The IUCN Bulletin Number 1 2004 World Conservation

REDISCOVERING Planet Ocean

CMS turns 25 CONTENTS Rediscovering Planet Ocean

How inappropriate to call this planet ‘Earth’, when it is clearly ‘Ocean’ – Arthur C. Clarke

An embryonic marine programme first settled into IUCN’s headquarters in 1985. In the two decades since, it has worked closely with the marine groups of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) and Species Survival Commission (SSC). The programme today has a dozen staff, 15 commission groups and a large number of active partners. This issue of World Conservation presents some highlights of the work of the IUCN Marine Programme, carried out hand-in-hand with the Union’s Secretariat, members and Commissions; international partners, and the custodians of marine resources. JOSE ANTONIO MOYA CONTENTS 3 INTRODUCTION Improving ocean governance William Jackson World Conservation Troubled waters (formerly the IUCN Bulletin) 4 High seas: conservation beyond the fringe Kristina M. Gjerde and A publication of Graeme Kelleher IUCN – The World Conservation Union Rue Mauverney 28 6 Extinction in the deep sea Matthew Gianni CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland 8 Warming up to cold-water corals Kirsten Martin and Alex Rogers Tel: +41 (22) 999 0000 10 Tropical reefs: facing reality Kristin Sherwood Fax: +41 (22) 999 0002 Website: www.iucn.org 12 Large Marine Ecosystems – Managing Benguela: an African partnership Mick O’Toole and Claire Attwood Editor Nikki Meith 14 Small islands: a question of survival Pedro Rosabal Gonzales Contributing Editor Peter Hulm Charting a course Head, Marine Programme 16 Building a global MPA network, one park at a time Charles N. Ehler and Carl Gustaf Lundin Arthur Paterson Marine Programme Contributing Editor Kirsten Martin th Special insert: 25 Anniversary of CMS Marine Programme Photo Editor James Oliver 18 Marine extinctions: into the light Roger McManus and Amie Bräutigam 18 Groupers and wrasses spawn conservation action Yvonne Sadovy Head of Global Communications Corli Pretorius 19 Vanishing point for sharks? Rachel Cavanagh Head of Publications 20 A biological gold rush Imène Meliane Elaine Shaughnessy 21 Marine aquaria: from knowledge to respect François Simard Publications Officer Deborah Murith 22 Confronting invasives Imène Meliane and Chad Hewitt © 2004 International Union 24 Tanzania: three roads from poverty to prosperity Andrew K. Hurd and for Conservation of Nature Melita A. Samoilys and Natural Resources Volume 35, No. 1, 2004 The journey ahead ISSN: 1027-0965 26 International marine law: from hindsight to foresight Lee A. Kimball Cover concept: L’IV COM Sàrl Design/layout: Maximedia Ltd 28 Paying the price of climate change Herman Cesar Produced by: IUCN Publishing Division 29 Coral death in the Indian Ocean Olof Lindén Gland, Switzerland and 30 The IUCN Marine Programme: from need to action Carl Gustaf Lundin Cambridge, UK 31 New group on ocean law David VanderZwaag Printed by: Sadag Imprimerie Opinions expressed in this 32 In print publication do not necessarily reflect the official views Cover: this photo of garden eels Gorgasia of IUCN or its members. sillneri was taken by Laurent Ballesta Annual subscriptions (Andromede Environment Ltd) during a mission $45 (non-members) to study and enhance the natural values of including airmail postage Aqaba Marine Peace Park's coral reefs in For subscription information, Jordan. please contact: Andromede Environment Ltd offers a full [email protected] range of services for the study and promotion/ Please address all other queries communication of marine protected areas for regarding this publication to: management authorities. [email protected] Contact: [email protected] JOSE ANTONIO MOYA

2 World Conservation 1/2004 INTRODUCTION IUCN/CARL GUSTAF LUNDIN IUCN/CARL GUSTAF Kelp farmers in Fujian Province, China, have learned to sustainably manage their resource, but such wild harvest of natural ecosystems is gradually being replaced by aquaculture.

THE IUCN MARINE PROGRAMME Improving ocean governance

William Jackson

The strength of the Union's marine work lies in its per- enforcement. There are no longer any blank areas on the sistent efforts to improve global ocean governance map where illegal activities are acceptable or will go through United Nations and other international proc- unnoticed. The fight against illegal, unreported and un- esses. It is reflected in the Programme's work to assist regulated fishing is of great importance. Our scientific nations in finding common interests and in developing understanding of some of these resources is increasing management regimes that are globally acceptable and exponentially, but we also need to apply the precaution- based on sound scientific understanding. It is embod- ary principle in many instances where our lack of knowl- ied in the development of best practice management edge limits our ability to predict the outcomes of our actions. tools and the field-testing of these tools, particularly for IUCN has seen a rapid increase in marine conserva- Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). One example is the new tion efforts since 2002 (perhaps not coincidentally, 30 publication How is your MPA doing? years since the UN Stockholm Conference on the Human IUCN has supported marine field work around the Environment) and we look forward to decades of im- world, with particular efforts in East Africa, Caribbean proved ocean governance. A renewed focus on marine and South Asia. In particular the programmes on devel- conservation can be seen in many nations and interna- opment of MPAs have been successful in West Africa, tional organizations and through international commit- Tanzania, Viet Nam and Samoa. Its major accomplish- ments such as the targets set by the World Summit on ments include assembling the knowledge and expertise Sustainable Development. that went into the production of the Coral Reefs of the This new commitment reflects a consensus that we World atlas in 1988 and 2002; work on A Global Repre- are experiencing a crisis in how marine resources have sentative System of MPAs in 1995; Guidelines for Marine been managed. But it also embodies an awareness that Protected Areas in 1999; MCPAs: A guide for planners and we have great opportunities to rectify some of these mis- managers (3rd edition) in 2000; and International Ocean takes. IUCN will try to facilitate this work and ensure Governance and Towards a Strategy for High Seas Marine that all stakeholders, including future generations, can Protected Areas in 2003. benefit from healthy marine ecosystems. Rapid changes in technology and its application in the marine field today permit us to manage areas that William Jackson is Director of were previously beyond the reach of day-to-day Global Programme, IUCN.

World Conservation 1/2004 3 TROUBLED WATERS NATIONAL OCEANS OFFICE/VANCE WALLIN NATIONAL JEREMY STAFFORD-DEITSCH Due to declines from over-exploitation by fisheries, and the high value of its fins and other products, including liver oil, the basking shark is on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (globally Vulnerable, Endangered in the NE Atlantic and N Pacific), and is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is among the many sharks subject to incidental catch by high seas fishing boats (insert).

HH igh seas: conservation beyond the fringe

Kristina M. Gjerde and Graeme Kelleher

Vast expanses of the ocean lie beyond the jurisdiction of findings, scientists estimate that over 99% of species coastal nations. These ‘high seas’ cover 64% of the inhabiting the high seas remain to be discovered. oceans’ surface, and include the deep seabed – the “com- It is hard to fathom that human activity is able to mon heritage of mankind” as defined in the United Na- threaten this vast domain and global reservoir of bio- tions Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – and logical diversity and productivity, but the evidence is al- the water column beyond national jurisdiction. With an ready conclusive. average depth of almost 4000m, the high seas are the No refuge largest habitat for life on Earth, comprising >80% of the global biosphere. Most pressing are the threats from fishing activities. In the past 30 years, scientists have discovered that Industrial-scale fishing has already reduced populations the deep seabed contains as many as 100 million spe- of swordfish, marlin, tuna, sharks and other large ma- cies, more corals than in tropical waters, and exotic eco- rine predators by more than 90%. Bycatch of albatross systems such as hydrothermal vents, cold seeps and and other marine animals threatens some species with methane hydrates divorced from the sun’s energy. extinction. High-tech fish-finding electronics and mod- However, we have just skimmed the surface in terms ernized bottom fishing gear have opened up new fish- of our understanding of the ocean and its inhabitants. ing grounds and former refuges, making species-rich According to a recent study in Science, a few gulps of seabed habitats such as seamounts and cold-water coral seawater in the Sargasso Sea – thought to be of reefs vulnerable to destruction (see page 8). comparably low species diversity – contain at least 1800 Other threats stem from human activities such as new species of marine microbes and more than a million land-based discharges of plastics and pollutants; ship- genes previously unknown to science. Based on these ping; waste dumping, power plant emissions, military

4 World Conservation 1/2004 TROUBLED WATERS activities; deep seabed mining and constructions; en- These efforts with a broad range of partners are start- ergy generation and mechanical CO2 sequestration and, ing to have a significant impact. IUCN looks forward to finally, bioprospecting and scientific research. Together future collaborative efforts with an ever-widening range these factors imperil the species, ecosystems, and proc- of partners to protect and wisely manage the 64% of the esses of the deep sea and open ocean. Meanwhile, the ocean surface that lie beyond national jurisdiction. impacts of climate change have also been observed. Kristina M. Gjerde is High Seas Policy Advisor Enhancing conservation and management for the IUCN Marine Programme. Email: [email protected] Improved implementation of existing marine agree- Graeme Kelleher is Senior Advisor to the ments is essential to confront these threats. To achieve IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas an integrated, ecosystem-based and precautionary ap- (WCPA) and Chair of the proach to the conservation of high seas biological di- WCPA High Seas Working Group. versity and productivity, we must also update and build Email: [email protected] on such agreements (see page 27). The obligations under UNCLOS to protect and preserve the marine environment and conserve its liv- ing marine resources have been applied only inconsist- ently on the high seas, even to the better-regulated activities such as pelagic fishing and shipping. Moreo- ver, most activities which affect the deep seabed still lack any form of global oversight or control; these include most existing high-seas fisheries for deep-water fish stocks, and emerging activities other than mining that may affect the deep seabed such as commercial energy projects, aquaculture, CO2 storage, bioprospecting and research.

High seas at CBD The decisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Parties in February 2004 set the stage for rapid action to address threats to marine biological diversity beyond national jurisdiction. The Conference of the Parties (COP) of the CBD called upon the United Nations NOAA FISHERIES/A LINDNER A coral forest near the Aleutian Islands off Alaska. Though typically General Assembly and other relevant international and associated with tropical islands, hard and soft corals thrive in cold and regional organizations “…to urgently take the necessary deep waters even in Alaska and Antarctica, and in waters as deep as short-term, medium-term and long-term measures to 3000m. Such complex coral-based communities provide important habitat for a wide variety of species including commercially important fish such as eliminate/avoid destructive practices”, including “in- orange roughy and rockfish. terim prohibition” of destructive practices in areas with seamounts, hydrothermal vents, cold-water corals and A high seas strategy other vulnerable ecosystems. The COP also initiated an international collaborative IUCN-Marine, the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN process to establish and effectively manage high seas WCPA) and the WWF Endangered Seas Programme have developed marine protected areas (MPAs). This includes a protected a strategy to develop a globally representative system of High Seas areas working group charged with the task of exploring MPA (HSMPA) networks and protect particularly vulnerable areas options for the establishment of MPAs beyond national such as seamounts, cold-water corals and other ecosystems im- jurisdiction that are consistent with international law pacted by high seas fisheries. Building on existing international and regional legal instruments, the strategy focuses on coalition build- and based on sound science. ing, global recognition of the concept of High Seas Marine Protected The Union’s new horizon Areas, and designation of the first ‘test case’ areas. The strategy was produced by legal, scientific and management To encourage the exploration of new tools for high seas experts at a January 2003 international workshop on HSMPAs held conservation, including high seas MPAs, the IUCN World in Malaga, Spain, after which it was discussed and adopted at the Vth Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) has initiated a IUCN World Parks Congress in Durban. Implementation will be led major high seas project and an IUCN WCPA High Seas by the WCPA High Seas Working Group, recently expanded with Working Group has been established in partnership with experts from government, industry, academia, conservation NGOs WWF. The group sponsors workshops and publications and other partners. on high seas MPAs (see box), seamounts, cold-water cor- The experts’ workshop was convened by IUCN, WCPA and WWF als and high seas fishing activities, takes part in interna- in cooperation with the IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation in Malaga. IUCN's Environmental Law Centre provided a background tional conferences such as the recent Vth IUCN World legal study. Parks Congress, and has hosted educational side events For more information, see www.iucn.org/themes/marine/ and at major international meetings, most recently at the specifically http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/pubs/pubs.htm. February 2004 COP.

