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User:Guy vandegrift/Timeline of quantum (abridged)

• 1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers X-rays in experiments with beams in plasma.[1]

• 1896 – Antoine accidentally dis- covers radioactivity while investigating the work of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen; he finds that salts emit radiation that resembled Röntgen’s X- rays in their penetrating power, and accidentally dis- covers that the phosphorescent substance potassium uranyl sulfate exposes photographic plates.[1][3]

• 1896 – observes the Zeeman split- ting effect by passing the emitted by hydrogen through a magnetic field.

Wikiversity: • 1896–1897 investigates uranium salt First Journal of Science samples using a very sensitive electrometer device that was invented 15 years before by her husband and his brother Jacques Curie to measure electrical Under review. Condensed from Wikipedia’s Timeline of charge. She discovers that the emitted rays make the at 13:07, 2 September 2015 (oldid surrounding air electrically conductive. [4] 679101670) • 1897 – Ivan Borgman demonstrates that X-rays and This abridged “timeline of quantum mechancis” shows radioactive materials induce thermoluminescence. some of the key steps in the development of quantum me- chanics, quantum field theories and quantum • 1899 to 1903 – , who later became that occurred before the end of World War II [1][2] known as the “father of nuclear ",[5] inves- tigates radioactivity and coins the terms alpha and beta rays in 1899 to describe the two distinct types 1 19th century of radiation emitted by thorium and uranium salts. [6]

• 1859 – Kirchhoff introduces the concept of a blackbody and proves that its emission spectrum de- pends only on its temperature.[1] 2 20th century • 1860–1900 – Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann produces a 2.1 1900–1909 primitive diagram of a model of an iodine molecule that resembles the orbital diagram. • 1900 – To explain black-body radiation (1862), • 1865 – Maxwell put forth A Dynamical Theory of suggests that electromagnetic energy is the Electromagnetic Field, now known as Maxwell’s emitted in quantized form, in multiples of the ele- equations. mentary unit E = hν, where h is Planck’s constant and ν is frequency. • 1887-1888 – Heinrich Hertz discovers the photo- • electric effect, and also demonstrates experimen- 1902 – To explain the octet rule (1893), Gilbert N. tally that electromagnetic exist, as predicted Lewis develops the "cubical " theory in which by Maxwell.[1] in the form of dots are positioned at the corner of a cube. Predicts that single, double, or • 1888 – Johannes Rydberg modifies the Balmer for- triple "bonds" result when two are held to- mula to include all spectral series of lines for the gether by multiple pairs of electrons between the hydrogen atom, producing the . atoms.

1 2 2 20TH CENTURY

• 1903 – Antoine Becquerel, and Marie that the of the Nitrogen-14 atom was 1, in con- Curie share the 1903 in Physics for their tradiction to the Rutherford prediction of ½. These work on spontaneous radioactivity. anomalies are later explained by the discoveries of the and the . • 1904 – Richard Abegg notes the pattern that the nu- merical difference between the maximum positive • 1912 – Victor Hess discovers the existence of valence, such as +6 for H2SO4, and the maximum cosmic radiation. negative valence, such as −2 for H S, of an element 2 • tends to be eight (Abegg’s rule). 1913 – publishes the re- sults of his “oil drop” experiment that measures the • 1905 – explains the photoelectric ef- charge of the electron. This makes it possible to cal- fect. He postulates that light itself consists of indi- culate the Avogadro constant and the atomic weight vidual quantum particles (). of the atoms.

