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AUTHOR Thorne, Muriel M., Ed. TITLE NASA, The First 25 Years: 1958-83. A Resource for Teachers. A Curriculum Project. INSTITUTION National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO EP-182 PUB DATE 83 NOTE 132p.; Some colored photographs may not reproduce clearly. AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. PUB TYPE Books (010) -- Reference Materials - General (130) Historical Materials (060)
EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Aerospace Education; *Aerospace Technology; Energy; *Federal Programs; International Programs; Satellites (Aerospace); Science History; Secondary Education; *Secondary School Science; *Space Exploration; *Space Sciences IDENTIFIERS *National Aeronautics and Space Administration
ABSTRACT This book is designed to serve as a reference base from which teachers can develop classroom concepts and activities related to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The book consists of a prologue, ten chapters, an epilogue, and two appendices. The prologue contains a brief survey of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NASA's predecessor. The first chapter introduces NASA--the agency, its physical plant, and its mission. Succeeding chapters are devoted to these NASA program areas: aeronautics; applications satellites; energy research; international programs; launch vehicles; space flight; technology utilization; and data systems. Major NASA projects are listed chronologically within each of these program areas. Each chapter concludes with ideas for the classroom. The epilogue offers some perspectives on NASA's first 25 years and a glimpse of the future. Appendices include a record of NASA launches and a list of the NASA educational service offices. (JN)
*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *************************************************%********************* NASA, The First 25 Years
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER IERICI 1958 -1983 This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organoiation originating it Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality
Points of view or opinions slated in this docu mpnt do not necessarily represent official NIE position or policy
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A Resource for Teachers NASA, The First 25 Years 1958-1983 A Resource for Teachers
A curriculum project
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 1983
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Table of Contents
4 Introduction
7 Preface
9 Foreword 10 Prologue National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 18 Chapter I National Aeronautics and Space Administration 26 Chapter II Aeronautics 36 Chapter III Applications Satellites 48 Chapter IV Energy Research 56 Chapter V International Programs 64 Chapter VI Launch Vehicles 72 Chapter VII Space Flight 88 Chapter VIII Space Science 104 Chapter IX Technology Utilization 110 Chapter X Tracking and Data Systems 118 Epilogue Perspectives, Plarg, Prospects 126 Appendix I NASA Major Launch Record, 1958-1983 132 Appendix II NASA Educational Services Introduction
In 1958 a unique Federal agency Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF), activities to college and university was established with a mandatefrom and the first materials for the class- engineering and science students. the Congress to "plan. direct, and room teacher, K-12, were produced. Our ISEF program soon added conduct aeronautical and space ac- As NASA's projects were devel- NASA awards for affiliated state and tivities." That simply stated charge to oped, conducted, and completed. our regional science fairs. Next, there the National Aeronautics and Space educational office and programs grew were Youth Science Congresses fol- Administration began 25 years of apace. The staff now encompasses a lowed by the Skylab Student Project aeronautical and space programs branch in the Public Affairs Division which enabled 19 high school stu- and projects that brought dreams to at NASA Headquarters in Washing- dents to fly experiments on the reality, made engineering ideas into ton, D.C. and educational programs spacecraft, and a Viking Student technological accomplishments, de- officers in seven NASA Centers that Project to select an emblem for the veloped practical applications of nerve specific geographic regions. In Viking Lander spacecraft. Since 1980 space research, presented ever-new 1983, the Spacemobile is but one the Shuttle Student Involvement Proj- frontiers of science, and at last part of the Aerospace Education ect has given high school students effected regular operational service Services Project (AESP) and now an opportunity to develop experi- of the Shuttle. These 25 years of provides lecturers who work in class- ments for Shuttle flights. At several space ventures and discoveries and rooms as well as assembly halls: the NASA Centers there are academic the excitement they engendered were simple experiments and scale mod- year and summer programs for se- shared by millions. For the new els of space hardware used in their lected local students, and career agency had another mandate: to lectures have changed through the information related to NASA and "provide for the widest practicable years with each new NASA activity. aerospace industry has been made and appropriate dissemination of in- There is also an Aeronauticsmobile available. formation concerning its activities that visits schools to discuss NASA Through the years we have also and the results thereof." research and development in that responded to the community, making Thus, in 1960. NASA established field. Two years ago the AESP both educational staff and AESP an office to serve the educational introduced two new programs: the specialists available for civic clubs community. Our staff was small, the Urban Community Enrichment Pro- and professional organizations. Au- programs few. Aerospace specialists gram (UCEP) to stimulate learning at diovisual consultants assist in the travelled to schools with the Space the middle school level in large Tities, programming of materials for radio mobiles assembly program and as- and CLASS (College Lecturers on and television. and we provide sup- sisted aerospace education summer Aeronautics and Space Sciences), to port to programs operated by plane- workshops for teachers. there were bring a better understanding of the tariums, m iseums. and science NASA awards at the International agency's research and development centers. On invitation from individual
4 communities, our "Community In- and folders has come a wide range historical overview of NASA's first 25 volvement Programs" involve the en- of materials. There are curriculum years, the growth and scope. tire spectrum of the local populace in supplements, bibliographies, single The Shuttle has fostered a new an aerospace event. resource units, reprints from profes enthusiasm and interest among We have developed a strong audio- sional journals, and explanatory school students who have grown up visual program over the years, which briefs. There are teacher's guides for with daily satellite weather maps and now includes the production of films, specific publications as well as class- with the Moon and planets as places with teaching guides, for specific room films, and the NASA Report to to visit. We hope this compilation of classroom use; full-length planetari- Educators, a quarterly newsletter. outstanding events since 1958 not um programs; and curriculum mate- Often, publications have been sug- only celebrates NASA's 25th anniver- rials on videotape. We attempt to gested by teachers searching for sary, but also contributes to today's stay in the forefront in the use of pertinent up-to-date information with classrooms a sense of the un- educational technologylast year, which to enrich their programs. paralleled wonder and excitement the laser disc was added to the NASA, The First 25 Years is a that accompanied each succeeding lecture programs and aerospace a:- response to such requests. A record event. It may even serve as a tivities for microcomputers have been book of aerospace facts, it differs springboard for the imaginations of developed for teacher workshops. from earlier publications in both sub- youngsters whose ideas will become Another special program devel- ject and form. Today's high school reality in their future, the next 25 oped for teachers is the Lunar students were born after the first years. Sample Educational Packet, a lunar satellites discovered the Van Allen NASA's Technical Monitor and and planetary sciences teaching aid radiation belts and revolutionized editor for this project was Muriel M. using samples of lunar material en- communications and meteorology, Thorne, Educational Programs capsulated in a clear plastic disc. and after men had orbited Earth; Officer, under the general direction of And several Vis :tor Information Cen- today's elementary students did not William D. Nixon, Chief of Education ters at NASA installations have 9s- watch the lunar landings. For their Services, NASA. tablished resource rooms for teachers, this is a summary of the educators. important dates, projects, goals, and National Aeronautics and From the outset, our educational achievements that are history for Space Administration publications have covered a variety of their charges. With an introduction Washington, D.C. subjectsthe broad scope of the outlining the United States research May 1983 agency's programs, the aims of indi- in air and space technology during vidual projects, the specific results of the first half of the century, it is othersand from the initial booklets intended as a ready reference, an Preface
The United States has been in the research, writing, and editing of space for 25 years. During these this book. Particular thanks go to years we have seen many "firsts," Muriel Thorne of the Education Ser- including the first American satellite vices Branch. We are also indebted in orbit, the first Americans in space, to the Public Affairs Officers for the the first humans to set foot on the several program offices: Kenneth C. Moon. We have pushed the state of Atchison, Aeronautics and Space the art in aeronautical research and Technology; David W. Garrett and probed the secrets of planets in our James F. Kukowski, Space Flight; solar system. To remember or to Debra J. Rahn, International Affairs; recall each of the many accomplish- and Charles R. Redmond, Space ments would be difficult. We have Science and Applications. compiled on the 25th anniversary this historical resource book to give teachers easy access to NASA ac- Jane D'Alelio tivities since the agency was founded Jane Tully in 1958. Wendy Cortesi We are grateful to the many scientists and engineers at NASA Washington, D.C. Headquarters who have supported May 1983
7 7 Forewo.
