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Science in the Contemporary World an Encyclopedia Science in the Contemporary World An Encyclopedia Eric G. Swedin Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England © 2005 by Eric G. Swedin All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Swedin, Eric Gottfrid. Science in the contemporary world : an encyclopedia / Eric G. Swedin. p. cm. (ABC-CLIO’s history of science series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-85109-524-1 (hardback : acid-free paper)–ISBN 1-85109-529-2 (eBook) 1. Science—Encyclopedias. I.Title. II. Series: ABC-CLIO’s history of science series. Q121.S94 2005 503—dc22 2004026950 07 06 05 04 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is available on the World Wide Web as an e-book.Visit abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper . Manufactured in the United States of America Contents Preface and Acknowledgments, xi Introduction, xiii Topic Finder, xxiii Science in the Contemporary World: An Encyclopedia A Biology and the Life Sciences, 33 Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, 1 Biotechnology, 36 Agriculture, 3 Birth Control Pill, 37 Alvarez, Luis W.(1911–1988), and Walter Black Holes, 40 Alvarez (1940–), 6 Boyer, Herbert (1936–), 41 Anthropology, 7 Broecker,Wallace S. (1931–), 42 Apollo Project, 9 Archaeology, 11 C Artificial Intelligence, 13 Carson, Rachel (1907–1964), 45 Asimov, Isaac (1920–1992), 14 Centers for Disease Control and Associations, 16 Prevention, 46 Astronomy, 17 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1910–1995), 47 B Chaos Theory, 48 Bardeen, John (1908–1991), 21 Chemistry, 49 Barghoorn, Elso (1915–1984), 22 Chomsky, Noam (1928–), 51 Barton, Derek (1918–1998), 23 Clarke, Arthur C. (1917–), 52 Bell Burnell, Jocelyn (1943–), 23 Cloning, 53 Berners-Lee,Timothy (1955–), 25 Cognitive Science, 55 Big Bang Theory and Steady State Theory, Cohen, Stanley N. (1935–), 56 26 Cold Fusion, 57 Big Science, 28 Cold War, 58 Bioethics, 31 Computers, 60 vii viii Contents Cousteau, Jacques (1910–1997), 63 Glashow, Sheldon L. (1932–), 119 Creationism, 64 Global Warming, 119 Crick, Francis (1916–2004), 66 Goodall, Jane (1934–), 121 Crutzen, Paul (1933–), 67 Gould, Stephen Jay (1941–2002), 123 Grand Unified Theory, 123 D Green Revolution, 125 Dawkins, Richard (1941–), 69 Deep-Core Drilling, 70 H Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents, 70 Harlow, Harry F. (1905–1981), 127 Dobzhansky,Theodosius (1900–1975), 72 Hawking, Stephen (1942–), 128 Dyson, Freeman (1923–), 73 Hess, Harry (1906–1969), 129 History of Science, 130 E Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot Earthquakes, 75 (1910–1994), 132 Ecology, 76 Hoyle, Fred (1915–2001), 134 Economics, 79 Human Genome Project, 135 Edelman, Gerald M. (1929–), 81 Hydrogen Bomb, 137 Edwards, Robert (1925–), 83 Ehrlich, Paul R. (1932–), 84 I El Niño, 85 In Vitro Fertilization, 141 Elion, Gertrude B. (1918–1999), 86 Integrated Circuits, 142 Enders, John (1897–1985), 87 International Geophysical Year Engelbart, Douglas (1925–), 88 (1957–1958), 144 Environmental Movement, 89 Internet, 146 Ethics, 93 European Space Agency, 94 J Evolution, 95 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 149 Extrasolar Planets, 98 K F Kinsey,Alfred C. (1894–1956), 151 Feminism, 101 Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth (1926–2004), 152 Feynman, Richard (1918–1988), 102 Kuhn,Thomas S. (1922–1996), 154 Fossey, Dian (1932–1985), 103 Kuno, Hisashi (1910–1969), 155 Foundations, 105 Franklin, Rosiland (1920–1958), 106 L Lasers, 157 Fuller, Buckminster (1895–1983), 107 Leakey Family, 159 Levi-Montalcini, Rita (1909–), 161 G Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1908–), 162 Gamow, George (1904–1968), 111 Libby,Willard F. (1908–1980), 164 Gell-Mann, Murray (1929–), 112 Lorenz, Edward N. (1917–), 164 Genetics, 113 Lorenz, Konrad (1903–1989), 165 Geology, 115 Lovelock, James (1919–), 166 Gilbert,Walter (1932–), 117 Lysenko,Trofim (1898–1976), 167 Contents ix M Organ Transplants, 216 Mandelbrot, Benoit (1924–), 169 Ozone Layer and Chlorofluorocarbons, Margulis, Lynn (1938–), 176 218 Masters,William H. (1915–2001), and P Virginia Johnson (1925–), 172 Particle Accelerators, 221 Mathematics, 173 Particle Physics, 223 Mayer, Maria Goeppert (1906–1972), Pauling, Linus (1901–1994), 225 175 Penrose, Roger (1931–), 226 Mayr, Ernst (1904–), 176 Pharmacology, 227 McClintock, Barbara (1902–1992), Philosophy of Science, 230 177 Physics, 231 Medawar, Peter (1915–1987), 178 Plate Tectonics, 233 Media and Popular Culture, 179 Popper, Karl (1902–1994), 234 Medicine, 180 Population Studies, 235 Meteorology, 182 Prions, 237 Microbiology, 185 Psychology, 238 Miller, Stanley L.