World Conservation 1/2004 5 TROUBLED WATERS EE xtinction in the deep sea Matthew Gianni

The deep ocean has inspired wonder and fear through- out human history. It has been variously seen as a dark and mysterious place inhospitable to life, the home of legendary sea monsters, or the origin of life itself. Recent scientific investigations have served to confirm and re- veal the remarkable extent of the mystery and diversity of life on the ocean floor. Current estimates put the number of species inhab- iting the deep oceans at between 500,000 and 100 mil- lion. There are more species of corals found here than in shallow-tropical seas. (see page 8). On the upper slopes and peaks of seamounts – un- derwater mountains and mountain chains found throughout the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans –

species have been discovered that appear to exist no- NOAA/MBARI/ERICA BURTON where else. In just one expedition to the Tasman and Coral Venus flytrap anemone (Hormatiidae) on the slope of the Davidson Seamount (1874m). Seas in the South Pacific, scientists reported that 16-36% of the 921 species of fish and other benthic macrofauna collected on 24 seamounts were new to science. Many, if down to 2000 metres or more. As coastal fisheries and not most, of the estimated 100,000 or more oceanic pelagic ecosystems are overfished, large-scale fishing ves- seamounts may be unique islands of deep-sea sels and floating fish-factories from industrialized coun- biodiversity. Their destruction could bring about tries have turned to developing new fisheries and markets extinctions of entire groups of organisms, and we would for deep-sea species. know nothing about it. As a result, bottom trawl fishing vessels that use heavy chains, nets, steel cables and plates towed across the The long reach of technology ocean floor have begun targeting the ocean depths for Unfortunately, the ability to reach into the ocean’s depths new species to satisfy the rising demand for seafood in is not restricted to scientific research alone. The fishing Europe, North America and Japan. The resulting destruc- industry has the technology to fish the ocean bottom tion of unique ecosystems has become a matter of AUSTRALIAN FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY

The deep-sea trawl fishery for orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus leaves devastation in its wake.

6 World Conservation 1/2004 TROUBLED WATERS increasing concern to deep-sea biologists, conservation- ists and others. The expertise, technology and markets for these new fisheries are almost certain to expand in the coming years. If they are unchecked and uncontrolled, the re- sult will be a legacy of unprecedented and irredeemable extinctions. International responsibility Under international law, each nation is largely respon- sible for the management of fishing within its national waters. On the high seas – the two-thirds of the world’s oceans beyond the control of any country – there is es- sentially a free-for-all. Responsibility for protecting the SIRO/KEITH SAINSBURY biodiversity of the deep-sea must fall to the international C community. IUCN, WWF – The World Wide Fund for Nature, Con- servation International and the US-based Natural Re- sources Defense Council contracted the author to undertake an assessment of the extent of deep-sea bot- tom trawl fishing on the high seas and options under international law for action by the international com- munity. Huge cost, little gain What I have found, among other things, is that the eco- nomic value of high seas bottom trawl fishing currently is relatively small in global fisheries terms – no more than US$300-$400 million per year as compared to the ap-

proximately $75 billion per year for all marine fisheries SIRO/KEITH SAINSBURY C combined. The untrawled seafloor off Northwest Australia had dense populations Moreover, the high seas bottom trawl catch consti- of corals and sponges; trawling eliminated them. Pictured: untrawled (top) and trawled photos. tutes about 0.2% of the total world fish catch and makes virtually no contribution to global food security. Bottom fisheries for species such as orange roughy, alfonsino and including the “interim prohibition” of destructive deep- grenadiers are likely to be unsustainable at current levels sea practices. in terms of their impact on the targeted species. This has set the stage for international action. It is In 2001, no more than 13 countries took approxi- now up to governments individually and collectively, mately 95% of the high seas bottom trawl catch. EU working through the UN General Assembly, to take the countries took between one-half and two-thirds of the necessary steps to prevent the continued and potentially catch. The total number of fishing vessels involved in irreversible loss of deep-sea biodiversity. deep-sea trawling on the high seas does not exceed a There is growing evidence that the Earth is facing an- few hundred. By comparison, a total of 3.1 million fish- other great extinction, and that the rate of species loss is ing vessels are in operation today, as estimated by the accelerating. In its Millennium Declaration of 2000, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization United Nations pointed out that "human activities are (FAO). causing losses in biodiversity 50 to 100 times faster than This means that a handful of countries are putting at would be expected in the absence of human activities". risk a global reservoir of biodiversity on the global com- Now that human activities have reached the seabed, mons, which belongs to all. there seems to be no corner of Earth that is safe from our heavy hands. But compared to preventing the fur- Setting the stage for action ther destruction of rainforests and coral reefs, prevent- Since the deep-sea trawl industry on the high seas is ing the loss of biodiversity from bottom trawl fishing in likely to expand further in coming years, there is a clear the deep sea is relatively easy. We must act before it's obligation for the international community to take le- too late. gal action (see page 26). The good news is that in October 2003, and again in Matthew Gianni is an independent consultant on fisheries February 2004, a large group of leading deep-sea and oceans for the IUCN Marine Programme. biologists and other concerned scientists called on the United Nations General Assembly to declare a temporary See High Seas Bottom Fisheries and their Impact on the closure of bottom trawl fishing on the high seas. Biodiversity of Vulnerable Deep-Sea Ecosystems: Summary Similarly, the Parties to the Convention on Biological Findings by Matthew Gianni, 2004, under Publications at Diversity have called for urgent short term action, http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine.

World Conservation 1/2004 7 TROUBLED WATERS WW arming up to cold-water corals Kirsten Martin and Alex Rogers

With the development of sophisticated research instru- Underwater gardens mentation in past decades, scientists have gained a Deep-sea corals are frequently associated with richer understanding of deep-sea environments. They aggregations of sponges and other sessile invertebrates. are discovering a wealth of new ecosystems, including Their three-dimensional structure provides habitat and stunningly diverse and colourful cold-water coral reefs shelter for distinct and highly diverse communities of and soft coral ‘gardens’. The knowledge gained thus far associated animals. Together with seamount ecosystems, is just the tip of the iceberg – much more data collec- they are fertile gardens of species diversity and ende- tion and analysis is needed to better understand these mism. The density of large animals is in sharp contrast biodiversity-rich habitats and how to protect them from to the surrounding seafloor habitat with its infrequent the threats they face. scavengers and detritus feeders. Some like it cold In the waters of the Northeast Atlantic, for example, Lophelia reefs have a megafaunal density three times that Cold-water corals function differently from tropical reef- of the surrounding sediments, with sponges anemones, building corals. At depths from 10 to 3000m they can bryozoans, gorgonians, worms, molluscs, crustaceans, live without light and so lack the symbiotic algae that as well as commercially valuable deep-sea fish species. carry out oxygen-evolving photosynthesis in other cor- als. But cold-water corals still secure plenty of food in Bulldozers of the deep the form of suspended particulate organic matter – Damage from fishing is reported to be the main threat to mostly zooplankton – brought by ocean currents. cold-water coral reefs. In the Northeast Atlantic, trawl Deep-sea reefs consist of large accumulations of marks were found all along the edge of the NE Atlantic stony corals. They tend to occur on submarine geologi- shelf slope area at depths of 200-1400m, while an cal features and offshore banks such as continental estimated 30-50% of Lophelia reefs have been damaged slopes, ridges or seamounts. Because they grow very in Norwegian waters alone. This led to some reefs being slowly, building a reef can take thousands of years, and closed to trawling in 2003, including Sula Ridge – an enor- just as long to recover from severe damage. mous reef 13km long, up to 35m high and 300m deep. Mechanical damage does even more than kill the coral and break up the reef structure. It alters water and sedi- ment processes and removes shelter and habitat for thriv- ing marine life. Trawling can also level the seabed –an effect referred to as “bulldozing the seafloor” – which destroys the hard substrates required by corals to recover and grow (see page 6). Confronting our ignorance Exploitation of the resources of cold-water coral reefs and seamounts is taking place in complete ignorance of the limits to sustainable exploitation, the impacts on habi- tat, and conditions required for species and ecosystem recovery. Studying deep ecosystems offshore, however, requires the latest technology and ‘deep pockets’ due to its high cost. The number of research projects and stud- ies in ‘developed’ countries is increasing (see box), but the need for mapping and monitoring of deep coral dis- tribution and the impacts of human activities on them is still crucial. A global call to action Collective initiatives from scientists and conservation- ists are beginning to influence decision-making processes at a global level. In February 2004, for exam- ple, more than 1100 of the world’s leading experts in marine science and conservation biology expressed their concern through a consensus statement calling for NOAA FISHERIES/ROBERT STONE Scientists with deep-sea coral from the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Some governments and the United Nations to protect deep-sea corals grow as tall as 10m. imperilled deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems (see

8 World Conservation 1/2004 TROUBLED WATERS http://www.mcbi.org/). UNEP WCMC has compiled a comprehensive publication on the state of knowledge and management of cold- and deep-water coral reefs. IUCN is collaborating closely with leading scientists in the field to bring critical information to international forums such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations General Assembly (see Marine Programme publications, page 32). Developing management regimes As we learn more about cold-water coral ecosystems, it becomes clear that precautionary measures are needed for their protection. Norway, the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand have already placed offshore cold-water coral reefs un- der protection. The European Union adopted a perma- nent ban on trawl fishing over cold-water coral habitats in the Darwin Mounds off Scotland in March 2004. Fur- ANDRÉ FREIWALD A wall of Lophelia pertusa, a reef-forming coral found throughout the world's ther negotiations are taking place in parts of Europe (e.g., oceans from 55°S to 70°N. The pictured Sula Reef is estimated to be 8000- off the west coast of Ireland, Azores, Madeira, and Ca- 8500 years old. nary Islands) owing to recent changes in the EU Common Fisheries Policy. Commission's Habitats Directive, Europe's main mecha- The OSPAR Commission has listed Lophelia reefs on nism for nature conservation. The EU is currently look- its initial list of threatened and declining species, and ing at ways to integrate environmental conservation into has nominated offshore coral habitats for protection its Common Fisheries Policy and it is hoped that this will under its marine protected areas programme. Their resolve conflicts between the requirements of the Habi- aim is to make them part of a European network of tats Directive and trawling in EU waters. Special Areas of Conservation through the European Once protective measures are in place, conservation of the reefs will still depend upon effective enforcement by regional management bodies (see page 26). A number of recent advances can make their work easier, such as satellite vessel tracking and monitoring, and modifica- tions of fishing gear to reduce habitat impact. Interna- tional and regional agreements to inspect vessels in port and to monitor catches will also be essential. Ultimately, the will and commitment required must be rooted in public understanding of the need to pro- tect these remarkable ecosystems. This won’t happen as long as they remain ‘out of sight, out of mind’. It is the task of concerned scientists and conservationists to bring the issues up from the depths and firmly into public awareness. Kirsten Martin is Marine Programme Officer,

ANDRÉ FREIWALD IUCN Marine Programme. Alex Rogers is Principal Investigator, Biodiversity Research, Natural Environment Research Council, British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK. Email: [email protected].