Because it is impossible to mation the user may wish to add. describe the 25 years of NASA's The epilogue offers some perspec- research and missions in detail, this tives on these first 25 years and a book is designed to provide a glimpse of the future. Appendices reference base from which teachers include a record of NASA launches can develop classroom concepts and and a list of the NASA educational activities. services offices. It begins with a prologue, a brief For detailed research the teacher history of the National Advisory Com- should: Request a current catalogue mittee for Aeronautics, NASA's pre- of publications with a price list from decessor. Chapter I introduces the Superintendent of Documents, NASAthe agency, its physical Government Printing Office, Wash- plant, and its mission. Succeeding ington, DC 20402; obtain a copy of chapters are devoted to major NASA NASA's annotated Aerospace Bibli- programs, in alphabetical order: with- ography, Seventh Edition from the in the chapters projects are listed GPO (Stock No. 033-000-00861-9, chronologically. Each chapter con- $6.00): and, of course, consult the cludes with ideas for the classroom indispensable Readers' Guide to and space for notes and new infor- Periodical Literature.
9 ---
9 Prologue National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Nineteen hundred. The first Age of Flight was 117 years old and balloons were both transportation and sport. Jules Verne that year would see many of hisfictional ideas as technical fact at the Paris World's Fair. His younger contemporary H. G. Wells, was a recognized author of spaceand time fiction. Orville and Wilbur Wright, two brothers who owned a bicycle shop in Dayton,Ohio, were preparing to test their newly-invented glider on the North Carolina Outer Banks. And 17-year-oldRobert Goddard held fast a vision of spaceflight that had come to himwhen he climbed a cherry tree. Three years later Orville and Wilbur Wright changed the world. On December 17, 1903, at 10:35 a.m. nearKitty Hawk, North Carolina, in a 27-mile-an-hourwind from the north, Orville Wright made thefirst powered flight. 12 seconds. 120 feet. The machinewith the homemade 12-hp engine rose from the ground and
First Wind Tunnel. Dedicated in 1920, this wind tunnel wasactually put into operation In 1918 at the Langley MemorialAeronautical Laboratory.
11 landed at a point as high as the one powered flight; the English Channel in America began operation in 1914. from which it started. Quietly, un- was crossed; international meets Passenger and cargo potential were heralded, in an isolated spot the two took place on both sides of the being recognized. FiInes and fly- brothers fulfilled an age-old dream Atlantic; the Wright Factory in Dayton ing schools were established. When and the age of heavier-than-air flight produced aircraft manufactured to a World War I came, every major was reality. standard design pattern. There was nation had aeronautical research fa- After the Wrights invention be- radio from plane to ground, a landing cilitiesexcept the United States. came known, progress in aeronautics on the deck of a ship, and the first was rapid and continual with new practical seaplane. The first U.S. flight records established regularly. transcontinental flight from Long Is- During the next decade: The Wrights land to California took 49 days, NACA sold their Military Flyer to the U.S. including 82 hours, 2 minutes flying Army; in 1906 Europe saw its first time, and 70 landings. 1912 was the year for the first parachute jump from It was this lack of a government an airplane and when the aircraft laboratory devoted to tho science of speed record was 108.17 mph. flight that prompted the creation of The first regularly scheduled airline
12 11 Orville Wright at the controls of the Wright Flyer as the first flight was made on December 17, 103. Wilbur Wright, running alongsia9 one wing tip, was able to keep up with it.
seeing; the NACA cowling (1928) for air-cooled radial engines, a stream- lined shape that increased aircraft speed, led to the low-wing multi- engine air transports and bombers of the 1930s; systematic studies of aerodynamic drag reduction improved design practices, including the ad- vantages of retractable landing wheels over fixed, exposed landing gear. 1" S A second research center, the SAP Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, was constructed near San Francisco in *V10,4 1939 with a wind tunnel that dwarfed its predecessor at Langley. A third facility, which was later named the Lewis Fligt.t Propulsion Laboratory, was built in Cleveland in 1940 to perform basic research, develop and test aircraft engines, and study fuels. Research on the jet engine began there in 1943.
LI The second World War focused aeronautical research on combat air-
IOW craft and NACA work on aerodynam- -"vidow. ics and structural research resulted in extremely effective fighter planes. Vit: ..:. Postwar research at higher speeds led to high-altutude drop-test models 4,rtm,leer r4" Joi 4ft, -.77.1=0 to gather flight data; then, to using * 01 itaikbb .4 rock 'tto launch models to transonic .ove.40 taw (speeus from just below to just above 110 the speed of sound) and supersonic 1110, speeds. Langley acquired a surplus naval station on Wallops Island, Vir- the National Advisory Committee for aircraft and the research needs of ginia, and called it the Pilotless Aeronautics, or NACA. It was found- aeronautics, then set about building Aircraft Research Division. Next, a ed in 1915, just before the United the scientific staff and unique re- High-Speed Flight Research Station StateS entry into the War, to bring search facilities required. was established at Muroc (later Ed- competence to the backwardness of wards), California, for a series of American aviation. Facilities special research aircraft. For 43 years the NACA excelled in In June 1920, the first laboratory, carrying out its chartered mandate the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Research During the years of aeronautical ". . . tosupervise and direct the sci- Laboratory.in Hampton, Virginia, was entific study of the problems of flight, dedicated; aerodynamics became the progress, a lone figure had been with a view of their practical solu- major research effort and wind-tun- investigating rockets as "A Method of tion." nels the chief tool. Within ten years Reaching Extreme Altitudes." Dr. The Committee first surveyed the the results were impressive and rec- Robert H. Goddard published such a current stage of development of ognition worldwide: The up-to-date titled paper in 1919. Seven years later wind tunnels were hailed as far- he launched the first liquid propellant
13 12 A
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First meeting of the National Advi- roclec. For the next two decades. he By the end of World War II NACA's sory Committee for Aeronautics, ducted idsearch, built and flew research had led to rocket propulsion tpril 23, 1915. Seated, left to right: -ts, provided a mathematical and air and space flight had met. Dr William F. Durand, Stanford ar uis for multistage rockets, and The X-series of rocket research air- University; Dr. S. W. Stratton, Di- amassed more than 150 pates is by craft began in 1944. The X-1 was reutor, National Bureau of Stan- the time of his death in 1945. built specifically to investigate the dards; Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven, Chief Signal Officer, War Department; Dr. Charles F. Marvin, Chief, U.S. Weather Bureau; Dr. Michael I. Pupin, Columbia Univer- sity. Standing, left to right: Holden C. Richardson, Naval Constructor; Dr. John F. Hayford, Northwestern University; Capt. Mark L. Bristol, Director of Naval Aeronautics; Lt. Col. Samuel Reber, Signal Corps, in Charge of Aviation Section. Also present were Dr. Joseph S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University and the Hon. B. R. Newton, As- 'Uctd:': sistant Secretary of the Treasury (above).
Dr. Richard T. Whitcomb with a research model of a superson'c transport. The indentation in the fuselage incorporated the Area Rule design concept he dis- covered (right).
14 13 transonic region and to break the sound barrier. On October 14, 1947, Air Force Capt. Charles E. Yeager piloted the X-1 through the speed of sound for the first time. Beginning with the X-1's historic flight, the Research Airplane Program success- fully provided a series of flight vehi- cles that explored areas of performance and effects of designs in the transonic and supersonic re- gions for more than 20 years. At Langley a transonic wind tunnel was created in 1950, a tool that researcher Richard T. Whitcomb used in discovering the "area rule" (the cross-section areas of an aircraft should not alter (co rapidly from the Prot to back of a plane). A genuine breakthrough in airplane design, its immediate application allowedmili- tary aircraft to break the sound barrier in level flight. Most famous of the X research planes was the X-15. An idea in 1952, it achieved its designed alti- tude and speed objectives in 1968, thus spanning the transition from The X-1, first aircraft to fly faster aeronautical research to the new than the speed of sound in level Space Age. flight.
International NACA Geophysical Becomes Year NASA
The International Geophysical Year (IGY) was observed from July 1957 The success of Sputnik spurred the creation of a new agency to to December 1958. Its scientific program included a proposal to develop a national space program, launch satellites that would measure which President Eisenhower wanted Earth from space. Russia orbited to emphasize the peaceful uses of Sputnik on October 4, 1957, and the research and development. Three United States, Explorer 1, four agencies vied for leadership: the months later. The first U.S. satellite Atomic Energy Commission, the De- partment of Defense, and NACA. was launched by the Army. Named Explorerits mission was to explore The NACA proposal combined the unknownthe satellite fulfilled aeronautic and space research with a '1 America's commitment to the IGY. 4 solid scientific base. The Committee also could offer experience in work- And its small package of instruments produced the first major discovery of January 31, 1958. The Jupltcr -C ing closely with the military as well the Space Age, the Van Allen radia- rocket on the launch pad at Cape tion belts surrounding Earth. Canaveral prior to launching Ex- plorer 1.
15 14 Flight Research Team. Pilot and scientist worked together in early aeronautical research tests at the Langley Laboratory (right).