(1930–), 187 Pulsars, 242 Minsky, Marvin (1927–), 188 Molina, Mario (1943–), 188 Q Monod, Jacques (1910–1976), 189 Quasars, 245 Müller, K. Alex (1927–), 191 R N Religion, 247 Nambu,Yoichiro (1921–), 193 Rogers, Carl R. (1902–1987), 249 Nanotechnology, 194 Rowland, F. Sherwood (1927–), 250 Nash, John F. (1928–), 195 National Aeronautics and Space S Administration (NASA), 196 Sabin, Albert (1906–1993), 253 National Geographic Society, 198 Sagan, Carl (1934–1996), 254 National Institutes of Health, 199 Sakharov,Andrei (1921–1989), 256 National Science Foundation, 200 Salk, Jonas (1914–1995), 257 Neumann, John von (1903–1957), 201 Sanger, Frederick (1918–), 259 Neuroscience, 203 Satellites, 260 Neutrinos, 205 Schwinger, Julian (1918–1994), 263 Nobel Prizes, 206 Science Fiction, 263 Nuclear Physics, 208 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, Nüsslein-Volhard, Christiane (1942–), 265 211 Selye, Hans (1907–1982), 268 Shoemaker, Eugene (1928–1997), 269 O Shoemaker-Levy Comet Impact, 270 Oceanography, 213 Skinner, B. F. (1904–1990), 271 Oppenheimer, J. Robert (1904–1967), Smallpox Vaccination Campaign, 215 273 xContents Social Constructionism, 274 V Sociobiology and Evolutionary Volcanoes, 301 Psychology, 275 Voyager Spacecraft, 303 Sociology of Science, 277 Soviet Academy of Sciences, 278 Soviet Union, 279 W Space Exploration and Space Science, War, 305 281 Watson, James D. (1928–), 306 Steptoe, Patrick (1913–1988), 285 Wheeler, John A. (1911–), 308 Symbiosis, 286 Wiles, Andrew (1953–), 309 Wilson, Edward O. (1929–), 310 T Wilson, John Tuzo (1908–1993), 312 Telescopes, 289 World Health Organization, 313 Teller, Edward (1908–2003), 291 Wu, Chien-Shiung (1912–1997), 314 Third World Science, 293 Tsui, Daniel C. (1939–), 294 Tsui, Lap-Chee (1950–), 295 Y Yalow, Rosalyn (1921–), 317 U Undersea Exploration, 297 Universities, 299 Chronology, 319 Selected Bibliography, 327 Index, 337 About the Author, 382 Preface and Acknowledgments This encyclopedia is organized so that A book this substantial is not done in isola- approximately half of the entries are biogra- tion. I want to thank all the scientists and his- phies of people and the other half cover top- torians who have created the research that ics. Alas, I could not include everything. My this book draws upon. I also want to thank goals have been both breadth and selected the series editor, William E. Burns; my edi- depth. Individual scientists have been select- tors at ABC-CLIO, Simon Mason and Carla ed for inclusion both based on how important Roberts; and my copy editor, Silvine Farnell. their discoveries were and in an attempt to My family also supported me with their have a broad representation of the different enthusiasm for science and allowing me too scientific disciplines.Topics are examined in a much time squirreled away in my study. depth in proportion to how much change has Eric G. Swedin occurred in that scientific area since 1950. Weber State University xii Introduction World War II neatly divides the twentieth cen- The United States became scientifically tury in almost every historical way imaginable. assertive during the postwar years. Many sci- Few people on Earth were unaffected by that entists, especially Jewish scientists from titanic struggle. Old empires ended, ideolo- Germany, had fled to the United States and gies gained fresh power, and science and tech- continued their work in their new home.The nology gained a sharp boost.World War II has electrical engineer Vannevar Bush (1890– also been called the physicists’ war because 1974) directed the American Office of scientists and engineers developed many Scientific Research and Development during important weapons that fundamentally World War II. As the war drew to an end, changed the course of the war, including rock- Bush wrote an influential report arguing for ets, radar, proximity fuses, the electronic continued federal spending to develop new computer, and the mightiest weapon of all, the science and technology. His report led atomic bomb. (See Nuclear Physics; Physics.) Congress to create the National Science The American economy boomed during Foundation (NSF) in 1950. (See National World War II for many reasons, including a Science Foundation.) sense of shared purpose, the expansion of mil- The destruction of the war in Europe and itary forces that solved unemployment prob- Japan retarded the practice of science in lems, and massive armaments spending that those areas for at least a decade after the kept factories running at full capacity. war. After economic recovery, the practice Significant scientific and technological inno- of science was revitalized in Europe and vation occurred during the war, and that Japan. The United States,
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