehsil VII-A Survey of handicnifts . Chergaon, Rohru Tehsil VII-B Fai'rs and Festivals Purag, Kothai Sub-Tehsil VIII-A Administration Report-Enumeration Gijari, Theog Tehsil Price Rs. 2.45 (for official USe only) Ghaunri, Kasumpti Tehsil VIII-B Administration Report-Tabulation Basal, Solon Tehsil (for official use only) Challpal, Chaupal Tehsil IX Maps (A.tll;ls) Jubbal, Jubbal Tehsil Shathla, Kumharsin Sub-Tehsil 1961 Census-Himachal Pradesh Government PriceljRs. 5.00 Publications • District Sirmur District Handbook-Chamba Mangarh, Pachhad Tehsil District Handbook-Mandi Rajana, Rainka Tehsil District Handbook-Bilaspur Moginand, Nahan Tehsil Price Rs. 3.75 District Handbook-Mahasu Kolar, Paonta Tehsil Price Rs. 3.45 District Han(jbook-Sirmur Kamrao, "Paonta Tehsil District Handbook-;-Kinnaur