• 1905 – Einstein explains the effects of Brownian • 1913 – Ștefan Procopiu and indepen- as caused by the kinetic energy (i.e., move- dently obtain the value of the electron’s magnetic ment) of atoms, which was subsequently, experi- dipole moment. mentally verified by , thereby • settling the century-long dispute about the validity 1913 – and Antonino Lo Surdo in- of John Dalton's . dependently discover the shifting and splitting of the spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to an ex- • 1905 – Einstein publishes his Special Theory of Rel- ternal static electric field. ativity. • 1913 – To explain the Rydberg formula (1888), • 1905 – Einstein theoretically derives the equivalence which calculates the emission spectra of atomic hy- of matter and energy. drogen, Bohr hypothesizes that electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus at certain fixed • 1907 to 1917 – To test his planetary model of “quantum” distances, with specific energies such 1904 [7] he sent a beam of positively charged alpha that transition between orbits requires “quantum” particles onto a gold foil and noticed that some emissions or absorptions of energy. bounced back, thus showing that an atom has a small-sized positively charged at its • 1914 – and Gustav Hertz conduct center. However, he received in 1908 the Nobel an experiment on electron collisions with mercury Prize in Chemistry “for his investigations into the atoms, that provides new verification of Bohr’s [9] chemistry of radioactive substances”,[8] which fol- model of quantized atomic energy levels. lowed on the work of Marie Curie, not for his plan- • 1915 – Einstein presents what are now known as the etary model of the atom; he is also widely cred- Einstein field equations, associated with the General ited with first “splitting the atom” in 1917. In 1911 Theory of Relativity. Ernest Rutherford explained the Geiger–Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model and • 1916 – Paul Epstein[10] and Karl Schwarzschild,[11] derived the Rutherford . working independently, derive equations for the lin- ear and quadratic Stark effect in hydrogen. • 1909 – Geoffrey Ingram Taylor demonstrates that interference patterns of light were generated even • 1916 – To account for the Zeeman effect, Arnold when the light energy introduced consisted of only Sommerfeld suggests electrons in an atom might be one . This discovery of the –particle du- “elliptical orbits” in addition to “spherical orbits”. ality of matter and energy is fundamental to the later development of quantum field theory. • 1918 – Sir Ernest Rutherford notices that, when alpha particles are shot into nitrogen gas, his • 1909 and 1916 – Einstein shows that, if Planck’s scintillation detectors shows the signatures of law of black-body radiation is accepted, the energy hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford determines that the quanta must also carry p = h / λ. only place this hydrogen could have come from was the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei. He thus suggests that the hydro- 2.2 1910–1919 gen nucleus, which is known to have an atomic num- ber of 1, is an , which he decides • 1911 – and Otto Hahn perform an ex- must be the hypothesized by Eugen Gold- periment that shows that the energies of electrons stein. emitted by had a continuous rather than discrete spectrum, in apparent contradiction to the • 1919 – Building on the work of Lewis (1916), Irving law of conservation of energy. A second problem is Langmuir coins the term “covalence” and postulates 2.3 1920–1929 3