Dr. Robert H. Goddard standing beside the first liquid-propellant rocket which flew at Auburn, Mas- sachusetts, March 16, 1926 (below).
as providing research for civil appli- cations. By April 1958, the adminis- tration's position and the NACA proposal had been combined into a bill for creating a national aeronautics and space agency. On July 29, w, President Eisenhower signed into law the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. NACA was a service agency. By discharging its primary responsibil- ityscientific laboratory research in aeronauticsit both served the needs of all Government depart- ments and coordinated aeronautical research in the U.S. Through mem- bership on committees and subcom- mittees, it linked government agencies concerned with flight, the aviation and allied industries, and education and scientific institutions; through sponsored research, sym- posia, and technical conferences and reports, it distributed research infor- mation. The new agency had NACA as its nucleus. The NACA staff, facilities, programs and respot sibilities wore transferred to NASA. Its tradition of excellence also was a legacy to the new organization when NACA ceased to exist on September 30, 1958.
16 For the Classroom
1. Have your students prepare a timeline of human interest in flight, of a history of flight, of powered flight. 2. Research topics: The precursors of the Wright Brothers The X-series of research aircraft Women in aviation Flight between 1903 and 1918 Flight as sport and as transpor- tation The history of rocketry 3. For book reports, have your stu- dents select biographies of avia- tion and space pioneers.
16 17 c ti eCICLe k*, t#3 4 I
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
On October 1, 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration came into being
"...devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind." NACA Headquarters staff in Washington and their colleagues in the three laboratories and two flight stations became the foundation of the new organiza- tion. Later, two Army programs were transferred: the Development Operations Division of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, and the Jet Propulsion Labora- tory in Pasadena, California.
18 I Organization
From the start, NASA was a network of centers and facilities across the
United States with its headquarters in It , L Washington, D.C. . Headquarters The NASA Headquarters offices manage the spaceflight centers, re- search centers, and other installa- tions. The staff t-as responsibility for determining projects and programs; establishing management policies, 4 procedures, and performance criteria and review; and analysis of all phases of the aerospace program. As with any vital, growing, active organization there have been many reorganizations during NASA's 25 years. Programs have been initiated, conducted, concluded. Directions have changed and management has -A1411 I adapted to each succeeding realign- ment. But the overall mission has remainedaerospace research and development for the benefit of all which can be introduced through the program offices. 11 The Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology has two primary responsibilities: In aeronautics, to develop the technology needed to assure safer, more efficient, economi- The Office of Space Flight is The Dolley Madison House, named cal, and environmentally acceptable responsible for the research, devel- for the President's wife who lived air transportation systems; in space opment, and operations of space- there for several years, was the site research and technology, to provide flight programs, including the Space of NASA's first Headquarters. a technology base to support current Shuttle. and future space activities, to coordi- The Office of Tracking and Data of research and development ac- nate the agency's total program of Systems is responsible for the devel- tivities is conducted in the installa- supporting research and technology opment, implementation, and opera- tions by government-employed related to carrying out specific flight tion of tracking, data acquisition, scientists, engineers, and technicians missions to insure an integrated and command, communications, data who also manage contracts with balanced agency research program, processing facilities, and systems universities and industries. Its many and to coordinate NASA's support of and services required to support laboratoriessubsonic, transonic, other federal agencies in energy NASA flight missions. supersonic wind tunnels; propulsion research and development. test facilities; elaborate computer The Office of Space Science and Facilities systems; flight simulators; flight test Applications is responsible for re- In addition to Headquarters there capabilitieshave rightly been called search and development activities in are now ten NASA field installations a national resource. Earth resources; meteorology; com- and a contract-operated laboratory. munications; life sciences; and. by Three were specifically sited and Ames Research Center using a variety of flight systems and constructed for NASA. A broad range (ARC) ground-based observations, to in- When NACA's Ames Laboratories crease knowledge of the universe. in Mountain View, California, became
20 19 Johnson Space Center (JSC) The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center near Houston is responsible for design, development, and testing of manned flight vehicles; for selec- tion and training of spaceflight crews;
111 ground control of manned flights; and
i. many of the experiments carried aboard the flights. The lead Center in management of the Space Shuttle program, one of its best known facilities is the Mission Control Center from which manned flights, starting with Gemini IV, have
ri been controlled.
It sIFA t ,:t Kennedy Space Center ,,rs.,, `, Ri (KSC) The John F. Kennedy Space Cen- ter in Florida is NASA's primary NASA's first leaders. Hugh L. Dry- neer, the Goddard Space Flight Cen- center for the test, checkout, and den is presented his commission ter at Greenbelt, Maryland, was the la'rnch of space vehicles and will be as deputy administrator by Presi- first facility built for NASA. Its main the primary launch and landing site dent Eisenhower with T. Keith responsibility has concerned the de- for the Space Shuttle. Glennan, administrator, looking sign, development, and construction Located on Merritt Island near on. of Earth-orbiting scientific and appli- cape Canaveral, KSC was created to cation satellites and their tracking launch the Apollo lunar missions and NASA's Ames Research Center, it and data analysis. Its first program, was used for both Skylab and the continued to focus on basic and Explorer 6, was followed by other Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. KSC also applied research in the aeronautical, Explorers, several observatory space- launches a variety of unmanned physical, space, and life sciences. Its cral c, and meteorological and Earth vehicles from facilities at the Eastern programs include short and vertical resource satellites. It manages the Space and Missile Center, Cape takeoff and landing (STOL and sounding rocket program, and the Canaveral, and the Western Space VTOL) technology, operation of Tracking and Data Relay Satellite and Missile Center in California. NASA's Kuiper airborne observatory, System (TDRSS) is under its aegis. and Pioneer, its first space project. GSFC also operates the National Langley Research Center Space Science Data Center for stor- (LaRC) ing and distributing information NACA's first laboratory in Hamp- Dryden Flight Research gained from NASA Earth-orbital and ton, Virginia, has continued as a Facility (DFRF) deep space missions, F1nd, in New research center where the develop- NACA's High Speed Flight Station York City, the Goddard institute for ment of advanced concepts and at Edwards. California, was first re- Space Studies. technology for future aircraft empha- named Flight Research Center and sizes environmental effects, perfor- later. for Hugh L. Dryden, long-time Jet Propulsion mance, range. safety. and oconomy. director of NACA and NASA's first Laboratory (JPL) The Center was responsible for the deputy administrator. Its functions NASA-owned and contract-op- Lunar Orbiter and Viking Mars lander have always been related to aero- erated by the California Institute of projects and was the home of Project nautical programsthe X series of Technology in Pasadena, JPL devel- Mercury. It is developing the Long research aircraft. lifting bodies. and ops and manages planetary pro- Duration Exposure Facility for use now the design of remotely-piloted grams and operates the Deep Space with the Space Shuttle as well as vehicles. In 1978 it was the site of Network. The Ranger and Surveyor large advanced space systems con- the Shuttle's Approach and Landing lunar programs; the Mariner, Viking cepts. Tests and served as landing site for orbiter. and Voyager planetary pro- five of the first six Shuttle orbital grams; and the current Infrared As- Lewis Research Center flights. tronomical Satellite number among (LeRC) the Laboratory's projects. The Lewis Center in Cleveland has Goddard Space Flight continued its NACA activities as a Center (GSFC) Named for America's rocket pio- 20 21 -.um" Aerial view of Ames Research Center
libr.toi propulsion laboratoryadvancing technologies for aircraft propulsion, propulsion and power generation for spaceflight, and space communica- 4, tions systemsand manages two major launch vehicle programs, Atlas e Centaur and Titan Centaur. It also manages many of NASA's support of -1.--vsquillib other Federal energy programs. Its MP114%._ specialized facilities include a zero- gravity drop tower and chambers for testing jet engine efficiency and noise. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Ss ,411fr Known for its role in developing the Saturn launch vehicles, the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, is now respon- sible for the External Tank, Solid Rocket Boosters, and engines for the Space Shuttle Orbiter. Its staff also developed the Lunar Roving Vehicle,
Viiiii.11L11.LIELVar had program responsibility for the High Energy Astronomical Obser- vatories, and now is responsible for Spacelab and the Space Telescope. MSFC also operates the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans and the Slidell Computer Complex, ., . ---"m1111111WSINIV Slidell, Louisiana. 'tZ
4Adiviolisie 1- 4r.1%i , A National Space Technology Laboratories (NSTL) NSTL in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, is responsible for the static test firing of large space and launch vehicle engines. It also houses a selection of environmental research and Earth resources activities of NASA and other government agencies. 0. Wallops Flight Facility N t (WFF) .41+ doe- NACA's Pilotless Aircraft Research
A Station on Wallops Island, Virginia, AP". 4 became NASA's only rocket flight- \ Vs * test range. It prepares, assembles, e- launches, and tracks space vehicles -,Aliat . .4., 1963 aerial view of Goddard Space A Flight Center, the first facility built INV " 441 by NASA. .o"" ., 1 ratio"
22 21 Mission Control at Johnson Space II0S°P. /IMP. - Center during STS-2, November 1981.
