Native People of Western Contents

1 The Ojibwa 1 1.1 ...... 1 1.1.1 Name ...... 1 1.1.2 ...... 2 1.1.3 History ...... 2 1.1.4 Culture ...... 4 1.1.5 Bands ...... 7 1.1.6 Ojibwe people ...... 9 1.1.7 Ojibwe treaties ...... 11 1.1.8 Gallery ...... 11 1.1.9 See also ...... 11 1.1.10 References ...... 11 1.1.11 Further reading ...... 12 1.1.12 External links ...... 13

2 The 14 2.1 Cree ...... 14 2.1.1 Sub-groups ...... 14 2.1.2 Political organization ...... 15 2.1.3 Name ...... 15 2.1.4 Language ...... 15 2.1.5 Identity and ethnicity ...... 16 2.1.6 First Nation communities ...... 17 2.1.7 Ethnobotany ...... 17 2.1.8 Notable leaders ...... 17 2.1.9 Other notable people ...... 20 2.1.10 See also ...... 21 2.1.11 Notes ...... 21 2.1.12 References ...... 22 2.1.13 External links ...... 22

3 The 23 3.1 Chipewyan ...... 23

i ii CONTENTS

3.1.1 Demographics ...... 23 3.1.2 Governance ...... 23 3.1.3 Historical Chipewyan regional groups ...... 25 3.1.4 Ethnography ...... 26 3.1.5 Language ...... 26 3.1.6 Notable Chipewyan ...... 27 3.1.7 References ...... 27 3.1.8 Further reading ...... 28 3.1.9 External links ...... 29

4 The 30 4.1 Assiniboine ...... 30 4.1.1 Names ...... 30 4.1.2 Language ...... 30 4.1.3 Related peoples ...... 30 4.1.4 History ...... 30 4.1.5 Lifestyle ...... 32 4.1.6 Subgroups and Bands ...... 32 4.1.7 Present day ...... 34 4.1.8 Gallery ...... 35 4.1.9 Notable Assiniboine people ...... 35 4.1.10 See also ...... 35 4.1.11 References ...... 35 4.1.12 Further reading ...... 36 4.1.13 External links ...... 36

5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 37 5.1 Text ...... 37 5.2 Images ...... 38 5.3 Content license ...... 40 Chapter 1

The Ojibwa

1.1 Ojibwe of the -speaking peoples, a branch of the Algonquian . The Anishinaabe peoples “Chippewa” redirects here. For other uses, see Chippewa include the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, and (disambiguation) and Ojibway (disambiguation). the . The majority of the Ojibwe peoples The Ojibwe (also Ojibwa), or Chippewa are a large live in Canada. There are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe; 76,760 and 8,770 , organized in 125 bands, and living from western Quebec to east- Algonquin Odawa ern . Ojibwe in the U.S. number over Nipissing Chippewa (Ojibwa) 56,440, living in an area stretching across the northern Mississaugas Oji-Cree tier from New York west to . Potawatomi Chippewa (Salteaux) They are historically known for their crafting of birch bark canoes, their sacred birch bark scrolls, the use of cowrie shells for trading, the cultivation of wild rice, and the use of copper arrow points. In 1745, they adopted guns from the British to defeat the Dakota in the area, pushing them to the south and west. The Ojibwe Nation was the first to set the agenda with European-Canadian leaders by signing detailed treaties before they allowed many European settlers into their western areas. Their Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics.[3]

Traditional range of Anishinaabe-Anishinini, including Ojibwe 1.1.1 Name group of Native Americans and in North America. There are Ojibwe communities in both Canada Further information: List of Ojibwa ethnonyms and the . In Canada, they are the second- largest population among First Nations, surpassed only The autonym for this group of Anishinaabeg is Ojibwe by the Cree. In the United States, they have the fourth- (plural: Ojibweg). This name is commonly anglicized as largest population among Native American tribes, sur- “Ojibwa” or “Ojibway”. The name “Chippewa” is an al- passed only by the Navajo, Cherokee, and Lakota. ternative anglicization. Although many variations exist Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the in literature, “Chippewa” is more common in the United outlet of Lake Superior, which the French colonists called States and “Ojibwa” predominates in Canada, but both Sault Ste. Marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe commu- referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subse- nities throughout Canada and the U.S. since the late 20th quently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have century, more members have been using the generalized retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some name Anishinaabe(-g). scholars believe that only the name migrated west.[1] The exact meaning of the name Ojibwe is not known; the Ojibwe who were originally located along the Mississagi most common explanations for the name derivations are: River and made their way to southern are known [2] as the Mississaugas. • ojiibwabwe (/o/ + /jiibw/ + /abwe/), meaning The Ojibwe Peoples are a major component group “those who cook\roast until it puckers”, referring to

1 2 CHAPTER 1. THE OJIBWA

their fire-curing of moccasin seams to make them people may have occurred in response to contact with Eu- waterproof.[4] Some 19th-century sources say this ropeans. The Europeans preferred to deal with bounded name described a method of ritual torture that the groups and tried to identify those they encountered.[8] [5] Ojibwe applied to enemies. According to their oral history, seven great miigis (ra- • ozhibii'iwe (/o/ + /zhibii'/ + /iwe/), meaning “those diant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the who keep records [of a Vision]", referring to their Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e., Eastern Land) form of pictorial writing, and pictographs used in to teach them the mide way of life. One of the seven Midewiwin sacred rites;[6] or great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing when they were in • ojiibwe (/o/ + /jiib/ + /we/), meaning “those who its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to speak-stiffly"\"those who stammer”, an exonym or teach, while the one returned into the ocean. The six name given to them by the Cree, who described great miigis beings established doodem () for the the for its differences from their peoples in the east, symbolized by animal, fish or own.[7] species. The five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., ), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Tender, i.e., 1.1.2 Language ) and Moozoonsii (Little ), then these six mi- igis beings returned into the ocean as well. If the sev- Main article: Ojibwe language enth miigis being stayed, it would have established the doodem. The Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or At a later time, one of these miigis appeared in a vision Ojibwemowin, and is still widely spoken, although the to relate a prophecy. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did number of fluent speakers has declined sharply. Today, not move further west, they would not be able to keep most of the language’s fluent speakers are elders. Since their traditional ways alive because of the many new set- the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to tlements and pale-skinned peoples who would arrive soon revitalize the language, and restore its strength as a cen- in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by tral part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed the Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from with miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving as- Proto-Algonquian. Its sister include Blackfoot, surance from their “Allied Brothers” (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and Cheyenne, Cree, , Menominee, Potawatomi, and “Father” (i.e., Abenaki) of their safety to move inland, Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. Anishinaabe- the Anishinaabeg gradually migrated west along the Saint mowin is frequently referred to as a “Central Algonquian” Lawrence River to the River to Lake Nipissing, language; however, Central Algonquian is an area group- and then to the Great Lakes. ing rather than a linguistic genetic one. The first of the smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, Ojibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language where Mooniyaang (present-day Montreal) developed. in North America (US and Canada) after Navajo, Cree, The “second stopping place” was in the vicinity of and . Many decades of fur trading with the the Wayaanag-gakaabikaa (Concave Waterfalls, i.e., French established the language as one of the key trade Niagara Falls). At their “third stopping place”, near the languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great present-day city of Detroit, Michigan, the Anishinaabeg Plains. divided into six groups, of which the Ojibwe was one. The popularity of the epic poem The Song of Hiawatha, The first significant new Ojibwe culture-center was their written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in 1855, pub- “fourth stopping place” on Manidoo Minising (Manitoulin licized the Ojibwe culture. The epic contains many Island). Their first new political-center was referred to toponyms that originate from Ojibwe words. as their “fifth stopping place”, in their present country at Baawiting (Sault Ste. Marie). 1.1.3 History Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwe divided into the “northern branch”, following the north shore of Lake Superior, and the “southern branch”, along its south Pre-contact and spiritual beliefs shore. According to their tradition, and from recordings in As the peoples continued to migrate westward, the birch bark scrolls, the Ojibwe originated in North Amer- “northern branch” divided into a “westerly group” and ica (called “Turtle Islands”), and along the east Pacific a “southerly group”. The “southern branch” and the Ocean. They traded widely across the continent for thou- “southerly group” of the “northern branch” came to- sands of years as they migrated, and knew of the canoe gether at their “sixth stopping place” on Spirit Island routes to move north, west to east, and then south in the (46°41′15″N 092°11′21″W / 46.68750°N 92.18917°W) Americas. The identification of the Ojibwe as a culture or located in the Saint Louis River estuary at the western 1.1. OJIBWE 3 end of Lake Superior. (This has since been developed as the present-day Duluth/Superior cities.) The people were directed in a vision by the miigis being to go to the “place where there is food (i.e., wild rice) upon the wa- ters.” Their second major settlement, referred to as their “seventh stopping place”, was at Shaugawaumikong (or Zhaagawaamikong, French, Chequamegon) on the south- ern shore of Lake Superior, near the present La Pointe, Wisconsin. The “westerly group” of the “northern branch” migrated along the Rainy River, Red River of the North, and across the northern until reaching the Pacific North- west. Along their migration to the west, they came across many miigis, or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.

Post-contact with Europeans

An Ojibwe named Boy Chief, by the noted American painter George Catlin, who made portraits at Fort Snelling in 1835. In 1845 he traveled to Paris with eleven Ojibwe, who had their por- traits painted and danced for King Louis Philippe.

Sioux to the west. The Ojibwe expanded eastward, tak- ing over the lands along the eastern shores of Lake Huron Five Ojibwe chiefs in the 19th century. and Georgian Bay. Often, treaties known as “Peace and Friendship Treaties” The first historical mention of the Ojibwe occurs in the were made to establish community bonds between the French Jesuit Relation of 1640, a report by the mission- Ojibwe and the European settlers. These established the ary priests to their superiors in France. Through their groundwork for cooperative resource-sharing between friendship with the French traders (coureur des bois and the Ojibwe and the settlers. The United States and voyageurs), the Ojibwe gained guns, began to use Euro- Canada viewed later treaties offering land cessions as of- pean goods, and began to dominate their traditional ene- fering territorial advantages. The Ojibwe did not under- mies, the Lakota and Fox to their west and south. They stand the land cession terms in the same way because of drove the from the Upper Mississippi region to the the cultural differences in understanding the uses of land. area of the present-day Dakotas, and forced the Fox down The governments of the US and Canada considered land from northern Wisconsin. The latter allied with the Sauk a commodity of value that could be freely bought, owned for protection. and sold. By the end of the 18th century, the Ojibwe controlled The Ojibwe believed it was a fully shared resource, along nearly all of present-day Michigan, northern Wisconsin, with air, water and sunlight—despite having an under- and , including most of the Red River area. standing of “territory”. At the time of the treaty coun- They also controlled the entire northern shores of lakes cils, they could not conceive of separate land sales or ex- Huron and Superior on the Canadian side and extending clusive ownership of land. Consequently, today, in both westward to the Turtle Mountains of . In Canada and the US, legal arguments in treaty-rights and the latter area, the French called them Ojibwe treaty interpretations often bring to light the differences or Saulteaux. in cultural understanding of treaty terms to come to legal [9] The Ojibwe (Chippewa) were part of a long-term alliance understanding of the treaty obligations. with the Anishinaabe Ottawa and Potawatomi peoples, In part due to its long trading alliance, the Ojibwe allied called the . They fought against with the French against Great Britain and its colonists in the Iroquois Confederacy, based mainly to the southeast the Seven Years’ War (also called the French and Indian of the Great Lakes in present-day New York, and the War).[10] After losing the war in 1763, France was forced 4 CHAPTER 1. THE OJIBWA

to cede its colonial claims to lands in Canada and east of of Detroit. The agreement, between the tribes and the Mississippi River to Britain. After adjusting to British William Hull, representing the Michigan Territory, gave colonial rule, the Ojibwe allied with them and against the the United States a portion of today’s Southeastern Michi- United States in the War of 1812. They had hoped that gan and a section of Ohio near the Maumee River. The a British victory could protect them against United States tribes were able to retain small pockets of land in the settlers’ encroachment on their territory. territory.[11] Following the war, the United States government tried to In Canada, many of the land cession treaties the British forcibly remove all the Ojibwe to Minnesota, west of the made with the Ojibwe provided for their rights for contin- Mississippi River. The Ojibwe resisted, and there were ued hunting, fishing and gathering of natural resources af- violent confrontations. In the Sandy Lake Tragedy, the ter land sales. The government signed US killed several hundred Ojibwe. Through the efforts of in northwestern Ontario, , , and Chief Buffalo and the rise of popular opinion in the US . British Columbia had no signed treaties until the against Ojibwe removal, the bands east of the Mississippi late 20th century, and most areas have no treaties yet. The were allowed to return to reservations on ceded territory. government and First Nations are continuing to negotiate A few families were removed to Kansas as part of the treaty land entitlements and settlements. The treaties are Potawatomi removal. constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times. The numbered treaties were some of the most detailed treaties signed for their time. The Ojibwe Nation set the agenda and negotiated the first numbered treaties before they would allow safe passage of many more British set- tlers to the prairies. During its Indian Removal of the 1830s, the US govern- ment attempted to relocate tribes from the east to the west of the Mississippi River as the white pioneers in- creasingly migrated west. By the late 19th century, the government policy was to move tribes onto reservations within their territories. The government attempted to do this to the Anishinaabe in the Keweenaw Peninsula in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.

1.1.4 Culture

Plains Ojibwe Chief Sha-có-pay (The Six). In addition to the northern and eastern woodlands, Ojibwe people also lived on the prairies of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, North Dakota, western Minnesota and Montana.

In British North America, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 following the Seven Years’ War governed the ces- sion of land by treaty or purchase . Subsequently, France ceded most of the land in Upper Canada to Great Britain. Even with the Jay Treaty signed between Great Britain Details of Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage by Eastman John- and the United States following the American Revolu- son, c. 1906 tionary War, the newly formed United States did not fully uphold the treaty. As it was still preoccupied by war with The Ojibwe live in groups (otherwise known as “bands”). France, Great Britain ceded to the United States much of Most Ojibwe, except for the Great Plains bands, lived a the lands in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, parts of Illinois and sedentary lifestyle, engaging in fishing and hunting to sup- Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota and North Dakota to plement the women’s cultivation of numerous varieties settle the boundary of their holdings in Canada. of maize and squash, and the harvesting of manoomin In 1807, the Ojibwe joined three other tribes, the Odawa, (wild rice). Their typical dwelling was the wiigiwaam Potawatomi and Wyandot people, in signing the Treaty (wigwam), built either as a waginogaan (domed-lodge) or 1.1. OJIBWE 5 as a nasawa'ogaan (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark, ple still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, juniper bark and willow saplings. picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar. Many of the Ojibwe take part in sun dance ceremonies across the continent. The sacred scrolls are kept hidden away until those who are worthy and respect them are given permission to see and interpret them prop- erly. The Ojibwe would not bury their dead in a burial mound. Many erect a jiibegamig or a “spirit-house” over each mound. A traditional burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased’s doodem ( sign). Because of the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwe graves have been often looted by grave Vintage stereoscopic photo entitled “Chippewa lodges, robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwe communi- Bay, by Childs, B. F.” ties safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforce- ment of the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and They developed a form of pictorial writing, used in reli- Repatriation Act. gious rites of the Midewiwin and recorded on birch bark scrolls and possibly on rock. The many complex pic- tures on the sacred scrolls communicate much historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. The use of petroforms, petroglyphs, and pictographs was common throughout the Ojibwe traditional territories. Petroforms and medicine wheels were a way to teach the important concepts of four directions and astronomical observations about the seasons, and to use as a memorizing tool for certain stories and beliefs. Ceremonies also used the miigis shell (cowry shell), which is found naturally in distant coastal areas. Their use of such shells demonstrates there was a vast trade network across the continent at some time. The use and trade of copper across the continent has also been proof of a large Plains Ojibwe performing a snowshoe dance. By George Catlin trading network that took place for thousands of years, as far back as the Hopewell tradition. Certain types of rock As with various other North American peoples, the used for spear and arrow heads were also traded over large Ojibwe culture includes a third gender. Ojibwe Two- distances. Spirit women take on men’s roles, classified as either “Iron Woman” or “Half Sky”. Generally, two-spirit men practiced Shamanism and it was taboo for women to take on this role, but a two-spirit following this path was called an Iron Woman. The Half Sky two-spirit would be phys- ically good at a man’s trade (like hunting). Also, there is an instance when a wife becomes a widow and takes on her husband’s manly deeds; this woman is called a “Woman Covered All Over”. (Landes 153, 176, 178- 179, and Merriam- Webster Dictionary). Several Ojibwe bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages the treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-Lake Michigan areas. The commis- sion follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwe tribal councils Pictographs on Mazinaw Rock, Bon Echo Provincial Park, cooperate in the 1854 Treaty Authority, which manages Ontario their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource During the summer months, the people attend jiingota- Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering mog for the spiritual and niimi'idimaa for a social gather- rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the resources of the wa- ing (pow-wows or “pau waus”) at various reservations in ters of lakes Michigan and Huron. In Canada, the Grand the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many peo- Council of Treaty No. 3 manages the Treaty 3 hunting 6 CHAPTER 1. THE OJIBWA and fishing rights related to the area around Lake of the identifying as family, friends or enemies. Today, the Woods. greeting has been shortened to "Aaniin".