Deep-sea science

Two major research projects are under way for the deep-sea ecosys- tems of the North Atlantic: The OASIS project (OceAnic Seamounts: an Integrated Study) is a European scientific study integrating physical, biogeochemical and biological research to improve understanding of the region’s -CANON / JÜRGEN FREUND seamounts (www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/OASIS). WWF MAR-ECO is a ten-year multi-national research project to identify Due to their three-dimensional structure, cold-water coral reefs ecological processes of mid-ocean North Atlantic deep-sea ecosys- provide a multitude of habitats for other animals. Pictured: polyplacophorans Hanleya sp. (molluscs) grazing on a tems (www.mar-eco.no). It is part of the Census of Marine Life Initiative. sponge (top); featherstar Lamprometra sp. in the Indo-Pacific.

World Conservation 1/2004 9 TROUBLED WATERS TT ropical reefs: facing reality Kristin Sherwood

A decade ago there was much debate about whether or goals of a local commu- not tropical coral reefs were declining. Today, that de- nity. Factors such as lar- bate is obsolete. Over 10% of the world's coral reefs have val dispersal, recruitment been lost to disease, coral bleaching, pollution and and connectivity have overfishing, and more than 58% of reefs are considered become key ecological CHUCK SAVALL ‘under threat’ from human activity (Status of Coral Reefs considerations in effec- Soft coral, Fiji. of the World, 2002). tive MPA design, and cul- Because of the widespread recognition that reefs are tural values and fisherfolk displacement are examples continuing to disappear, innovative coral reef conser- of important socio-economic factors that are starting to vation efforts continue to be initiated around the world be taken into account. to arrest the decline in reef health. From community- Building representative networks of interconnected, driven marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Philippines mutually replenishing marine protected areas is a strat- to extensive coral reef monitoring programmes with glo- egy that has captured global attention. The World Sum- bal reach, new coral conservation initiatives are leading mit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002 called the way towards coral reef recovery. for the establishment of representative networks of MPAs by 2012, and the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress in 2003 Coral reef MPAs: finding the right balance endorsed that target. Globally, there are more than 400 marine parks, sanctu- The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia – the aries and reserves that contain coral reefs. Although es- world's largest marine protected area – has recently tablishment of marine protected areas is still often an made great strides towards ensuring that the incredible ad hoc process, and many still exist on paper only, there biodiversity and numerous habitats of the Great Barrier is growing recognition that the development of effective Reef are conserved. In December 2003, the Park Author- MPAs relies on balancing fundamental ecological prin- ity announced that the percentage of ‘no-take’ areas ciples with the economic development and livelihood within the Park increased from 4.5% to 33% and that these sanctuaries are a representative network of every ‘bioregion’ and habitat within the Park. The Republic of Palau has also embarked on an am- “There is a word for what Darwin and the rest of us have bitious plan to establish a nationwide MPA network. In felt when in the presence of the reef: ‘awe’. Confronted November 2003, the government enacted the Protected with the reef, awe is probably the most appropriate Areas Network Act which calls for a network of MPAs to response. It is probably in our nature. It is also, apparently, be developed that specifically incorporate principles of in our nature to destroy that which we hold in awe.” coral reef resilience in the face of global climate change. – Osha Gray Davidson, The Enchanted Braid Positive changes in management There are great stories arising from different manage- ment approaches to coral reefs around the world, and they provide opportunities to apply solutions learned in one country to problems in another.

GCRMN: finding the answers

Because coral reefs around the world are being dam- aged and destroyed at an alarming rate, precise in- formation on their status is essential. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) was set up as an operational unit of ICRI (the International Coral Reef Initiative) to provide in- formation on the global status of coral reefs, and then to use that information to raise awareness of the need for conservation action. See http://www.gcrmn.org/

GBRMPA/PAUL MARSHALL GBRMPA/PAUL – Carl Gustaf Lundin, Head of the IUCN Coral reef monitoring is an essential tool for management of the reef Marine Programme and Chair of GCRMN ecosystem.

10 World Conservation 1/2004 Excessive collection of marine organisms can lead to depletion and even extinction of

local populations. JAN POST

The need for communities to collectively manage their own environments is increasingly recognised as an es- Building reef resilience sential component of coral reef management. Apo Is- land in the Philippines is one of the earliest and most Reef managers and local communities have become increasingly influential examples of community-based management. alarmed by the impacts of global change on coral reefs, such as mass coral bleaching events (see page 29). In 1985, the island's community and local council A growing global partnership between IUCN, The Nature Con- worked together to establish a marine reserve surround- servancy, NOAA and the Wildlife Conservation Society is helping ing the island's entire fringing reef. By 1992, the local to transform coral reef conservation by providing tools and train- fisherfolk confirmed that the marine reserve significantly ing for building resilience into coral reef management. improved fish catches outside of the reserve. Two new tools, The Reef Resilience (R2) Toolkit and The Reef The success of Apo has been contagious in the Phil- Manager's Guide to Coral Bleaching, have been developed to help ippines as well as in other parts of the world; there are coral reef and MPA managers, trainers and policy-makers enhance now numerous examples of local commitment to coral their strategic planning and management. reef conservation. For free copies of either publication contact Kristin Sherwood: [email protected]. Monitoring gains momentum Although tropical coral reefs have been the subject of thousands of research projects in the last few decades, monitoring levels are essential, both for providing data systematic global monitoring of coral reef health has only and information on the status and trends in coral reefs; recently started to gain momentum. It is essential that and to raise awareness amongst all stakeholders of the we develop a clear understanding of the global scope of need for conservation management of these valuable re- the decline – and recovery – of coral reefs. sources. Long-term monitoring is the first step in revealing Although the rate of damage to coral reef resources such trends. There are many approaches to monitor- is increasing, it is also clear that efforts to conserve reefs ing, ranging in complexity from purely volunteer efforts are also on the rise. Growing networks of MPAs, improv- to well-funded academia and government programmes. ing management strategies and increasing social and The cornerstone of international coral reef monitor- economic monitoring information will help us slow reef ing is the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network decline, but there are other fundamental threats such as (GCRMN) and its partnership with Reef Check, ReefBase climate change, overfishing, land-based sources of pol- and CORDIO (see page 29). This coalition of monitoring lution, destructive fishing, and the need for improved groups places equal emphasis on gathering ecological enforcement that still need to be addressed. Strong po- and socio-economic data, and has produced manuals litical will and policy support are essential to abate key and protocols linking both fields. The groups recognise threats and their underlying causes. that there are several overlapping levels of monitoring, ranging from broad-based community approaches Kristin Sherwood is Marine Programme Officer, to high resolution scientific monitoring. A range of IUCN USA Multilateral Office, Washington, D.C.

World Conservation 1/2004 11 CLAIRE ATTWOOD

Some 20,000 artisanal fishers in Angola catch enough fish to provide a direct income for 100,000 people, including women who dry and process the fish for market.

LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS MManaging Benguela: an African partnership Mick O’Toole and Claire Attwood

Despite a turbulent history, the three countries that bor- Abundant harvest der the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem The ecosystem supports a number of commercially im- (BCLME) are working together to manage their shared portant fish stocks such as hake, anchovy, sardine, horse marine resources in an integrated and sustainable way, mackerel and tuna. Rock lobsters are harvested in the combining an ecosystem-based approach coupled with southern Benguela, while shrimp and deep-sea crab pro- transboundary cooperation. vide small scale fishers in the north with an important Angola, Namibia and South Africa share one of the source of food and work. most productive ecosystems on Earth. The Benguela Fisheries are an economic mainstay in the Benguela Current is a narrow, ribbon-like system that extends from region, accounting for 10% of gross domestic product Angola’s Cabinda Province in the north, to just east of (GDP) in Namibia, 4% in Angola and 0.37% in South Af- Port Elizabeth in South Africa. It is one of the four major rica. There are also rich reserves of oil, gas and minerals, coastal upwelling ecosystems of the world and is highly within the sediments of the Benguela Current. The ma- unusual because it is bounded to the north and south rine diamond-mining industry in Namibia and South by warm waters of tropical origin. Africa yields close to a million carats of diamonds each year and Angola is the second largest producer of oil in What is an LME? sub-Saharan Africa. Both Namibia and South Africa are actively developing their own oil and gas industries. Large Marine Ecosystems are regions of ocean space encompassing coastal areas from river basins and estuaries to the seaward bounda- Threats and obstacles ries of continental shelves and the outer margins of the major current While the integrity of the Benguela Current is still largely systems. They are generally on the order of 200,000km2 or greater, intact, the ecosystem faces accelerating threats which, and characterized by distinct geographical, physical and biological if left unchecked, would threaten vital economic and conditions and populations that are related though a common food web. On a global scale, the total number of 64 LMEs currently described ecological values. The primary threats include habitat produce 95% of the world's annual marine fisheries biomass yields, loss and pollution – particularly in areas adjacent to ur- among other resources. ban centres – and the increasing exploitation of strad- dling fish stocks. The oil, gas and mining industries

12 World Conservation 1/2004 TROUBLED WATERS could pollute sensitive marine areas if they are not un- aspects of fisheries management, scientific research and dertaken in an environmentally safe manner. training. These environmental problems are compounded by An auspicious beginning the fact that the legacies of colonialism, apartheid and civil war persist in the Benguela region, in the form of Thanks to the strong commitment of the three govern- depleted resources, poor infrastructure and, above all, ments and their international partners, the BCLME Pro- limited human capacity to cope with the complexity and gramme is fast becoming a concrete and constructive variability of the ecosystem. initiative which clearly addresses and supports some of In spite of these difficulties, the governments of An- the overall goals of the New Partnership for Africa's De- gola, Namibia and South Africa are working together to velopment (NEPAD). It is a country-driven initiative that deal with the environmental problems that occur across will address some of the most pressing environmental national boundaries so that the Benguela Ecosystem issues in the Benguela region and contribute materially may be managed as a whole. Their efforts are being sup- to the sustainable and responsible development of the ported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which rich oceanic resources of southern Africa. has invested US$15 million in the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme, through the Mick O'Toole is chief technical advisor to the BCLME United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The Programme based in Windhoek, Namibia. GEF’s funding complements an investment of approxi- Claire Attwood is BCLME media consultant, based in mately $16 million by the three countries and over $7 Cape Town, South Africa. million from Norway (NORAD) and Germany (GTZ). Visit http://www.bclme.org

How does it work? Over the next three years, some 80 projects will be sup- ported by the BCLME Programme, with the aim of de- veloping baseline scientific and economic information on the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem, how this is changing over time and how the transboundary management problems associated with fishing, mining, oil exploration, coastal development, biodiversity and pollution can best be addressed across the entire Benguela region. Half of these projects have already been initiated and a few are at an advanced stage of completion. Most of the projects have been designed primarily to address key transboundary management questions such as

³ What are the cumulative effects on the environment SOUTH AFRICA MANAGEMENT, MARINE AND COASTAL A red tide discolours water off Cape Peninsula, South Africa. The BCLME of marine mining? Programme is funding projects to establish an early warning system for ³ Is it possible to establish an early warning system so such destructive events. that the three nations are prepared for harmful algal blooms and low oxygen water events, two of the most IUCN’s role serious marine phenomena to occur in the region? IUCN through its Marine Programme supported the BCLME Programme ³ How can Namibia and South Africa derive maximum to demonstrate the feasibility of applying an ecosystem-wide, cross- socio-economic benefits from their shared hake re- national approach to marine conservation. The Marine Programme source, while at the same time ensuring the long- assists in technical issues of BCLME implementation, particularly ad- term sustainability of the stocks in the BCLME? vising on MPA development, and provides financial support to the portofolio of LME programmes along with its international partners like Benguela Current Commission NOAA, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. A new project under GEF will enable IUCN to add a structured learn- One of the Programme’s major goals is to establish a ing component to the set of 17 LME programmes currently operating, Benguela Current Commission which will enable the including BCLME. This will facilitate the exchange of experiences be- three countries to constructively and peacefully resolve tween programmes and foster the practical applicability of the LME the transboundary issues that threaten the integrity of concept. the BCLME. Recent IUCN supported developments also include an update of An Interim Benguela Current Commission (IBCC), to the status and managing efforts of all 64 existing LMEs. Visit www.edc.uri.edu/lme/ for information on LME cases and maps, oper- be set up within a few years, will complement the work ating programmes and the overall concept. of the two regional fisheries organizations regulating The IUCN Marine Programme, in partnership with the IUCN Com- high seas and tuna fisheries in the Benguela region, the mission on Ecosystem Management, plans to further promote the prac- South-East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (SEAFO) and tical application of the LME concept at the forthcoming 3rd IUCN World ICCAT (see page 26). It is envisaged that the existing Conservation Congress in Bangkok (17-25 November 2004). regional fisheries research and training programme – Kirsten Martin ([email protected]) (BENEFIT) will serve as an advisory arm to the IBCC on

