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Typhoid Fever in Colonial Toowoomba and Brisbane

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Typhoid Fever in Colonial Toowoomba and Brisbane UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND TYPHOID FEVER IN COLONIAL TOOWOOMBA AND BRISBANE A Dissertation submitted by Margaret Hampton Bachelor of Arts (Australian Studies), ANU Graduate Diploma in Arts with Specialisation in History, ANU For the award of Master of Philosophy 2005 ABSTRACT Typhoid fever is a forgotten disease in today’s society, but for the people of nineteenth century Australia it was part of their every day lives. This thesis examines the role that the Queensland colonial government, the medical profession, and the communities of Toowoomba and Brisbane played in the fight against the disease. At separation from New South Wales the Queensland government officials were new and inexperienced and had inherited a financial debt. These circumstances resulted in cautionary governance when it came to public health policy and issues, but determination and single-mindedness when it came to development of roads and railway lines. The government’s view at the time was if the colony was to prosper then this type of infrastructure must be developed at all costs. What the government failed to realise was that the infrastructure of drainage and sewerage, associated with good public health policies, needed to go side by side with other types of infrastructure. The prosperity of the colony rested on the health of its people. Because of the failure of the government to recognise the value of strong public health legislation it was up to the medical profession and the community to be vigilant and take the challenge to the government. This study has found that throughout the second half of the nineteenth century the medical profession and the community with the support of various newspapers had to challenge the government on public health issues consistently in relation to typhoid fever. This political pressure was more successful in Toowoomba where William Groom’s leadership achieved some important engineering solutions whereas campaigns in the capital, Brisbane, were marked by diversity and divisions. Intransigent colonial government policy condemned both cities to inadequate sanitation infrastructure until the twentieth century. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research for this thesis has taken me a number of years to finish and during that time I visited quite a few libraries. I would like to thank the staff of the Mitchell Library in Sydney, John Oxley Library in Brisbane, Fryer Library in the University of Queensland, the University of Southern Queensland Library, the Queensland State Archives, the State Archives of New South Wales, the Australian National University Libraries and a special thank you to The National Library of Australia, particularly the Newspaper Room; their help and support is very much appreciated. I especially want to thank my supervisor Dr Libby Connors of the University of Southern Queensland’s Humanities and International Studies Department. Both Dr Connors and I have had to deal with the complication of distance throughout the writing of this thesis as I live in Canberra and was only able to manage short visits to Brisbane and Toowoomba throughout this period due to family and work commitments. However, Dr Connors made herself available to me on these visits and also kept in contact by telephone both at the University and at her home and by e-mail on a regular basis. I am eternally grateful to her for her support, help and patience for listening to my frustrations and being available in my moments of despair. I would also like to thank Professor Maurice French, Dean of the Arts Faculty for his help and support. I also wish to thank my work colleagues - Mr Peter Core, Dr Ray Trewin, and Gail Bush - who assisted me with their help and advice. I wish to especially thank Narelle McLaughlin who was located next to me in the workplace and who supported me through all the ups and downs over the past two years, and a special thank you to Dr Greg Laughlin for his support and advice. Finally, my special thanks goes to my family who have given me their support throughout the past few years. In particular, my husband Ken for his wonderful meals and encouragement, and my children Maree, Robyn and Lawrence who have shown continual interest and support in what I am doing. I am very grateful to my sister Doreen Deaner who continually encouraged me to keep working. Without my family this thesis would have remained a dream rather than a reality. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1 THE MEDICAL AND HISTORICAL 20 CONTEXT PRE-1859 CHAPTER 2 TYPHOID FEVER IN COLONIAL 65 TOOWOOMBA CHAPTER 3 TYPHOID FEVER IN COLONIAL 114 BRISBANE CONCLUSION 184 BIBLIOGRAPHY 190 APPENDICES Appendix 1 Mayors Of Toowoomba 1861-1904 202 Appendix 2 Photograph - Workmen and quarters at 203 Fountain’s Camp Appendix 3 Return showing the Total Number of Deaths 204 Registered in Toowoomba District since the beginning of Year 1874; also showing Certified Causes of Deaths in the same District, and for the same period, under the headings Diarrhoea, Dysentery, and Typhoid Fever. Appendix 4 Return showing Percentage of Deaths 205 certified as from Enteric Causes, in general Death Rate for the months of January, February, March, and April in each year. Return showing Percentage of Deaths certified as from Typhoid Fever in general Death Rate, for the Months of January, February, March, and April, in each year. v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE MAP OF ELECTORAL DISTRICTS OF TOOWOOMBA AND 67 DRAYTON PHOTOGRAPH - HOLME’S CONSTRUCTION CAMP, 1867 78 PHOTOGRAPH - MARRIED QUARTERS VIEW SHOWING CAMP 78 LIFE, 1867 CARTOON – TYPHOID FEVER IN THE MIDST OF BRISBANE 115 CARTOON – THE BRISBANE NIGHTMAN’S SONG 168 PHOTOGRAPH - WORKMEN AND QUARTERS AT FOUNTAIN’S 203 CAMP, 1867 LIST OF TABLES Monthly Returns of Stationary Servants, at H.M. General Hospital, 43 Moreton Bay, from 1 - 31 August 1832 Population for Census District of Drayton and Toowoomba 90 Category of occupations in Census District of Drayton and Toowoomba, 92 1876 Category of occupations for the District of Drayton and Toowoomba, 92 1881 and 1886 Population for Census District of Brisbane 119 Category of occupations in Census District of Brisbane 1876 120 Category of occupations for the District of Brisbane, 1881 and 1886 120 Brisbane Hospital 137 Typhoid fever patients admitted to Brisbane Hospital and number of 145 deaths from the disease 1882-1899 Mayors of Toowoomba 1861-1904 202 Return showing the Total Number of Deaths Registered in Toowoomba 204 District since the beginning of Year 1874; also showing Certified Causes of Deaths in the same District, and for the same period, under the headings Diarrhoea, Dysentery, and Typhoid Fever. Return showing Percentage of Deaths certified as from Enteric Causes, in 205 general Death Rate for the months of January, February, March, and April in each year. Return showing Percentage of Deaths certified as from Typhoid Fever in 205 general Death Rate, for the Months of January, February, March, and April, in each year. vi vii INTRODUCTION In the year 2000 a health warning was posted on the internet by the Australian Department of Health and Ageing from a report dated 10 May 2000 that read as follows: TYPHOID FEVER - URGENT HEALTH ALERT A health warning has been issued to all passengers who travelled on the P&O Fair Princess, cruise No.76 that departed Cairns, Australia on 12 May 1999 and travelled to Port Moresby, Samarai Island, Milne Bay, Honiara, Champagne Bay and Vila to see a doctor immediately if they are feeling unwell or have been recently sick. The Communicable Diseases Network of Australia New Zealand (CDNANZ) advises that at least three passengers on this cruise have been infected with typhoid fever and there may be more passengers who are affected. There are two confirmed cases of typhoid fever in Victoria and one in NSW. All of the cases notified so far appear to have taken a Kokoda Trail tour on 14 May.1 Many people who read this warning would have been surprised that cases of typhoid fever had been located in this country in the twenty-first century because it is a disease that is preventable and virtually unheard of today. In the nineteenth century, however, the disease was rampant in all colonies of Australia and communities looked to Colonial Governments and medical professionals to solve the problem. Despite the tragic results of the disease in nineteenth century Australia, typhoid fever has not warranted a thorough investigation in its own right. Therefore, this study will fill this gap in historical works and investigate outbreaks of the disease in Toowoomba and Brisbane and analyse the response of the Queensland Colonial Government and these local communities to typhoid fever. Historically, the Queensland Colonial Government in the nineteenth century has been depicted as 1 Department of Health and Ageing, ‘Report on typhoid fever outbreak on an Australian cruise ship’, Communicable Diseases Intelligence Vol. 23, No. 6, http://www.health.gov.au:80/pubhlth/cdi/cdi2306/cdi2306d.htm (accessed 21/03/02). 1 being a laissez-faire government, particularly in relation to Public Health.2 The Queensland Colonial Government - with inherent financial problems - nevertheless pushed ahead with their desire to develop and prosper with roads and railway projects, while public health was ranked a low priority thereby allowing typhoid fever to become endemic in Toowomba and Brisbane. LITERATURE REVIEW Historical investigation into health and disease in Queensland has been well covered but the disease typhoid fever has been concealed or overlooked within the broader categories of Queensland’s infectious diseases and public health research, and medical researchers such as Ross Patrick, John Pearn and John Tyrer have brought to their investigations a sense of authority from an epidemiological approach.3 It must be recognised that typhoid fever in the nineteenth century was difficult to examine until the late 1870s because of the difficulty in diagnosing the disease.
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