Kinship and clan system Spiritual beliefs

Main article:

Traditionally, the Ojibwe had a patrilineal system, in which children were considered born to the father’s clan.[12] For this reason, children with French or English fathers were considered outside the clan and Ojibwe soci- ety unless adopted by an Ojibwe male. They were some- times referred to as “white” because of their fathers, re- gardless if their mothers were Ojibwe, as they had no of- ficial place in the Ojibwe society. The people would shel- ter the woman and her children, but they did not have the same place in the culture as children born to Ojibwe fa- thers. Ojibwe understanding of is complex, and includes not only the immediate family but also the extended family. It is considered a modified bifurcate merging Frame of Ojibwe sweatlodge kinship system. As with any bifurcate-merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same kinship term Main article: Anishinaabe traditional beliefs with parallel cousins because they are all part of the same The Ojibwe have a number of spiritual beliefs passed clan. The modified system allows for younger siblings to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins. Complexity wanes further from the speaker’s immedi- ate generation, but some complexity is retained with fe- male relatives. For example, ninooshenh is “my mother’s sister” or “my father’s sister-in-law”—i.e., my parallel- aunt, but also “my parent’s female cross-cousin”. Great- grandparents and older generations, as well as great- grandchildren and younger generations, are collectively called aanikoobijigan. This system of kinship reflects the Anishinaabe philosophy of interconnectedness and bal- ance among all living generations, as well as of all gener- ations of the past and of the future. Pictorial notation of an Ojibwe music board. The Ojibwe people were divided into a number of odoo- deman (clans; singular: doodem) named primarily for down by oral tradition under the Midewiwin teachings. animals and totems (pronounced doodem). The five original totems were Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswe- These include a creation story and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and naazhi (“Echo-maker”, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (“Tender”, i.e., Bear) and Moozwaanowe rituals were very important to the Ojibwe because spirits (“Little” Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vo- guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and petro- cal among the Ojibwe, and the Bear was the largest – so forms were used to pass along knowledge and informa- large, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the tion, as well as for ceremonies. Pictographs were also head, the ribs and the feet. Each clan had certain respon- used for ceremonies. sibilities among the people. People had to marry a spouse The sweatlodge is still used during important ceremonies from a different clan. about the four directions, when oral history is recounted. Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council Teaching lodges are common today to teach the next gen- consisting of leaders of the communities’ clans, or odoo- erations about the language and ancient ways of the past. demaan. The band was often identified by the princi- The traditional ways, ideas, and teachings are preserved pal doodem. In meeting others, the traditional greeting and practiced in such living ceremonies. among the Ojibwe peoples is, “What is your 'doodem'?" The Ojibwe crafted the . They believe that ("Aaniin gidoodem?" or "Awanen gidoodem?") The re- if one is hung above the head of a sleeper, it will catch sponse allows the parties to establish social conduct by and trap bad dreams, preventing them from reaching the 1.1. OJIBWE 7

dreamer. Traditional Ojibwe use only for • In Elmore Leonard's Killshot, hit man Armand children, as they believe that adults should be able to in- “Blackbird” Degas is Ojibway and French Canadian terpret their dreams, good or bad, and use them in their (also known as Metis, as many of these mixed-race lives. people banded together and formed their own cul- ture).

Ethnobotany Music Herbs used as medicine by the Ojibwe include Agrimonia gryposepala, used for urinary problems,[13] and pinus • Composer Ferde Grofe composed a movement, “Fa- strobus, the resin of which was used to treat infections ther of the Waters”, of his Mississippi Suite, which and gangrene. Essiac, an herbal mixture used in tea was represents the Chippewa Indians and the headwaters given its name by Rene Caisse (“caisse” spelt backwards). of the Mississippi. The Ojibwe call it “The Tea of Life” and it consists of four herbs native to the wilderness of Ontario, Canada.[14][15] Television The roots of Symphyotrichum novae-angliae are smoked [16] in pipes to attract game. • In several episodes of the HBO series The Sopra- nos (e.g., "Mayham" and "The Fleshy Part of the Representation in popular culture Thigh"), Tony Soprano recovers from a gunshot wound. He reflects on an Ojibwe saying left by his Literature bed: “Sometimes I go about in pity for myself, and all the while, a great wind carries me across the sky”. • In his story, "Fathers and Sons", Ernest Hemingway uses two Ojibwe as secondary characters. 1.1.5 Bands • The legend of the Ojibwe Wendigo, in which tribes- In his History of the Ojibway People (1855), William W. men identify with a cannibalistic monster and prey Warren recorded 10 major divisions of the Ojibwe in the on their families, has many levels of meaning. It United States. He mistakenly omitted the Ojibwe located points to the consequences of greed and the de- in Michigan, western Minnesota and westward, and all of struction it can cause. European-American authors Canada. When identified major historical bands located Thomas Pynchon, Ramsey Campbell and Stephen in Michigan and Ontario are added, the count becomes King have referred to this story in their fiction. 15: • Novelist Louise Erdrich (Ojibwe) has written about These 15 major divisions developed into the following her people and culture in numerous novels based Ojibwe Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed in fictional settlements, including Tracks, Love under their respective tribes where possible. See also the Medicine, The Bingo Palace and The Round House, listing of Saulteaux communities. among others. Her novels cover a range of history and individuals, returning to her fictional families • over time, and the complex relations between the Anishinaabe and Europeans. • • • Keewaydinoquay Peschel, a medicine woman, has Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways written books on ethnobotany and books for chil- • Bay Mills Indian Community dren. • Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation • Gerald Vizenor (Ojibwe), a literary theorist and writer, has drawn extensively on Anishinaabe • Burt Lake Band of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians philosophies of language. • Chapleau Ojibway First Nation • William Kent Krueger has written a series of crime • Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point novels chronicling the adventures of a character named Corcoran “Cork” O'Connor, an Ojibwe with • Chippewas of Lake Simcoe and Huron (Historical) partial European ancestry who works as the sher- • iff of Aurora, Minnesota. The novels express how • Cork uses both his Ojibwe and Irish-American her- Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation itage to solve local crimes.[17] Ojibwe spirituality is • Chippewas of Rama First Nation (formerly an important element of the subtext of many of the known as Chippewas of Mnjikaning First Na- storylines.[17] tion) 8 CHAPTER 1. THE OJIBWA

• Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation • Removable St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin • Chippewa of the Thames First Nation • Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior • Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory (Histori- Chippewa cal) • Red Cliff Band of • Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation • Sokaogon Chippewa Community • • St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin

• Chippewa Cree Tribe of Rocky Boys Indian Reser- • Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Montana vation • Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians • • Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians • Cutler First Nation • • • • • Bois Forte Band of Chippewa • First Nation of Ojibwe California • Bois Forte Band of Chippewa • Lake Vermilion Band of Lake Superior • Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa In- Chippewa dians • Little Forks Band of Rainy River • Garden River First Nation Saulteaux • • Henvey Inlet First Nation Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa • Grand Portage Band of Chippewa • Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asabiinyashkosiwag- • Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe ong Nitam-Anishinaabeg) • Cass Lake Band of Chippewa • Islands in the Trent Waters • Lake Winnibigoshish Band of Chippewa • Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation • Leech Lake Band of Pillagers • Removable Lake Superior Bands of • Koocheching First Nation Chippewa of the Chippewa Reservation • Lac des Mille Lacs First Nation • White Oak Point Band of Mississippi Chippewa • Lac La Croix First Nation • Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe • • Mille Lacs Indians • Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi • Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation Chippewa • Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe • Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa • St. Croix Band of Chippewa Indians of • Bad River Chippewa Band Minnesota • Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior • Kettle River Band of Chippewa Indi- Chippewa ans • Keweenaw Bay Indian Community • Snake and Knife Rivers Band of • L'Anse Band of Chippewa Indians Chippewa Indians • Ontonagon Band of Chippewa Indians • White Earth Band of Chippewa • Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior • Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa Chippewa Indians • Tail Band of Pillagers • Bois Brule River Band of Lake Superior • Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa Chippewa • Chippewa River Band of Lake Superior • Removable Mille Lacs Indians Chippewa • Removable Sandy Lake Band of Missis- • Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Supe- sippi Chippewa rior Chippewa Indians • Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa 1.1. OJIBWE 9

• Mississaugi First Nation • Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation • North Caribou Lake First Nation • • Ojibway Nation of Saugeen First Nation • Walpole Island First Nation • Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation • Washagamis Bay First Nation • Osnaburg House Band of Ojibway (Historical) • Whitefish Bay First Nation • • Whitefish Lake First Nation • Mishkeegogamang First Nation (formerly • Whitefish River First Nation known as New Osnaburgh First Nation) • • • • Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians (Historical) Whitewater Lake First Nation • • Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation • 1.1.6 Ojibwe people • Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians • Ah-shah-way-gee-she-go-qua (Aazhawigi- • Lac des Bois Band of Chippewa Indians izhigokwe, Hanging Cloud), woman warrior • Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation • David Wayne “Famous Dave” Anderson, en- • Saginaw Chippewa trepreneur • • Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians Arron Asham, player for the Pittsburgh Penguins • Saulteaux First Nation • Dennis Banks, activist • • James Bartleman, diplomat and author • Southeast Tribal Council • Adam Beach, actor and writer • Berens River First Nation • Carl Beam, artist • Bloodvein First Nation • • Brokenhead First Nation Jason Behr, actor • Buffalo Point First Nation (Saulteaux) • Clyde Bellecourt (White Earth Ojibwe), social ac- • Hollow Water First Nation tivist • Black River First Nation • Vernon Bellecourt (White Earth Ojibwe), social ac- • Little Grand Rapids First Nation tivist • Pauingassi First Nation (Saulteaux) • Chief Bender, baseball player • Poplar River First Nation • Stephen Bonga, Ojibwe/African-American fur [18] • Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians trader and interpreter • • Wabaseemoong Independent Nation George Bonga, Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter • Wabauskang First Nation • Odell Borg, flutist and flute maker • • Benjamin Chee Chee, artist • Beaverhouse First Nation • Henry Boucha, ice hockey player, United States • Brunswick House First Nation Hockey Hall of Fame • Chapleau Ojibwe First Nation • Al Hunter, poet • • • George Copway, missionary and writer • • Eddy Cobiness, artist 10 CHAPTER 1. THE OJIBWA

• Kelly Church (Grand Traverse Band), basket • T. J. Oshie, player and weaver, painter, and birch bark biter member of the 2014 USA Olympic Men’s Hockey team[20] • Jim Denomie, artist • O-zaw-wen-dib (Ozaawindib, Yellow Head), • Patrick DesJarlait, painter and graphic artist woman warrior, guide • Louise Erdrich (Turtle Mountain Chippewa), author • Francis Pegahmagabow, soldier • Meegwun Fairbrother, actor and traditional singer • [19] Leonard Peltier, political activist, prisoner, author, and dancer artist • Phil Fontaine, politician • Mel Pervais, entrepreneur • William Gardner, one of the Untouchables • Pun Plamondon, activist • Cara Gee, actor • Tommy Prince, soldier • Philip B. Gordon, priest and activist • Chief Rocky Boy, chief • Kraig Grady, composer, puppeteer • Buffy Sainte-Marie, singer, songwriter • Gordon Henry Jr., writer • Thomas St. Germaine, football player • Virgil Hill, boxer • Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, author, wife of Henry • Basil Johnston, historian and cultural essayist Rowe Schoolcraft

• , missionary and writer • Eric Schweig, actor

• Ke-che-waish-ke (Gichi-Weshkiinh, Buffalo), chief • Keith Secola, rock and blues singer

• Keewaydinoquay Peschel, teacher, ethnobotanist • Chris Simon, ice hockey player, Stanley Cup winner w/ 1996 • Maude Kegg, author, cultural ambassador • John Smith, Gaa-binagwiiyaas, chief, reported to • Wayne Keon, poet, author have lived 137 years • Winona LaDuke, activist and writer • Albert Smoke, long-distance runner • Carole LaFavor, writer • Drew Hayden Taylor, playwright, author and jour- • Chief Little Bear, chief nalist • • Joe Lumsden (Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians), Roy Thomas, artist tribal chairman • David Treuer, author • Loma Lyns, singer and songwriter • E. Donald Two-Rivers, poet and playwright • Cody McCormick, ice hockey player for the • Alfred Michael “Chief” Venne, athletic manager Colorado Avalanche and coach • Medweganoonind, chief • Gerald Vizenor, author and educator • Rod Michano, AIDS activist and educator • Wawatam, chief • George Morrison, artist • Waabaanakwad (White Cloud), chief • , artist and founder of the • of painting William Whipple Warren, first historian of the Ojibwe people, territorial legislator • Ted Nolan, ice hockey player and coach, Jack • Adams Award winner Crystal Shawanda, country music singer • • Jordan Nolan, professional ice hockey player Justice Murray Sinclair, head of the Residential School System Truth and Reconciliation Commit- • Jim Northrup, columnist tee 1.1. OJIBWE 11

1.1.7 Ojibwe treaties 1.1.9 See also

1.1.8 Gallery • History of Native Americans in the United States • Native Americans in the United States • A-na-cam-e-gish-ca (Aanakamigishkaang/"[Traces of] Foot Prints [upon the Ground]"), Ojibwe chief, from History of the Indian Tribes of North America 1.1.10 References • Bust of Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (Eshkibagikoonzhe Notes or “Flat Mouth”), a Leech Lake Ojibwe chief

• Chief Beautifying Bird (Nenaa'angebi), by Ben- [1] Three Fires Unity: The Anishnaabeg of the Lake Huron jamin Armstrong, 1891 Borderlands. Phil Bellfy. 2011. University of . [2] “First Nations Culture Areas Index”. the Canadian Mu- • Bust of Beshekee, war chief, modeled 1855, carved seum of Civilization. 1856 [3] “Anishinabe”. eMuseum @ Minnesota State University. • Caa-tou-see, an Ojibwe, from History of the Indian Minnesota State University. Mankato. Retrieved 2010- Tribes of North America 03-16.

• Hanging Cloud, a female Ojibwe warrior [4] “Microsoft Word - dictionary best for printing 2004 ever finalpdf.doc” (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-02. • Jack-O-Pa (Shák'pí/"Six”), an Ojibwe/Dakota chief, [5] Warren, William W. (1885; reprint: 1984) History of the from History of the Indian Tribes of North America Ojibway People. ISBN 0-87351-162-X

• Kay be sen day way We Win, by Eastman Johnson, [6] Louise Erdrich, Books and Islands in Ojibwe Country 1857 (2003) Archived September 26, 2007 at the Wayback Ma- chine • Kei-a-gis-gis, a Plains Ojibwe woman, painted by George Catlin [7] Johnston, Basil. (2007) Anishinaubae Thesaurus ISBN 0- 87013-753-0 • Leech Lake Ojibwe delegation to Washington, 1899 [8] Anthony, David. The Horse, the Wheel and Language, Princeton University Press, 2007, p. 102 • Chippewa baby teething on “Indians at Work” mag- azine while strapped to a cradleboard at a rice lake [9] “The Atlas of Canada: Historical Indian Treaties”. Re- in 1940. trieved 2010-05-09.