that coordinate covalent bonds occur when two elec- are added successively to an atom as many lev- trons of a pair of atoms come from both atoms and els or orbits are singly occupied as possible before are equally shared by them, thus explaining the fun- any pairing of electrons with opposite spin occurs damental of chemical bonding and molecular and made the distinction that the inner electrons in chemistry. molecules remained in atomic orbitals and only the valence electrons needed to be in molecular orbitals involving both nuclei. 2.3 1920–1929 • 1925 – , , and Pascual • 1922 – finds that X-ray wave- Jordan develops the formulation lengths increase due to scattering of the radiant en- of Quantum Mechanics.[1] ergy by free electrons. This discovery, known as the Compton effect, demonstrates the particle concept • 1926 – and Walter Gordon put forth a of electromagnetic radiation. relativistic quantum wave equation now called the Klein–Gordon equation. • 1922 – and perform the Stern–Gerlach experiment, which detects dis- • 1926 – discovers the spin-statistics crete values of for atoms in theorem connection. the ground state passing through an inhomogeneous magnetic field leading to the discovery of the spin of • 1926 – introduces Fermi–Dirac statistics. the electron. • 1926 – Erwin Schrödinger uses De Broglie’s elec- • 1922 – Bohr updates his model of the atom to bet- tron wave postulate (1924) to develop a "wave equa- ter explain the properties of the periodic table by tion" that represents mathematically the distribution assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for ex- of electron charge density throughout space, and ample 2, 8 and 18) corresponded to stable “closed also introduces the Hamiltonian operator in quan- shells”, presaging orbital theory. tum mechanics. • 1923 – Pierre Auger discovers the Auger effect, • 1926 – Paul Epstein reconsiders the linear and where filling the inner-shell vacancy of an atom is quadratic Stark effect using Schrödinger’s equation. accompanied by the emission of an electron from The derived equations for the line intensities are a the same atom. decided improvement over previous results obtained by .[12] • 1923 – extends wave–particle du- ality to particles, postulating that electrons in mo- • 1927 – Werner Heisenberg formulates the quantum tion are associated with waves. He predicts that the .[1] , λ = h / p , where p is momentum and h [1] is Planck’s constant. • 1927 – Max Born develops the inter- pretation of the probabilistic nature of wavefunc- • 1923 – Gilbert N. Lewis creates the theory of Lewis tions. acids and bases based on the properties of electrons in molecules, defining an acid as accepting an elec- • 1927 – Born and J. Robert Oppenheimer introduce tron lone pair from a base. the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, which al- • 1924 – explains Planck’s law lows the quick approximation of the energy and using a new statistical law that governs , and wavefunctions of smaller molecules. Einstein generalizes it to predict Bose–Einstein con- • 1927 – and introduce densate. The theory is now known as Bose–Einstein the concepts of valence bond theory and apply it to statistics.[1] the hydrogen molecule. • 1924 – outlines the "Pauli exclu- • sion principle" which states that no two identical 1927 – Thomas and Fermi develop the Thomas– may occupy the same simul- Fermi model for a Gas in a box. taneously, a fact that explains many features of the • periodic table.[1] 1927 – Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman studies op- tical photon scattering by electrons. • 1925 – and • postulate the existence of electron spin.[1] 1927 – Dirac states his relativistic electron quantum wave equation, the , in the same year • 1925 – Friedrich Hund outlines Hund’s rule of Max- Charles G. Darwin and Walter Gordon solve it for a imum Multiplicity which states that when electrons Coulomb potential. 4 2 20TH CENTURY

