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K. Alex Müller) Creative The Crucial Things in Science often Happen Quite Unexpectedly—Das Entscheidende in der Wissenschaft Geschieht oft Ganz Unerwartet (K. Alex Müller) Reinhard K. Kremer 1,* , Annette Bussmann-Holder 1, Hugo Keller 2 and Robin Haunschild 1 1 Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstrasse 1, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; [email protected] (A.B.-H.); [email protected] (R.H.) 2 Physik Institut der Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstr. 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-711-689-1688 Received: 10 June 2020; Accepted: 28 June 2020; Published: 1 July 2020 Abstract: We analyzed the publication output of one of the 1987 Nobel Prize awardees, K. Alex Müller, using bibliometric methods. The time-dependent number of publications and citations and the network with respect to the coauthors and their affiliations was studied. Specifically, the citation history of the Nobel Prize awarded 1986 article on “Possible high-temperature superconductivity in the Ba-La-Cu-O system” has been evaluated in terms of the overall number of articles on superconductivity and the corresponding citations of other most frequently referenced articles. Thereby, a publication with “delayed recognition” was identified. 1. Introduction Rarely in the history of physics has a discovery had such a prompt and enduring impact as the observation of high-temperature superconductivity (high-Tc) in the Ba-La-Cu-O system by J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller in 1986 [1]. The unexpected disclosure of superconductivity at temperatures about twice as high as had been known before [2,3] triggered immediate (sometimes hectic and often very competitive and controversial) research activity targeted at the synthesis of compounds with even higher Tc’s and the still contentious theoretical explanation of high-Tc superconductivity. The bursting reaction in the search for new and deeper insight into already known high-Tc materials is reflected in the instantaneous rise of the number of publications indexed by the Web of Science (WoS) [4,5] before and after 1986 (see Figure1). Figure1 shows that after 1986 about 30% of the publications related to superconductivity covered high-Tc research (see [6–8]). Since 1986, the number of publications dealing with superconductivity essentially remains constant at a high level of about 6500 per year, whereas the number of high-Tc papers decreased gradually after a peak in 1991 with approximately 3100 publications and currently levels off at about 1400 publications per year. A closer inspection of Figure1 also reveals a couple of historically very interesting aspects: After the discovery of superconductivity in mercury by H. Kamerling Onnes in 1911 [9] there was an extended period lasting until the late 1950s with a continuous but moderate increase of the publication output with about 10 to 50 superconductivity publications per year. Note the plunge in the number of publications in the late years of the Second World War. Certainly triggered by the development of the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory of superconductivity [10] but very likely also by the first placing of a satellite into Earth’s orbit by the Soviet Union in October 1957, the number of publications rose steeply in the late 1950s and early 1960s [11]. This event, perceived in the Western world as the ‘Sputnik crisis’, initiated massive funding increase into science, especially in the USA [12]. As a consequence, the number of scientists working in the field and the publication Condens. Matter 2020, 5, 43; doi:10.3390/condmat5030043 www.mdpi.com/journal/condensedmatter Condens. Matter 2018, 3, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 9 steeply in the late 1950s and early 1960s [11]. This event, perceived in the Western world as the ‘Sputnik crisis’,Condens. Matterinitiated2020, 5 ,massive 43 funding increase into science, especially in the USA 2[12]. of 9 As a consequence, the number of scientists working in the field and the publication output increased steeply afteroutput 1957 increased [13,14]. steeply The afterdata 1957 also [13 ,show14]. The that data after also show 1970 that the after publication 1970 the publication output outputstalled and flattened, stalledbecause and no flattened, new discoveries because no newwere discoveries made, and were increased made, and dramatically increased dramatically after 1987. after 1987. Figure 1. Number of publications indexed by the Web of Science (WoS) either with the keywords Figure 1. Number of publications indexed by the Web of Science (WoS) either with the keywords ‘superconduct*’ (grey) or ‘high-Tc’ (red). [4]. ‘superconduct*’ (grey) or ‘high-Tc ‘(red). [4]. 