• Milwaukee Ojibwe woman and baby, courtesy of the [10] Gevinson, Alan. "Which Native American Tribes Allied Themselves with the French?" Teachinghistory.org, ac- Wisconsin Historical Society cessed 23 September 2011. • Ne-bah-quah-om, Ojibwe chief [11] “Treaty Between the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot, and Potawatomi Indians”. World Digital Library. 1807-11- • “One Called From A Distance” (Midwewinind) of 17. Retrieved 2013-08-03. the White Earth Band, 1894. [12] “Ojibwe Culture”, Milwaukee Public , accessed • Shaun Hedican, Eabametoong First Nation 10 December 2011

• Pee-Che-Kir, Ojibwe chief, painted by Thomas Lo- [13] Daniel E. Moerman (2009). Native American Medicinal raine McKenney, 1843 Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary. Timber Press. pp. 52–53. ISBN 0-88192-987-5. • Ojibwe chief Rocky Boy [14] Native American Ethnobotany (University of Michigan - Dearborn) . accessed 1.13.2013 • Ojibwe woman and child, from History of the Indian Tribes of North America [15] Fernald, M., A. Kinsey, and R. Rollins. 1943. Edible Wild Plants. Harper & Row, NY. • Tshusick, an Ojibwe woman, from History of the In- dian Tribes of North America [16] Densmore, Frances 1928 Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians. SI-BAE Annual Report #44:273-379 (p. 376) • Chief medicine man Axel Pasey and family at Grand [17] “Cork O'Connor”, Thrilling Detective Portage Minnesota. [18] “Portrait of Stephen Bonga”, Wisconsin Historical Im- • Historic 1849 petition of Ojibwe chiefs [1] ages, accessed 23 January 2014 12 CHAPTER 1. THE OJIBWA

[19] “Meegwun Fairbrother - ATLAS Stage Productions Lake Ontario, & C., to Which Is Added a Vocabulary Canada”. atlasstage.com. of the Chippeway Language ... a List of Words in the Iroquois, Mehegan, Shawanee, and Esquimeaux [20] Oshie-Blogs. “Minnesota H.S. Section 8A Boy’s Hockey Tongues, and a Table, Shewing the Analogy between Site: Keeway Gaaboo .... A Symbol Of Pride For Fighting Sioux”. section8ahockeyblog.blogspot.com. the Algonkin and the Chippeway Languages. Lon- don: Robson, 1791. Bibliography' • Nichols, J.D., & Nyholm, E. (1995). A con- cise dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: • F. Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929, repr. 1970) University of Minnesota Press. • H. Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors • Treuer, Anton. Everything You Wanted to Know (1970) About Indians But Were Afraid to Ask. St. Paul: • R. Landes, Ojibwa Sociology (1937, repr. 1969) Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012.

• R. Landes, Ojibwa Woman (1938, repr. 1971) • Treuer, Anton. The Assassination of Hole in the Day. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, • F. Symington, The Canadian Indian (1969) 2011.

1.1.11 Further reading • Treuer, Anton. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2010. Ojibwe in Min- • Aaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project. nesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, Press, 2010. 2009.http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ ss_i_0_6?url=search-alias%3Dstripbooks& • Treuer, Anton. Living Our Language: Ojibwe field-keywords=aaniin+ekidong&sprefix=aaniin Tales & Oral Histories. St. Paul: Minnesota His- torical Society Press, 2001. http://www.amazon. • Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the com/Living-Our-Language-Ojibwe-Histories/dp/ Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book. 0873514041/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books& qid=1274417157&sr=8-2 • Danziger, E.J., Jr. (1978). The Chippewa of Lake Superior. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. • Vizenor, G. (1972). The everlasting sky: New voices • Denial, Catherine J. (2013). Making Marriage: Hus- from the people named the Chippewa. New York: bands, Wives, and the American State in Dakota and Crowell-Collier Press. Ojibwe Country. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Histori- cal Society Press. • Vizenor, G. (1981). Summer in the spring: Ojibwe lyric poems and tribal stories. Minneapolis: The • Densmore, F. (1979). Chippewa customs. St. Paul: Nodin Press. Minnesota Historical Society Press. (Published originally 1929) • Vizenor, G. (1984). The people named the Chippewa: Narrative histories. Minneapolis: • Grim, J.A. (1983). The shaman: Patterns of reli- University of Minnesota Press. gious healing among the Ojibway Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. • Warren, William W. (1851). History of the Ojibway • Gross, L.W. (2002). The comic vision of Anishi- People. naabe culture and religion. American Indian Quar- terly, 26, 436-459. • White, Richard (1991). The Middle Ground: Indi- ans, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Re- • Howse, Joseph. A Grammar of the ; gion, 1650-1815 (Studies in North American Indian With which is combined an analysis of the Chippe- History) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, way dialect. London: J.G.F. & J. Rivington, 1844. England. • Johnston, B. (1976). Ojibway heritage. : • McClelland and Stewart. White, Richard (July 31, 2000). Chippewas of the Sault. The Sault Tribe News. • Long, J. Voyages and Travels of an Indian Inter- preter and Trader Describing the Manners and Cus- • Wub-e-ke-niew. (1995). We have the right to exist: toms of the North American Indians, with an Account A translation of aboriginal indigenous thought. New of the Posts Situated on the River Saint Laurence, York: Black Thistle Press. 1.1. OJIBWE 13

1.1.12 External links

• Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission • Chief Buffalo and Benjamin Armstrong

• Ojibwe culture and history, a lengthy and detailed discussion

• Kevin L. Callahan’s An Introduction to Ojibway Cul- ture and History

• Ojibwe Song Pictures, recorded by Frances Desmore

• Ojibwe People’s Dictionary • Digital recreation of the 'Chippewa' entry from Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, edited by Frederick Webb Hodge • Ojibwa migration through Manitoba

• video: The Making of an Ojibwe Hand Drum • Nindoodemag: The Significance of Algonquian Kinship Networks in the Eastern Great Lakes Re- gion, 1600–1701

• Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa—PBS documentary fea- turing the history and culture of the Anishinaabe- Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes (United States- focused).

• Ojibwe migratory map from Ojibwe Waasa- Inaabidaa

• Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Chippewa

• 1836 Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority • Grand Council of Treaty #3

• Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways • Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa

• Mississaugi First Nation • Southeast Tribal Council

• Wabun Tribal Council

• Ojibwe Stories: Gaganoonididaa from the Public Radio Exchange Chapter 2

The Cree

2.1 Cree • Naskapi and Montagnais (together known as the Innu) are inhabitants of an area they refer to as For other uses, see Cree (disambiguation). Nitassinan. Their territories comprise most of the Not to be confused with the Creek people. present-day political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec and Labrador. Their cultures are differentiated, as the Naskapi are still caribou hunters and more The Cree (historical autonym: nēhiraw; French: cri) nomadic than the Montagnais, but the Montagnais are one of the largest groups of First Nations/Native have more settlements. The total population of the Americans in North America, with over 200,000 mem- two groups in 2003 was about 18,000 people, of bers living in Canada. The major proportion of Cree in which 15,000 lived in Quebec. Their dialects and Canada live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, languages are the most distinct from the Cree spo- Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Ter- ken by the groups west of Lake Superior. ritories. About 38,000 live in Quebec.[1] • In the United States, this Algonquian-speaking people Attikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to historically lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, as Nitaskinan (Our Land), in the upper St. Mau- they live mostly in Montana, where they share a reserva- rice River valley of Quebec (about 300 km north of tion with the Ojibwe (Chippewa).[2] Montreal). Their population is around 4,500. The documented westward migration over time has been • James Bay Cree – Grand Council of the ; strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters approximately 18,000 Cree (Iyyu in Coastal Di- in the North American Fur Trade.[3] alect / Iynu in Inland Dialect) of Eeyou Istchee and Nunavik regions of Northern Quebec. 2.1.1 Sub-groups • Moose Cree – Moose Factory[4] in the Cochrane Dis- trict, Ontario; this group lives on Moose Factory Island, near the mouth of the Moose River, at the southern end of James Bay.

• Swampy Cree – this group lives in northern Manitoba along the Hudson Bay coast and adjacent inland ar- eas to the south and west, and in Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also in eastern Saskatchewan around Cumberland House. It has 4,500 speakers.

• group in and Saskatchewan.

• Plains Cree 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Montana.

The linguistic subdivisions of the Cree. Due to the many dialects of the Cree language, there is no modern collective autonym. The Plains Cree and At- The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based tikamekw refer to themselves using modern forms of the on dialect and region. These divisions do not necessar- historical nêhiraw, namely nêhiyaw and nêhirawisiw, re- ily represent ethnic sub-divisions within the larger ethnic spectively. Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Mon- group: tagnais all refer to themselves using modern dialectal

14 2.1. CREE 15

forms of the historical iriniw, meaning 'man.' Moose at least as far back as a 1994 gathering at the Opaskwayak Cree use the form ililiw, coastal East Cree and Naskapi Cree First Nation reserve.[7] use iyiyiw (variously spelled iiyiyiu, iiyiyuu, and eeyou), inland East Cree use iyiniw (variously spelled iinuu and eenou), and Montagnais use ilnu and innu, depending on 2.1.3 Name dialect. The Cree use “Cree,” “cri,” “Naskapi, or “mon- tagnais” to refer to their people only when speaking the The name “Cree” is derived from the Algonkian-language languages of the European colonists, French or English.[5] exonym Kirištino˙, which the Ojibwa used for tribes around Hudson Bay. The French colonists and explor- ers, who spelled the term Kilistinon, Kiristinon, Kniste- 2.1.2 Political organization neaux,[8] Cristenaux, and Cristinaux, used the term for numerous tribes which they encountered north of Lake Historical Superior, in Manitoba, and west of there.[9] The French used these terms to refer to various groups of peoples in As hunter-gatherers, the basic unit of organization for Canada, some of which are now better distinguished as Cree peoples were the lodge, a group of perhaps eight or Severn Anishinaabe (Ojibwa), who speak languages dif- a dozen people, usually the families of two separate but ferent from the Algonquin.[10] related married couples, who lived together in the same Depending on the community, the Cree may call them- wigwam (domed tent) or teepee (conical tent), and the selves by the following names: the nēhiyawak, nīhithaw, band, a group of lodges who moved and hunted together. nēhilaw, and nēhinaw; or ininiw, ililiw, iynu (innu), In the case of disagreement lodges could leave bands, and or iyyu. These names are derived from the historical bands could be formed and dissolved with relative ease, autonym nēhiraw (uncertain meaning) or from the histor- but as there is safety in numbers, all families would want ical autonym iriniw (meaning “person”). Cree using the to be part of some band, and banishment was considered latter autonym tend to be those living in the territories of a very serious punishment. Bands would usually have Quebec and Labrador.[11] strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Besides these regional gath- 2.1.4 Language erings, there was no higher-level formal structure, and de- cisions of war and peace were made by consensus with al- Main article: Cree language lied bands meeting together in council. People could be identified by their clan, which is a group of people claim- ing descent from the same common ancestor; each clan The Cree language (also known in the most broad classi- would have a representative and a vote in all important fication as Cree-Montagnais, Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi, councils held by the band (compare: Anishinaabe clan to show the groups included within it) is the name for a system).[6] group of closely related spoken by approximately 117,000 people across Canada, from the Each band remained independent of each other. How- to Labrador. It is the most widely ever, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and spoken aboriginal language in Canada.[12] The only region with their neighbours against outside enemies. Those where Cree has official status is in the Northwest Territo- Cree who moved onto the Great Plains and adopted ries, together with eight other aboriginal languages.[13][14] hunting, called the Plains Cree, were allied with the Assiniboine and the Saulteaux in what was known as the The two major groups: Nehiyaw and Innu, speak a mu- "Iron Confederacy" which was a major force in the North tually intellligible Cree dialect continuum, which can be American fur trade from the 1730s to the 1870s. divided by many criteria. In a dialect continuum, “It is not so much a language, as a chain of dialects, where speak- When a band went to war, they would nominate a tem- ers from one community can very easily understand their porary military commander, called a okimahkan, loosely neighbours, but a Plains Cree speaker from Alberta would translated as “war chief.” This office was different from find a Quebec Cree speaker difficult to speak to without that of the “peace chief”, a leader who had a role more practice.”[15] like that of diplomat. In the run-up to the 1885 North- West Rebellion, was the leader of his band, but One major division between the groups is that the East- once the fighting started Wandering Spirit became war ern group palatalizes the sound /k/ to either /ts/ (c) or leader. to /tʃ/ (č) when it precedes front vowels. There is also a major difference in grammatical vocabulary (particles) between the groups. Within both groups, another set Contemporary of variations has arisen around the pronunciation of the Proto-Algonquian *l, which can be realized as There have been several attempts to create a national po- /l/, /r/, /y/, /n/, or /ð/ (th) by different groups. Yet in litical organization that would represent all Cree peoples, other dialects, the distinction between /eː/ (ē) and /iː/ (ī) 16 CHAPTER 2. THE CREE has been lost, merging to the latter. In more western di- alects, the distinction between /s/ and /ʃ/ (š) has been lost, both merging to the former. Victor Gollum lists Cree in the Encyclopedia of the World’s Endangered Languages as one of fifty five lan- guages that have more than 1,000 speakers which are be- ing actively acquired by children.[16]

2.1.5 Identity and ethnicity

In Canada

Nehiyaw girl (1928).