• 1927 – Charles Drummond Ellis (along with James • 1931 – creates the first electron micro- Chadwick and colleagues) finally establish clearly scope.[1] that the beta decay spectrum is in fact continuous • and not discrete, posing a problem that will later be 1931 – creates the first solved by theorizing (and later discovering) the ex- and founds the Radiation Laboratory, later the istence of the neutrino. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; in 1939 he awarded the for his work on • 1927 – Walter Heitler uses Schrödinger’s wave the cyclotron. equation to show how two hydrogen atom wavefunctions join together, with plus, minus, • 1932 – establishes that the radi- and exchange terms, to form a covalent bond. ation emitted when Beryllium is bombarded by al- pha particles the resulting radiation consists of the • 1927 – Robert Mulliken works, in coordination with that were hypothesized by Fermi.[1] Hund, to develop a molecular orbital theory where electrons are assigned to states that extend over an • 1932 – : Building upon the nu- entire molecule and, in 1932, introduces many new clear transmutation experiments of Ernest Ruther- molecular orbital terminologies, such as σ bond, π ford done a few years earlier, observes fusion of light bond, and δ bond. nuclei (hydrogen ). The steps of the main cycle of in stars are subsequently • 1927 – relates degeneracies of quan- worked out by over the next decade. tum states to irreducible representations of symme- try groups. • 1932 – Carl D. Anderson experimentally proves the existence of the positron.[1] • 1928 – outlines the nature of the using Heitler’s quantum mechanical • 1933 – Leó Szilárd first theorizes the concept of a covalent bond model to outline the quantum me- nuclear chain reaction. He files a patent for his idea chanical basis for all types of molecular structure of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. and bonding. • 1934 – Fermi studies the effects of bombarding • 1928 – Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken in- uranium isotopes with neutrons. troduce the concept of molecular orbitals. • 1935 – Einstein, , and • 1928 – Born and Vladimir Fock formulate and prove describe the EPR paradox which challenges the the adiabatic theorem, which states that a physical completeness of quantum mechanics as it was theo- system shall remain in its instantaneous eigenstate if rized up to that time. Assuming that local realism a given perturbation is acting on it slowly enough and is valid, they demonstrated that there would need if there is a gap between the eigenvalue and the rest to be hidden parameters to explain how measuring of the Hamiltonian's spectrum. the quantum state of one particle could influence the • 1929 – Fritz Houtermans and Robert d'Escourt quantum state of another particle without apparent Atkinson propose that stars release energy by nu- contact between them.[13] clear fusion.[1] • 1935 - Schrödinger develops the Schrödinger’s cat . It illustrates what he saw as the 2.4 1930–1939 problems of the Copenhagen interpretation of quan- tum mechanics if subatomic particles can be in two • 1930 – Dirac hypothesizes the existence of the contradictory quantum states at once. positron.[1] • 1935 – formulates his hypothesis of • 1930 – Fritz London explains van der Waals forces the Yukawa potential and predicts the existence of as due to the interacting fluctuating dipole moments the , stating that such a potential arises from the between molecules exchange of a massive scalar field, as it would be • 1930 – Pauli suggests that, in addition to electrons found in the field of the pion. Prior to Yukawa’s and protons, atoms also contain an extremely light paper, it was believed that the scalar fields of the neutral particle which is later called the neutrino.[1] fundamental forces necessitated massless particles. • 1931 – John Lennard-Jones proposes the Lennard- • 1936 – publishes prior to Hideki Jones interatomic potential Yukawa his relativistic quantum field equations for a massive vector of spin−1 as a basis for • 1931 – Without realizing it, and nuclear forces. Herbert Becker created neutrons by bombarding light elements with very energetic alpha particles • 1937 – Carl Anderson experimentally proves the ex- emitted from polonium. istence of the pion. 2.6 1950–1959 5