World Conservation 1/2004 13 TROUBLED WATERS SS mall islands: a question of survival Pedro Rosabal Gonzales

Small islands represent both an ecological and socio-eco- Programme of Action nomic challenge. They are endowed with exceptional Small Island Developing States (SIDS) firmly captured the biodiversity and high levels of endemism, a result of their attention of the international community in the early geographical isolation. This richness is extremely frag- 1990s. Today the primary blueprint for action on their ile, however. Equally important – and highly sensitive – behalf is the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sus- are their human cultures, so crucially dependent on the tainable Development of Small Island Developing States islands’ unique ecosystems for their future development. (BPoA), adopted in 1994 at the Global Conference on For small island states, achieving a balance between Sustainable Development of SIDS held under the aus- conservation and development is not a rhetorical exer- pices of the UN Commission on Sustainable Develop- cise but an imperative for survival. Their task is greatly ment. complicated by the ecological and economic impacts of In August 2004 the international community will con- global change, which is forcing vulnerable island eco- vene in Mauritius to discuss recommendations for the systems over the edge and jeopardising the future of their further implementation of the BPoA (Barbados +10). This people. 10-year review offers an opportunity to fine tune the Pro- A key question for the conservation and development gramme’s approach to sustainable development strate- community is: can small islands find a way to achieve gies, particularly for ocean and marine policies. sustainable development? Their challenge is to use what has been learned over the years about how to balance Islands and IUCN conservation and development, with adequate recogni- The Union places small island issues high on its marine tion of the traditional knowledge of islanders. agenda, and many of its activities relate directly to their concerns. The IUCN World Commission on Protected Protecting the hotspots Areas (IUCN WCPA) and the IUCN Marine Programme The fragile and often unique habitats of islands are found are working together to promote the creation of marine both on land and under the sea. Their coral reefs rival protected areas (MPAs) for small islands. A project with rainforests in species diversity and productivity, and play the United Nations Foundation will assess opportuni- a key role in maintaining sustainable fisheries. It is there- ties to expand coverage of the World Heritage system in fore not surprising that many of the world’s hotspots of tropical coastal and marine sites. Other joint efforts biodiversity are islands. address related problems such as coral bleaching and Yet many islands have already suffered species MPA capacity-building. IUCN’s Regional Office for East- extinctions from over-exploitation, introduced invasives ern Africa is involved in a project funded by the Global and habitat fragmentation. And the pressures continue Environment Facility (GEF) to establish the first marine to escalate. Growing human populations, increasing park in the Comores. tourism, coastal reclamation for infrastructure develop- A highlight of this collaboration within IUCN is our ment, unsustainable fishing, and climate change are work with the GEF and its partners to design projects to introducing new threats and exacerbating old ones. Is- generate innovative approaches to marine biodiversity land resources and economic development are all at risk. conservation and community development. Projects are now being implemented in Samoa (see facing page), Tanzania (see page 24) and Viet Nam (see page 16), all of which aim for community-based management of marine biodiversity and sustain- able use of marine resources. The ultimate goal of these projects is to demonstrate that building the capacity of local communities to establish and manage MPAs will deliver benefits to islanders and to the global community as a whole. The following cases illustrate a few approaches to promoting sustainable development in island ecosystems. This is a small contribution to the practical experience and knowledge that the Un- ion, its members and partners should dissemi- nate widely if we are to successfully address the many challenges facing small islands.

BAHAMAS NATIONAL TRUST BAHAMAS NATIONAL Pedro Rosabal Gonzalez is Senior Programme Diver looking at pillar corals in Exuma Cays, Bahamas. Officer, IUCN Programme on Protected Areas.

14 World Conservation 1/2004 TROUBLED WATERS

SAMOA

In the Pacific island of Samoa, catches of seafood from coastal areas, lagoons and inshore reefs have de- clined over the past 10 years. The main reasons are over-exploitation and the use of destructive fishing methods including explosives, chemicals and tradi- tional plant-derived poisons. In 1995 the Samoan Fisheries Division initiated a community-based extension project in 65 villages. Thirty-eight of these chose to establish small Village Fish Reserves in part of their traditional fishing areas and decided to support and enforce government laws banning the use of explosives and chemicals for fish- ing. Some also set minimum-size limits for captured fish. After several years, fisheries stocks have increased by 30 to 40% and there are signs of recovery in reefs previously affected by destructive fishing. As the Fish Reserves are being managed by communities which IUCN/PEDRO ROSABAL GONZALEZ These representatives of the Aleipata District Committee worked on the have direct interest in their success, prospects for project from its beginning. They are pictured at a planning session on long-term sustainability of this initiative are high. the design of the MPAs for their district.

BAHAMAS

The Bahamas are a group of low-lying Caribbean islands with well-developed reefs and 500 spe- cies of fish. The Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park, established in 1958, became a no-take fisheries reserve in 1986, the first of its kind in the Wider Caribbean region and one of the first in the world. Research has shown that the concentration of conch in the park is 31 times that outside, pro- viding several million conchs available for har- vest beyond its boundaries per year. Tagged Exuma Park groupers have been caught 240km away, and tagged spiny lobsters were found at Cat Island, 110km away. The success of fisheries resource replenish- ment in the Exuma Park led the government to

CRAIG DAHLGREN announce a policy decision in 2000 to protect A no-take reserve in Exuma Cays, Bahamas, has led to the 20% of the Bahamian marine ecosystem, successful replenishment of many harvested species. Pictured: doubling the size of the national protected areas black grouper. system.

PALAU

The Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve of Palau, created in 1956, protects a representative sample of the limestone islands and lagoon ecosystems and their exceptional levels of marine biodiversity. Surveys carried out in the Preserve show that it contains 200 to 300 fish species – or 15-20% of the approximately 1400 species – and 22% of the spe- cies of hard coral reported for these waters. The pristine conditions of the islands are the result of nearly half a century of protection, com- bined with the relative lack of introduced species such as rats and marine pests. The area is a unique natural laboratory for the study of terrestrial and marine biodiversity and ecological processes, and an important baseline area for research and for

assessing the impacts of climate change on Pacific DAVIS PATRICIA island ecosystems. Palau’s pristine environment is the result of a half century of protection.

World Conservation 1/2004 15 CHARTING A COURSE

uilding a global MPA network, BB one park at a time

Charles N. Ehler and Arthur Paterson

Marine protected areas (MPAs) covering the full range of IUCN categories are widely recognised by coastal nations as flexible and valuable tools for science-based, integrated area management. They range from highly protected marine reserves to areas managed for multi- ple uses, help conserve critical habitat, foster the recov- ery of over-exploited and endangered species, maintain marine communities, and promote sustainable use. Armed with this wealth of experience in marine con- servation, MPA planners and managers have taken ad- vantage of a number of key international events over the past few years to learn about different approaches to developing and managing MPAs and to devise strategies to ensure marine conservation gains are sustained and enhanced in the future. The result is that a global MPA network is being developed, one MPA at a time. A global network . . . VERENA TUNNICLIFFE Momentum is building to meet the 2002 World Summit Not all marine parks are found in shallow waters. This octopus was photographed near a hydrothermal vent in on Sustainable Development (WSSD) target of Endeavour Marine Protected Area (Canada) at a depth of establishing a representative MPA network based on more than 2000m. scientific information and consistent with international law. Participants at the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress (Durban, 8–17 September 2003) and governments, This decision comes 16 years after the 1988 IUCN Reso- through the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), lution calling for a “global representative system” of MPAs. have made new national commitments to establish and It builds on solid achievements in establishing individual maintain comprehensive, effectively managed and MPAs, as well as national and regional representative ecologically representative national and regional MPA systems in numerous countries. systems by 2012. . . . based on local experience

A network, or system, is only as good as its component parts. So, while strate- gies focused on ensuring the conserva- tion of a globally representative network of MPAs are important, the on-the- ground development and management of MPAs represent the real front-line of marine conservation. MPAs today face myriad challenges, particularly in developing countries where systemic poverty can severely limit the ability of communities and governments to take full opportunity of the value of marine conservation and coastal management. To deal with these and other issues, a number of specific tools continue to be developed to improve the effective- GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK AUTHORITY GREAT Managing MPAs involves working with the stakeholders on Marine Park enforcement. ness of individual MPAs.

16 World Conservation 1/2004 CHARTING A COURSE

Improving management effectiveness IUCN WCPA-Marine, WWF and the US National Oceanic Adaptive MPA management, and Atmospheric Administration have developed a Vietnamese style guidebook to assist MPA managers in assessing the per- formance of their MPA and, based on that assessment, The Hon Mun MPA in south central Viet Nam near Nha Trang make the necessary changes to improve management supports diverse coastal and marine habitats around nine measures. islands in a relatively small area (160km2 or about 62mi2). It How is your MPA doing? A Guidebook of Natural and is a multiple-use MPA protecting important examples of Viet Social Indicators for Evaluating Marine Protected Area Nam’s best remaining coral reef, mangrove and seagrass Management Effectiveness enables MPA staff to conduct ecosystems. an evaluation based on indicators that measure the ef- The Hon Mun MPA Project, financed by the Global Envi- fectiveness of management actions in attaining goals ronmental Facility (through The World Bank), the Royal Dan- ish Government (through Danida), the Vietnamese and objectives that are specific to MPAs, the marine en- Government, and IUCN, is enabling local island communi- vironment and coastal communities. It presents a flex- ties to improve their livelihoods and, in partnership with other ible approach that can be used in many types of MPAs, stakeholders, effectively protect and sustainably manage the such as multiple-use areas or no-take areas, where each marine biodiversity at Hon Mun as a model for adaptive MPA may have different goals and objectives. It offers a variety management in Viet Nam. of indicators that reflect a diversity of MPA goals and The Project has been particularly innovative in its pro- objectives. The guidebook is available online at motion of alternative income generation activities for mem- http://effectivempa.noaa.gov/and in print (see page 32). bers of local communities, primarily fishers, who have been or will be adversely affected by the designation of the Hon Adapting management to changing needs Mun MPA. It has also established access to credit for local and circumstances residents who might not qualify for loans from traditional Just as marine ecosystems are complex and constantly lending institutions. Its innovative approaches to protecting changing, MPA management must also be flexible biodiversity through zoning, while improving the livelihoods enough to identify changes in the legal, political, eco- of local people, serves not only as a model of collaborative management for Viet Nam, but for the world. nomic, cultural or climatic environment and respond in a timely and appropriate manner. Adaptive management is the cyclical process of sys- tematically testing assumptions, generating learning by evaluating the results of such testing, and further revis- ing and improving management practices. The result of adaptive management in a marine protected area con- text is improved effectiveness and increased progress towards the achievement of goals and objectives. Ensuring a good fit within the local context It is now widely understood that a MPA that has been incorporated into a broad-based sustainable develop- ment strategy has a much better chance of meeting its conservation goals than one planned and developed in isolation from the local context. It is imperative that lo- cal communities are considered active participants in

planning and managing the MPA and not passive recipi- BERNARD O'CALLAGHAN ents of an externally-generated and implemented conservation regime. We also need the engagement and collaboration of municipal, provincial and/or state agencies and national institutions such as parks and fisheries services. Only through improving the effectiveness of existing, and future, MPAs through adaptive management tech- niques and the creation of synergies with a broad-based development strategy, will we meet our goal of a func- tioning global MPA network.