“fashionable” for bands in many parts of Saskatchewan to identify as “Plains Cree” at the expense of a mixed Cree-Salteaux history. There is also a tendency for bands to recategorize themselves as “Plains Cree” instead of Woods Cree or Swampy Cree. Neal McLeod argues this is partly due to the dominant culture’s fascination with Plains Indian culture as well as the greater degree of writ- ten standardization and prestige Plains Cree enjoys over other Cree dialects.[7] Cree Indian, taken by G. E. Fleming, 1903 The Métis (from the French, Métis - of mixed ances- try) are people of mixed ancestry, such as Nehiyaw (or The Cree are the largest group of First Nations in Canada, Anishinaabe) and French, English, or Scottish heritage. [17] with 220,000 members and 135 registered bands. This According to Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Develop- large population may be a result of the Crees’ tradi- ment Canada, the Métis were historically the children of tional openness to intertribal marriage. Together, their French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions reserve lands are the largest of any First Nations group of English or Scottish traders and northern women [17] in the country. The largest Cree band and the sec- (Anglo-Métis). Generally in academic circles, the term ond largest First Nations Band in Canada after the Six métis can be used to refer to any combination of persons Nations Iroquois is the Lac Band in northern of mixed Native American and European heritage, al- Saskatchewan. though historical definitions for Métis remain. Canada’s Given the traditional Cree opening to mixed marriages, Indian and Northern Affairs broadly define Métis as those it is acknowledged by academics that all bands are ulti- persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry, mately of mixed heritage and multilingualism and mul- while The Métis National Council defines a Métis as “a ticulturalism was the norm. In the West mixed bands person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other of Cree, Saulteaux and Assiniboine, all partners in the Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry Iron Confederacy, are the norm. However, in recent and who is accepted by the Métis Nation”.[18] years, as indigenous languages have declined across west- ern Canada where there were once three languages spo- • “Group of Crees” ken on a given reserve, there may now only be one. This has led to a simplification of identity, and it has become • “Cree Indian” 2.1. CREE 17

• “Chief King of the Wind” one of the influential leaders of the House Cree or Wāskahikaniwiyiniwak, supplied between 1852– • “Chief Thundercloud” 1854 with bison meat and pemmican, • “Chief Duckhunter” acquired in his youth by constant military conflicts the respect of Crowfoot, leader of the Siksika, the • “Indian Teepee” Blackfoot called Mistāwasis respectfully “The Iron Buffalo of the Plains”)[21] In the United States • Ahtahkakoop (Atahkakohp, “Starblanket”), Chief of the House Cree (Wāskahikaniwiyiniwak). He At one time the Cree were located in northern Minnesota, was born about 1815-16, signed together with his North Dakota and Montana. Today majority live as part cousin, Mistāwasis in 1876 the at Fort Carl- of the federally recognized Chippewa Cree tribe, located ton, where he agreed that his group were settled into on the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation, and in minority a reserve near the present-day Prince Albert, died 4 as “Landless Cree” on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation December 1896 at the age of 81 years.[22] and as “Landless Cree” and “Rocky Boy Cree” on the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, all in Montana. The • Chippewa Cree share the reservation with the Pembina Ahchuchhwahauhhatohapit or Ahcha- Band of Chippewa Indians, who form the “Chippewa” coosacootacoopits (Acahkosa kā-otakohpit, "[One [23] (Ojibwa) half of the Chippewa Cree tribe. On the other who has] Star[s for a ]blanket”, ) Chief of a band Reservations, the Cree minority share the Reservation of Calling River Cree (Kātēpwēwi-sīpīwiyiniwak), with the Assiniboine, Gros Ventre and Sioux tribes. Tra- born about 1845 in the lower Qu’Appelle Valley, ditionally, the southern limits of the Cree territory in son of Wāpiy-mōstōsis (“White Calf”), his tribal Montana were the Missouri River and the Milk River. group was closely associated with the Ka Kichi Wi Winiwak under the leadership of Kakeesheway (‘Loud ’), and a close ally of Payipwāt (“Pi- 2.1.6 First Nation communities apot”), leader of the Cree-Assiniboine or “Young Dogs”, 1879 after the disappearance of the bison Ahchuchhwahauhhatohapit settled on a reserve in the File Hills of the lower Qu'Appelle Valley, died 1917 in the Star Blanket reserve, Saskatchewan)[24]

• Payipwāt (or Piapot: "[One who Knows the] Se- crets of the Sioux”), also known as “Hole in the Sioux” or Kisikawasan - ‘Flash in the Sky’, Chief of the Cree-Assiniboine or the Young Dogs with great influence on neighboring Assiniboine, Down- stream People, southern groups of the Upstream Peo- ple and Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwa), born 1816, kid- napped as a child by the Sioux,[25] he was freed about 1830 by Plains Cree, significant Shaman,[26] most influential chief of the feared Young Dogs,[27] convinced the Plains Cree to expand west in the Cy- Illustration of a Snake woman (left) and a Nehiyaw woman press Hills, the last refugee for bison groups, there- (right), c. 1840-1843, Karl Bodmer fore disputed border area between Sioux, Assini- boine, Siksika Kainai and Cree, refused to partic- ipate in the raid on a Kainai camp near the present 2.1.7 Ethnobotany , Alberta, then the Young Dogs and their allies were content with the eastern The Hudson Bay Cree use a decoction of the leaves of to the Milk River, Montana, does not participate at Kalmia latifolia for diarrhea, but consider the plant to be the negotiations on the Treaty 4 of 1874, he and poisonous.[20] Cheekuk, the most important leaders of the Plains Ojibwa in the Qu'Appelle area, signed on 9 Septem- ber 1875 the treaty only as preliminary contract, 2.1.8 Notable leaders tried with Minahikosis (“Little Pine”) and Mistahi- maskwa (“Big Bear”) to erect a kind of Indian Ter- • Mistāwasis (“Big Child”, also known as Pierre ritory for all the Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwa and Belanger), Chief of the Parklands/Willow Cree Assiniboine - as Ottawa refused, he asked 1879-80 (Paskokopāwiyiniwak), born about 1813. He was along with Kiwisünce (cowessess- 'Little Child')[28] 18 CHAPTER 2. THE CREE

and the Assiniboine for adjacent reserves in the Cy- during the North-West Rebellion was press Hills, Payipwāt settled in a reserve about 37 sacked by River Cree, subsequently Fine Day was miles northeast of , Minahikosis (“Lit- the leader of the uprising, defeated the Canadian tle Pine”) and Papewes (‘Lucky Man’) asked suc- army in the Battle of Cut Knife, later joined a group cessfully for reserves near the Assiniboine or Payip- of Plains Cree under the leadership of Wīhkasko- wāt - this allowed the Cree and Assiniboine to pre- kisēyin(‘Sweet Grass’) serve their autonomy - because they went 1881 in Montana on bison hunting, stole Absarokee horses • Pitikwahanapiwiyin (Pîhtokahânapiwiyin - and alleged cattle killed, arrested the U.S. Army ‘’,[32][33] Chief of the River Cree, the Cree-Assiniboine group, disarmed and escorted born about 1842 in the North Battleford Region them back to Canada - now unarmed, denied rations in Saskatchewan; son of Sikakwayan (‘ until the Cree and Assiniboine gave up their claims Skin’), a shaman of the Assiniboine and a Franco- to the Cypress Hills and went north - in the fol- Canadian Métis woman who was the sister of lowing years the reserves changed several times and Mistāwasis (“Big Child”). Pitikwahanapiwiyin was the tribes were trying repeated until to the North- chief of a band consisting of Plains River Cree west Rebellion in 1885 to build an Indian Terri- (Sīpīwininiwak-paskwāwiyiniwak), Woods River tory, Payipwāt remained under heavy guard, un- Cree (‘Sīpīwininiwak-sakāwiyiniwak’), Western til his death he was a great spiritual leader, there- (Sakāwiyiniwak) and Nakoda fore Ottawa deposed Payipwāt on 15 April 1902 (Stoney), was adopted in 1873 by the Siksika as chief, died in April 1908 on Piapot Reserve, chief Crowfoot as son, lived several years by the Saskatchewan)[29] Blackfeet-name Makoyi-koh-kin (‘ Thin Legs’) under the Siksika, returned to the Cree, became • Kee-a-kee-ka-sa-coo-way (‘The Man Who gives counselor to Pihew-kamihkosit (‘Red Pheasant’), the War Whoop’), Chief of the Plains Cree, was in was involved in the negotiations for the Treaty the middle of the 19th century the leading chief of 6 in 1876 and went in 1879 in the Poundmaker the Plains Cree, had also a large following among reservation, later he participated in the siege of the Plains Ojibwa around Fort Pitt, his sub-chief Battleford and the Battle of Cut Knife, died 4 July [34] was Mukitou (‘Black Powder’), the father of Mistahi- 1886 in Blackfoot Crossing, Alberta) maskwa. • Wīhkasko-kisēyin (Wee-kas-kookee-sey-yin, better known as Chief Sweet Grass, leader of the Plains • Mistahi-maskwa (recorded as Mistihui'muskwa or Cree, his mother was a captured Absaroke, as he as Mistahimusqua; better known as Big Bear in En- grew up he was also called Apisci-okimas- 'Little glish and as Gros Ours in French), Chief of the Chief', signed the Treaty 6 on 9 September 1876 Plains Cree, born about 1825, son of the Ojibwa at Fort Pitt, along with bands of Woodland Cree, leader Mukitou (‘Black Powder’), mastered his na- Chipewyan, some Saulteaux, only a quarter of the tive language, the Cree language, as well as Ojibwe participating groups were Plains Cree, while his language, led the last resistance to the dispersal of successor as chief Wah-wee-oo-kah-tah-mah-hote the Cree on many reservations and asked for a big to- ('Strike him on the back') signed the Treaty 6 at Fort tal reserve, a revolt of the young warriors under the Carlton on 28 August 1876 together with the Wil- leadership of one of his sons in 1885 destroyed these low Cree, died 11 January 1877 in a shootout acci- plans, died 17 January 1888 on the Poundmaker dent on the Plains, probably at Saint-Paul-des-Cris, reservation in North Battleford in Saskatchewan. Alberta)[35] • Kapapamahchakwew (Kā-papāmahcāhkwēw, Ka- • Peechee (Pisiw - ‘Mountain Lion’, also known as papa Machatiwe, Papamahchakwayo, French: ‘Es- Louis Piche), Chief of the Asini Wachi Nehiyawak prit Errant’, better known as Wandering Spirit, war and later the head chief of the 'Rocky/Mountain chief of the Plains Cree under Mistahimaskwa, born Cree' or Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak, born about 1821, 1845 near Jackfish Lake, Saskatchewan, commit- introduced under the Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak to the ted on 2 April 1885, the so-called Lake mas- Catholic rite, his three sons, Piyesew Chak, Keskayi- sacre, killed the Indian Agent Thomas Quinn and wew('Bobtail') and Ermineskin were also significant eight whites and one Métis, surrendered in July at leaders, Pesew and his elder son Chak Piyesew were Fort Pitt, was hanged on 27 November 1885 in Bat- killed during a gambling dispute in 1843, among [30] tleford, Saskatchewan) his sons-in-law were Samson, Chiniki, Bearspaw, Capote Blank and Jacques Cardinal)[36] • Kamiokisihkwew (Miyo-Kîsikaw - Fine Day,[31] Chief of the Plains Cree, born 1850 in the Bat- • Ermineskin (‘One with skin like an ermine’,[37] tle River region, died 193[?], was a shaman and Sehkosowayanew, Sikosew Inew, also known as Bap- war chief under Pitikwahanapiwiyin’s River Cree, tiste Piche, Chief of the Bear Hills Cree (Maskwa 2.1. CREE 19

Wachi-is Ininiwak), son of Pesew (‘Mountain Lion’), July 1879 for the 470 members of his tribal group brother-in-law of Pitikwahanapiwiyin)[38] an annex to the Agreement No. 6 at Fort Walsh, in vain he asked for a reserve in the Cypress • Keskayiwew (Kîskâyiwew, Kiskiyo - Bobtail, also Hills and the Buffalo Lake, so many members known as Alexis Piche, Chief of the Bear Hills Cree went back to Mistahimaskwa (“Big Bear”) or (Maskwa-wachi-is Ininiwak), son of Pesew (‘Moun- joined Minahikosis (“Little Pine”), Papewes asked tain Lion’), brother of Ermineskin, became chief af- 1884 in vain a reserve adjacent to the reserves of ter the death of his older brother, was elected instead Pitikwahanapiwiyin (' Poundmaker'), Minahikosis of Maskepetoon ('Broken Arm') to the chieftainship and Mistahimaskwa, during the rebellion of 1885 of the Rocky Cree and later became head chief of the were the two groups of Papewes and Minahikosis Western Cree(‘Pakisimotan Wi Iniwak’) and soon af- scattered and some of their members fled in the ter became the head chief of all the groups of the U.S., 1886 settled the remaining members of the [44] Upstream People) two groups in the Little Pine’s reserve died 1901 nahe Fort Assiniboine, Montana)[45] • Kamdyistowesit (Kâ Mîthistowesit, Kanaweyihim- • Saswaypew (Sayswaypus, Seswepiu - ‘Cut Nose’, [39] itowin, ‘Beardy’, French: ‘Barbu’, Chief of the Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree, son of Parklands or Willow Cree, born 1828 near Duck Wimtchik, a Franco-Canadian Métis, married One Lake, became a leader in the 1870s, married Arrow’s sister Nawapukayus, his sisters Ayamis and [40] Yaskuttsu-s, the half-sister of Küpeyakwüskonam Minuskipuihat were both married to ‘One Arrow’, (‘One Arrow’), among the members of his tribal Kamdyistowesit (‘Beardy’) and he were brother-in- group were many Métis descendants of the Hudson’s law, because both were married to daughters of [41] Bay Company employee George Sutherland) George Sutherland)

• Küpeyakwüskonam (Kupeyakwuskonam, Kah- • Maskepetoon (Mâskipiton - ‘Broken Arm’, pah-yak-as-to-cum - One Arrow, French: ‘Une ‘Crooked Arm’, later called Peacemaker, Chief of Flèche’, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree, a group of Rocky /Mountain Cree or Asini Wachi born 1815 in the Saskatchewan River Valley, son Wi Iniwak, born about 1807 in the Saskatchewan of George Sutherland (‘Okayasiw’) and his second River region, because of his bravery he was called wife Paskus (‘Rising’), tried to prevent in 1876 by the hostile Blackfoot Mon-e-ba-guh-now or negotiations on the Treaty 6 at Fort Carlton along Mani-kap-ina (‘Young Man Chief’), turned later with Kamdyistowesit ('Beardy') and Saswaypew to the Methodist missionaries, what him and his ('Cut Nose'), but finally signed on August 28 the followers brought into conflict with the Catholic treaty, in August 1884 he attended a meeting free Rocky Cree under the leadership of Pesew, with Mistahimaskwa ('Big Bear') and Papewes moved to the reserve and was soon known as the (‘Papaway’ - 'Lucky Man'), his tribal group joined Peacemaker, was killed in 1869 in a Blackfoot first the Métis in 1885, died on 25 April 1886 in camp in Alberta by Big Swan, in an attempt to the prison)[42] make peace between the two peoples unarmed.[46]

• Pihew-kamihkosit (Pee-yahn-kah-nihk-oo-sit, bet- • Minahikosis (Little Pine, French: ‘Petit Pin’, ter known as Red Pheasant, Chief of the Plains Chief of the Plains Cree, born about 1830 in the River Cree, brother and counselor to Wuttunee (‘Por- vicinity of Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan, his mother was cupine’), signed on 23 August 1876 on behalf of his a Blackfeet, became famous in the 1860s, as armed brother Wuttunee the Treaty 6, he was then regarded Plains Cree to find the last remaining bison, pen- as a “Treaty Chief” by the Canadian government, etrated more and more into the territory of the moved with his tribal group 1878 onto the present , led three years bitter resis- Red Pheasant Reserve, about 33 km south of North tance, signed however, in view of his starving peo- Battleford, Saskatchewan)[47] ple in 1879 the Treaty 6, and moved into a reserve at the foot of Blue Hill along the Battle River, his rep- • Peayasis (Piyêsîs, better known as François Des- utation was comparable to that of Mistahimaskwa' [43] jarlais, Chief of the Beaver River Cree or Amisk ('Big Bear')) Sipi Wi Iniwak, a subgroup of the Woodland Cree (Sakāwithiniwak), born 1824 at the Beaver River, • Papewes (Papaway - ‘Lucky Man’, Chief son of Ladoucoeur dit Desjarlais and Josephte of the Plains River Cree (Sīpīwininiwak- Suzette Cardinal, signed on 8 August 1876 the paskwāwiyiniwak), born in the late 1830s near Treaty 6, participated in battle of Battle River) Fort Pitt, was in the 1870s a leader of Mis- tahimaskwa´s Plains River Cree, as the bison • Kahkewistahaw, Chief of the Rabbit Skin Cree disappeared, signed along with Little Pine on 2 (Wāpošwayānak) and Saulteaux, signed in 15 20 CHAPTER 2. THE CREE

September 1874 the Treaty 4, his tribal group was following years close to St. Laurent de Grandin mis- hunting in the area around Wood Mountain and the sion, played a prominent role during the Northwest Cypress Hills and went back to the Qu'Appelle Val- Rebellion of 1885 in which he participated in every ley once a year to get their payments and gifts until battle, served also as an emissary of the Métis leader a reserve was established in 1881)[48][49] Gabriel Dumont to ask the Assiniboine for support, on 23 May 1885 he also submitted the declaration of • Paskwüw (pâskwâw, Paskwa, Pisqua, usually surrender of Pitikwahanapiwiyin ('Poundmaker') to called Pasquah - ‘The Plain’; French: Les Prairies), General Middleton, was captured on 1 June 1885, in Chief of the Plains Cree, born 1828, son of Mahka- the subsequent trial of Kee-too-way-how at Regina, ysis, 1874 his tribal group were making their liv- Louis Cochin testified that he and the carters in the ing with bison hunting in the vicinity of today’s camp of Pitikwahanapiwiyin survived only thanks to Leech Lake, Saskatchewan, they had also created the intercession by Kee-way-too-how and its people, gardens and raised a small herd of cattle, in Septem- despite the positive testimony, he was on 14 August ber 1874 Pasqua took part in the negotiations on the 1885 sentenced to imprisonment for seven years for Treaty 4 in Qu'Appelle Valley, he asked the Cana- his involvement in the Métis rebellion, died 1886). dian government for the payment of £300,000 to the tribes, which the Hudson’s Bay Company had received for the sale of Rupert’s land to Canada, 2.1.9 Other notable people despite the refusal of Canada he finally signed the treaty and moved to a reserve five miles west of Fort Qu'Appelle, stayed out with his tribal group from the Northwest Rebellion of 1885, died in March 1889 he succumbed to the tuberculosis)[50]