• 1938 – Charles Coulson makes the first accurate cal- • 1948 – states the path integral for- culation of a molecular orbital wavefunction with the mulation of quantum mechanics. hydrogen molecule. • 1938 – Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann 2.6 1950–1959 send a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting they have detected the element barium after bom- • 1951 – Clemens C. J. Roothaan and George G. Hall barding uranium with neutrons. Hahn calls this new derive the Roothaan-Hall equations, putting rigor- phenomenon a 'bursting' of the uranium nucleus. Si- ous molecular orbital methods on a firm basis. multaneously, Hahn communicate these results to • Lise Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert 1951 – 1952 , and “father Frisch, correctly interpret these results as being a of the hydrogen bomb”, and , math- nuclear fission. Frisch confirms this experimentally ematician, are reported to have written jointly in on 13 January 1939. March 1951 a classified report on “Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors” that results in the • 1939 – Leó Szilárd and Fermi discover neutron mul- next step in the .[14] The first tiplication in uranium, proving that a chain reaction planned fusion thermonuclear reaction experiment is indeed possible. is carried out successfully in the Spring of 1951 based on the work Hans A. Bethe and others.[15] In November 1952 full-scale test of the Hydrogen 2.5 1940–1949 bomb is apparently carried out.

• 1942 – A team led by Enrico Fermi creates the • 1951 – and re- first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, ceive a shared Nobel Prize in Physics for their called Chicago Pile-1, in a racquets court below the first observations of the quantum phenomenon of bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago nuclear magnetic resonance previously reported in on December 2, 1942. 1949.[16][17][18] Purcell reports his contribution as Research in Nuclear Magnetism, and gives credit to • 1942 to 1946 – J. Robert Oppenheimer successfully his coworkers such as Herbert S. Gutowsky for their the Manhattan Project, predicts quantum tun- NMR contributions,[19][20] as well as theoretical re- neling and proposes the Oppenheimer–Phillips pro- searchers of nuclear magnetism such as John Has- cess in nuclear fusion The first nuclear fission explo- brouck Van Vleck. sion was produced on July 16, 1945 in the test in New Mexico. • 1952 – Donald A. Glaser creates the bubble cham- ber, which allows detection of electrically charged • 1946 – Theodor V. Ionescu and Vasile Mihu re- particles by surrounding them by a bubble. Proper- port the construction of the first hydrogen maser by ties of the particles such as momentum can be de- stimulated emission of radiation in molecular hydro- termined by studying of their helical paths. Glaser gen. receives a Nobel prize in 1960 for his invention. • 1947 – and measure • 1953 – Charles H. Townes, collaborating with James a small difference in energy between the energy lev- P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, builds the first ammonia 2 2 els S₁/₂ and P₁/₂ of the hydrogen atom, known as maser; receives a Nobel prize in 1964 for his exper- the . imental success in producing coherent radiation by • 1947 – George Rochester and Clifford Charles But- atoms and molecules. ler publishes two photographs of cos- • 1954 – Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills derive a mic ray-induced events, one showing what appears for nonabelian groups, leading to the to be a neutral particle decaying into two charged successful formulation of both electroweak unifica- , and one that appears to be a charged parti- tion and . cle decaying into a charged pion and something neu- tral. The estimated of the new particles is very • 1955 and 1956 – Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko rough, about half a ’s mass. More examples Nishijima independently derive the Gell-Mann– of these “V-particles” were slow in coming, and they Nishijima formula, which relates the num- are soon given the name kaons. ber, the strangeness, and the isospin of hadrons to the charge, eventually leading to the systematic cat- • 1948 – Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and In- egorization of hadrons and, ultimately, the dependently introduce perturbative Model of hadron composition. as a method of correcting the original Lagrangian of a quantum field theory so as to eliminate a series of • 1956 – Chien-Shiung Wu carries out the Wu Exper- infinite terms that would otherwise result. iment, which observes violation in cobalt-60 6 2 20TH CENTURY

decay, showing that parity violation is present in the it. While the Higgs field is postulated to confer . mass on and , it represents only a tiny portion of the of other subatomic parti- • 1956 – Clyde L. Cowan and ex- cles, such as protons and neutrons. In these, perimentally prove the existence of the neutrino. that bind quarks together confer most of the parti- cle mass. The result is obtained independently by • 1957 – , and John Robert three groups: François Englert and ; Schrieffer propose their quantum BCS theory of low , working from the ideas of Philip An- temperature , for which their re- derson; and Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom ceive a Nobel prize in 1972. The theory represents Kibble.[21][22][23][24][25][26][27] superconductivity as a macroscopic quantum coher- ence phenomenon involving coupled elec- • 1964 – and tron pairs with opposite spin predict the existence of the . The • 1957 – William , , addition is proposed because it allows for a bet- Geoffrey Burbidge, and , in their 1957 ter description of the weak interaction (the mech- paper Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, show that anism that allows quarks and other particles to de- the abundances of essentially all but the lightest cay), equalizes the number of known quarks with chemical elements can be explained by the process the number of known leptons, and implies a mass of in stars. formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known .

2.7 1960–1969 • 1964 – puts forth Bell’s theorem, which used testable inequality relations to show the • 1961 – Sheldon Lee Glashow extends the flaws in the earlier Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen para- modelss developed by dox and prove that no physical theory of local hidden Julian Schwinger by including a short range neutral variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of current, the Z_o. The resulting symmetry structure quantum mechanics. This inaugurated the study of that Glashow proposes, SU(2) X U(1), forms the , the phenomenon in which basis of the accepted theory of the electroweak separate particles share the same quantum state de- interactions. spite being at a distance from each other.