Kennedy Space Center, launch and recovery site for the Space Shut- tle: The 525-ft Vehicle Assembly Building dominates the Launch Control Center at right and the Orbiter Processing Facility at left. The landing runway is visible in the background.
11 from small sounding rockets to the Scout four-stage solid fuel rocket. Its Q S.. facilities are used for aeronautical 'v. research projects from helicopter and I *a aircraft drop tests and noise projects to laser and radar tracking of aircraft.
NASA's
Beginning _1-atistsim0310-0-4e-,
The civilian space program was formed from a group of space proj- ects being conducted by the Depart- Ays ment of Defenselunar probes, a -1erdirs communications satellite, rocket en- - gine research. A week later the first 114 w. U.S. man-in-space effort, Project IOW ,p Mercury, was approved. 4V.1; lifi .ip *NDd There followed, first tentatively, .r1,.... ow 4IRF-. - then with mounting confidence and success, a wide array of projects. NASA's aeronautical programs were well-known and recognizable, but its .611144,,- \NP-41, li if"' .4 new space programs brought a new , vocabulary and new objects to daily _ ...... 1 life. space science. have three possible objectives: flyby, Spacecraft, Sounding A satellite is a spacecraft that has orbit around the body, or impact on been given sufficient velocity by its the surface with either a hard or soft Rockets, Satellites, Space launch vehicle to be placed in orbit. landing. Flyby probes often go into Probes Ultimately, the trace of atmosphere orbit about the Sun after planetary A spacecraft is any vehicle that still present at satellite altitudes will encounter. operates above the altitudes attain- slow the satellite down and gravity Spacecraft have innumerable clas- able by research balloons and air- will pull it back to Earth. sifications: manned or unmanned, craftapproximately 30,480 m Spacecraft launched deep into recoverable or unrecoverable, active (100,000 ft) of altitude. space that escape the gravitational or passive. A passive satellite trans- Sounding rockets break through pull of Earth completely are called mits no radio signals, but may reflect the atmosphere into space for only a space probes. Depending on the them back to Earth: active satellites few minutes. Although they do not target, they are called lunar, plane- emit radio signals to make tracking linger long at high altitudes, they tary, or deep space probes, and they easier and to transmit data from their have made major discoveries in instruments to ground stations. They are classified by orbits. A polar
23 22 Astronauts working underwater in the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator at the Marshall Space Flight Center to evaluate methods of equipment that might be used to service large structural beams in space. , - wAiky,aus---iaf A Names, Letters, and Numbers The names given to projects and programs originate from no single sr source or method Some have their foundations in mythology, legend, and folklore. Some have historic connotations Some are based on straightforward descriptions of their missions, often resulting in acro- nyms. Some grew out of a formal process within NASA under the NASA Project Designation Commit- tee; others evolved more casually . , and were officially adopted after their ,. use had become widespread. ..1 e.:1p4,41 Spacecraft that are part of a series are usually designated with a letter (Pioneer A) before launch and with a numeral (Pioneer 1) after a success- ful launch. The First 25 Years NASA's first quarter century is a story of learning, a combination of science, technology, engineering, and human experience. It is the continued progress of NASA aero- - nautical research and the develop- ment of true aerospace vehicles. It is the progress from the first small satellite, from the time when 4 only a handful of scientists and engineers believed humans would fly in space through many changes. The WIT present family of spacecraft differ greatly in size, shape, complexity, and purpose. They are small. large; 4 dr. spin-oriented and attitude-controlled: V Arc: air manned or automated robots; some are in low orbits, some on their way satellite orbits over Earth's polar Wallops Flight Faculty launch site. out of the solar system; some are in regions. A synchronous satellite or- space until they expire, some are bits Earth in the same len jth of time NASA divides satellites into major commanded to return to Earth. Some it takes the Earth to make one categories: (1) Scientific satellites, are hardly noticed, others engender revolution on its axis. If the syn- which carry instruments to measure tremendous excitement. chronous satellite is also an equa- magnetic fields, space radiation. so- The following chapters introduce torial satellite, it will seem to remain lar characteristics, or telescopes for NASA's programs. in the same position in the sky at all particular uses; and (2) Application times and is then a stationary, or satellites, which forecast weather, geostationary, satellite. survey Earth resources, extend com- munications.
24 23 For the Classroom
1. NASA is an independent agency. Ask your students to investigate how it differs from, is similar to, other government agencies (Na- tional Science Foundation, Feder- al Aviation Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- istration). 2. Have your students read the myths that suggested names for space projects familiar to them and discuss their aptness; sug- gest alternate names; suggest names for future projects. 3. Locate the NASA facilities on a map. Ask your students to list the reasons why particular sites were chosen (research the history and geography of the area).
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first A in NASA stands for aeronautics. In T 1he 983 your students accept aviation as an integral part of their lives. Contrast for them air travel in 1958 and nowpropeller planes andjet transpor- tation, 70-passenger airliners and jumbo jetsthat carry over 400 people,the dominant sea travel of 25 years ago and today'sregular SST flights across the Atlantic. Flying is so accepted a part of life that the immense strides made in just 25 years arehardly remembered. Nor is it recognized that most of the advances of these 25 years began withresearch in NASA's laboratories. The aeronautical researchof the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was assigned to NASA in its charter, including the objectives: The expansion of human knowledge of phe-
nomena in the atmosphere .. .; The improvement of the usefulness,perfor-
An X-15 rocket airplane streaks across the Mohave Desert sky leaving a plume contrail after being released from the mother aircraft 8-52.
26 27 Technicians assist NASA pilot Joseph A. Walker following a rec- ord- breaking flight in the X-15, April 30, 1962.
and in flight beyond the atmosphere, like a spacecraft. It was launched from beneath the wing of a B-52 at an altitude of 13,716 meters (45,000 feat). After its drop, the rocket engine was fired and the craft climbed in a steep trajecto- ry, then nosed over to descend in a glide to a landing. Through a series of progressive steps, the X-15 set new altitude (17,960 m or more than 67 mi) and speed (6.7 times the speed of sound) records. Its 199-flight pro- gram contributed important data about weightlessness, aerodynamic heat, atmospheric entry, the effect of noise on aircraft materials, and pilot- ing techniques. The X-15 was a joint NASA/Air Force/Navy project. First piloted by A. Scott Crossfield, both Neil Arm- mance, speed, safety, and efficiency would-be fliers through history. Or by strong, commander of Apollo 11, and of aeronautical...vehicles; disciplineaerodynamics, guidance Joe Engle, commander of the Shut- The prese, .tion of the role of and navigation, materials and struc- tle's second flight, wero among the the United States as a leader in tures, propulsion. pilots who flew the X-15 into unex-
aeronautical.. .science and tech- A third method is to study the tools plored areas of flight. nology; of aeronautical research: mathemati- The most elective utilization of cal and physical analysis, now the sC9ntific and engineering re- largely computerized; wind tunnels; Supersonic Cruise sourceof the United States in order simulators; and full-scale flight re- to avoid unnecessary duplication of search. Aircraft Research (SCAR) effort, facilities, and equipment. Finally, there are the programs NASA researchers worked With some of the most sophisti- themselves. In examining individual throughout the 1960s on technolo- cated aeronautical laboratories and projects, history, discipline, and tool gies for supersonic transport. By flight test facilities, NASA's research come together to provide an overall 1971, Boeing's Supersonic Commer- has continued that of NACA. At the view of little-known but challengirg cial Air Transport (SCAT) was ready major aeronautical centersAmes areas of aeronautical researchfile for production, but concerns about Research Center (ARC), Dryden following list is an introductior to noise, economy, and pollution pre- Flight Research Facility (DFRF), aeronautics at NASAthe res,,arch vented further funding. Convinced Langley Research Center (LaRC), subjects, their aims, and their rssults. that supersonic transport research Lewis Research Center (LeRC) would eventually pay off, in 1973 the NASA scientists, engineers, and test government funded the Supersonic pilots work closely with universities, Cruise Aircraft Research (SCAR) other government agencies, and U.S. X-15 program. Nine years of a sustained, industry in a wide range of programs March 25, 1960October 24, 1968 focused technology program involv- and projects. The X -15- -a 15-meter (50-foot- ing NASA and major U.S. propulsion Aeronautics is a many-faceted sub- long), black, stub-winged, rocket- and airframe companies resulted in ject that can be studied from sevene powered flight research craft with a significant improvements over earlier different approaches. First, chrono- conventional nose-wheel and skids supersonic transport concepts. By logically, by investigating the at- mounted at the rear for landingwas the early 1980s, the SCAR program tempts, successes, and 'auras of a true aerospace vehicle. With wings had developed technologies permit- and aerodynamic controls it traveled like an airplane in the atmosphere,