• Petequakey (‘Comes to Us With the Sound of Wings’, better known as Isidore Cayen dit Boudreau, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree at Muskeg Lake, born in St. Boniface, Manitoba, as son of Pierre Narcisse Cayen dit Boudreau and Adelaide Catherine Arcand (‘Kaseweetin’), though he was a Métis he became chief of the Willow Cree and the Métis, who were living with the Cree, brother and counselor to Kee-too-way-how (a.k.a. Alexander Cayen dit Boudreau), after Kee-too-way-how had left the reserve on the Muskeg Lake to live around Batoche, became Petequakey chief (1880–1889) of the remaining Cree and Métis living in the reserve, he participated on 26 March 1885 along with the Métis leader Gabriel Dumont at the battle at Duck Lake, thereafter he led his tribal group to St. Lau- rent to participate in the defense of Batoche, one of the largest Métis settlements and the seat of the Saskatchewan’s provisional government during the rebellion)[51] Mähsette Kuiuab, chief of the Cree ca. 1840-1843, Karl Bodmer • Kee-too-way-how (‘Sounding With Flying Wings’, better known as Alexander Cayen dit Boudreau, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree at Muskeg • Janice Acoose, author, of Sakimay (Saulteaux) and Lake, born 1834 St. Boniface, Manitoba, son of Ninankawe Marival Métis ancestry Pierre Narcisse Cayen dit Boudreau and Adelaide • Catherine Arcand (‘Kaseweetin’), though he was Nathaniel Arcand, actor of Métis descent he became chief of the Wil- • Irene Bedard, actress low Cree and the Métis, who were living with the Cree, brother of Petequakey (‘Isidore Cayen dit • Mary Katherine Campbell, former Miss America Boudreau’), lived along Duck Lake, signed 1876 pageant titleholder Treaty 6 and settled in a reserve at Muskeg Lake - that was later named after his brother Petequakey • Harold Cardinal, writer, political leader, teacher, - but left the reserve in 1880 and lived again in the and lawyer 2.1. CREE 21

• Lorne Cardinal, actor 2.1.11 Notes

• Tantoo Cardinal, actor [1] “Culture Areas Index”. the Canadian Museum of Civiliza- • Jonathan Cheechoo, NHL and KHL hockey player tion. [2] “Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage”. Canadian Museum of • Connie Fife, poet Civilization Corporation. • Theoren Fleury, retired NHL hockey player, hu- [3] Alexander Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal Through manitarian, spokesperson, and author the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific • Edward Gamblin, musician Oceans in 1789 and 1793. • Michael Greyeyes, actor [4] community profile • Tomson Highway, playwright, librettist of the first [5] David Pentland, “Synonymy”, in Handbook of North Cree-language opera American Indians, vol. 6, June Helm, ed., Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1981, p. 227 • Tyson Houseman, actor [6] http://johncochrane.ca/drupal/node/84 • Cody Lightning, actor [7] http://www2.brandonu.ca/library/CJNS/20.2/ • Wilton Littlechild, lawyer, former Member of Par- cjnsv20no1_pg437-454.pdf liament [8] MacKenzie, Alexander. (1793) Journal of a Voyage from • Delia Opekokew, lawyer and activist to the Pacific Ocean in 1793. • Bronson Pelletier, actor [9] David Thompson noted, “The French Canadians...call them 'Krees’, a name which none of the Indians can • Romeo Saganash, Member of Parliament for pronounce...”, “Life with the Nahathaways”, in David Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou, Quebec Thompson: Travels in Western North America 1784-1812, Victor G. Hopwood, ed., Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, • Buffy Sainte-Marie, singer 1971, p. 109.

• Cree Summer, singer/actress [10] Adolph M. Greeberg, James Morrison, “Group Identities • in the Boreal Forest: The Origin of the Northern Ojibwa”, Roseanne Supernault, actress Ethnohistory 29(2):75-102 (1982) • Richard Throssel (1882–1933), photographer [11] David H. Pentland, “Synonymy”, in “West Main Cree”, in • Michelle Thrush, actor Handbook of North American Indians, v. 6, June Helm, ed., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 1981, p. • Gordon Tootoosis, actor 227. • Shania Twain, singer [12] Canada: 2006 Census • Alfred Young Man (b. 1948), educator, writer, cu- [13] Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988 (as rator, artist amended 1988, 1991-1992, 2003) • Shane Yellowbird, Country singer [14] “”, Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Note: The western group of languages includes • Ashley Callingbull-Burnham, 2015 Mrs. Universe Swampy Cree, Woods Cree and Plains Cree. The eastern winner, actress and first nations activist language is called Moose Cree. Retrieved 21 September 2008. 2.1.10 See also [15] “Cree”, Language Geek. Retrieved 21 September 2008. [16] C. Moseley (April 23, 2007), Encyclopedia of the World’s • Cree language Endangered Languages (Curzon Language Family Se- • Cree syllabics ries), Routledge, pp. 3–4, ISBN 978-0-7007-1197-0, 070071197X • Iynu [17] Source: Canadian Geographic • James Bay Cree hydroelectric conflict [18] “Citizenship: The Métis Nation”. Métis National Council. • Métis [19] http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/peter_chapman_first_ • nation.html • Oji-Cree [20] Holmes, E.M. 1884 Medicinal Plants Used by Cree Indi- ans, Hudson’s Bay Territory. The Pharmaceutical Journal • Okichitaw and Transactions 15:302-304 (p. 303) 22 CHAPTER 2. THE CREE

[21] Mistawasis First Nation 2.1.12 References

[22] AHTAHKAKOOP FIRST NATION • Grant, Bruce (2000). The Concise Encyclopedia of [23] not to confused with the Ahtahkakoop (‘Starblanket’), of the American Indian. New York: Wings Books. the House Cree (Wāskahikaniwiyiniwak) ISBN 0-517-69310-0.

[24] Ahchuchhwahauhhatohapit • Stevens, James R. (1971). Sacred Legends of the Sandy Lake Cree. McClelland and Stewart Ltd. [25] Nehiyawak Leadership

[26] by his knowledge of Sioux spirituality and medicine the Cree called him Payipwāt - 'One who knows the secrets 2.1.13 External links of the Sioux' • Cree cultural site [27] they had more than any other Cree group adapted to the life on the Plains, were known as horse thieves and war- • The East Cree language web riors, and as they drove little trade, they were feared by the Hudson’s Bay Company as troublemakers • The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas

[28] KIWISÜNCE • Grand Council of the Crees (GCC) website

[29] PAYIPWAT • The Plains Cree - Ethnographic, Historical and Comparative Study by David Mandelbaum [30] Cree Nation • Lac La Ronge Band website [31] not to be confused with the Ojibwe leader Mino-giizhig (“Fine Day”) • Little Red River Cree Nation website [32] Poundmaker was given his name because he had a special • Brief history of Cree from Canadian Geographic skill in the construction of Buffalo Pounds for slaying of grazing bison. • CBC Digital Archives - James Bay Project and the [33] Back to Batoche Cree

[34] Pitikwahanapiwiyin • Pimooteewin, a first Cree language opera

[35] Treaty 6 - The Signing • River Cree Nation Official Website [36] Peechee’s Band • The Gift of Language and Culture website

[37] clue to his Métis descent, as the ermine fur is white in • CBC Digital Archives – Eeyou Istchee: Land of the winter and brown in summer - as well as the skin of a Cree Métis • On the Path of the Elders [38] The People Who Own Themselves

[39] Beardy’s Okemasis First Nation

[40] was the daughter of George Sutherland’s first wife Pa- pamikiwis (‘Swinger’)

[41] Indians Who Fought in the 1885 Resistance

[42] One Arrow

[43] Little Pine First Nation

[44] Lucky Man Cree Nation

[45] PAPEWES

[46] Maskepetoon

[47] Red Pheasant First Nation

[48] Kahkewistahaw First Nation

[49] Kahkewistahaw band

[50] PASKWÜW

[51] Métis Who Withdrew From Treaty Chapter 3

The Chipewyan

3.1 Chipewyan including part of northern parts of the provinces of Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan. For the language, see Chipewyan language. The following list of First Nations band governments had The Chipewyan (Denésoliné or Dënesųłiné – “Peo- in March 2013 a total registered membership of 22,754, with 10,938 in Saskatchewan, 6,371 in Alberta, 2,871 in Manitoba and 2,574 in the Northwest Territories. All had Denesuline populations; however, several had a combi- nation of Cree and Denesuline members (see the Barren Lands First Nation in Manitoba and the Fort McMurray First Nation in Alberta). There are also many Dene (Denesuline)-speaking Métis communities located throughout the region. The Saskatchewan village of , for example, had 2300 residents who in the 2011 census identified as speak- ing Dene (Denesuline) as their native language.[8] About 1800 of the residents were Métis and about 600 were members of the Clearwater River Dene Nation.[9]

3.1.2 Governance

The Denesuline people are part of many band govern- ments spanning Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Distribution of Na-Dene languages at pre-contact shown in red the Northwest Territories.

ple of the barrens”)[3] are an aboriginal Dene people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group, whose Alberta ancestors were the peoples who left the archaeological traces of the Taltheilei Shale Tradition.[4][5][6] They are part of the Northern Athabascan group of peoples. They • were located generally in Western Canada. Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation. Reserves: Fort Chipewyan (K'aı́tëlı́ ) Chipewyan #201, 201A, The French-speaking missionaries to the northwest of the 201B, 201C, 201D, 201E, 201F, 201G, ca. 348 Red River Colony referred to the Chipewyan people as km², Population: 1,082[10] Montagnais in their documents written in French.[7] Mon- tagnais (in French) therefore has often been mistakenly • Fort McKay First Nation. Reserves: Fort McKay translated to Montagnais (in English), which refers to the #174, 174C, 174D, Namur Lake #174B, 174A, ca. Innu of northern Quebec, and not the Dene (Chipewyan 149 km². Population: 778[11] people). • Chipewyan Prairie First Nation (Tł'ógh tëlı́ dë- nesųłı̨ne) Reserves: Cowper Lake #194A, Janvier #194, Winefred Lake (Ɂuldáze1 tué) #194B, ca. 31 3.1.1 Demographics km². Population: 822[12][13] Chipewyan peoples live in the region spanning the west- • Fort McMurray First Nation (Tthı̨dłı̨ kuę́ ). Re- ern Canadian Shield to the Northwest Territories and serves: Fort McMurray #468, Clearwater #175,

23 24 CHAPTER 3. THE CHIPEWYAN

Gregoire Lake #176, 176A, 176B, ca. 31 km². Pop- • Dene First Nation (Reserves: Dettah ulation: 688[14] Settlement, N'Dilo Settlement, Set- tlemnt Population (2006) 245[26] Tribal Chiefs Association (TCA)[15] Saskatchewan • (Łué chógh tué). Reserves: Blue Quills First Nation, Cold Lake #149, 149A, Meadow Lake Tribal Council (Tł'ogh tué)[27] 149B, 149C, ca. 209 km². Population: 2,669[16][17] • Buffalo River Dene Nation (Ɂëjëre dësché) located at Akaitcho Territory Government (ATG) (Ɂákéchógh nęnę) Dillon. The reserve is about 84 km north east of Île- à-la-Crosse (Kuę́ ). Reserve: Buffalo River Dene Nation No. 193, ca. 83 km². Population: 1,309[28] • Smith’s Landing First Nation. 'Thebati Dene Suhne' • Clearwater River Dene Nation (Tı̨tëlase tué) Its most Tthëbátthı́ dënesųłı̨ne, Thebacha Tthëbáchághë - populous reserve Clearwater River borders the vil- 'beside the rapids’, the Dene name for Fort Smith. lage of La Loche to the north. Reserves: Clearwater Reserves and communities: ?ejere K'elni Kue River Dene Nos. 222, 221, and 223, La Loche In- #196I, Hokedhe Túe #196E, K'i Túe #196D, Li dian Settlement ca. 95 km². Population: 1,844[29] Dezé #196C, Thabacha Náre #196A, Thebathi #196, Tsu K'adhe Túe #196F, Tsu Nedehe Túe • English River First Nation with offices at #196H, Tsu Túe Ts’u tué #196G, Tthe Jere Ghaili signed Treaty 10 in 1906 under Chief William #196B, ca. 100 km². Population: 332[18] Apesis. The name originates from the English River where the “poplar house people” (Kés-ye- hot'ı̨në) inhabited the area for periods during the Manitoba year. Most families, who now reside in Patuanak (Bëghą́nı̨ch'ërë) and La Plonge 192 by Beauval had Keewatin Tribal Council[19] traditionally lived down river at Primeau Lake, Knee Lake and Dipper Lake. Reserves: Cree Lake No. • Barren Lands (Brochet Kuę́) First Nation has a Cree 192G, Porter Island No. 192H, Elak Dase No. and Dene population. Reserve: Brochet #197, ca. 192A, Knee Lake No. 192B, Dipper Rapids No. [20] 43 km². Population: 1,076 192C, Wapachewunak No. 192D, LaPlonge No. [30] • Northlands First Nation also known as Northlands 192, ca. 200 km². Population: 1,475 Denesuline First Nation. Reserves and communities: • Birch Narrows First Nation (K'ı́ t'ádhı̨ká ) located at Lac Brochet (Dálú tué), Lac Brochet #197A, Sheth , most populous Reserve No. 193B is chok, Thuycholeeni, Thuycholeeni azé, Tthekalé nu, about 124 km northeast of Île-à-la-Crosse, the re- [21] ca. 22 km². Population: 1,024 serve originated from Treaty 6 in 1906, Reserves: • First Nation formerly known as 'Duck No. 193A, Turnor Lake Nos. 193B [31] Lake Dene'. Reserve: Churchill 1, ca. 2 km². Pop- and 194, ca. 30 km². Population: 719 ulation: 771[22] Prince Albert Grand Council (PAGC)[32]

Northwest Territories • Black Lake Dene Nation (Tázën tué) located at Black Lake, most populous reserve Chicken No. Akaitcho Territory Government (ATG) 224 about ca. 170 km southeast of (Tsókı̨në), formerly known as ' • Deninu Kue First Nation ('Deneh-noo-kweh' - 'Peo- (Dëschághë) Band. Reserves: Chicken Nos. 224, ple of moose Island'), formerly known as 'Fort Res- 225, and 226, ca. 322 km². Population: 2,039[33] olution Dene'. Reserve: Settlement • Population (2006): 485[23] Hatchet Lake Dene Nation (Tthëłtué) also known as “Lac la Hache Denesuline First Nation” is located • Lutsel K'e Dene First Nation (Lutselk'e 'Loot-sel- at , ca 354 km north of Flin Flon, kk ay' - 'place of the Łutsel-fish'), formerly known Reserve: Lac la Hache No. 220, ca. 110 km². Pop- as 'Snowdrift Band'. Reserve: Snowdrift Settlement. ulation: 1,685[34] Population (2006): 320[24] • Fond du Lac Dene Nation (Gąnı́ kuę́ ) is located at • Salt River First Nation#195 (Reserves: Fort Smith Fond-du-Lac. The most populous reserve Fond Du Settlement, Salt Plains #195, Salt River #195, Lac No. 227 is east of . Reserves: Fitzgerald #196 (Alberta), ca. 230 km². Population Fond Du Lac Nos. 227, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, (2006): 2,315[25] ca. 368 km². Population: 1,867[35] 3.1. CHIPEWYAN 25