Charles N. Ehler is Marine Vice Chair, IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, and Director, International Program Office, The National Ocean Service, US National Oceanic and Atmospheric IUCN VIETNAM Administration (NOAA). Local people of Hon Mun have undertaken to protect and sustainably manage their marine biodiversity. From top: a Crown of Arthur Paterson is International Affairs Specialist, Thorns cleanup; culturing seaweed in the Nha Trang Bay Marine The National Ocean Service, NOAA. Protected Area.

World Conservation 1/2004 17 CHARTING A COURSE

MMarine extinctions: into the light Roger McManus and Amie Bräutigam

Compared to their terrestrial and freshwater counter- species that are threatened, highlight the factors involved, parts, marine species are seriously under-represented on and determine what this tells us about the marine the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Assessment environment. efforts for marine species lag far behind those for ter- Increasing the number of Red List assessments for restrial species, partly because so little is known about marine species forms one of the pillars of SSC’s emerg- them but also because of the common misconception ing “Shatter the Myth” initiative. This aims to dispel the that marine species are more resilient to extinction. misconception that marine species cannot go extinct Assessments carried out by experts of the IUCN and increase awareness of the problems facing the ma- Species Survival Commission (SSC) and others have rine environment. The overall goal is to guide decision- documented that extinction and endangerment in marine makers and fisheries managers in improving management species are real and likely to be much more widespread of marine resources. than the Red List or other threatened species lists currently The SSC has been involved for decades in efforts to suggest. In just the past five years, hundreds of marine assess the threatened status of marine species and species have been identified through IUCN and others as understand the factors responsible for their decline. being at risk of local or global extinction. This points to an Until the adoption of the revised Red List Categories and urgent need to increase Red List assessments, identify Criteria in 1994, however, SSC had not focused on

Groupers and wrasses spawn conservation action

Two families of reef fish that include species both commercially desirable and naturally vulnerable to over-exploitation are the groupers and wrasses (Serranidae and Labridae). Their long life, late sexual maturation, herma- phroditism, aggregation spawning and low natural mortality rates have resulted in declines and threat- ened listings for many species, according to IUCN Red List criteria. The work of the IUCN/SSC Grouper and Wrasse Specialist Group focuses on species assessments and on particularly vulnerable species and life history traits. The trade in live reef fish for food, which targets many species in the group, has been the subject of much discussion and follow-up

BAHAMAS NATIONAL TRUST BAHAMAS NATIONAL action. Nassau grouper. The humphead or Napoleon wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus (pictured), is the subject of an aware- ness and education campaign to draw attention to threats imposed by night spearfishing and fishing for juveniles to feed the growing global export mar- ket in luxury live fish (www.humpheadwrasse.info). Many larger species are susceptible to disrup- tion particularly when they aggregate to spawn. We are working closely with the Society for the Con- servation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA) to fos- ter improved management and conservation of spawning aggregations. SCRFA also promotes science in conservation and is creating a global database on spawning aggregations (www.scrfa.org).

– Yvonne Sadovy, Chair of the IUCN/SSC Grouper and Wrasse Specialist Group.

IUCN/CHRISTIAN LAUFENBERG http://www.hku.hk/ecology/GroupersWrasses/ The humphead wrasse is a flagship species for conservation iucnsg/index.html action and education.

18 World Conservation 1/2004 CHARTING A COURSE GALAPAGOS NATIONAL PARK AUTHORITIES NATIONAL GALAPAGOS Some species of shark are threatened by large- scale fishing just for their fins.

Vanishing point for sharks?

Sharks and their relatives have inhabited the Earth for over 400 million years. Today there are more than 1000 species of these chondrichthyan fishes – sharks, sawfishes, skates, rays, and chi- maeras – yet in spite of their evolutionary suc- cess, many species are now threatened with extinction. The IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Group (SSG) is leading a global effort to assess the Red List status of all the chondrichythan fishes. The proc- ess is engaging scientists from around the world in regional workshops and consultations to clarify conservation status, threats, management needs, and priorities for research and conservation. A total of 262 species have been assessed glo- bally to date, plus a further 65 assessments at the regional/subpopulation level. Fifty-six species (over 20%) are globally threatened (Critically En- dangered, Endangered and Vulnerable), together

JEREMY STAFFORD-DEITSCH with a further 26 subpopulations assessed as The great white shark Carcharodon carcharias is considered threatened at the regional level. The taxa at high- Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. est risk of extinction include commercially ex- ploited species of deepwater sharks that are taken in multi-species fisheries, species restricted to freshwater and brackish water habi- extinction risk in marine animals with the exception of tats, coastal endemics whose entire range is intensively fished, and marine mammals, birds, and a few other species. some species affected by shark finning activities. Extinction risk assessment until that time had focused – Rachel Cavanagh, Programme Officer, IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist largely on parameters that were not considered Group. Visit: www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/organizations/ssg/ssgchond.htm applicable to marine species, such as restricted range or The updated Shark Action Plan will be available later this year. small population size. The introduction of a new extinction risk criterion such as population decline in the IUCN Red List system Leading the charge has been SSC’s Shark Specialist reflected the significant advances of the past 20 years in Group for the chondrichthyan (cartilaginous) fishes, the scientific understanding of extinction. It also provided Grouper and Wrasse Specialist Group (see boxes), and a basis for assessing the threatened status of species that Project Seahorse for the syngnathid fishes. Assessments are otherwise numerous or widespread but nevertheless by the SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group, the SSC on a trajectory to extinction. Cetacean Specialist Group, and BirdLife International, Using the revised Red List system, IUCN included as IUCN’s Red List partner for birds, are also highlight- over 100 marine fishes, many of them commercially im- ing new species, trends, and threats that require urgent portant, in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Ani- attention. mals. This marked the first major expansion of Red List As part of its new five-year drive to assess the threat assessments for marine species. It also sparked an in- status of marine species, SSC will document the distri- ternational debate about extinction risk in marine or- bution, life histories and other key parameters of the ganisms that continues today. This debate has stimulated species assessed. This data will serve a range of conser- efforts to further expand Red List assessments for vation initiatives and will provide vital clues as to the marine species. status and trends of marine biodiversity in general.

World Conservation 1/2004 19 ade, s e ay a t to c ec aga

CHARTING A COURSE

Of particular importance is the development of a GIS Programme is seeking the collaboration of interested in- platform and protocols for the mapping of distributions, stitutions and individuals with whom to take this expan- in particular ‘Area of Occupancy’ (minimum critical sion forward. habitat). The IUCN Species Information Service (SIS) is Roger McManus is Senior Director, critical in capturing the data and managing them for Marine Programs Division, Conservation International. other applications. http://www.conservation.org. Expanding the Red List process has enormous stra- Amie Bräutigam is Threatened Species Director, tegic significance for the conservation and management Perry Institute for Marine Science, of marine species and their habitats. In addition to and Executive Officer, IUCN SSC. securing funding for this effort, the SSC Marine http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/marine/resource.htm AA biological gold rush Imène Meliane

Prospecting for marine resources to be used in biotech- 17 on land) represents a virtually unexploited resource nology and drug development has only been carried out for the discovery of novel compounds with useful appli- for about 20 years. So far, relatively few marine plants, cations for human use. animals and microbes are responsible for an impressive Marine-derived products are easily used and mar- yield of more than 12,000 new chemicals. The ocean, keted in technology and industry, e.g., as technological containing 34 of the 37 taxonomic phyla (compared to compounds, laboratory tools or ingredients in cosmet- ics. In the pharmaceutical field, in spite of heavy investment and intensive re- search, no compounds have yet reached the market, although several products are in the late stage of clinical trials (see box). Chemical weapons Most bioprospecting experiments have been carried out in tropical seas. Coral reef ecosystems have been first choice targets because they are characterized by high biodiversity and intense competi- tion for space, leading to a chemical war- fare among sessile organisms. Deep-sea ecosystems, such as sea- mounts, deep-coral communities and hydrothermal vents, offer additional JOSE ANTONIO MOYA Anemones are among the cindarians that use a chemical arsenal for their defense.

Fighting cancer with tunicates

Yondelis, a bio-compound with anti-tumoral activities, was discovered in the ascidian Ecteinascidia turbinata (right). Originally from the Caribbean, this ma- rine tunicate is now cultivated in shallow waters in the Mediterranean Sea. An- titumour activity in crude extracts of these organisms was first observed in 1969, but the discovery, purification and elucidation of the chemical structure of ET- 743, the molecule responsible for his activity, was not possible until 1990. A private company in Spain developed the drug and initiated clinical trials, cur- rently under way in Europe and the USA together with a US-based licencee. The molecule has been described as a “highly promising, exceedingly potent new anti-tumour agent” but has not yet been granted a marketing authorization. It continues to be tested for treatment of several cancers such as ovarian carci- noma and soft tissue sarcoma. This case shows that bioprospecting the marine resources for medicinal uses can be a very time-consuming and economically risky enterprise. © PHARMAMAR

20 World Conservation 1/2004 CHARTING A COURSE

potential for bioprospecting because they host largely required quantities can be a serious issue, particularly unidentified but extremely specialized communities of for poorly studied invertebrates. organisms. Some of these (particularly micro-organisms) When rare and endemic species are involved, proce- rely on chemosynthetic interactions for their existence. dures are needed that ensure sustainability of use. Be- Soft bodied sessile invertebrates in particular, such fore proceeding with wild harvesting, feasibility studies as sponges, soft corals, sea-fans and sea-squirts, are re- should determine factors such as the standing stock of nowned for their refined chemical arsenals of bioactive the target organism, its growth rate, appropriate levels compounds because they lack the means for mechani- of harvest and post-harvesting recovery. cal defense. They are among the least studied marine To quote E.O. Wilson, “useful products cannot be har- organisms, with new species discovered almost daily. vested from extinct species”. It is also to the benefit of the industry to conserve the world’s biota so that more Bioprocessing: some constraints species can be explored for novel molecules. We should Once interesting and promising chemical properties are also ensure that compounds of interest are produced via identified in a species, steps for its commercial use get processes that do not involve unsustainable and envi- under way. Many of the bioactive marine pharmaceuti- ronmentally damaging harvesting of marine life. cals from natural sources are extremely complex in struc- Issues such as this will be considered in the work- ture and their synthesis requires intensive multi-step shop Medicine for the Future, to be held during the processes that are not amenable to economically viable, upcoming World Conservation Forum (18–20 November industrial-scale production. 2004). Its focus will be to draw key lessons, best prac- Supplying sufficient quantities of the source organ- tices and ways forward for the conservation and sustain- ism is a major limitation in the development of marine able use of wild plant and animal species that are sources bioproducts. In the development phase, if the com- for many of today’s existing medicines and that will con- pounds cannot be synthesized or obtained by fermen- tinue to be required by humankind in the future. tation technology, the only solution is to harvest from the wild. Since bioactive products are normally present Imène Meliane is Marine Programme Officer, IUCN at very low yields in the source organisms, obtaining the Regional Office for South America, Quito, Ecuador.

MMarine aquaria: from knowledge to respect François Simard

Aquaria are essentially ‘marine zoos’ – places where liv- important tools for generating public awareness of the ing organisms are maintained in captivity in order to be need to protect the Earth’s oceans and coastal habitats. shown to the public. Like their terrestrial counterparts, they excite controversy. Many people question their François Simard is Marine Programme Coordinator, IUCN right to take animals away from their natural environ- Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, Malaga, Spain. ment. This is a challenge that deserves to be revisited periodically in the light of evolving public attitudes, technologies, and scientific knowledge. Aquaria serve many functions in society: they are variously places of leisure, business, scientific research and/or education. As learning institutions they were originally oriented towards the classification and display of aquatic species. Today the emphasis has shifted to the place of those species in their ecological communities. As human populations continue to con- centrate in urban areas, they become increas- ingly removed from nature. Marine aquaria offer city-dwellers a chance to ‘reconnect’ with the marine environment. Only through contact with living creatures can people fully appreciate the beauty, diversity and fragility of marine life. Better knowledge of nature inspires Y ABE greater respect. For this reason, aquaria are Aqarium of Fukushima, Japan.