28 27 _
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ting a greatly increased range, great- In 1979 the TCV was used to The Ames-Dryden-1 (AD-1) In a er passenger capacity, lighter weight, demonstrate the Microwave Landing flight test of its pivoted wing. and cleaner, quieter, more efficient System (MLS) and Area Navigation engines. in efficient descent and airport ap- The AD-1 flight research program, proach paths and precision flight completed in 1981, tested the pivot- control. Its success led to the Inter- ing wing in 39 flights at speeds up to national Civil Aviation Organization's 165 mph. Terminal-Configured adoption of MLS as the world Vehicle (TCV) standard. With the continually growing use of air transportation, air terminal prob- HiMAT lems increased: approach and land- Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Tech- ing in bad weather, safety and Pivoting Wing nology (HIMAT) is a NASA/Air Force efficiency in controlling high-density Several decades ago Robert T. flight research program to study and traffic, and noise of aircraft in take-off Jones, NASA scientist at ARC, in- test advanced fighter aircraft technol- and landing over densely populated vented the concept of an aircraft ogies. areas. wing that could pivot up to 60 The HiMAT vehicle is a 44-percent Recently renamed Advanced degrees in flight; years of analysis scale model with wing tip-mounted Transport Operating Systems Pro- and wind tunnel tests suggested the winglets and a small forward canard gram (ATOPS), the Terminal-Config- results would be considerable fuel wing for high maneuverability. It ured Vehicle (TCV) is a research tool, economy. consists of a core design to which a standard Boeing 737 twin-jet trans- A small, piloted research aircraft modular components can be at- port with a second cockpit in the called Ames-Dryden-1 (AD-1) was tached easily and replaced, a format passenger cabin. Equipped with built, and in 1979 made its first flight. that allows low-cost testing of a state-of-the-art instrumentation, the During takeoff, landing, and low- variety of concepts. second cockpit is the flight center for speed cruise, the AD-1 flies with In 1979 the remotely-controlled the research, while safety pilots fly in wings at right angles to the fuselage. research aircraft made its first flight. the conventional cockpit for backup. At higher speeds, the wing pivots so The following year it achieved near- that the right half sweeps forward maximum design maneuverability at and the left half sweeps back. The sustained near-supersonic speeds, pivoted wing decreases air drag, and in 1981 its flight testing was allowing the plane increased speed. expanded to transonic speeds. The HiMAT flight test program ended in January 1983. The vehicles
29 28 Forward Swept Wing I (r3W) The Forward Swept Wing (FSW) offers the potential for high perfor- mance design with both civil and military applications. In a joint pro- gram with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, NASA is 4- testing the unusual wing which is swept forward at a 30 degree angle to the fuselage. Wind tunnel tests, composite ele- ment tests, and simulations indicate the FSW design should give greater maneuverability at transonic speeds and superior low-speed performance. To avoid structural deflection of the wing, its design calls for laying up the composite material plys in defi- nite patterns. The X-29A Is sched- uled for demonstrator flights at the Dryden Facility early in 1984.
Quiet Engine Research .'"464..bir..- The Lewis Research Center has led the investigation for reducing noise and pollution produced by airplanes. Beginning in the late 1960s, the Quiet Engine program focused on developing an engine with noise levels 15 to 20 PNdB This six-foot diameter experimen- before its application to an aerospace (Perceived Noise Decibels) below tal turbofan was evaluated in noise flight. levels then In use. The results: (1) a tests as part of the Quiet Engine NASA has had three experimental high bypass ratio turbofan engine to Program at Lewis Research Cen- lifting bodies, which are wingless and help produce thrust with low velocity ter. achieve the aerodynamic lift and air; and (2) a retrofittable acoustic maneuverability necessary for flight nacelle, an engine housing lined with had performed superbly with maneu- from their body shape alone. The sound absorption material. verability equal to or above the goals first, ARC's M2, featured a flat top of the design. and round belly. The second, HL-10, was developed at LaRC and had a Quiet, Clean, Short-haul rounded top and flat belly. The third Experimental Engine is the NASA/AF X-24. The vehicles (QCSEE) Lifting Bodies were carried aloft by a B-52 and In the late 1970s, the QCSEE Aeronautical research does not released to glide to landings on a dry program began testing two research often extend to the problems of lake bed. The X-24B had made 33 engines at LeRC. One engine is spacecraft. An aerospace vehicle, successful flights when the program mounted beneath the wing, and the such as the Space Shuttle orbiter, to was completed in 1975. other is designed for placement fly in the atmosphere safely, must be above the wing. Developed for a aerodynamically stable and maneu- Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) verable at hypersonic, supersonic, aircraft but applicable to the larger transonic, and subsonic speeds. commercial airliners, these engines Known as a lifting body, this type of direct their exhaust downward with craft was researched for many years wing flaps to add lift for short take-off
30 29 Model of a Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) aircraft in Langley Research Center's Full-Scale Wind and landing. Tests have demon- strated the engine's ability to operate at a noise level 60 to 75 percent -11LA6 below that of engines now in service. SAL Carbon monoxide and unburned hy- drocarbon emissions have also been dramatically reduced.
Quiet, Clean, General Aviation Turbofan Engine (QCGATE) The QCGATE program was di- rected toward meeting U.S. environ- 4....; 4,14, mental standards for general aviation ;4, engines. An existing turbojet or tur- 11t bofan engine core was used in the L!. experimental, quiet high-bypass tur- . bofan engine which incorporated the latest quiet engine technologies. In 1980 the QCGATE program was completed with the resulting research engines producing from 50 to 60 percent less noise than the most quiet current business jets.
V /STOL Research NASA is developing a number of new flight technologies for safe, clean, quiet, and efficient Vertical and Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) aircraft. er, more reliable helicopter perfor- Lifting Bodies. Left to right: Two VTOL programs, Rotor Sys- mance. X-24A, M2-F3, HL-10. tems Research Aircraft (RSRA) and Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (TRRA), Tilt Rotor Research are joint NASA/Army projects. In Aircraft (TRRA) amount of fuel and achieved a top STOL research, NASA is experiment- The XV-15 Tilt Rotor Research speed of 557 km/h (346 mph). ing with propulsive-lift concepts with Aircraft (TRRA) employs two large the Quiet Short-haul Research Air- rotors to combine the advantages of Quiet Short-haul craft (QSRA). a helicopter's vertical lift with an Research Aircraft (QSRA) airplane's cruising speed. In the air, An experimental vehicle, the Quiet Rotor Systems Research the rotors tilt forward to become Short-haul Research Aircraft (QSRA) Aircraft (RSRA) propellers for cruising. This versatile addresses airport congestion and The Rotor Systems Research Air- aircraft can take off and land ver- noise problems. The QSRA has craft (RSRA) is designed to test tically, hover, and fly forward, side- demonstrated the effectiveness of various advanced rotor systems. Able ways, or rearward. propulsive-lift technology, where the to fly as a conventional helicopter, The TRRA is potentially valuable engine's exhaust is directed over the the RSRA also flies with wings to as a commercial commuter liner wing surfaces, which increases lift assist the lift and is able to operate operating out of close-to-city heli- and allows quiet takeoffs and land- in a wide range of speeds. The two ports. In 1981 the TRRA completed ings from short runways. RSRA currently in use are helping to the proof-of-concept flight research In 1981 the QSRA completed a develop technologies for safer, quiet- phase. It flew twice as fast and twice flight evaluation series during which as far as a helicopter on an equal