3.1.3 Historical Chipewyan regional groups

Patuanak

Fond-du-Lac

Stony Rapids

Black Lake

Wollaston Lake

La Loche

Turnor Lake

Dillon

Patuanak

Lac Brochet

Tadoule Lake

Cold Lake

Janvier

Fort Smith

Fort Chipewyan

La Plonge

Villages in Canada with a Denesuline speaking popula- 15 communities in Canada with Denesuline popula- tion tions. Flashing dots are villages with over 1,000 speakers. 26 CHAPTER 3. THE CHIPEWYAN

• Des-nèdhè-kkè-nadè (Dësnëdhé k'e náradé dëne) The Chipewyan moved in small groups or bands, con- (Desnedekenade, Desnedhé hoı̨́é nadé hot'įnę́ - 'peo- sisting of several extended families, alternating between ple along the great river') were also known as winter and summer camps, hunting, trapping, fishing and Athabasca Chipewyan. They lived between Great gathering in the boreal forest and around the many lakes and Lake Athabasca along the Slave of their territory. Later with the emerging North Amer- River near Fort Resolution (Deninoo Kue -'moose ican fur trade they organized into several major regional Island'). groups in the vicinity of the European trading posts to • Thilanottine (Tthı́lą́ne hót'ı̨ne) (Tu tthílá hot'įnę́ - control, as middleman, the carrying trade in furs and the 'those who dwell at the head of the lakes’ or 'peo- hunting of fur-bearing animals. The new social group- ple of the end of the head') lived along the lakes of ings also enabled the Chipewyan to dominate their Dene the Upper Churchill River area, along the Churchill neighbors and to better defend themselves against their River and Athabasca River, from rifle-armed Cree enemies, who were advancing to the and Lake Athabasca in the north to Cold Lake and Peace River and Lake Athabasca. Lac la Biche in the southwest.[37]

• Kaí-theli-ke-hot!ínne (K'aı́ tëlı́ hót'ı̨ne) ('willow flat- • Tandzán-hot!ínne (Tálzą́hót'ı̨ne) ('dwellers at the country up they-dwell') lived on the western shore dirty lake', also known as Dení-nu-eke-tówe - 'moose of Lake Athabasca at Fort Chipewyan. Their tribal island up lake-on') lived on the northern shore of area extended northward to Fort Smith on the Slave Great Slave Lake and along the Yellowknife River, River and south to Fort McMurray on the Athabasca and before their expulsion by the Tłı̨chǫ along River)[36] Coppermine River. They were often regarded as a Chipewyan group, but form as "Yellowknives" • Kés-ye-hot!ínne (K'ësyëhót'ı̨ne) ('aspen house they- historically an independent First Nation and called dwell' or 'poplar house they-dwell') lived on the up- themselves T'atsaot'ine (T'átsąnót'ı̨ne). per reaches of the Churchill River, along the Lac Île-à-la-Crosse, , Cold Lake, Heart Lake and Onion Lake. The tribal name is probably 3.1.4 Ethnography a description of adjacent Chipewyan groups for this major regional group and takes literally reference to Historically, the Denesuline were allied to some degree the Lac Ile à la Crosse established European trading with the southerly Cree, and warred against Inuit and forts which were built with Poplar or Aspen wood. other Dene peoples to the north of Chipewyan lands. • Hoteladi Hótthę̈nádé dëne ('northern people') lived An important historic Denesuline is Thanadelthur north of the Kés-ye-hot!ínne between Cree Lake, (“Marten Jumping”), a young woman who early in the west of Lake on the south and on the east 18th century helped her people to establish peace with shore of Lake Athabasca in the north. the Cree, and to get involved with the fur trade (Steckley • Hâthél-hot!inne (Hátthëlót'ı̨ne) ('lowland they- 1999). dwell') lived in the Reindeer Lake (ɂëtthën tué) Region which drains south into the Churchill River. • was a grandson of a Chipewyan • Etthen eldili dene (Etthén heldélį Dené, Ethen-eldeli -'Caribou-Eaters’) lived in the Taiga east of Lake The Sayisi Dene of northern Manitoba is a Chipewyan Athabasca far east to Hudson Bay, at Reindeer Lake, band notable for hunting migratory caribou. They were Hatchet Lake, Wollaston Lake and Lac Brochet historically located at Little Duck Lake, and known as the “Duck Lake Dene”. In 1956, government relocated them • Kkrest'ayle kke ottine ('dwellers among the quaking to the port of Churchill on the shore of Hudson Bay and a aspens’ or 'trembling aspen people') lived in the bo- small village north of Churchill called North Knife River, real forests between Great Slave Lake in the south joining other Chipewyan Dene, and becoming members and in the north. of “Fort Churchill Dene Chipewyan Band”. In the 1970s, • Sayisi Dene (Saı́ yısı́ dëne) (or Saw-eessaw-dinneh the “Duck Lake Dene” opted for self-reliance, a return to - 'people of the east') traded at Fort Chipewyan. caribou hunting, and relocated to Tadoule Lake, Man- itoba, legally becoming “Sayisi Dene First Nation (Ta- Their hunting and tribal areas extended between [38] Lake Athabasca and Great Slave Lake, and along the doule Lake, Manitoba)" in the 1990s. Churchill River. • Gáne-kúnan-hot!ínne (Gąnı̨ kuę hót'ı̨ne) ('jack-pine 3.1.5 Language home they-dwell') lived in the taiga east of Lake Athabasca and were particularly centered along the Main article: Chipewyan language eastern Fond-du-Lac area. 3.1. CHIPEWYAN 27

Denesuline (Chipewyan) speak the Denesuline language, [7] Petitot, Émile Fortuné Stanislas Joseph (1876). of the Athabaskan linguistic group. Denesuline is spoken Dictionnaire de la langue Dènè-Dindjié, dialectes mon- by Aboriginal people in Canada whose name for them- tagnais ou chippewayan, peaux de lièvre et loucheux, selves is a cognate of the word dene (“people”): Dené- renfermant en outre un grand nombre de termes propres soliné (or Dënesųłiné). Speakers of the language speak à sept autres dialectes de la même langue; précédé d'une different dialects but understand each other. There is a monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, d'une grammaire et de tableaux synoptiques des conjugaisons (see preface). 'k', t dialect that most people speak. For example, people Paris: E. Leroux. Retrieved 2014-12-05. in Fond du lac, Gąnı kuę́ speak the 'k' and say yaki ku while others who use the 't' say yati tu. [8] “Community Profiles (Canada Census 2011)". Retrieved 2013-06-29. The name Chipewyan is, like many people of the Cana- dian prairies, of Algonquian origin. It is derived from the [9] “2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (La Loche)". Re- Plains Cree name for them, Cīpwayān (), “pointed trieved 2014-05-11. skin”, from cīpwāw (), “to be pointed"; and wayān (), “skin” or “hide” - a reference to the cut and style [10] “AANDC (Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation)". Re- trieved 2013-03-26. of Chipewyan parkas.[39] Most Chipewyan people now use Dene and Denesu- [11] “AANDC (Fort McKay First Nation)". Retrieved 2013- line to describe themselves and their language. The 03-26. [40] Saskatchewan communities of Fond-du-Lac, Black [12] “AANDC (Chipewyan Prairie First Nation)". Retrieved Lake[41] and Wollaston Lake[42] are a few. 2013-03-26.

Despite the superficial similarity of the names, the [13] Chipewyan Prairie Dene First Nation Chipewyan are not related to the Chippewa (Ojibwa) peo- ple. [14] “AANDC (Fort McMurray #468 First Nation)". Re- trieved 2013-03-26. In 2015, Shene Catholique-Valpy, a Chipewyan woman in the Northwest Territories, challenged the territorial [15] Tribal Chiefs Association (TCA) government over its refusal to permit her to use the ʔ char- [16] “AANDC (Cold Lake First Nations)". Retrieved 2013- acter in her daughter’s name, Sahaiʔa. The territory ar- 03-26. gued that territorial and federal identity documents were unable to accommodate the character. Sahaiʔa’s mother [17] Cold Lake First Nations (Denesuline) finally registered her name with a hyphen in place of the ʔ, while continuing to challenge the policy. Shortly af- [18] “AANDC (Smith’s Landing First Nation)". Retrieved 2013-03-26. terward, another woman named Andrea Heron also chal- lenged the territory on the same grounds, for refusing [19] Keewatin Tribal Council to accept the ʔ character in her daughter’s name, Sakaeʔah (actually a cognate of Sahaiʔa).[43] [20] “AANDC (Barren Lands)". Retrieved 2013-03-26. [21] “AANDC (Northlands)". Retrieved 2013-03-26.

3.1.6 Notable Chipewyan [22] “AANDC (Sayisi Dene First Nation)". Retrieved 2013- 03-26. • Matonabbee (Matąnebı́) [23] “AANDC (Deninu Kue First Nation)". Retrieved 2013- • Thanadelthur (Thánadëltth'ér) 03-26.

[24] “AANDC (Lutsel K'e Dene First Nation)". Retrieved 3.1.7 References 2013-03-26. [25] “AANDC (Salt River First Nation #195)". Retrieved [1] Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral 2013-03-26. Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship Ottawa, [26] “AANDC (Yellowknives Dene First Nation )". Retrieved 2007, pp. 2, 6, 10. 2014-02-20.

[2] http://www.chipewyan.com/about-us [27] Meadow Lake Tribal Council (MLTC) [3] ATHABASCA DENESULINÉ INQUIRY [28] “AANDC (Buffalo River Dene Nation)". Retrieved 2013- [4] “Taltheilei Culture”. Retrieved 2013-03-26. 03-26.

[5] “Archeological Traditions”. canoesaskatchewan. Re- [29] “AANDC (Clearwater River Dene)". Retrieved 2013-03- trieved 2007-10-12. 26.

[6] “Denesuline (Dene)". Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. [30] “AANDC (English River First Nation)". Retrieved 2013- Retrieved 2008-10-27. 03-26. 28 CHAPTER 3. THE CHIPEWYAN

[31] “AANDC (Birch Narrows First Nation)". Retrieved • Cook, Eung-Do. 2006. The Patterns of Consonantal 2013-03-26. Acquisition and Change in Chipewyan (Dene Suline). International Journal of American Linguistics. 72, [32] Prince Albert Grand Council (PAGC) no. 2: 236. [33] “AANDC (Black Lake)". Retrieved 2013-03-26. • Dramer, Kim, and Frank W. Porter. The [34] “AANDC (Hatchet Lake)". Retrieved 2013-03-26. Chipewyan. New York: Chelsea House, 1996. ISBN 1-55546-139-5 [35] “AANDC (Fond du Lac)". Retrieved 2013-03-26. • Elford, Leon W., and Marjorie Elford. English- [36] The Chipewyan Chipewyan Dictionary. Prince Albert, Sask: North- [37] Dene ern Canada Evangelical Mission, 1981.

[38] “The Sayisi Dene (Manitoba)". Indian and Northern Af- • Goddard, Pliny Earle. Texts and Analysis of Cold fairs Canada. Archived from the original on May 2, 2006. Lake Dialect, Chipewyan. Anthropological papers Retrieved 2007-10-12. of the American Museum of Natural History, v. 10, pt. 1-2. New York: Published by order of the [39] Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford Trustees [of the American Museum of Natural His- University Press, pg. 395 tory], 1912.

[40] “Prince Albert Grand Council (Fond-du-Lac)". Retrieved • Grant, J. C. Boileau. Anthropometry of the 2013-05-26. Chipewyan and Cree Indians of the Neighbourhood of Lake Athabaska. Ottawa: F.A. Acland, printer, [41] “Prince Albert Grand Council (Black Lake)". Retrieved 1930. 2013-05-26. • Human Relations Area Files, inc. Chipewyan ND07. [42] “Prince Albert Grand Council (Wollaston Lake)". Re- EHRAF collection of ethnography. New Haven, trieved 2013-05-26. Conn: Human Relations Area Files, 2001. [43] Browne, Rachel (12 March 2015). “What’s in a name? • A Chipewyan’s battle over her native tongue”. Maclean’s. Irimoto, Takashi. Chipewyan Ecology: Group Struc- Retrieved 5 April 2015. ture and Caribou Hunting System. Senri ethnological studies, no. 8. Suita, Osaka, Japan: National Mu- seum of Ethnology, 1981. 3.1.8 Further reading • Li, Fang-kuei, and Ronald Scollon. Chipewyan • Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation. Footprints Texts. Nankang, Taipei: Institute of History and on the Land: Tracing the Path of the Athabasca Philology, Academia Sinica, 1976. Chipewyan First Nation. Fort Chipewyan, Alta: • Lowie, Robert Harry. Chipewyan Tales. New York: Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation, 2003. ISBN 0- The Trustees, 1912. 9733293-0-0 • Paul, Simon. Introductory Chipewyan: Basic Vocab- • Birket-Smith, Kaj. Contributions to Chipewyan Eth- ulary. : Indian and Northern Education, nology. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1930. University of Saskatchewan, 1972. • Bone, Robert M., Earl N. Shannon, and Stewart • Scollon, Ronald, and Suzanne B. K. Scollon. Lin- Raby. The Chipewyan of the Stony Rapids Region; A guistic Convergence: An Ethnography of Speaking Study of Their Changing World with Special Atten- at Fort Chipewyan, Alberta. New York: Academic tion Focused Upon Caribou. Mawdsley memoir, 1. Press, 1979. ISBN 0-12-633380-7 Saskatoon: Institute for Northern Studies, Univer- sity of Saskatchewan, 1973. ISBN 0-88880-003-7 • Shapiro, Harry L. The Alaskan Eskimo; A Study of the Relationship between the Eskimo and the • Bussidor, Ila, Usten Bilgen-Reinart. “Night Spir- Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada. New York: its: The Story of the Relocation of the Sayisi American Museum of Natural History, 1931. Dene.” University of Manitoba Press, March 16, 2000. (Memoir of a Dene Woman’s experiences in • Sharp, Henry S. Chipewyan Marriage. Mercury se- Churchill, Manitoba.) ries. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1979. • Clayton-Gouthro, Cecile M. Patterns in Transi- • Sharp, Henry S. The Transformation of Bigfoot: tion: Moccasin Production and Ornamentation of the Maleness, Power, and Belief Among the Chipewyan. Janvier Band Chipewyan. Mercury series. Hull, Smithsonian series in ethnographic inquiry. Wash- Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994. ington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988. ISBN 0-660-14023-3 ISBN 0-87474-848-8 3.1. CHIPEWYAN 29

• VanStone, James W. The Changing Culture of the Snowdrift Chipewyan. Ottawa: [Queen’s Printer], 1965.