• 1962 – Leon M. Lederman, and • 1968 – : Deep inelastic scatter- show that more than one type of ing experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelera- neutrino exists by detecting interactions of the tor Center (SLAC) show that the proton contains neutrino (already hypothesised with the name “neu- much smaller, point-like objects and is therefore tretto”) not an elementary particle. at the time are reluctant to identify these objects with quarks, • 1962 – Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman inde- instead calling them partons — a term coined by pendently classify the hadrons according to a system Richard Feynman. The objects that are observed that Gell-Mann called the Eightfold Way, and which at SLAC will later be identified as up and down ultimately led to the quark model (1964) of hadron quarks. Nevertheless, “parton” remains in use as composition. a collective term for the constituents of hadrons • (quarks, antiquarks, and gluons). The existence 1963 – Nicola Cabibbo develops the mathematical of the strange quark is indirectly validated by the matrix by which the first two (and ultimately three) SLAC’s scattering experiments: not only is it a nec- generations of quarks can be predicted. essary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig’s three- • 1964 – Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig inde- quark model, but it provides an explanation for the pendently propose the quark model of hadrons, pre- kaon (K) and pion (π) hadrons discovered in cosmic dicting the arbitrarily named up, down, and strange rays in 1947. quarks. Gell-Mann is credited with coining the term quark, which he found in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake. 2.8 1971–1999

• 1964 – François Englert, Robert Brout, Peter Higgs, • 1980 to 1982 – verify experimentally Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble the quantum entanglement hypothesis; his postulate that a fundamental quantum field, now experiments provide strong evidence that a quantum called the Higgs field, permeates space and, by way event at one location can affect an event at another of the , provides mass to all the location without any obvious mechanism for com- elementary subatomic particles that interact with munication between the two locations.[28][29] 7

• 1986 – Johannes and Karl Alexan- the beauty of Franck and Hertz’s work lies not only in the der Müller produce unambiguous experimental measurement of the energy loss E2-E1 of the impinging proof of high temperature superconductivity involv- electron, but they also observed that, when the energy of that electron exceeds 4.9 eV, mercury begins to emit ul- ing Jahn-Teller in orthorhombic La2CuO4, YBCO and other -type oxides; promptly traviolet light of a definite frequency ν as defined in the receive a Nobel prize in 1987 and deliver their No- above formula. Thereby they gave (unwittingly at first) the first direct experimental proof of the Bohr relation! bel lecture on December 8, 1987.[30] [10] P. S. Epstein, Zur Theorie des Starkeffektes, Annalen der • 1977 to 1995 – The is finally observed Physik, vol. 50, pp. 489-520 (1916) by a team at Fermilab after an 18-year search. It has a mass much greater than had been previously [11] K. Schwarzschild, Sitzungsberichten der Kgl. Preuss. expected — almost as great as a gold atom. Akad. d. Wiss. April 1916, p. 548

• 1998 – The Super-Kamiokande (Japan) detector fa- [12] P. S. Epstein, The Stark Effect from the Point of View of cility reports experimental evidence for neutrino os- Schroedinger’s Quantum Theory, , vol 28, cillations, implying that at least one neutrino has pp. 695-710 (1926) mass. [13] Einstein A, Podolsky B, Rosen N; Podolsky; Rosen (1935). “Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Phys- ical Reality Be Considered Complete?". Phys. Rev. 3 21st century 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777. • 2001 – the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) [14] Stix, Gary (October 1999). “Infamy and honor at the confirm the existence of neutrino oscillations. Lene Atomic Café: Edward Teller has no regrets about his con- Hau stops a beam of light completely in a Bose– tentious career”. Scientific American: 42–43. Retrieved [31] Einstein condensate. April 2012.

• 2009 - Aaron D. O'Connell invents the first quantum [15] Hans A. Bethe (May 28, 1952). MEMORANDUM machine, applying quantum mechanics to a macro- ON THE HISTORY OF THERMONUCLEAR PRO- scopic object just large enough to be seen by the GRAM (Report). Reconstructed version from only par- naked eye, which is able to vibrate a small amount tially declassified documents, with certain words deliber- and large amount simultaneously. ately deleted. [16] Bloch, F.; Hansen, W.; Packard, Martin (1946). “Nuclear Induction”. Physical Review 4 References 69 (3–4): 127. Bibcode:1946PhRv...69..127B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.69.127. [1] Peacock 2008, pp. 175–183 [17] Bloch, F.; Jeffries, C. (1950). “A Direct Deter- [2] Ben-Menahem 2009 mination of the Magnetic Moment of the Pro- ton in Nuclear Magnetons”. Physical Review [3] Becquerel, Henri (1896). “Sur les radiations émises par 80 (2): 305. Bibcode:1950PhRv...80..305B. phosphorescence”. Comptes Rendus 122: 420–421. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.80.305.

