Observations of Magnetars: from Outburst to Quiescence

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Observations of Magnetars: from Outburst to Quiescence Observations of Magnetars: From Outburst to Quiescence Paul Andrew Scholz Department of Physics McGill University Montréal, Québec Canada November 2016 A Thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Paul Andrew Scholz, 2016 Dedicated to my parents, who made all this possible. Abstract Magnetars are pulsars, rotating neutron stars, that display extreme activity and typically have X- ray luminosities that are in excess of their rotational energy loss. The cause of both the activity and excess luminosity is thought to be the large energy reservoir provided by their high magnetic fields. We present studies of three different magnetars, 1E 1547−5408, Swift J1822.3−1606, and 1RXS J170849.0−400910. Using detailed spectral and timing observations of these three magne- tars from the Swift, Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, Chandra, and XMM-Newton X-ray telescopes, we test several different aspects of the magnetar model. Specifically, we study the correlation between the hardness and flux of the X-ray emission following magnetar outbursts, the relation between timing and radiative activity, and whether a magnetic field in excess of ∼ 1014 G is required to power magnetar activity. We first present Swift observations of 1E 1547−5408 following its 2009 January outburst. We show the X-ray radiative evolution following the outburst as well as a statistical study of the short X-ray bursts emitted during the event. We find that the X-ray flux increased by a factor of ∼>500 and hardened significantly. We present the hardness-flux evolution of the persistent emission of the 2008 and 2009 outbursts of 1E 1547−5408 and compare it to those from other magnetars and find that although an overall trend does exist, the degree of hardening for a given increase in flux is not uniform from source to source. We then present two studies of the newly discovered low-magnetic-field magnetar (i.e lower than ∼ 1014 G) Swift J1822.3−1606. First, we present a timing analysis of the first ∼ 400 days following the 2011 July outburst that resulted in the magnetar’s discovery. We show that the timing measurements are affected by the choice of number of frequency derivatives and that there is ambiguity in its timing properties and thus spin-down measured magnetic field. Us- ing an additional ∼ 500 days of Swift observations, we then resolve the timing ambiguity in Swift J1822.3−1606 by finding that it was due to an unmodelled exponential recovery following a glitch at the onset of the 2011 July outburst. After accounting for the glitch recovery, we mea- sure a long-term spin-down rate which implies a dipolar magnetic field of 1:35 × 1013 G, lower than all previous estimates for this source, and the second lowest measured for any magnetar showing conclusively that Swift J1822.3−1606 is a low-magnetic field magnetar. Lastly, we present a X-ray flux and spectral analysis of the magnetar 1RXS J170849.0−400910 over a baseline of 10 years and show that the X-ray flux did not vary significantly and there is only evidence for low-level spectral variability. This is in contrast with previous studies in which significant flux variability associated with rotational glitches was claimed. This shows v that magnetar timing activity can occur without any radiative changes. We then conclude by comparing the radiative properties of the three magnetars and show how their differences and similarities fit into the overall magnetar population. We hypothesize that transient magnetars like 1E 1547−5408 evolve into the slower-rotating persistent magnetars such as 1RXS J170849.0−400910 and then undergo significant magnetic field decay and cooling to evolve into the low-magnetic-field magnetars similar to Swift J1822.3−1606. We discuss how these observations relate to magnetothermal models of magnetar evolution as well as how they fit within the wider pulsar population. Résumé Les magnétoiles sont des pulsars radios (un type d’étoile à neutrons en rotation) sujettes à des évènements extrêmement énergétiques, et ont typiquement des luminosités dans les rayons X plus grandes que la quantité d’énergie libérée via rotation. Les champs magnétiques très puis- sants des magnétoiles pourraient agir en tant que réservoirs d’énergie et pourraient possiblement expliquer ces évènements énergétiques ainsi que leurs grandes luminosités. Une étude de trois différentes magnétoiles, soit 1E 1547−5408, Swift J1822.3−1606, et 1RXS J170849.0−400910, est présentée dans cette thèse. En utilisant des observations spectrales et chronométriques très dé- taillées de ces trois sources prisent par les télescopes rayon X Swift, Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, Chandra et XMM-Newton, nous testons plusieurs aspects des différents modèles de magnétoiles. Plus précisément, nous étudions la corrélation entre l’énergie moyenne des photons et le flux des émissions dans les rayons X suivant les évènements radiatifs des magnétoiles, la relation entre les changements dans les paramètres