• Wilhelm, Andrea. Telicity and Durativity: A Study of Aspect in Dëne Sųłiné (Chipewyan) and German. New York: Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-97645-6

3.1.9 External links

• Official website

• Official website Chapter 4

The Assiniboine

4.1 Assiniboine dropped hot stones into water to heat it to boiling for cooking meat. Some writers saw this as the association of For other uses, see Assiniboine (disambiguation). the Ojibway term “Assin”, stone, and the French “bouil- lir”, to boil, but such an etymology is very unlikely [2]

The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people (/əˈsɪnɨbɔɪn/ when singular, /əˈsɪnɨbɔɪnz/ when plural; Ojibwe: Asi- 4.1.2 Language naan, “stone Sioux"; also in plural Assiniboine or Assiniboin), also known as the Hohe and known by the Assiniboine is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, in endonym (or Nakoda or Nakona), are a Sioux the Western Siouan language family. About 150 peo- First Nations/Native American people originally from the ple today speak the Assiniboine language[1] or A' M̆ o- Northern Great Plains of North America. Today, they qazh, most are over 40 years old. The majority of the are centered in present-day Saskatchewan, but they have Assiniboine today speaks only . The also populated parts of Alberta, southwestern Manitoba, 2000 census showed 3,946 tribal members who lived in northern Montana and western North Dakota. They were the United States. well known throughout much of the late 18th and early are closely linked by language to the Stoney 19th century. Images of Assiniboine people were painted First Nations people of Alberta. The latter two tribes by such 19th-century artists as Karl Bodmer and George speak varieties of Nakota, a distant, but not mutually in- Catlin. telligible, variant of the .[3]

4.1.1 Names 4.1.3 Related peoples

The Europeans and Americans adopted names that other The Assiniboine have many similarities to the Lakota tribes used for the Assiniboine; only later learning the Sioux in culture and language. They are considered to self-appellation of this tribe, or autonym. In Siouan, they have separated from the central sub-group of the Sioux traditionally called themselves the Hohe Nakota. With nation. Scholars believe that the Assiniboine broke away the widespread adoption of English, however, many now from Yanktonai Dakota[4] in the 16th century. use the English name. The English borrowed Assini- The Assiniboine were close allies and trading partners of boine from earlier French colonists, who had adapted it the Cree, engaging in wars together against the Atsina from what they heard from the Ojibwe. They called the (Gros Ventre). Together they later fought the Blackfoot. people in Ojibwe asinii-bwaan (stone Sioux). The Cree A Great Plains people, they generally went no further called them asinîpwâta (asinîpwâta NA sg, as- north than the North Saskatchewan River. They pur- inîpwâtak NA pl). In the same way, Assnip- chased a great deal of European trade goods from the wan comes from the word asinîpwâta in the western Cree Hudson’s Bay Company through Cree middlemen. dialects, from asiniy NA – “rock, stone” – and pwâta NA – “enemy, Sioux”. Early French traders in the west were often familiar with Algonquian languages. 4.1.4 History They transliterated many Cree or Ojibwe exonyms for other western Canadian indigenous peoples during the Early History early colonial era. The English referred to the Assini- boine by adopting terms from the French spelled using The Assiniboine were originally part of the Great Sioux English phonetics. Nation which was made up of Eastern Dakota or San- Other tribes associated “stone” with the Assiniboine be- tee, Western Dakota or Yanktonai, and the Lakota or cause they primarily cooked with heated stones. They Teton Sioux. The Sioux were pushed gradually west-

30 4.1. ASSINIBOINE 31

plains nations such as the Crow and Sioux living further south who obtained horses earlier. The Assiniboine even- tually developed into a large and powerful people with a horse and warrior culture centered around the vast num- bers of bison that lived within and outside their terri- tory. Assiniboine territory at the height of their power stretched from the North Saskatchewan River in the north to the Missouri River in the south and included portions of modern day Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba, North Dakota, and Montana.

Contact with Europeans & Fur Trade

See also: North American fur trade

The first person of European descent to describe the Assiniboine was an employee of the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany named Henry Kelsey in the 1690s. Later explorers and traders Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye and his sons (1730s), Anthony Henday (1754–55), and Alexander Henry the younger (1800s) confirmed that the Assini- boine held a vast territory across the northern plains in- cluding into the United States. The Assiniboine became reliable and important trading partners and middlemen for fur traders and other Indians, particularly the Hud- son’s Bay Company and North West Company operat- ing in western Canada in a vast area known then as Rupert’s Land. During the 1780s south of the border in mostly Montana and the Dakota territories the Assini- Assiniboine man, Montana, ca. 1890–1891 boine traded with the American Fur Company and the competing Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The Assini- boine obtained guns, ammunition, metal tomahawks, metal pots, wool blankets, wool coats, wool leggings, and glass beads as well as other goods from the fur traders in exchange for furs. Beaver furs and bison hides were the most commonly traded furs. Increased contact with Eu- ropeans caused widespread epidemics of European infec- tious diseases most notably smallpox among the Assini- boine. The Assiniboine population crashed from around 10,000 people in the late 18th century to only around 2600 by 1890.[5] Painters traveling with traders, explor- ers, and expeditions that encountered and painted the Assiniboine from life include Karl Bodmer, Paul Kane, and George Catlin.

Assiniboine man (left) with Yankton Dakota man (right) The Iron Confederacy ward onto the plains from the woodlands of Minnesota by Main article: Iron Confederacy the Ojibwe people who acquired guns earlier from their French allies. Specifically the Assiniboine were part of The Assiniboine were a major part of an alliance of north- the Yanktonai Sioux but split off around 1640 and headed ern plains Indian nations known as the Iron Confeder- north where they developed into a powerful and distinct acy or Nehiyaw-Pwat as it is known in Plains Cree. The people. Before horses were introduced to the Assini- Iron Confederacy revolved around the fur trade particu- boine they used domestic dogs as a pack animal to carry larly with the Hudson’s Bay Company and included the their belongings and pull their travois. The Assiniboine Assiniboine as well as the Plains Cree, Saulteaux, Plains acquired horses by raiding and trading with neighboring Ojibwe, Métis, and individual Iroquois people who trav- 32 CHAPTER 4. THE ASSINIBOINE

eled west as employees for the fur traders. Other Indian peoples on the northern plains such as the Gros Ventre were occasionally part of the confederacy. The confed- eracy became the dominate force on the northern plains and was a major threat to Indian nations and settlers not associated with it including the Shoshone and Crow fur- ther south. The eventual decline of the fur trade and the deliberate eradication of the bison herds by Canadian and American hunters led to the defeat and breaking of the confederacy which saw military action with Canada dur- ing the North-West Rebellion.[6]

4.1.5 Lifestyle

Assiniboine Family, Montana, 1890–1891

Assiniboine Hunting Buffalo, 1851

Traditionally Assiniboine people were semi-nomadic. During the warmer months, they followed the herds of bison for hunting—preserving the meat for winter. They hunted on horseback using bow and arrows. The tribe is known for its excellent horsemanship. They first obtained horses by trading with the Blackfeet and the Gros Ventre tribes. They did a considerable amount of trading with European traders in the fur trade. They worked with the Mandan, , and Arikara tribes. The Lewis and Clark Expedition journals mention Assiniboines, as the party was returning from Fort Clat- sop down the Missouri River; however, the explorers did not encounter or come in direct contact with the tribe.

4.1.6 Subgroups and Bands

• Aegitina (‘Camp Moves to the Kill’)

• Bizebina, Bízebina (‘Gophers’ or 'Gopher [7] People') Pigeon’s Egg Head, painted by George Catlin • Cepahubi (‘Large Organs’) as Battleford Stoneys part of the Mosquito, Grizzly • Canhdada, Cąȟtáda (‘Moldy People’, lived around Bear’s Head, Lean Man First Nations) Battleford (Ogíciza Wakpá) and North Battleford - known as “The ” - as neighbors of • Canhewincasta, Cą́ȟe wįcášta, Chan He Win- the Waziyamwincasta Band; political once part of chasta (‘Wooded-Mountain People’ or ‘Wood the Upstream People of Plains Cree - today known Mountain People’ – ‘People Who live around Wood 4.1. ASSINIBOINE 33

Mountain’, lived in around today’s Wood Mountain • Huhuganebabi (‘Bone Chippers’) and in the adjoining Big Muddy Badlands to the southeast in southern Saskatchewan and northern • Indogahwincasta (‘East People’) Montana; close allies to the Insaombi (Cypress Hills • Assiniboine) band in which territory they had their Inninaonbi, Ini'na u'mbi (‘Quiet People’) winter camps, the bands of chief Manitupotis (also • Insaombi, įšná ųbísʾa, Icna'umbisa (‘The Ones known as Wankanto - Little Soldier) and Hunkajuka Who Stay Alone’, lived in Cypress Hills and adjoin- (Hum-ja-jin-sin, Inihan Kinyen - Little Chief)- ing Plains in southern Saskatchewan, Canada, there- together about 300 people with ca. 50 warriors - fore also known as Cypress Hills Assiniboine, became on June 1, 1873 victims of the Cypress close allies of the Canhewincasta band, which often Hills Massacre where between 25 to 30 Assiniboine wintered in the Cypress Hills - today part of Carry were killed by American Wolfers to take revenge the Kettle Nakoda First Nation)[8] for horse stealing Cree in Montana; this massacre led to the development of the North-West Mounted • Inyantonwanbina, Iyethkabi, Îyârhe Nakodabi, Police (NWMP), which would later become the auch Mountain Village Band (‘Stone / Rock Peo- famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP); ple’, ‘Mountain People’, to the end of the 18th cen- once political part of the Downstream People of tury they had retreated deep into the Rocky Moun- Plains Cree and close allies partly oft the Cree- tains (In-yan-he-Tonga, ı̨́yąȟetąga – ′great moun- Assiniboine / Young Dogs - today part of the Carry tains′) and developed a separate identity as Nakoda the Kettle Nakoda First Nation) (Stoney) (ı̨́yąȟe wįcášta); today one Assiniboine / • Canknuhabi (‘Ones That Carry Their Wood’), Nakoda band of the Fort Peck Assiniboine & Sioux Cątų́ wąbi (‘Forest Villagers, Wood Villagers’) Tribes)

• Hudesabina, Húdešana, Hudesanak (‘Red Bot- • Minisose Swnkeebi, Miníšoše Sunkcebi (‘Mis- tom’ or ‘Red Root’, split off from the Wadopabina souri River Dog Band’, lived between the Milk River Band in 1844, lived between the Porcupine Creek and the Poplar River toward the Missouri River and Milk River (Asą́bi wakpá, Wakpá jukʾána) area (Miníšoše) in the border region of Montana, Alberta in northern Montana and southern Alberta, Canada; and Saskatchewan; today one Assiniboine / Nakoda today one Assiniboine / Nakoda band of the Fort band of the Fort Peck Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes) Peck Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes) • Minisatonwanbi, Miníšatonwanbi (‘Red Water • Hebina, Ye Xa Yabine (‘Rock Mountain People’, People’, lived along the Red River of the North in the often called Strong Wood Assiniboine or Thick- vicinity of today’s toward the south banks wood Assiniboine, separated from the main body of Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba in southern of the Assiniboine in the mid of the 18th century Manitoba) and moved further west and northwest deep into • the forests and Rocky Mountains (In-yan-he-Tonga, Osnibi, Osníbina (‘People of the Cold’, one band ı̨́yąȟetąga – ′great mountains′) to escape smallpox, of Woodland Assiniboine from the North, were the because they stayed aloof from the outside they weather is cold) developed a separate identity as Mountain Stoney- • Ptegabina, Psamnéwi, PwSymAWock (‘Swamp Nakoda; once political part of the Rocky / Moun- People’) tain Cree of Plains Cree - today part of the Stoney Nakoda First Nation (Wesley First Nation, Chiniki • Sahiyaiyeskabi, šahíya iyéskabina (‘Plains Cree- First Nation, ), some also re- Speakers’, also known as Cree-Assiniboine / side together with other Assiniboine / Nakoda bands Young Dogs, build up from a number of mighty in Fort Belknap Indian Community, some are part of and bellicose bands of Plains Cree and Assiniboines the - from Canada not as recog- and later on an ever growing number of joining nized - Aseniwuche Winewak Nation) Plains Ojibwe (Salteaux), which had in common that • Hen atonwaabina (‘Little Rock Mountain People’, they lived and travelled in ethnical mixed bands and lived in the Little Rocky Mountains (or Little Rock- camps and had switched to Plains Cree instead of ies, ı̨́yąȟe widána, ı̨́yąȟewida; today: ı̨́yąȟejusina) their former mother tongue; once political as Cree- and the adjoining Plains in the Northeast of Mon- Assiniboine / Young Dogs part of the Downstream tana; once political part of the Downstream Peo- People of Plains Cree - today part of Little Black ple of Plains Cree and close allies of the Cree- Bear First Nation, Piapot First Nation in Canada and Assiniboine / Young Dogs - today part of the Fort of the Landless Cree of the Fort Peck Assiniboine & Belknap Indian Community) Sioux Tribes and Landless Cree and Rocky Boy Cree of the Fort Belknap Indian Community - they identify • Huhumasmibi, Huhumasmlbi (‘Bone Cleaners’) today as Cree) 34 CHAPTER 4. THE ASSINIBOINE

• Sihabi, Sihábi (‘Foot People’, also known as Foot • Wiciyabina, Wichiyabina (‘Ones That Go to the Assiniboine, developed a separate identity as Wood Dance’, therefore often called for short Wįcı̨́jana - Stoney-Nakoda - some as Mountain Stoney-Nakoda; Girl Band; political once part of the Calling River / as Wood Stoney-Nakoda once political part of the Qu'Appelle Cree of the Downstream People of Plains Beaver Hills Cree of the Upstream People of Plains Cree - today one Assiniboine / Nakoda band of the Cree - today Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation and Paul Fort Peck Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes) First Nation, as Mountain Stoney-Nakoda they were • Wokpanbi, Wókpąnbi (‘Meat Bag’)[9] part of the Rocky / Mountain Cree of Plains Cree - today’s Wesley First Nation der Stoney Nakoda First Nation) 4.1.7 Present day • Snugabi (‘Contrary People’) Today, a substantial number of Assiniboine people live • Sunkcebi, šųkcébina (‘Dog Band’, ‘Dog Penis jointly with other tribes, like the Plains Cree, Saulteaux, Band’; once political part of the Calling River / Sioux and Gros Ventre, in several reservations in Canada Qu'Appelle Cree of Plains Cree - today part of White and the United States. In Manitoba, the Assiniboine cur- Bear First Nation, some part of Carry the Kettle rently survive only as individuals, with no separate re- Nakoda First Nation) serves. • Tanidabi, Tanı̨́debina, Tanin'tabin (‘Buffalo Hip’) Montana, United States • Tokanbi, Toką́kna, Tokaribi (‘Strangers’) • Fort Peck (about 11,786 Hudesabina, Wadopabina, • Tanzinapebina, Taminapebina (‘Owners of Sharp Wadopahnatonwan, Sahiyaiyeskabi, Inyantonwan- [10] Knives’) bina and Fat Horse Band of the Assiniboine, Sis- seton, Wahpeton, Yanktonai and Hunkpapa of the • Unskaha (‘Roamers’) Sioux live together on the Fort Peck Indian Reser- vation near Fort Peck in NE Montana north of the • Wadopabina, Wadópana (‘Canoe Paddlers’), the Missouri River, ca. 8,518 km², Tribal Headquar- Cree called them Pimiskau Wi Iniwak - ‘paddling ters are located in Poplar, largest community on the Assiniboines’, therefore in English often called Ca- reservation is the city of Wolf Point)[11] noe Assiniboine, Paddling Assiniboine; today one Assiniboine / Nakoda band of the Fort Peck • Fort Belknap (of about 5,426 registered Assiniboine Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes) and Gros Ventre the majority live on the Fort Belk- nap Indian Reservation – 505 of them off the reserve • Wadopahnatonwan, Wadópaȟna Tųwą, Wado – in north central Montana, largest city is Fort Belk- Pahanda Tonwan (‘Canoe Paddlerrs Who Live on nap Agency, ca. 2,626 km²)[12] the Prairie’, split from the Wadopabina band to roam the plains, the European traders called them In March 2012, these two reservations has received 63 Watopachnato - Big Devils, because they were American bison from Yellowstone National Park, to be known as really cunning traders and great warriors released to a 2,100-acre game preserve 25 miles north of and horse thieves; today one Assiniboine / Nakoda Poplar. There are many other bison herds outside Yel- band of the Fort Peck Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes and lowstone, but this is one of the very few genetically pure Fort Belknap Indian Community) ones, not cross-bred with cattle. Native Americans cele- • Waką́hežabina, in English often called Little Girls brated the move, which came over a century after bison Band and by the French as Gens des Feuilles; to- were nearly wiped out by hunters and the government. day one Assiniboine / Nakoda band of the Fort Peck The Assiniboine and Gros Ventre tribes at the Fort Belk- Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes) nap Indian Reservation will also receive a portion of this herd. [13] • Wasinazinyabi, Waci'azi hyabin (‘Fat Smokers’)

• Waziyamwincasta, Wazíyam Wįcášta, Waziya Saskatchewan, Canada Winchasta, Wiyóhąbąm Nakóda (‘People of the North’; once political part of the Parklands Cree of • Carry the Kettle Nakoda First Nation (the reserve the Upstream People of Plains Cree - today living on Carry the Kettle Nakoda First Nation #76, also Mosquito#109 and known as Battle- known as: 'Assiniboine #76', or Carry the Kettle ford Stoneys they are part of the Mosquito, Grizzly #76-18,19,22, Treaty Four Reserve Grounds #77, Bear’s Head, Lean Man First Nations, some of them includes ca. 350 km², in SE Saskatchewan, 80 km moved about 1839 into the USA and are today part east of Regina and 18 km south of Sintaluta, of of Nakoda / Assiniboine bands of the Fort Belknap 2,387 registered Assiniboine only about 850 live on Indian Community) the reserve)[14] 4.1. ASSINIBOINE 35