[4] Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity: Research [18] Bloch, F. (1946). “Nuclear Induction”. Physical Re- Breakthroughs (1897–1904). Aip.org. Retrieved on view 70 (7–8): 460. Bibcode:1946PhRv...70..460B. 2012-05-17. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.70.460.

[5] Ernest Rutherford, Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of Cam- [19] Gutowsky, H. S.; Kistiakowsky, G. B.; Pake, G. E.; bridge. Encyclopædia Britannica on-line. Retrieved on Purcell, E. M. (1949). “Structural Investigations by 2012-05-17. Means of Nuclear Magnetism. I. Rigid Crystal Lat- tices”. The Journal of Chemical Physics 17 (10): 972. [6] Frederick Soddy (December 12, 1922). “The origins Bibcode:1949JChPh..17..972G. doi:10.1063/1.1747097. of the conceptions of isotopes” (PDF). Nobel Lecture in Chemistry. Retrieved April 2012. [20] Gardner, J.; Purcell, E. (1949). “A Precise [7] later known as the Rutherford model Determination of the Proton Magnetic Mo- ment in Bohr Magnetons”. Physical Review [8] The 1908: Ernest Rutherford. 76 (8): 1262. Bibcode:1949PhRv...76.1262G. nobelprize.org doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.1262.2.

[9] Pais, Abraham (1995). “Introducing Atoms and Their [21] F. Englert, R. Brout; Brout (1964). “Broken Symmetry Nuclei”. In Brown, Laurie M.; Pais, Abraham; Pippard, and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons”. Physical Review Brian. Twentieth Century Physics 1. American Institute Letters 13 (9): 321–323. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..321E. of Physics Press. p. 89. ISBN 9780750303101. Now doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321. 8 4 REFERENCES

[22] P.W. Higgs (1964). “Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons”. 13 (16): 508–509. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..508H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508.

[23] G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble; Ha- gen; Kibble (1964). “Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles”. Physical Review Letters 13 (20): 585–587. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..585G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585.

[24] G.S. Guralnik (2009). “The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Break- ing and Gauge Particles”. International Jour- nal of A 24 (14): 2601–2627. arXiv:0907.3466. Bibcode:2009IJMPA..24.2601G. doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431.

[25] T.W.B. Kibble (2009). “Englert–Brout–Higgs– Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism”. Scholarpedia 4 (1): 6441. Bibcode:2009SchpJ...4.6441K. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.6441.

[26] M. Blume, S. Brown, Y. Millev (2008). “Letters from the past, a PRL retrospective (1964)". Physical Review Letters. Retrieved 2010-01-30.

[27] “J. J. Winners”. American Physical Society. 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-30.

[28] Aspect, Alain; Grangier, Philippe; Roger, Gérard (1982). “Experimental Realization of Einstein-Podolsky- Rosen-Bohm Gedankenexperiment: A New Viola- tion of Bell’s Inequalities”. Physical Review Let- ters 49 (2): 91. Bibcode:1982PhRvL..49...91A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.91.

[29] Aspect, Alain; Dalibard, Jean; Roger, Gérard (1982). “Experimental Test of Bell’s Inequalities Using Time- Varying Analyzers”. Physical Review Letters 49 (25): 1804. Bibcode:1982PhRvL..49.1804A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.1804.

[30] Müller, KA; Bednorz, JG (1987). “The discovery of a class of high-temperature superconductors”. Science 237 (4819): 1133–9. Bibcode:1987Sci...237.1133M. doi:10.1126/science.237.4819.1133. PMID 17801637.

[31] “Lene Hau”. Physicscentral.com. Retrieved 2013-01-30. 9

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