World Conservation 1/2004 21 CHARTING A COURSE CC onfronting invasives Imène Meliane and Chad Hewitt

Invasions by aquatic alien species are among the most exponentially – and new areas are being invaded all the severe threats facing the marine environment. Examples time. The problem may not even have reached its peak. from around the world show how readily some intro- New introductions occur regularly on the coasts of all duced species establish themselves in new habitats. ocean basins, causing immediate damage and requir- Unchallenged by natural enemies, they can transform ing millions of dollars for research, control, and ecosystems, threaten important commercial fisheries management. and cause enormous damage to economies. Invasive The problem is likely to increase as global seaborne species can trigger harmful algal blooms, foul jetties and trade continues to increase, and greater speed of trans- marinas, proliferate on beaches, and further stress fish- port cuts the time spent between source and recipient eries already in trouble. In some ecosystems, they can ports. become so dominant that it is hard to locate the native The human factor species. Marine and aquatic ecosystems are particularly vul- The dispersal of marine species into new habitats oc- nerable to invasions. New marine aliens often escape curs naturally through the expansion of a species’ range detection, spread rapidly and once established prove through such mechanisms as migration and transport difficult to eradicate or control. Whereas other environ- by currents of marine debris. The speed and scale of mental assaults, such as oil spills, are amenable to such movements has been greatly amplified, however, cleanup efforts or natural recovery, the effects of marine with the onset of human exploration, colonization, and species introductions are usually persistent and irrevers- commercial trade. ible. For this reason, instruments that deal with aquatic Many introductions occur when humans acciden- invasive species should focus on the prevention and tally or intentionally release non-native species – and early detection of introductions. their diseases – into open waterways or the sea itself. The Quantitative data show that the rate of bio-invasions most important pathway is the movement around the continues to increase alarmingly – in many cases world of thousands of species (adults and larvae) at- tached to ships’ hulls and in the ballast of cargo vessels. Scientists estimate that more than 7000 species of flora, fauna and micro-organisms are in transit every day in ships’ ballast water. Other potential invasives include ornamental fish and invertebrates from the aquarium trade; species used in scientific research; fish used to stock private ponds or recreational fisheries (released by floods and broken barriers); and fish, molluscs and crustaceans used in aquaculture. The role of climate change Recent decades have seen another factor emerge. Whereas the natural range expansions of organisms can occur in response to changing environmental condi- tions, there is evidence that climate change and global

JOSE ANTONIO MOYA warming can significantly accelerate the process. The drastic impacts of the Caulerpa invasion in the Mediterranean led For example, the arrival of exotic species from the bordering countries to adopt a regional action plan to confront species tropical Atlantic through the Gibraltar Strait into the introductions. Mediterranean Sea has become a relatively common Marine invasives working group occurrence in recent decades. Scientists believe this re- flects an expansion of their natural distribution, due to the warming of seawater. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the IUCN Species Survival Commission has a membership of 146 scientific and policy What can be done? experts in the field of invasive species. More than 20 members have The management of invasions, including eradication formed a new working group which will focus exclusively on alien in- vasive species in marine and brackish environments. and control, is extremely expensive, time-consuming The group will provide a forum for policy development, and will and difficult. In some cases, ecosystems may take dec- tackle a variety issues including invasion theories, risk assessment ades or even centuries to recover – if at all. objectives and guidelines, and the design of surveys and monitoring Eradication of introduced species once they have systems. http://www.issg.org/ become widespread and abundant has so far been largely unsuccessful in the marine environment. One of

22 World Conservation 1/2004 BELLA GALIL The jelly Rhopilema nomadica in fishing nets. Invasive species further stress fisheries already in trouble. the few successes is the case of the fouling mussel less costly method of managing the problem – and then Mytilopsis sallei in Australia’s Northern Territory. spreading the word through education and public Mytilopsis, a close relative of the zebra mussel known for awareness. its great damaging effects to European and US Imène Meliane is Marine Programme Officer for IUCN’s freshwaters, was discovered in a marina in Darwin dur- Regional Office for South America in Quito. ing a baseline port survey as part of a scientifically based Chad Hewitt is Chief Technical Officer, Marine Biosecurity in monitoring survey and early warning system. Due to its the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries and coordinator of early detection, and a clear consensus among govern- the IUCN-ISSG Marine Working Group. ment and stakeholders to initiate rapid action, the spe- cies was successfully eradicated, at an estimated cost of Addressing marine invasive issues in coral reefs will be con- more than AU$2.2 million (US$1.6 million). ducted through an IUCN project in the Seychelles supported by Unfortunately, few legal tools are in place for the the Total Corporate Foundation. regulation of marine introductions, be it prevention, control or eradication. Managing ballast water Political constraints There is a clear need for invasive species management The international transport of po- tentially invasive species in bal- programmes that address all aspects of introductions last water has been debated for from both within and beyond national boundaries and more than a decade in the Ma- at all levels, from local to national at regional and global rine Environmental Protection scales. Committee (MEPC) of the UN’s Marine species and ecosystems do not recognise po- International Maritime Organiza- litical borders. Hence, regional and sub-regional pro- tion (IMO). GLOBALLAST/ROGER STEENE GLOBALLAST/ROGER grammes to address marine alien invasive species are The process culminated on Ballast hitch-hikers: crab zooea. essential to facilitate the exchange of information and 13 February 2004 with the adop- expertise, such as experienced in the Mediterranean. Af- tion of the International Conven- ter the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia spread through- tion for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and out the Mediterranean Sea, bordering countries have Sediments. The Convention provides a standardized regulatory regime for glo- adopted a regional action plan to confront invasive spe- bal ballast water management and requires all ships to implement a cies and species introductions in the Mediterranean Sea. Ballast Water and Sediments Management Plan. Unfortunately this response came after the invasive The standards set by the Convention represent a compromise be- alga had already done its damage. This case reinforces tween stringency and achievability. A review process will continue to the importance of early-warning and rapid-response sys- monitor them during a test period with a view to further adjustments. tems and the need for extended research on invasives Implementation of the Convention in developing countries is be- and their control. ing assisted by a GEF/UNDP/IMO Global Ballast Water Management Even more important is learning how to prevent such Programme (GloBallast). http://globallast.imo.org/ introductions before they occur – a far more sure and far

World Conservation 1/2004 23 CHARTING A COURSE anzania: three roads TT from poverty to prosperity

Andrew K. Hurd and Melita A. Samoilys

Coastal developing countries tend to be disproportion- After five years, the closed reefs were in better condi- ately dependent on their marine biodiversity and coastal tion than the open ones, and coral cover and fish densi- resources for contributions to their national economies ties were on the increase in all reefs, due to the cessation as well as for meeting the subsistence needs of poor of destructive illegal fishing methods. Moreover, the coastal communities. progress made in capacity building and the mutual trust Three very different approaches to marine conser- created between local communities and the government vation are being implemented in Tanzania. Each takes has created an excellent foundation for improving local a different path to a common goal – the sustainable coastal livelihoods and securing the health of Tanga’s management of marine and coastal resources. Each, if coastal ecosystem for generations to come. successful, can contribute greatly to reducing poverty See http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/projs/ and preventing the degradation of the marine resource tanga.htm. base. Marine Protected Area in Mnazi Bay – Collaborative fisheries management Ruvuma Estuary in Tanga Tanzania created its second marine protected area in In Tanga, concern over declining fish catches, destruc- 2000. Situated in southern Tanzania, the Mnazi Bay – tive fishing methods, and illegal mangrove cutting led Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park covers a total area of to the formulation of the Tanga Coastal Zone Conserva- 668km2 and is home to 30,000 people living in 17 villages. tion and Development Programme, a project initiated On account of its large size and the high number of in 1994 on the basis of a development strategy prepared people living within its boundaries, the Mnazi Bay – by IUCN’s Eastern Africa Programme and Development Cooperation Ireland (formerly Ireland Aid). Today, a resource-user based, community-driven col- laborative fisheries management approach is enabling fishing villages and local government authorities to im- prove management of coral reefs, mangroves and other coastal resources in a series of multiple-use reserves, known as Collaborative Management A reas (CMAs). There are now six CMAs in operation, covering all coastal waters of the Tanga Region, a total of 1604km2. Participating villages have voluntarily closed certain reefs to allow fish stock replenishment and general reef recovery. Villagers participate in the monitoring and

enforcement of the closures. SAMOILYS MELITA ERIC VERHEIJ

Tanga’s communities are closely involved in all aspects of collaborative management of their marine and coastal ecosystems. Clockwise from top: village fishers take part in monitoring; beekeeping in the mangrove forest; enforcing fisheries regulations through

ERIC VERHEIJ confiscation of illegal seine nets.

24 World Conservation 1/2004 Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park, plans to employ a multi- use zoning scheme to manage marine and coastal re- sources. The Park is managed on-site by staff of the national Marine Parks and Reserves Unit and is subject to the oversight of a centralized Board of Trustees. Local government and village representatives are members of a Park Advisory Committee. In addition to establishing and running the Park, one of the biggest challenges facing managers is how to pre- vent illegal and destructive fishing practices and iden-

tify and develop alternative livelihood options for local CRAIG ZENDEL people who have traditionally used, and are still depend- ent on, Park resources for their subsistence and liveli- hood activities. Halting the widespread use of illegal fishing gears such as seine nets is challenging when the coopera- tion and active participation of those same fishers is es- sential to the Park’s success. A UNDP-GEF funded project was initiated in 2002 to develop the Park and to prepare a strategy for its man- agement, with technical assistance from IUCN’s East- ern Africa Programme. The project is undertaking biodiversity and socio-economic surveys and assess- ments of the area, preparation of a management plan, capacity-building and awareness raising, and the devel- VEED JAFFERJEE

opment of supplementary income generating activities. JA

See http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/projs/ Top: Chumbe’s eco-friendly bungalows. Bottom: Ranger Omari with mnazi.htm Zanzibari schoolchildren. The private sector approach in Zanzibar Attacking coastal poverty: Most marine conservation programmes in Tanzania are partners please! run by NGOs and development aid agencies working with the government, but a private marine reserve is Environmental conservation in developing countries requires, marking its 10th year of existence on a small island off at the very least, a comprehensive understanding of the lo- cal poverty context, particularly the drivers and manifesta- the coast of Zanzibar. tions of both income and non-income deprivation. Much Chumbe Island Coral Park (CHICOP) was created by progress is being made, including a recent study on reef- the Government of Zanzibar in 1994, based on the ini- based poverty, which used a livelihoods approach to assess tiative of sociologist and conservationist Sybille the wider, more qualitative, value of coral reefs to vulnerable Riedmiller, through a private company created to man- coastal communities. age the Park. Its aim is to create a model of sustainable One interesting finding of the study’s final report, Pov- conservation area management where ecotourism sup- erty and Reefs, is that unless the myriad constraints faced ports conservation and the education of local people and by poor coastal communities, such as isolation from policy tourists. formulation, the absence of local organizations, inadequate infrastructure and social services, and vulnerabilities to sea- Although its objectives are non-commercial, the sonal variations are understood and addressed, coastal peo- Park’s operations follow commercial principles. About ple may not be able to take advantage of opportunities or two-thirds of the investment costs of approximately incentives offered by projects designed to promote conser- US$1 million were financed privately, while various do- vation of natural resources. The study concludes that coral nors provided the remainder. Park revenues are invested reef conservation cannot meet its desired objectives with- in conservation and research, and to teach Chumbe’s out better consideration of poverty issues and the sustain- communities the benefits of managing the coral reef able livelihoods of the reef-dependent poor. sustainably. Local fishers are employed as rangers to However, experience in Tanzania and elsewhere has enforce its boundaries. shown that the systematic poverty alleviation of local com- munities is beyond the scope of most programmes, whether Chumbe Island Coral Park has become recognised public or private, designed to conserve marine and coastal as one of the world’s most forward-looking and success- resources. Attacking coastal poverty requires a comprehen- ful ecotourism projects based on private funding and has sive, long-term, and broad-based approach, one that estab- won several awards from international organizations lishes strong partnerships between conservation and the travel industry. organizations and other development partners. Such part- Visit http://www.chumbeisland.com/ nerships are mutually beneficial – marine conservation tools support sustainable coastal livelihoods while improvements Andrew K. Hurd is Marine Programme Associate, in other development sectors such as governance, educa- IUCN Marine Programme. tion and infrastructure create an enabling environment for Melita Samoilys is IUCN’s Marine Coordinator for those same tools to succeed. Eastern Africa, based in Kenya.

