This article was published in 1999 and has not been updated or revised. BEYONDBEYOND DISCOVERYDISCOVERYTM THE PATH FROM RESEARCH TO HUMAN BENEFIT WHEN THE EARTH MOVES SEAFLOOR SPREADING AND PLATE TECTONICS arly on the morning of Wednesday, April 18, the fault had moved, spanning nearly 300 miles, from 1906, people in a 700-mile stretch of the West San Juan Bautista in San Benito County to the south E Coast of the United States—from Coos Bay, of San Francisco to the Upper Mattole River in Oregon, to Los Angeles, California—were wakened by Humboldt County to the north, as well as westward the ground shaking. But in San Francisco the ground some distance out to sea. The scale of this movement did more than shake. A police officer on patrol in the was unheard of. The explanation would take some six city’s produce district heard a low rumble and saw the decades to emerge, coming only with the advent of the street undulate in front of him, “as if the waves of the theory of plate tectonics. ocean were coming toward me, billowing as they came.” One of the great achievements of modern science, Although the Richter Scale of magnitude was not plate tectonics describes the surface of Earth as being devised until 1935, scientists have since estimated that divided into huge plates whose slow movements carry the the 1906 San Francisco earthquake would have had a continents on a slow drift around the globe. Where the 7.8 Richter reading. Later that morning the disaster plates come in contact with one another, they may cause of crushed and crumbled buildings was compounded by catastrophic events, such as volcanic eruptions and earth- fires that broke out all over the shattered city. Some 700 quakes, which in turn can trigger the destructive ocean people were killed, another 250,000 were left homeless, waves known as tsunamis. Plate tectonics became widely and 28,000 buildings were destroyed. Financial losses accepted by earth scientists starting only in the 1960s. were estimated at $500 million, almost $9 billion today. As the following article relates, investigators pursuing The earthquake that struck San Francisco that basic questions in ocean and terrestrial science gradually morning would go down in history not only for its arrived at an understanding of how the planet’s crust destructiveness but also for works, an understanding what seemed at the time to be that now allows us to pre- its inexplicable characteristics. pare for times when the very Scientists of the period knew ground beneath our feet about the nearby San undulates like waves on Andreas fault and were the ocean. familiar with the idea that one side of such a crack in the planet’s crust could shift up Shattered by a powerful or down against the other to earthquake on April 18, cause a localized earthquake. 1906, the ruins of San But as geologists began exam- Francisco’s City Hall stand surrounded by thousands of ining this event, they were at tons of brick rubble. (Photo a loss to explain its magni- courtesy of the Museum of the tude. A very long section of City of San Francisco.) NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES But seismologists soon realized that the instruments also offered a way to probe the mysterious interior of From Earthquakes to the planet. By the start of World War I, a succession Continental Drift of researchers had studied the behavior of seismic waves to infer a planetary structure composed of concentric In the early 1890s, John Milne, a geologist teaching layers: an inner core (although there was disagreement at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo, devel- as to whether it was solid or fluid) covered by an inter- oped with colleagues the first accurate seismograph, an mediate layer of dense rock, the mantle, that began instrument used to record ground shaking, a frequent about 30 miles beneath the outermost surface crust. and sometimes devastating occurrence in Japan. A few Against this background of knowledge, a German years later a fire destroyed Milne’s home, his scientific meteorologist caused an uproar in the world of geolo- observatory, and the earthquake data he had collected gy with his bold theory about the nature of Earth’s over more than a decade while working in Japan. surface. In 1915, Alfred Wegener published The Discouraged but not defeated, Milne returned to his Origins of Continents and Oceans, in which he native Britain, where by the turn of the century he had addressed the puzzling match-up between the bulge established a bigger and bolder approach to the study of Brazil and the dent of southwestern Africa. He of earthquakes—a network of 27 instruments through- argued that the two continents had once been joined out the British empire. By the time Milne died in and had drifted apart. As additional evidence for 1913, 40 stations around