31 30 cruising speeds, howeve:, flow be- comes turbulent, cP:ising drag and reduced efficiency. The Laminar Flow Control (LFC) program aims to achieve smooth air flow at cruising speeds. Technology combining the promising concept of lightweight suc- tion systems to remove portions of turbulent air through multiple slots or tiny holes on the wing surface with the new supercritical wing designs is being tested for use on commercial aircraft in the 1990s. The LFC program has combined detailed anal- ysis and model testing in its early phases of research and develop- ment. Flight testing, the third phase of the program, is scheduled to extend through September 1986. Advanced Tlirboprop (ATP) Renewed interest in fuel economy has the more fuel-efficient turboprop engine being reconsidered and im- proved for future use. Odd-looking new multi-bladed propellers are being developed for use on a turbo- shaft engine. The improved turboprop government, military, airline, and in- A technician at Dryden Flight Re- aircraft is expected to compete favor- dustry pilots flew the aircraft. search Faculty readies the pilot's ably with jetliners for speed and cockpit of the supercritical wing noise, but be more fuel efficient. test aircraft for flight. The three-phased Advanced Turbo- prop (ATP) program is testing small- Aircraft Energy Efficiency proved wing designs is a major task scale propeller models to establish (ACEE) of the Energy-Efficient Transport proof-of-concept. In the second In response to a U.S. Senate (EET) program. phase, large-scale propellers will be request in 1975, NASA established NASA's supercritical wing is used to validate structural dynamics, the Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE) shaped to minimize air drag without and in the third, a full-scale experi- program to develop fuel-saving tech- loss of lift.It also increases volume mental propeller will be tested in nologies for both existing and future for fuel storage while improving flight. aircraft. Using an inter-disciplinary structural efficiency of the wing, approach, ACEE includes six major leading to lower weight. A well- Engine Component technology programs to explore ways designed supercritical wing can re- Improvement (ECI) to improve both engine and airframe duce fuel consumption 10 to 15 The Engine Component Improve- performance: more efficient wings percent. Further fuel efficiency can ment (ECI) program objectives were and propellers; new composite mate- be achieved with the use of nearly- to reduce the cycle of wear and rials for airframes that are lighter and vertical winglets installed on the deterioration that affects fuel efficien- more economical than metal: ways to wingtips of aircraft, which help to cy of jet engines. ECI developed new make today's jet engine more fuel reduce air drag and produce thrust. components for existing engine de- efficient; new engine technologies for signs to resist the erosion, leaking, energy-saving aircraft of the future. Laminar Flow Control and warping responsible for efficien- (LFC) cy loss; a highly effective seal for the Energy-Efficient Transport The smooth flow of air over the turbine engine to prevent the engine's (EET) surfaces of an airplane, called lami- high-pressure gases from leaking out An important factor in flight effi- nar flow, occurs at low speeds. At of the main flow path and remain ciency is the shape of an aircraft and effective under conditions that cause the resulting flow of air over its surfaces in flight. Developing im- 31 32 ti
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conventional seals to fail; new mate- to complete testing of new compo- A test aircraft is suspended at rials or ceramic coatings that can nents early in the 1980s. Langley Research Center's impact reduce erosion and corrosion of One area of study focuses on Dynamics Facility for a simulated turbine blades; And improved aerody- increasing the engine's cycle pres- free flight crash test. namic design of the compressor and sure ratio and turbine operating tem- blades that contributes to engine perature, converting a greater epoxy. By arrangement of the fiber efficiency. proportion of fuel into energy. An- orientation, the great strength of Major successes of the ECI pro- other component mixes the engine's these materials can be directed gram were realized early in the cool bypass air with the hot core along a line or in random directions. 1980s and have become available for stream, increasing propulsion without Light, yet strong and stiff, the mate- use in the new Boeing 767 and the added fuel. These E3 components rials offer possible weight reductions McDonnell Douglas DC-9 Series 80 will also help to reduce noise and of 25 percent or more. Beginning aircraft. exhaust pollution. with secondary structures not critical to flight safety, some new materials Energy Efficient Engine Composite Materials have been flight-tested. The goal is (E3) Unnecessary weight adds to the to monitor the materials in daily use The Energy Efficient Engine (E3) amount of fuel needed for flight, so on a commercial airline, where the program is planning a completely the ACEE program has been devel- normal wear on the pieces can be new engine design for use after oping technolgy for new lightweight observed; because they replace met- 1990. Using the standard building- composite materials for airframe con- al parts on aircraft in service, each block technique of engine manufac- struction. new part will be certified by the turers. NASA researchers and engi- Conventional aircraft are con- Federal Aviation Administration neers refine each new component to structed primarily with alloys of alu- (FAA). Eventual testing of a complete develop a core design to which the minum, magnesium, titanium, and wing and fuselage will provide a fan, turbine. and exhaust nozzle are steel: the new composite materials design base for future energy effi- added. The E3 program is scheduled consist of graphite, glass, or Kevlar('v cier.t aircraft. fibers arranged in a matrix, generally
32 33 Less flammable jet fuels are also make test airplanes significantly under development, most notably the more resistant to spin. British-developed AMK safety fuel, The stallispin research has pro- Aeronautical Safety FM-9. Full-scale tests have demon- duced a large body of data that aids Today's aircraft incorporate many strated the new fuel's ability to industry in the design of safer air- improvements developed over the prevent major fires caused by ignition planes. years to make them safer for flight in of jet fuel during and after a crash. both good and bad weather, and to Along with the FAA, NASA has been Icing Research increase safety during takeoff and testing the safety fuel and evaluating An increasing demand for all- landing. its compatability with the most com- weather flights brought on by ad- mon engine in service. vances in avionics systems, has Crashdynamics brought a renewed interest in improv- Recent studies have included an Automated Pilot Advisory ing aircraft performance under icing investigation of airplane crashdynam- System conditions. Current research is aimed ics information with the intent of For general aviation pilots operat- toward developing lightweight, low- increasing the survivability of pas- ing out of small uncontrolled airfields, power consumption, cost-effective ice sengers in an accident. For several NASA has developed and success- protection systems. Analysis, wind years, NASA has been deliberately fully demonstrated the Automated tunnel testing, and flight research are crashing controlled, extensively in- Pilot Advisory System (APAS) to being used to validate the effective- strumented aircraft, both single- and provide weather, traffic, and airport ness of these protection systems. twin-engined. information. The APAS includes a In 1981, NASA developed a long The planes, containing anthropo- tracking radar, weather sensors, a term icing research program in coop- morphic dummies harnessed in the computer, and a transmitter. eration with the Army, Air Force, crew and passenger seats, are Computer-generated voices broad- FAA, and the governments of Cana- crashed onto a runway from a test cast traffic information every 20 sec- da and Great Britain to evaluate icing rig. The data collected helps re- onds within three miles of the airport, instrumentation that had been tested searchers understand how an aircraft and every two minutes, information at Lewis. The Center also initiated absorbs the energy of impact and on airport identification, active run- research on protection systems for transfers the shock to passengers. way, wind speed and direction, baro- airfoil leading edges, using an elec- The tests include the study of im- metric pressure, and temperature. tro-impulse concept. NASA also pro- proved seats, harnesses, and vides the FAA with icing research crushable sub-floor and fuselage Stall/Spin Research data to support upgraded aircraft structures. The stallispin phenomenon has certification, particularly for rotorcraft. been a major cause of accidents in Fireworthiness general aviation. A stall occurs when Aviation Safety Reporting In a related effort, NASA resL arch- the angle of attack of the wing System ers at the Ames and Johnson Cen- increases to the point where air In cooperation with the FAA, NASA ters are developing fire resistant across the wing separates instead of completed in 1982 the development materials for use inside cabins. One following the upper surface; this of the Aviation Safety Reporting concept uses fire resistant wrappings causes a loss of lift. Followir .1 a stall, System (ASRA), a voluntary, confi- over conventional polyurethane foam an airplane sometimes will r.,4n to dential, nonputative reporting system cushions. Another fire resistant, light- spin downward at a rapid rate. designed to surface deficiencies in weight polymide seat cushion has Stall/spin tests have ranged from the National Aviation System before been developed at Johnson and is early studies with models in wind accidents occur. Since April 19, being evaluated in service by three tunnels and special spin tunnels to 1976, the System has received more airlines. Similar lightweight fireworthy more recent use of simulators and than 30,000 reports, issued 740 alert materials are being applied to ceiling, full-scale flight research vehicles. bulletins, and published 240 reports. wall, and floor panels. In the 1970s a large-scale effort focused on vertical tail designs and went on to develop a number of leading-edge wing extensions. These extensions have been shown to
33 34 For the Classroom
1. Research topics: The uses of general aviation Compare a large metropolitan airport and a small general avia- tion airport Airport terminalsthe early structures, contemporary com- plexes, airports of the future How the local airport, or lack of one, affects a community 2. Plan a field trip to your local airport. 3. Have students list as many types of aircraft as they can, their characteristics and their uses. How are they alike? different? 4. Have your students research Reynolds and Mach numbers: dif- ferentiate between subsonic, su- personic, transonic, and hyper- sonic speeds. 5. The difference between laminar and turbulent flow can be easily demonstrated with a burning piece of punk or stage cigarette in an ash tray; note the smooth flow upward which abruptly changes to turbulent. The same effect can be shown with a stream of water from a faucet. The point at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is at the Reynolds num- ber. To show how an aircraft flies, i.e., the flow around the wing, one can demonstrate the coanda ef- fect by placing one's finger (or a test tube) in the water flow.