World Conservation 1/2004 25 THE JOURNEY AHEAD IUCN/CARL GUSTAF LUNDIN IUCN/CARL GUSTAF Ocean governance requires enforcement. Pictured: Chinese fishing police enforcing fishery regulations. II nternational marine law: from hindsight to foresight

Lee A. Kimball

To measure the success of international marine law all Today the international community is at least trying we have to do is imagine how much worse the state of to anticipate marine conditions and trends, so it can craft our fisheries or coastal waters would be if it did not ex- a response before the problems get out of hand. ist. But how effective is it, really? The trouble is that na- The technical challenge is equally daunting. As fast tional and international law are normally agreed once as new technologies develop to reduce environmental problems have already become apparent. impacts (e.g., fisheries bycatch or stormwater overflow With hindsight, the cumulative impacts of coastal in municipal wastewater management), other techno- development and land-based pollution on the marine logical developments create new problems by extend- realm are now obvious, if still little understood, while ing human ability to exploit the ocean’s resources (e.g., global assessments only began to emerge in the 1980s. deep-sea fish or mineral exploitation). Marine law is Recognition of the deplorable state of world fisheries is hard-pressed to keep up. even more recent. What’s next? Perhaps the greatest success to date in international marine law has been control of marine pollution from This leaves two great challenges for international ma- ships, through a suite of conventions developed under rine law: within national jurisdiction the challenge is to the auspices of the International Maritime Organization control land-based pollution and to reach agreement on (IMO). The bad news is that ship-sourced pollution on resource conservation within the 200-mile exclusive eco- a global average represents only about 12% of marine nomic zone (EEZ), where about 70% of fish harvesting pollution, contrasted with nearly 80% attributable to takes place. Yet most states have been reluctant to ac- land-based sources. cept detailed international commitments on either issue.

26 World Conservation 1/2004 THE JOURNEY AHEAD

Beyond national jurisdiction, the role of international It could also endorse an elaboration of the Agreement’s agreements is more critical. Few states will agree to re- ecosystem and precautionary approaches to guide the strict their own activities unless other states agree to the conduct of new or exploratory fisheries, and provide for same restrictions, as with international shipping. The areas where fishing activities are either carefully man- most immediate crisis is international fisheries manage- aged or excluded to protect biodiversity, ensure sustain- ment – where the combination of unregulated fisheries able fisheries, or maintain ecosystem integrity, structure together with illegal* and unreported (IUU) fishing ac- and functioning. tivity are severely depleting fish stocks and damaging ma- rine biodiversity (see page 8). Beyond international fisheries But as growing human impacts expose more linkages A promising recent addition to international marine law between states – through transboundary fish stocks or agreements is the recent adoption of the International pollution, migratory species, and shared ecosystems – Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ benefits from international agreements are becoming Ballast Water and Sediments (13 February 2004), which more apparent. They foster pooling of research data to tackles the potentially devastating effects of the spread improve assessment, information exchange on what of harmful invasive aquatic organisms carried in ships’ works and why, cost-effective joint initiatives, and har- ballast water. monized, equitable solutions. International commit- Other concerns have arisen about damage to deep- ments also help mobilize support for countries that lack sea biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction from the technical know-how or financial resources to implement physical impacts of marine scientific research and pros- and enforce them. pecting for marine genetic resources. International fora on oceans and biodiversity have just begun to consider The UNCLOS foundation how to address these concerns through international The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), marine law. The development of a voluntary code of con- the internationally-agreed framework for international duct for sustainable use of hydrothermal vents by re- marine law, came into force in 1994. It promotes further searchers and tourism operators is the current focus of agreements at all levels. For areas within and adjacent to a working group. national EEZs, future emphasis is likely to be on regional The problem of high seas enforcement against ille- arrangements that better integrate fisheries management gal activities by ships is a much larger one than illegal with habitat and marine environmental protection on fishing alone. Concerted action is needed to ensure that an ecosystems basis, through agreements that reflect flag states exert more effective control of their ships. This ecosystem-based fisheries management, and through must be reinforced by ample port state inspection and better coordination between regional seas and regional enforcement. Modern information and communications fishery bodies. National and regional networks of ma- technologies should be used to update and relay real- rine protected areas (MPAs) will form a vital cornerstone time information on vessel registration, ownership, char- of this conservation activity. terers, insurance, certification, inspection, and the results For areas beyond national jurisdiction, the UNCLOS of vessel monitoring systems and to track investment in 1995 Implementing Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks these activities. and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (Fish Stocks Agreement The exercise of high seas freedoms is not a license to or FSA) covers most high seas fisheries, but it misses what act with impunity; it is subject to obligations to cooper- we now know as discrete fish stocks concentrated around ate with other states, protect and preserve the marine particular underwater features like seamounts and ridges environment, and conserve marine living resources. Not that lie beyond national jurisdiction (i.e., fish stocks only must we improve compliance with existing inter- which are neither straddling nor highly migratory). national marine law, we must anticipate the expansion It is time to extend the FSA to cover such stocks and of emerging ocean uses, especially beyond national ju- accelerate the development of regional agreements and risdiction, and design new agreements to supplement arrangements to conserve and man- the UNCLOS framework. age them, building on the UNCLOS framework (see below). Lee A. Kimball is Advisor to the IUCN In addition, many existing re- Marine Programme on Ocean gional fishery management organi- Governance and International zations (RFMOs) have yet to Institutions. incorporate the precautionary and Further reading: International ocean ecosystem approaches laid down in governance: using international law the FSA or its provisions strengthen- and organizations to manage marine ing high seas enforcement. The 2006 resources sustainably. 2nd ed.rev. FSA review conference should be the Kimball, Lee A. target for completing these initiatives. IUCN, 2003 . English and Spanish. ISBN 2-8317-0630-3, xii + 123pp. * Fishing that is not consistent with £20. CD-rom: ISBN 2-8317-0617-3. conservation and management measures agreed by a regional fishery management Order number, English: B1121 organization (RFMO). Order number, Spanish: B1172

World Conservation 1/2004 27 THE JOURNEY AHEAD JOSE ANTONIO MOYA A dramatic increase in polar ice melting has been observed over the last decade. PP aying the price of climate change Herman Cesar

Media reports tend to present global warming as a long- exchange of heat, moisture and gases with the water. These term phenomenon, leaving the impression that we have interactions are the source of short-term changes in plenty of time to firm up the scientific evidence and de- weather. The oceans, on the other hand, exert a much velop strategies and technologies to deal with it. But sci- slower, longer-lasting influence on the climate. entists and climate modelers are beginning to paint a The deep ocean was thought to be immune to this quite different picture. Dramatic changes may happen give-and-take at the surface. Quite alarmingly, early this quite abruptly, and soon. Moreover, this is nothing new year a team of Japanese and Canadian scientists con- on Earth. Recent data from the Arctic show that quite firmed that the deepest waters of the North Pacific have sudden shifts in average temperature have occurred in warmed across the entire basin. (Nature 427, 825-827; the past. 2004) Changing ocean currents Gulf Stream going south The Earth’s oceans and atmosphere are intimately con- A disturbing and increasingly credible scenario relates nected. We see this periodically in the reverberations of to the Gulf Stream, the gigantic oceanic conveyer belt El Niño throughout our weather systems, ecosystems that transports heat from the tropical Atlantic to the and human communities, even far inland. One of the shores of the US east coast, UK and Europe. In brief, the many disasters associated with the 1997-98 El Niño was theory goes that the melting of the Arctic icecap will shift the inundation of coastal villages in Colombia, forcing the conveyer to a more southerly route and cause a dra- village relocations. matic cooling in Europe (see figure below). The ocean-atmosphere interchange is hardly a match Some consider this a worst-case scenario, and there- of equals. Winds help drive sea currents and the fore unlikely. But it has happened before; once about

There is a significant risk Gulf Stream that by 2030 climate change could cause a southward shift of the Atlantic ‘conveyor’ which transports heat from the tropics to the northern ocean. Blue arrows: today; red arrows: 2030. Lighter areas: shallow warm currents; darker arrows: deep cold currents.

28 World Conservation 1/2004 THE JOURNEY AHEAD

13,000 years ago at the end of the previous Ice Age, when most in terms infrastructure and monetary damages, it is a shutdown of the conveyor gave Europe an additional the people of developing countries who are most physi- 1300 years of frigid weather. Only 8200 years ago a rapid cally and economically vulnerable. change in ocean circulation made the Earth colder and Every one of the main environmental effects of cli- dryer for about a century. mate change will have a disproportionate impact on Coral bleaching. Coral reefs are especially suscepti- poor communities who depend heavily and directly on ble to climate change, and often ‘bleach’ (lose their sym- their natural resources, and who have very little in the biotic algae) in response to thermal stress combined with way of economic safety nets. For example, a recent study other factors. In 1998, 75% of the world’s reefs were af- for the Caribbean predicts annual losses of 13.8% of the fected by bleaching, and 16% suffered subsequent mor- region’s total GDP. tality. This was the first time in human history we witnessed ecosystem destruction on a global scale as a What can we do? result of climate change (see box). When animal populations face sudden environmental Fisheries production is but one of the many ecosys- change, they must either adapt, migrate, or die out. Hu- tem services that disappear when a reef dies. Nearly half man populations face the same choice. Barring a mi- a billion people live within 100km of coral reefs, and raculous turn of events, adaptation and relocation are many of them depend directly on the reefs for their daily our only acceptable options. Both are extremely expen- subsistence and/or income. In the central Indian Ocean, sive, technically demanding and politically controver- bleaching has been shown to have direct impacts on 90% sial. of the traditional artisanal fishing communities. Initial In recorded history, we humans have never been in studies estimate that dead, crumbling reefs could lose this position before, where urgent action is needed on a 50% of their fisheries value. The coral bleaching episode global scale to confront an environmental challenge that in 1998 was estimated to cost as much as US$8 billion in is, for most of us, literally incomprehensible. the Indian Ocean in terms of fisheries and tourism loss As we proceed through what is now called the and reduced coastal protection. Anthropocene Era, we can at least start planning how to Sea level rise. The ocean level could rise by as much address the growing vulnerability of people on the front as one metre over the next century (50cm is the ‘best lines – those subsistent communities who depend on guess’), putting as many as 200 million people at risk. ready access to natural resources. To do otherwise is to Many island nations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans hide our heads in the sand while the waves roll in to are only a few metres above sea level, and thus par- engulf us. ticularly dependent on coral reefs as natural barriers. Climate change impacts would be most severe on islands Herman Cesar is an environmental economist working whose natural exposure to such events is heightened by for the Institute for Environmental Studies at the growing urbanization, proliferation of squatter settle- Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam (www.vu.nl/ivm). ments, degradation of coastal ecosystems, and rapidly He also has his own consulting firm, Cesar expanding coastal infrastructure. In the Pacific, Tuvalu Environmental Economics Consulting (www.ceec.nl). and Kiribati are particularly susceptible, and have only For an extensive portal on climate change, see limited possibilities to adapt to changed circumstances. http://www.climateark.org/. Low-lying coasts of continents are also at risk, al- though the picture is often complicated by coastal sub- sidence resulting from freshwater extraction (e.g., Nile Coral death in the Indian Ocean delta, Bangkok). Extreme weather. Scientists warn that a warming The Indian Ocean lost between 50-95% of its coral reefs within two atmosphere will result in more severe droughts and for- months during the mass bleaching event of 1998, reefs which sup- est fires in some regions mirrored by more damaging ty- port large sectors of the countries’ populations and economies through phoons, storm surges and floods in others. artisanal fisheries, tourism and large-scale investments. These predictions are confirmed in the sta- CORDIO, Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian tistics: average economic losses from ex- OceanOcean, is a regional multidisciplinary monitoring and treme weather events have increased assessment programme initiated in 1999 to investi- six-fold since the 1960s, and in 2003 gate the ecological and economic consequences of reached US$60 billion. The 2003 floods in the 1998 event. It is active in 11 countries of the west- India, Bangladesh and China killed hun- ern Indian Ocean. CORDIO has recently entered into dreds of the world’s poorest people and an agreement of collaboration with IUCN Marine Pro- left hundreds of thousands stranded. gramme on activities spanning the East African and South Asian regions. Supported by Sida (Swedish Who pays the price? International Development Cooperation Agency), the Dutch Trust Fund of The World Bank, the Govern- Low-lying coastal and island communities ment of Finland, IUCN, and WWF, CORDIO is an im- will suffer major consequences from cli- portant part of GCRMN, the Global Coral Reef mate change over the next century, ac- Monitoring Network (see page 10). cording to even the most conservative – Olof Lindén, Coordinator, CORDIO models. Although the industrialized world will pay the http://www.cordio.org