chronométriques et les activités radiatives, et nous tentons de déterminer s’il est nécessaire d’avoir un champ magnétique en excès d’environ 1014 G pour alimenter les activités des magnétoiles. Premièrement, les observations de 1E 1547−5408 prisent avec le télescope rayon X Swift suivant l’évènement radiatif qui s’est produit en janvier 2009 sont présentées, incluant l’évolution radiative dans les rayons X ainsi qu’une étude statistique du court sursaut énergétique émit durant l’évènement radiatif. Le flux dans les rayons X a augmenter par un facteur de plus 500 et les photons sont devenus plus énergétiques. L’évolution du flux et de l’énergie moyenne des photons associée à l’émission persistante des évènements radiatifs de 2008 et de 2009 de la magnétoile 1E 1547−5408 est présentée et comparée à celles produites par d’autres magnétoiles. On peut y conclure que même si, en général, une tendance existe, l’augmentation de l’énergie moyenne des photons pour une certaine augmentation dans le flux n’est pas uniforme d’une source à l’autre. Ensuite, deux études portant sur la magnétoile récemment découverte ayant un faible champ magnétique, Swift J1822.3−1606, sont apportées dans ce travail. D’abord, une analyse chrono- métrique des données collectées durant les premiers 400 jours suivant l’évènement radiatif de juillet 2011 (ayant mené à la découverte de cette magnétoile) est présentée. Nous démontrons que les mesures chronométriques sont affectées par le choix du nombre de dérivées des fréquences et qu’il y a une ambiguïté dans les propriétés chronométriques, donc dans la détermination du champ magnétique via le ralentissement de la rotation de l’étoile. En utilisant environ 500 jours d’observations supplémentaires avec le télescope Swift, nous résolvons cette ambiguïté et nous trouvons que celle-ci s’expliquait par un rétablissement exponentiel qui n’était pas modélisé, vii suivant un changement soudain dans sa vitesse de rotation lors de l’évènement radiatif de juillet 2011, un phénomène que l’on appelle ‘glitch’. Après avoir considéré le rétablissement suivant le ‘glitch’, nous déterminons un ralentissement à long terme de la vitesse de rotation, ce qui im- plique un champ magnétique dipolaire d’environ 1:35 × 1013 G. Cette mesure de la force du champ magnétique est plus faible que tous les autres estimés faits pour cette source, et la deux- ième plus faible de toutes les magnétoiles connues, ce qui catégorise Swift J1822.3−1606 comme étant une magnétoile à faible champ magnétique. Dernièrement, une analyse du flux et du spectre dans les rayons X de la magnétoile 1RXS J170849.0−400910 basée sur 10 ans de données est présentée dans cette thèse. Ces don- nées suggèrent que le flux de rayons X n’a pas varié de façon significative et qu’il y a une minime variabilité dans le spectre. Ce résultat est en contraste avec de précédentes études, lesquelles sou- tiennent que des variations de flux sont associées aux changements dans la vitesse de rotation. Ceci suggère que les moments où il y changements dans les paramètres chronométriques peuvent se produire sans qu’il y ait de changement dans les propriétés radiatives. Pour conclure, une comparaison entre les propriétés radiatives des trois magnétoiles à l’étude est faite et nous démontrons comment leurs différences et leurs similarités cadrent dans la popu- lation globale des magnétoiles. Hypothétiquement, les magnétoiles transitoires comme 1E 1547−5408 pourraient évoluer en magnétoiles avec des rotations lentes, comme 1RXS J170849.0−400910, pour ensuite refroidir et subir une diminution dans la force de leurs champs magnétiques et puis éventuellement devenir des magnétoiles avec un faible champ mag- nétique, comme Swift J1822.3−1606. Une discussion regardant la manière dont cette observation est reliée aux modèles magnétothermiques de l’évolution des magnétoiles ainsi que comment cela s’insère dans la plus large population de pulsars radios est finalement soulevée dans cette thèse. Contents Abstract v Résumé vii Acknowledgments xv Preface xvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Neutron Stars and Pulsars ............................ 1 1.1.1 History .................................. 1 1.1.2 Description ................................ 2 1.1.3 Pulsar Power Sources .......................... 3 1.1.4 Pulsar Spin Down ............................ 5 1.2 Magnetars .................................... 8 1.2.1 Discovery ................................ 8 1.2.2 Phenomenology: The Many Faces of Magnetars ............. 10 1.2.3 Theory: The Magnetar Model ...................... 14 1.2.4 The Emerging Magnetar Population ................... 16 2 Telescopes and Techniques 19 2.1 X-ray Observatories ............................... 19 2.1.1 X-ray Detectors ............................. 19 2.1.2 X-ray Optics ............................... 21 2.1.3 The Swift Gamma Ray Burst Mission .................. 21 2.1.4 The Chandra X-ray Observatory ..................... 23 2.1.5 The XMM-Newton Telescope ....................... 24 2.1.6 The Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer ...................
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