2. The Publication Output of Original Research Publications 2. The PublicationK. Alex Output Müller began of Original his scientific Research career with Publications his PhD thesis entitled ‘Paramagnetische Resonanz 3+ von Fe in SrTiO3 Einkristallen’ submitted to the ETH Zürich in 1958. In his thesis he summarized K. Alexhis microwaveMüller began resonance his experiments scientific oncareer spin S =with5/2 ions his substituted PhD thesis for Ti entitled in SrTiO3 ,‘Paramagnetische a compound Resonanz whichvon Fe fascinated3+ in SrTiO him during3 Einkristallen’ all his future submitted scientific activity. to the The ETH thesis Zürich was published in 1958. in the In Helvetica his thesis he summarizedPhysica his Actamicrowave in 1958 [15 resonance]. The results experiments of his thesis were on summarizedspin S=5/2 inions a short substituted single-authored for Ti Physical in SrTiO3, a compoundReview which Letter fascinated (PRL) published him during in 1959, all already his future mentioning scientific his new activity. affiliation The at the thesis Battelle was Memorial published in Institute in Geneva [16]. This PRL referenced a publication, apparently K. Alex Müller’s very first the Helveticaone (possiblyPhysica publishedActa in 1958 more [15]. or less The simultaneously results of his with thesis his PhDwere thesis), summarized in the proceedings in a short of single- authored Physicalthe 7th Colloquium Review Letter Ampère (PRL) held in published 1958 in Geneva in 1959, (Résonance already paramagn mentioningétique duhis Cr new3+ dans affiliation des at the Battellemonocristaux Memorial deInstitute SrTiO3)[ in17 Geneva]. [16]. This PRL referenced a publication, apparently K. Alex Müller’s very Figurefirst one2a shows (possibly the number published of papers more published or less by simultaneously K. Alex Müller per yearwith indexed his PhD by thethesis), WoS in the as source items beginning from his first Physical Review Letter, which appeared in 1959. Figure2b is a proceedings of the 7th Colloquium Ampère held in 1958 in Geneva (Résonance paramagnétique du ‘vintage’ diagram, showing the number of citations for papers published in the particular year. 3+ Cr dans des monocristauxUnfortunately, the de ‘Archives SrTiO3 des) [17]. Sciences éditées par la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle Figurede 2(a) Gen èshowsve’ are notthe indexed number by theof papers WoS and published a reliable bibliometric by K. Alex analysis Müller of this per publication year indexed cannot by the WoS as sourcebe carried items out beginning [18]. from his first Physical Review Letter, which appeared in 1959. Figure 2b is a ‘vintage’In diagram, total, K. Alex showing Müller publishedthe number 311 papersof citations in the for 61 years papers of his published scientific activityin the particular until 2019. year. Unfortunately,Until 1986, hethe authored ‘Archives between des three Sciences and eight éditées publications par perla Société year (see Figurede Physique2a). Interestingly, et d’Histoire this number did not increase significantly over the following years, except in the first two immediate Naturelle de Genève’ are not indexed by the WoS and a reliable bibliometric analysis of this years after the seminal paper on the discovery of high-Tc superconductivity in 1986 [1] when he publicationauthored cannot or be co-authored carried out up [18]. to 30 papers in 1987 and 22 in 1988 (i.e., about one-sixth of Müller’s In total,publications K. Alex appearedMüller published in these two 311 years). papers It is worthin the mentioning 61 years of that his the scientific numberof activity publications until 2019. Until 1986,dealing he authored with SrTiO between3 (50) is almostthree and as high eight as those public coveringations cuprates per year (52). (see Including Figure 112a). additional Interestingly, this numberpapers did whichnot increase treated titanates significantly in general over (mostly the BaTiOfollowing3), the years, number except of publications in the first on titanates two immediate (61) even exceeds that on cuprates. years after the seminal paper on the discovery of high-Tc superconductivity in 1986 [1] when he authored or co-authored up to 30 papers in 1987 and 22 in 1988 (i.e., about one-sixth of Müller’s publications appeared in these two years). It is worth mentioning that the number of publications dealing with SrTiO3 (50) is almost as high as those covering cuprates (52). Including 11 additional papers which treated titanates in general (mostly BaTiO3), the number of publications on titanates (61) even exceeds that on cuprates. Figure 2b displays a ‘vintage’ diagram showing the number of citations to papers published in a particular year. Besides the citation spikes following immediately after the discovery of high-Tc superconductivity, two more years stand out, namely the years 1979 and 1996. The high
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