• Mosquito, ’s Head, Lean Man First Na- 4.1.9 Notable Assiniboine people tions (also known as Battleford Stoneys) (includes the following reserves: Mosquito #109, Cold Ea- • Hank Adams (b. 1943), indigenous rights activist gle, Grizzly Bear`s Head #110 & Lean Man #111, • Mosquito Grizzly Bear`s Head Lean Man Tle #1, Dolly Akers, Montana legislator Tribal Headquarters and Administration are 27 km • Crazy Bear (Mah-To-Wit-Ko, 1785–1856), chief south of Battleford, ca. 127 km², in 2003 there were and negotiator about 1,119 registered Assiniboine)[15] • Juanita Growing Thunder Fogarty (b. 1969), bead • White Bear First Nation (reserves: White Bear artist, quillworker, and regalia maker #70 and Treaty Four Reserve Grounds #77 are lo- • cated in SE corner of the Moose Mountain area Roxy Gordon (1945–2000), poet, novelist, musician of Saskatchewan, Tribal Headquarters are located and activist 13 km north of Carlyle, ca. 172 km², about • Indigenous, Nakota blues band 1,990 Assiniboine, Saulteaux (Anishinaabe), Cree and Dakota)[16] • Georgia Wettlin Larsen, singer • • Ocean Man First Nation (reserves: Ocean Man #69, Wi-jún-jon (1796–1872), chief 69A-I, Treaty Four Reserve Grounds #77, Tribal • William S. Yellow Robe, Jr. (b. 1950), playwright, Headquarters are located 19 km north of Stoughton, author, poet ca. 41 km², of 454 registered Assiniboine, Cree and Saulteaux (Anishinaabe) only 170 are living on re- serve grounds)[17] 4.1.10 See also

• Pheasant Rump Nakota First Nation (reserve: • Fort Peck Indian Reservation Treaty Four Reserve Grounds #77, Tribal Head- • quarters are located in Kisbey, about 333 Assini- Fort Belknap Indian Reservation [18] boine, Saulteaux (Anishinaabe) and Cree) • Wi-jún-jon

• Crazy Bear Namesakes

Canada Steamship Lines named one of their new ships 4.1.11 References the CSL Assiniboine.[19] [1] “Assiniboine.” Ethnologue. Retrieved 30 March 2013. Fort Assiniboine was a name given to a trading post opened in 1793 in Manitoba and in 1824 in Alberta [2] George Bryce, “The Assiniboine River and its Forts”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1893, Section II, p. 69. The Assiniboine River drains much of Saskatchewan and Manitoba into the Red River of the North, which in turn [3] Ullrich, Jan (2008). New Lakota Dictionary (Incorporat- flows into the Arctic Ocean via Lake Winnipeg and the ing the Dakota Dialects of Yankton-Yanktonai and Santee- Nelson River. Sisseton). Consortium. pp. 2–6. ISBN 0-9761082-9-1.

[4] for a report on the long-established blunder of misnaming 4.1.8 Gallery “Nakota” the Yanktonai people, see the article Nakota [5] “Assiniboine”. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved • Two young Assiniboine boys. 2013-05-28.

• A skin lodge of an Assiniboine chief. [6] Neal McLeod. “Cree”. The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. Canadian Plains Research Centre. • Tomb platforms of Assiniboine in trees. Retrieved 13 November 2012. [7] Hochspringen ↑ AISRI Dictionary Database Search - • Assiniboine in Montana, 1890–1891. Assiniboine Dictionary

• An Assiniboine man named Cloud Man. [8] POLITICAL STRUCTURE AND STATUS AMONG THE ASSINIBOINE INDIANS

• Assiniboine baby carrier. [9] James L. Long, William Standing: Land of Nakoda: The Story of the Assiniboine Indians, Riverbend Publishing • Two Assiniboine warriors, painted by Karl Bodmer. 2004, ISBN 978-1-931832-35-9 36 CHAPTER 4. THE ASSINIBOINE

[10] History of the Fort Peck Reservation 4.1.13 External links

[11] Fort Peck Tribes • Lewis & Clark Corps of Discovery encounters with Assiniboine [12] Fort Belknap Indian Community • “Assiniboine”, Minnesota State University, [13] “Yellowstone bison return to tribal land”. Great Falls Tri- Mankato emuseum bune. 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2012-03-23. • Assiniboine Community College [14] Carry the Kettle First Nation • Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux History, University [15] FIRST NATION CONNECTIVITY PROFILE – 2003 of Montana

[16] White Bear First Nation

[17] Ocean Man First Nation

[18] Pheasant Rump Nakota Nation

[19] Great Lakes and Seaway Shipping (2005). “CSL Assini- boine”. Retrieved 2007-05-02.

4.1.12 Further reading

• Denig, Edwin Thompson, and J. N. B. Hewitt. The Assiniboine. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8061-3235-3

• Fort Belknap Curriculum Development Project. Assiniboine Memories Legends of the Nakota People. Harlem, Mont: Fort Belknap Education Dept, 1983.

• How the Summer Season Came And Other Assini- boine Indian Stories. Helena, Mont: Montana His- torical Society Press, with the Fort Peck and Fort Belknap Tribes, 2003. ISBN 0-917298-94-2

• Kennedy, Dan, and James R. Stevens. Recollections of an Assiniboine Chief. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1972. ISBN 0-7710-4510-7

• Nighttraveller, Will, and Gerald Desnomie. Assini- boine Legends, Saskatoon: Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College, 1973.

• Nighttraveller, Will, and Gerald Desnomie. Assini- boine Legends, Saskatoon: Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College, 1973.

• Schilz, Thomas F. 1984. “Brandy and Beaver Pelts Assiniboine-European Trading Patterns, 1695– 1805”. Saskatchewan History. 37, no. 3.

• Writers’ Program (Mont.), James Larpenteur Long, and Michael Stephen Kennedy. The Assiniboines From the Accounts of the Old Ones Told to First Boy (James Larpenter Long), The Civilization of the American Indian series. Norman: University of Ok- lahoma Press, 1961. Chapter 5

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37 38 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Epicgenius, Vanamonde93, PhantomTech, Tentinator, Himsis, ElHef, Babitaarora, Kharkiv07, My name is not dave, Finnusertop, Bat- pigandme, Keepinternetfree, SJ Defender, Rundmt, Theparties, DogsLikeGaming, TheCoolBros, Makoonzhish, JoeHebda, Wvc192005, Vivianwii, Slowraptor, Rationalobserver, Tymon.r, Mike Kabinsky, Rrockie, KasparBot, Bobsobbs, HistoryBoy987655321, Yougotmy- heartlikeadog, Cara777, Bringem Young, Tdub1982, Coolmack633 and Anonymous: 665 • Cree Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cree?oldid=690140264 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Zundark, Andre Engels, Pgdudda, Rmhermen, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Olivier, Tannin, LittleDan, Stefan-S, Silverfish, Raven in Orbit, Michael Reiter, Indefatigable, Bearcat, Robbot, Jmabel, Psychonaut, Sunray, Saforrest, JillandJack, Kmsiever, Cam, Pgan002, Madmagic, DragonflySixtyseven, Ukexpat, Liberl- ogos, Trevor MacInnis, JamesTeterenko, Jfpierce, Kate, Vsmith, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Bobo192, Wisdom89, MPerel, Alan- sohn, GrantNeufeld, SlimVirgin, Kurieeto, Ish ishwar, Docboat, Weaponofmassinstruction, Embryomystic, Richwales, Mahanga, Angr, Woohookitty, Staatenloser~enwiki, WBardwin, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Mayumashu, XLerate, Gnome6, Boccobrock, Afterwriting, Harmil, Choess, King of Hearts, CJLL Wright, DVdm, Hall Monitor, TexasAndroid, RussBot, Pburka, Pigman, Stormbay, Gaius Cor- nelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, Member, Shanel, Wiki alf, Voyevoda, Badagnani, Lexicon, Cgboeree, Gerhard51, Wyldkat, CorbieVreccan, Asarelah, Nlu, Tigershrike, Alarob, GraemeL, JoanneB, DVD R W, Tom Morris, SmackBot, CJLippert, Big Adamsky, Verne Equinox, Dr. Steller, TobiMcIntyre, ProveIt, Kintetsubuffalo, Alana Smithy, Steam5, Commander Keane bot, Sloman, Richfife, Bluebot, Gyllenhali, DMS, The Invisible Man, Hibernian, Paalexan, Berkley~enwiki, Dartmouth NAS42 Class, Joseph B, Morggan69, ThreeAnswers, Khoikhoi, Decltype, Kevlar67, Ligulembot, Risker, Ck lostsword, SirIsaacBrock, Xandi, HDarke, Gobonobo, Green Gi- ant, Andrea Cioffi~enwiki, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, Mr Stephen, Qyd, P199, Darry2385, Eastfrisian, Dl2000, BranStark, DouglasCalvert, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Zorion, CmdrObot, Sb184br, RedRollerskate, Ibadibam, ShelfSkewed, Montanabw, Leo1410, Themightyquill, Aristophanes68, Urlass, Tkynerd, Tawkerbot4, Zalgo, Victoriaedwards, Moilforgold, JAF1970, Mojo Hand, MHarrington, Marek69, Nick Number, MichaelMaggs, Hmrox, Cladeal832, AntiVandalBot, QuiteUnusual, Noroton, MrSean- Brook, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, Jjkorff~enwiki, Hut 8.5, Arwen289, Magioladitis, Tukes, Wikidudeman, Catgut, User A1, Invader Zim, DerHexer, MartinBot, R'n'B, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Spathaky, Acalamari, WmLGann, Jeepday, SaskatchewanSenator, Hillock65, Wiher, Clariosophic, Fleebo, StevieT101, Largoplazo, Miskwito, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Jamie haybyrne, Cv2k, Sniper120, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, DSRH, Uyvsdi, Westislandlad, Martin451, Seb az86556, InternetHero, Liz de Quebec, Agüeybaná, C0N6R355, Red, SieBot, Jauerback, Caltas, LeadSongDog, Flyer22 Reborn, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, Aboluay, N96, Explicit, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tanglewood4, Fenerty, TomKing1980, Niceguyedc, Parkwells, Excirial, Jusdafax, Greecepwns, Eeekster, Hans- Jürgen Hübner, The Red, Thingg, Aitias, DerBorg, Phynicen, Thompcha, Lkovac, Zrs 12, Facts707, Skarebo, Origamiemensch, MystBot, SweetNightmares, HexaChord, King Pickle, Addbot, Kuihkun, Some jerk on the Internet, Ehlndh, Karel dragoun, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, DrJos, Download, AndersBot, Debresser, Tide rolls, Krano, CBC Digital Archives, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, Fraggle81, Jason Recliner, Esq., SwisterTwister, Fhusis, Arjun G. 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5.2 Images

• File:Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_(close).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Aboriginal_ War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: This work was created by, and should be attributed to, Padraic Ryan. Please notify me if you use my work outside Wikimedia. • File:An_Assiniboin_indian_and_a_Yanktonan_indian_0045v.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/ An_Assiniboin_indian_and_a_Yanktonan_indian_0045v.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Karl Bodmer 5.2. IMAGES 39

• File:Anishinaabe-Anishinini_Distribution_Map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/ Anishinaabe-Anishinini_Distribution_Map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DarrenBaker • File:Anishinabe.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Anishinabe.png License: Public domain Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: User:Shandris • File:Assinniboine2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Assinniboine2.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Assinniboine_Man_Montana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Assinniboine_Man_Montana. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Canada_Saskatchewan_relief_location_map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Canada_ Saskatchewan_relief_location_map.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Canada Saskatchewan location map.svg by NordNordWest. Original artist: Carport • File:Chippewa_lodges,_Beaver_Bay,_by_Childs,_B._F..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/ Chippewa_lodges%2C_Beaver_Bay%2C_by_Childs%2C_B._F..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the New York Public Library's Digital Library under the digital ID G90F397_024F: digitalgallery.nypl.org → digitalcollections.nypl.org Original artist: Childs, B. F. -- Photographer • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:CreeCamp1871.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/CreeCamp1871.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library and Archives Canada Original artist: Charles Horetzky (1838 - 1900) • File:Cree_Indian_(HS85-10-13885)_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Cree_Indian_ %28HS85-10-13885%29_edit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is part of the Canadian Copyright Collection held by the British Library, and has been digitised as part of the "Picturing Canada" project. It was deposited with copyright number 13885, and is indexed with Dalhousie number 315. Original artist: George E. Fleming • File:Crimapo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Crimapo.png License: Copyrighted free use Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Dene_High_School.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Dene_High_School.JPG License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kayoty • File:Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carbone, Teresa (1999) Eastman Johnson: Painting America, Rizzoli, p. 41 ISBN: 978-0847822140. fig 22. Original artist: Eastman Johnson • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Edward_S._Curtis_Collection_People_095.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Edward_S. _Curtis_Collection_People_095.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • This image came from The North American Indian by Edward S. Curtis. These images were published between 1907 and 1930. Original artist: Edward S. Curtis • File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Montana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_Montana.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Full_Moon,_Assiniboine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Full_Moon%2C_Assiniboine.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Full Moon, Assiniboine Original artist: BPL • File:George_Catlin_-_Pigeons_Egg_Head_-_Smithsonian.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/ George_Catlin_-_Pigeons_Egg_Head_-_Smithsonian.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the Smithsonian American Art Museum as part of a cooperation project. Original artist: George Catlin • File:George_Catlin_-_Sha-có-pay,_The_Six,_Chief_of_the_Plains_Ojibwa_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/George_Catlin_-_Sha-c%C3%B3-pay%2C_The_Six%2C_Chief_of_the_Plains_ Ojibwa_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DwHw4XnTVeHAcQ at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: George Catlin • File:George_Catlin_005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/George_Catlin_005.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Catlin • File:Hombres_ojibwe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Hombres_ojibwe.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.shannonthunderbird.com/tribal_lifestyle.htm Original artist: desconocido, foto antigua del s.XIX • File:Kane-Assiniboine_Hunting_Buffalo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Kane-Assiniboine_ Hunting_Buffalo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Gallery of Canada Original artist: Paul Kane 40 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Locator_Dot2.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Locator_Dot2.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lutsel_K'e_Dene_School_in_Winter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Lutsel_K%27e_Dene_ School_in_Winter.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Michael Kenny • File:Meda_songs,_1851.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Meda_songs%2C_1851.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3g04803. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Chromolithograph by James Ackerman after a watercolor by Seth Eastman • File:Mähsette_Kuiuab_Chief_of_the_Cree_indians_0022v.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/M% C3%A4hsette_Kuiuab_Chief_of_the_Cree_indians_0022v.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Karl Bodmer • File:Na-Dene_langs.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Na-Dene_langs.png License: CC BY 2.0 Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ojibwa_dance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Ojibwa_dance.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Relief_map_of_Canada.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Relief_map_of_Canada.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Canada location map.svg for borders; by Yug and STyx Original artist: Nzeemin • File:Spiromoundsraccoon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Spiromoundsraccoon.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Spiromoundsraccoon.gif Original artist: Aaron Walden (talk · contribs) • File:Sweat_lodge_at_Lake_Superior_PP.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Sweat_lodge_at_Lake_ Superior_PP.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: D. Gordon E. Robertson • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:Upper_Mazinaw_Lake,_Mazinaw_Rock.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Upper_Mazinaw_ Lake%2C_Mazinaw_Rock.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: D. Gordon E. Robertson • File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen • File:Woman_of_the_Snake_tribe_and_woman_of_the_Cree_tribe_0066v.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/7/7f/Woman_of_the_Snake_tribe_and_woman_of_the_Cree_tribe_0066v.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Karl Bodmer

5.3 Content license

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