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40_4 . as ' 2111 46V' 1111111;40' Ai' ,". '.414114 , r -"X . 35 .4,c, . ,4 . dert40i r iii Applications Satellites
hen the first satellites were launched in the late 1950s, many people were skeptical about the practical value of a space program. In just three years, however, observations and measure- ments from Earth-orbiting satellites were revolutioniz- ing communications and weather forecasting and showing Earth on a global scale. These were the applications satellites, spacecraft with experiments and instruments that provided unique, direct benefits to life on Earth. They and those that evolved from them have made it possible for people on opposite sides of Earth to communicate instantaneously, for people in remote areas of the world to learn by television, for ships to know where storms and icebergs threaten passage, for forecasters to watch weather develop, for oil companies to locate drilling sites, for environmentalists to monitor the spread of pollutants. In both domestic and foreign applications satellite
Many well-known landmarks in New York City and its environs are visible in these 30-meter resolution Thematic Mapper images taken from Landsat 4.
36 37 4, programs, NASA has contributed re- have become complex multipurpose search and development, launching systems. capabilities, and evaluation of space- Once NASA has developed the craft. The technologies developed weather and communications satel- produced passive and active commu- lites, the responsibility for operating nications satellites, the first syn- them falls to other government agen- chronous and geostationary orbits, cies or to private industry. NASA and the cloud cover pictures that now continues its research role, seeking are a regular feature of daily weather and developing advanced technolo- reports. gies. From Echo, the balloon that was The following list introduces the the first satellite everyone could see, major groups of these satellites, their and the scientific Explorer 6 that also purposes, and the benefits they have took the first crude cloud cover contributed. picture, the applications satellites 1141., . Communications
In 1945 British scientist and sci- Echo ence fiction writer, Arthur C.Clarke, The Echos were inflated in space to published a technical paper in which spherical balloons of aluminized My- he suggested that communications lar, 30.5 and 40 meters (100 and 135 satellites were feasible. Fifteen years feet) in diameter, respectively. Pas- later, NASA launched its first commu- sive communications satellites, they nications satellite, Echo, a silvery reflected radio signals between balloon that orbited Earth every 114 ground stations. They also provided minutes. information about the density of the Echo was a passive satellite that upper atmosphere. Echo 1 was reflected radio signals back to Earth. launched August 12, 1960, Echo 2 in Two years later, Relay, the first active January 1964. satellite was launched to receive signals, amplify them, and transmit Relay them back to Earth. Relay 1 was NASA's first active Echo. Today's split-second global com- repeater experimental satellite; munications by voice, television, and launched December 13, 1962, it Relay 1, NASA's first active repeat- computer ar such a part of daily life handled 12 simultaneous two-way er satellite, was aneight-sided that the evolution from simple pas- telephone conversations or one tele- prism 33" high & 29" in diameter at sive reflectors to complex active vision channel and provided the first its broad end. The exterior hon- transmitters is hardly remembered. satellite communications link be- eycomb aluminum panels were After NASA completed research and tween North and South America and studded with 8,215 solar cells. development, private companies pro- Europe. Relay 2, an improved ver- sion, was launched in January 1964. duced their own communications sat- Syncom II ellites, and in 1962 Congress July 26. 1963 authorized the Communications Sat- Syncom First satellite placed in synchronous orbit. Three experimental, active satellites; Many successful intercontinental communica- ellite Corporation, Comsat, which is tion experiments. the U.S. representative in and man- the name, coined from the first ager of Intelsat, the International syllables of "synchronous communi- Syncom III cations," referred to their orbits. August 19. 1964 Telecommunications Sate !lite Organi- First stationary Earth satellite. Demonstrated zation. For both industry aid Intelsat, Weight: 38.5 kg (about 85 Ibs) each. the practicality and effectiveness of stationary, NASA launches and tracks satellites on a cost-reimbursable basis. Syncom I February 14. 1963 In nearly synchronous orbit, but communica- tions failed. 37 38 The Applications Technology Sat- ellite (ATS-6) is shown in final systems test and checkout at the Fairchild Industries Plant, German- town, Maryland.
used a movable terminal to investi- gate the possibility of transmitting public service in'ormation to small, inexpensive antennas in remote loca- tions.
arth Resources
Earth observation satellites have brought us a new view of our planet. Mountains, prairies, deserts, lakes, rivers, reservoirs, forests, farms, cities, highways, have become in- frared and ultraviolet scenes. Millions of these pictures have been dis- tributed to users of Earth resources information around the world. From the outset, the remote sen- sory devices of these spacecraft have produced a continuous flow of data. The results, including often dramatic pictures, have been tangible and the satellites unique tools of enormous practical value for a wide range of interests: urban develop- ment and land use and water re- active communication satellites. In orbit near ATS-3 the International Date Line. it was used to November 1967 source management, agriculture, telecast the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo to Carried advanced communications, meteorol- locating pollution, geology, forestry, the United States, the first television program ogy, and navigation experiments; transmitted to cross the Pacific. color images of one complete side of Earth. mapping and charting. Geologists use the data to locate ATS-6 drilling sites, to predict earthquakes, Applications Technology May 1974 The first communications satellite with power and to study volcanoes. Satellites (ATS) to broadcast TV photos to small local receiv- Skilled photointerpreters among A series of six multipurpose Applica- ers; also used for a number of experimental agriculturists can readily distinguish public health and education telecasts to tions Technology Satellites designed remote rural areas in the U.S. and India. (See among a variety of crops in the to test new space instruments and Chapter IV, India.) satellite images. With computers, demonstrate new satellite technolo- maps can be produced showing the gies, particularly those used in syn- precise location of each crop over chronous orbit satellites. Communications large areas of land. Using this tech- Technology Satellite nology. NASA participated in a three- ATS-1 (CTS) year experiment to monitor global December 6. 1966 Took first U.S. high-quality photographs of January 17, 1976 wheat production beginning in 1974. Earth from synchronous orbit, showing chang- The CTS was a joint project with The Large Area Crop Inventory Ex- ing cloud-cover patterns. Also relayed color Canada. A high-powered satellite, it periment (LACIE) successfully tested television across the U.S. and was the first satellite to permit two-way VHF communication several techniques for predicting crop between ground and aircraft in flight. production early in the grr wing sea- son.
39 38 Much of the everyday disposal of tons of garbage and trash and toxic wastes dumped into the environment ends up in our rivers, lakes, and =NV oceans. The challenge to clean up polluted areas and to protect those areas yet untouched requires infor- mation on a scale that was unavail- able before satellites. Earth resources spacecraft have provided valuable surveys of large areas of land, helping scientists and environ- mentalists trace the sources of pollu- tion and monitor the dissemination of waste. Wise management of the Earth's water resources is necessary for both present and future generations. Data from satellites has been helping hydrologists to predict floods and estimate flood damage, as well as to monitor water supplies. First coast-to-coast color photo- From the simple PAGEOS balloon mosaic of the United States made of 1966 to the advanced Landsat 4 of from 569 virtually cloud-free im- 1982, the Earth resources experi- ages taken by the Landsat 1 satel- ments have changed radically the lite orbiting at a height of 570 miles way we see Earth, collect information (above). about it, and interpret the results. Landsat 4 (right).
Passive Geodetic Earth The cartwheel TIROS meteorologi- Orbiting Satellite cal satellite, (far right) which pro- (PAGEOS) vided near global coverage daily, June 1966 viewed Earth from the sides of the A large metalized balloon, 30 meters spacecraft rather than from the (98.4 ft) in diameter, similar to the bottom. Echo satellites. A passive satellite, it reflected sunlight and, photographed called Multispectral Scanner (MSS), a ra- by ground stations around the world, diometer that obtains imagery of Earth's established a worldwide triangulation surface in four discrete spectral bands. The decade of their image-collecting showed the dinary details, and for the first time, natural network to map Earth's surface. unique types of data that MSS imagery could color images, of Earth's surface features. providevegetation types, bare soil and rock NASA has transferred the operation and conditions, snow coveron a highly repetitive management of Landsat to the National Landsat basis. The images Landsats 1, 2, and 3 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration A series of satellites that have pro- collected represent the first historical record of (NOAA). Management control over the TM will vided a wealth of observations which Earth's global surface conditions. be retained during the experimental research have improved our ability to monitor Landsat 1 was removed from service in and development phase of the new sensor 1978, Landsat 2 in 1982, and Landsat 3 will system: NASA expects to transfer control of and understand the dynamics and be retired in 1983. the TM to NOAA in early 1985. character of the various features and materials covering the surface of the Landsat 4, July 1982 Landsat imagery is available for a lab In addition to the MSS, Landsat 4 has a more service charge. For information about ordering Earth. sophisticated sensor, the Thematic Mapper pictures, write to the EROS Data Center, Sioux (TM) which measures the intensity of surface Falls, SD 57198. radiation in seven discrete bands and has Landsat 1, July 1972 approximately twice the spectral resolution. three times the spatial resolution, and four Landsat 2, January 1975 times the sensitivity of the MSS. From a 695 - kilometer (432-mi) orbit, it is providing extraor- Landsat 3, March 1978 The first Landsats 11 and 2 were originally called ERTS for Earth Resources Technology Satellite) carried an Earth-viewing sensor
40 33 Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) Aar April 1978 First in a series of small experimental satellites designed for the Applica- tions Explorer Missions. Later called AEM-1, it had one sensor for one purpose, making thermal measure- ments of Earth's surface and atmos- phere across the U.S. Its unique sensor could read daytime tempera- tures associated with the Sun and nighttime temperatures associated
4. >, with radiative cooling.