World Conservation 1/2004 29 he IUCN Marine Programme: TT from need to action

Carl Gustaf Lundin

In these pages we have touched on a number of the areas understanding to environmental conservation and of marine work that IUCN and its many partners are in- management. In the marine realm, this has included volved in, ranging from marine species, alien invasives advising the biodiversity-related conventions such as and fisheries to cold and warm water corals, the role of CITES and CMS on listing of marine species, or taking marine aquaria and global ocean governance. part in the hearings of the European Parliament’s Fish- We are building a system of Globally Representative eries Committee on high seas fisheries. MPAs including the high seas, the 80% of the biosphere Bridging gaps that is currently completely unprotected, down to the enhancement of management in particular MPAs, such IUCN’s observer status with the United Nations General as the Aldabra World Heritage Site. In keeping with Assembly permits us to bridge the gap that can arise IUCN’s mission, we have strengthened our emphasis on between the nations of this world and their line minis- management options which address poverty issues tries on one hand, and the environmental NGOs push- among poor coastal populations. We have reinforced ing for policy reforms on the other. IUCN’s policy directions by contributing to the prepa- The Union’s important role as a convener permits us ration and negotiation of international marine instru- to involve representatives of the private sector in our ments and to the design of management bodies. We are work – everyone from artisanal fishers to huge fishing applying the ‘ecosystem approach’ to management at companies, from marine bioprospecting firms to the oil different scales, as exemplified by the development and industry. implementation of the Large Marine Ecosystem portfo- Preserving resources lio of projects which currently involve over 15 projects and a budget of more than US$600 million. We are working to apply the Union’s expertise to the de- velopment of new approaches to user rights and prop- The Union’s strengths erty rights. These are based on the premise that the IUCN’s strengths lie in its ability to identify needs from long-term health of the ecosystem is a central concern a global perspective and to translate this knowledge into of the resource users, and will allow the resources users action, both globally – for example, through processes to abandon the pattern of exploitation known as the related to the CBD – and locally through project imple- ‘tragedy of the commons’ which has degraded so many mentation. ecosystems. The work of the European Sustainable Use A key role of IUCN for more than half a century has Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) been to bring scientific knowledge and technological on fisheries is one such contribution improving fisher- ies resources management. Gathering storms Two emerging threats to the marine environment de- scribed in these pages call for a new sense of urgency and commitment from IUCN and our partners. In both cases, our response must be firmly built on findings from the scientific community. Destructive fishing practices are devastating fragile deep-sea ecosystems, including coral reefs. Fortunately, there are immediate and urgent actions that can be in- stituted by the global community to address this destruc- tion and prevent the disappearance of entire ecosystems (see pp. 8-9). Targeted efforts within IUCN networks are addressing this problem, and there are good prospects for resolving it in the coming years. Building a better un- derstanding among decision-makers is key to making this happen. Addressing the effects of climate change on the ma- rine environment is much more complex and contro- versial. Given the intransigence of policy-makers who still doubt the scientific evidence, we are working to

IFM-GEOMAR/RORY WILSON build our case on knowledge and evidence. One effort is Gentoo penguins equipped with autonomic logging units provide information about their movements and activities as the coral reef monitoring by CORDIO and GCRMN (see well as the environmental conditions in the places they visit. pp. 10 and 29).

30 World Conservation 1/2004 Documenting events is not enough. We need better tools for predicting future changes and their likely con- Marine Programme staff sequences for ecosystems; we need tools for mitigating the effects of climate change on marine ecosystem and Headquarters coastal populations; we need to develop tools for large Carl Gustaf Lundin, scale ocean management, including addressing poten- Head tial shifts in the global conveyor belt (see pp. 28-29). James Oliver, Such an enormous challenge invites imaginative and Communication even extreme solutions. For example, we should con- Assistant sider drafting international protocols related to the sink- Kirsten Martin, ing of vast quantities of CO2 into the oceans through the use of slow-release fertilizers. In this field the work of Marine Programme Officer our Commission on Environmental Law through its Ocean Law and Governance group will be particularly Cherry Sword, important (see box). Administrative A truly global Union Assistant It is time for IUCN to stop being the World Terrestrial Andrew K. Hurd, Conservation Union to become a truly global network Marine Programme that addresses conservation needs everywhere, includ- Associate ing those of the 95% of the biosphere that is marine. We must take what we have learned from our past Mediterranean failures to build new marine management structures that François Simard, permit us to develop the oceans in an equitable manner Marine Programme Coordinator for the benefit of all living beings. This work will require hard trade-offs and difficult Claudiane Chevalier, choices. Transparent and democratic management Marine Lawyer systems will be our best, and perhaps only, option. Ameer Abdulla, Carl Gustaf Lundin is Head of the Marine Programme IUCN Marine Programme. Officer US New group on ocean law Kristin L. Sherwood, Marine Programme Officer The IUCN Commission on Environmental Law has re- cently approved the creation of a Specialist Group on Lee A. Kimball, Ocean Law and Governance (SGOLG). Advisor on Ocean Govern- Among the group’s priorities will be to: ance and International ³ support IUCN contributions to international Institutions ocean governance, including the United Nations Brazil Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and Marcio Barroso Santa Law of the Sea (ICP); Rosa, Chief Technical ³ address issues of governance of areas beyond Advisor, TAGUBAR- national jurisdiction, including deep seabed Guanabara Bay project mining and high seas biodiversity; ³ strengthen global agreements/arrangements for Eastern Africa sustainable fisheries and the control of ship- ping, seabed and land-based activities; Melita A. Samoilys, ³ facilitate cross-regional learning and progres- Regional Coordinator sive developments in regional cooperation; Marine & Coastal Ecosystems ³ enhance regional legal and institutional arrange- Poland ments in light of key sustainable development Kristina M. Gjerde, principles, such as integration, precaution, High Seas Policy pollution prevention, ecosystem-based manage- Advisor ment and public participation. The first sub-group, the Mediterranean Marine Law South America Specialist Group (MMLSG), is already active and other Imène Meliane, sub-groups are planned. Marine Programme Officer – David VanderZwaag, SGOLG Chair South Asia and Canada Research Chair in Ocean Law and Governance, Dalhousie Marine and Jerker Tamelander, Marine Coordinator Environmental Law Programme

World Conservation 1/2004 31 IN PRINT Books on the sea

How is your MPA doing? A Guidebook of Natural and Social Indicators for Evaluating Marine Protected Area Management Effectiveness A guidebook produced by IUCN WCPA, WWF and NOAA, reviewing specific biological, socio-economic, and governance indicators to measure the effectiveness of management actions in achieving MPA goals and objec- tives. ISBN 2-8317-0735-8, 2004; xvi + 216pp., ill; £16.50, US$24.75. Order no. B2016 Status of coral reefs of the world: 2002 Edited by Clive Wilkinson 27% of the world’s coral reefs have been lost and 14% are predicted to follow in the next 10-20 years. These are the predictions of the world’s Towards a Strategy for most authoritative document on the health of High Seas Marine Protected Areas reef systems by the Global Coral Reef Monitor- Kristina Gjerde, Charlotte Breide ing Network (GCRMN) in partnership with IUCN and others. Although the largest habitat for life on Earth, the high seas do not yet feature in a global rep- ISBN 0-642-32216-3, 2002, x + 378pp., maps. resentative protected area system. In 2003 Available from Science Communication, Aus- thirty-eight world experts met in Malaga, Spain, tralian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, to outline a set of actions to rectify the situation. Townsville Mail Centre, Townsville Q 4810, Aus- tralia. Email: [email protected] ISBN 2-8317-0732-3, 2003, ix + 181pp., ill. Free of charge + postage and packing. Order Guidelines for Marine Protected Areas no. B2031 Edited and coordinated by Graeme Kelleher Series editor: Adrian Phillips From the Species Survival Commission Aimed at policy-makers, planners and field The publications of the IUCN Species Survival managers, these guidelines set out actions to Commission provide a wealth of information on create effective MPAs from early planning stages marine species, including dolphins, dugongs, water- to implementation. birds, otters, seals, polar bears, sturgeon and giant ISBN 2-8317-0505-3, 1999, xxiv + 107pp., col- clams. our maps. £16.50, US$24.75. Order no. B542 For a full list, see http://www.iucn.org/themes/ Marine and coastal protected areas: a ssc/publications.htm or visit the World Conserva- tion Bookstore at http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/ guide for planners and managers, 3rd ed. Rodney V. Salm; John R. Clark; Erkki Siirila An updated edition of the classic textbook on marine protected area (MPA) management in the tropics, reflecting new approaches to MPA management such as innovative financing CD-Rom series mechanisms, partnerships with the private sec- tor and NGOs, and collaborative management Biodiversity and Taxonomy of between government and coastal communities. the Indian Ocean ISBN 2-8317-0540-1, 2000, xxi + 370pp., ill. These five interactive guides on the £20.50. Order no. B563 identification of Indian Ocean corals, World Atlas of Seagrasses crabs, echinoderms, fishes, mangroves and seagrasses and soft corals are avail- Edmund P. Green and Frederick T. Short able from the IUCN Marine Programme. Published in association with UNEP-WCMC by Email: [email protected] the University of California Press. Price: 10 Euros per CD. Seagrasses, a group of about 60 species of un- derwater marine flowering plants, grow in the shallow marine and estuarine environment of Marine publications in print and online all the world’s continents except Antarctica. They constitute a primary food source for many Visit the IUCN bookstore for publications on marine and coastal areas marine species and play an important role in http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/Marine-and-Coastal-index.htm fishery production. This Atlas gives a compre- hensive global synthesis of the distribution and For publications available as downloadable PDF's, visit status of this critical marine habitat. http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/pubs/pubs.htm http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/pubs/biomes.htm#marine ISBN 0-520-24047, 2003, xii + 298pp., ill. £39.95. Order no. 2052

32 World Conservation 1/2004