the world were beginning continental displacement, or continental “drift” as to define the global pattern of earthquake location. the original German word was translated, Wegener A seismograph records vibrations produced by cited fossils of the Mesosaur, a 270-million-year-old sudden motion along a fault that generates several reptile found only in eastern South America and kinds of seismic, or “shaking,” waves—vibrations back western Africa. Most geologists of his generation and forth, side to side, and up and down. The first explained these similarities by postulating a connecting seismologists could distinguish two kinds of seismic land bridge that had later sunk out of sight into the waves, which move at different speeds. Primary, or P ocean. Wegener postulated, rather, that the Mesosaur waves, which alternately compress and dilate the mat- bones were found in these distant places because those ter in their path, arrive at the instrument first, inscrib- regions had come apart about 125 million years ago, ing a wavy line on a chart. Secondary, or S waves, slowly separating the groups of Mesosaur fossils. The which tend to oscillate snakelike, at right angles to continents of today drifted apart from a super-conti- their direction of motion, travel more slowly and have nent, which he called Pangaea. a more ragged seismographic signature. The interval The meteorologist was unsure as to how these between the arrival of the two types of waves can be huge slabs move around, but suggested that they used to calculate the distance of the monitoring sta- were propelled through the oceanic crust by Earth’s tion from the earthquake’s epicenter, the point on centrifugal force and the gravitational pull of the Sun Earth’s surface above the subterranean hypocenter, and Moon. Many influential geophysicists argued or source of the shock. The distances from three convincingly that such mechanisms were insufficient seismographic stations can be used to triangulate to the task. However, in 1929, one supporter, Arthur the hypocenter and place it precisely on the map. Holmes of England, suggested that convective flow Milne’s network ushered in the ability to detect of heated rock in the mantle beneath the crust might and locate earthquakes by remote sensing, a signifi- provide the required driving force—that is, as rocky cant contribution to science and society in itself. material deep in the mantle heats, it becomes less dense and rises toward the surface, where it cools and In the early 1890s, sinks, to be reheated and rise again. Without more British geologist John evidence of such a mechanism, however, the theory Milne was instru- of continental drift gained few adherents. mental in developing an accurate seismo- graph for recording the vibrations pro- duced by earthquakes. Magnetic Clues (Photo courtesy of the Evidence was hard to come by, but in the mid-1950s Science and Society Picture Library.) clues began accumulating in studies of magnetism in 2 BEYOND DISCOVERY This article was published in 1999 and has not been updated or revised. In 1915, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener published what came to be called the theory of con- tinental drift, in which he suggested that the continents had once been part of a supercontinent he named Pangaea. But without a convinc- ing mechanism for moving the continents around the globe, Wegener’s theory had few champi- ons for more than 40 years. (Figure adapted from Earth: Past and Present by Graham R. Thompson, Jonathan Turk, and Harold L. Levin, copyright 1995, by Harcourt, Inc., reproduced by permission of the publisher. Photo courtesy of the Alfred Wegener Institute of Polar and Marine Research.) rocks. Patrick M. S. Blackett (who received the 1948 Hess, a geologist at Princeton University, aided the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on nuclear physics U.S. military with one hand and geoscience with the and cosmic rays) at Imperial College, Stanley Keith other. As the commander of an attack transport Runcorn at Cambridge University, and Edward during World War II, Hess had the most powerful Bullard at the National Physical Laboratory in England model of an echo sounder available, and he ran it were studying magnetism in rocks as part of their almost constantly during his Pacific missions, intent research into the nature of Earth’s magnetic field. on expanding on what little was known about the Scientists knew that newly formed crustal rock would configuration of the seafloor. By sending out pulses record an imprint of the strength and orientation of of sound and listening for return echoes from the Earth’s magnetic field at the time of the rock’s forma- seafloor, a sonar instrument can measure the dis- tion. Looking to see whether the rock’s magnetism tance between a ship and the ocean bottom.