Meteorology
Weather affects everyonefood supplies, travel, recreationand along with other applications satel- lites, the weather satellites have brought special advantages to life on Y. Earth They enable people to plan ahead, assist meteorologists with forecasting, and help scientists to understand better the air around us. Advance knowledge of weather systems that can be disastrous is the most striking advantage; part of that knowledge comes from the abil ly to see the sparsely populated regions Earth Resources as a tool for professionals concerned of the world where weather is born, with management of resources. thus aiding long-term prediction. For Experiment Package local meteorologists, daily photo- (EREP) Laser Geodynamics graphs show how their local weather SKYLAB, May 1973February 1974 Satellite (LAGEOS) patterns fit into the overall picture. Objectives: To test the use of sen- May 1976 On April 1, 1960, TIROS 1, the sors operating in the visible and A heavy sphere, 411 kg (906 Ibs), 60 first true weather satellite, was infrared portions of the spectrum, to centimeters (2 ft) across and covered launched. With each succeeding test a complex microwave sensor that with laser reflectors, designed to generation of satellites, remote sens- provided a space-based radar sys- demonstrate the feasibility and utility ing instruments became increasingly tem for Earth resource studies, and of a ground-to-satellite laser system sophisticated and today's high quality to develop data analysis techniques. to contribute to the study of solid- pictures are a far cry from the first Investigations: Agriculture, range, Earth dynamics; provided valuable tentative trials. and forestry; land use and cartogra- data to scientists analyzing condi- phy; geology and hydrology; oceans tions leading to earthquakes. TIROS and atmosphere. The Television and Infrared Observa- Results: Demonstrated the poten- tion Satellite (TIROS) was a simple tial and practicality of using quality hatbox-shaped craft carrying special photos from orbiting spacecraft for television cameras that viewed large geographic as well as regional and local areas and their usefulness
41 40 3 ' A ti las 6.00.4 411( wi x. . rit.tite-'4( ". . . .; c, .h . :77; '", !;111...- P A ' 4 f 4 1."'" sAl g r Arv., .6. ar 40 ' It' (Far left)The first infrared (tem- perature) data acquired by the Applications Explorer Mission 1 the Heat Capacity Mapping Mis- sion covering an area approx- imately 700 kilometers (434 miles) wide, running from south of Cape Hatteras, N.C. to Lake Ontario. Temperature values have been ?l color-coded so that cold to hot is represented by the sequence of purple, blue, green, brown, yellow, orange, red, gray, and white. Black areas at the upper left represent 4, cold clouds. Skylab 4 EREP photo of San Francisco, Sacramento River, Oak- land, and Concord, California pho- tographed from Earth orbit (left).
LAGEOS (left below), looking like a cosmic golfball, provides a sta- ble point in the sky to reflect pulses of laser light.
Earth's cloud cover from a 725-km (450-mi) orbit. The pictures radioed back to Earth provided meteorolo- gists with a new toola nephanalysis, or cloud chart. By 1965, nine more TIROS satel- lites were launched. They had pro- gressively longer operational times, carried infrared radiometers to study Earth's heat distribution, and several were placed in polar orbits to in- crease picture coverage over the first TIROS in its near-equatorial orbit. TIROS 8 had the first Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) equip- ment that allowed pictures to be sent back right after they were taken instead of having to be stored for later transmission. Eventually, APT pictures could be received on fairly simple ground stations anywhere in the world, even in high school class- rooms. TIROS 9 and 10 were test satel- .k lites of improved configurations for the Tiros Operational Satellite (TOS)
a system. (When it became part of another acronym, TIROS was written Tiros.) Operational use started in 1966. In orbit, the TOS satellites were called ESSA for the Environmental Sci- ences Services Administration, the government agency that financed
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The first weather picture from space (top) by TIROS 1, April 1960, and a view by TIROSN, April 1980, a third generation advanced meteorological satellite.
A meteorologist (above) examines a sequence of cloud images from ATS3.
Artist's concept of the Nimbus weather satellite in Earth orbit (right).
44 43 it
and operated them. TOS satellites Seven were placed in orbit be- Second in a series of weather were placed in Sun-synchronous or- tween 1964 and 1978. Nimbus 3, satellites, the Synchronous Mete- bits, so they passed over the same launched in April 1969, provided data orological Satellite 2 is prepared position on Earth's surface at exactly for the U.S. portion of the Global for launch. the same time each day; this allowed Atmospheric Research Program meteorologists to view local cloud (GARP), an international program ATS-3 cover changes on a 24-hour basis. formulating and coordinating re- November 1967 Several ITOS (for Improved TOS search for achieving long-range Recorded the first color images of the full Earth disc. Took photos every 20 minutes satellites) have been launched since global weather forecasting. enabling meteorologists to put them together 1970 and are the workhorses of the The Nimbus satellites tested in a sequence and make a motion picture of meteorologists. In orbit they are apace-borne meteorological equip- cloud movements; until 1975, the cloud cover pictures seen on TV came from this satellite. called NOAA for the National Ocean- ment and their experiments led to ographic and Atmospheric Adminis- operational, 24-hour satellite weather Synchronous tration which is responsible for their coverage. operation. Meteorological Satellites (SMS-1 and 2) Nimbus Applications Technology May 1974 and February 1975 More complex than TIROS, Nimbus Satellites (ATS) First experimental craft for a geo- was a second-generation research Intended primarily for communica- synchronous satellite system de- satellite. Each carried advanced tions technology, these multipurpose signed specifically to provide weather cameras, an APT system, an ad- spacecraft contributed much to ad- data and to serve as prototypes for vanced TV cloud mapping camera vance weather forecasting. later operational satellites funded by system, and an infrared radiometer NOAA. Following launch and check- ATS-1 that allowed pictures at night for the December 1966 first time. Took repetitive photographs of the same area, greatly aiding in the early detection of severe storms.
45 44 out by NASA, SMS-1 and SMS-2 GOES (Geostationary Operational to improve the geodetic model of were transferred to NOAA for use in Environmental Satellite), were con- Earth and knowledge of Earth-sea the National Operational Meteorologi- structed and launched by NASA, interactions. Third in the series of cal Satellite System. funded and operated by NOAA. Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellites Successive satellites, designated (GEOS), GEOS-3 was renamed Geo- dynamic Experimental Ocean Satel- lite to emphasize its specific mission in NASA's ocean physics program Oceanography while retaining the GEOS acronym. Seasat (Specialized Experimental Geodynamic Seventy percent of Earth is cov- Applications ered by oceans. These vast areas of Experimental Ocean Satellite) water are a source of energy in the Satellite (GEOS-3) June 26, 1978 form of weather, the home of great April 1975 First satellite for sole study of the schools of fish, a mechanism for the Measured the changing shape of the oceans in a proof-of-concept mission. disposal of waste products, and the oceans' surface, tides, and currents Objectives: To demonstrate tech- major means of transporting the niques for monitoring Earth's oceano- goods of the world by ship. graphic phenomena and features Precise knowledge of the oceans' from space on a global scale; to resources and dynamics has poten- provide oceanographic data in a tial application in many scientific and timely fashion to scientists and com- commercial pursuitsship design mercial users; and to determine the and port development, fishing, weath- key features of an operational ocean er forecasting, environmental sci- monitoring system. ence, shipping, selection of sites for With all-weather and day-night ca- off-shore drilling. Satellite observa- pability, it circled Earth 14 times a tions have contributed to our under- day and crossed 95 percent of the standing with accurate measure- oceans' surface every 36 hours giv- ments of surface wind speeds and ing oceanographers their first world- directions, temperatures, we wide observation of the seas. heights, and tides and currents; the Although contact was lost in Octo- data have helped to detect storms, ber 1978 and the mission terminated map the ocean floor, and monitor the in November, the objectives were movement of icebergs. largely met. Earth Resources Experiment Package Geodynamic Experimental Ocean (EREP) Satellite (GEOS -3) (above). Skylab, May 1973February 1974 Seasat superimposed over an im- A collection of instruments with rela- age of the ocean vessel, HMS tively low-resolution, middle-spectrum Challenger, whose round-the-world imaging sensors, EREP proved the voyage over 100 years ago became feasibility of remote-sensing of wind the model for oceanographic voy- conditions, surface temperatures ages (left). and roughness, and the recording of visible phenomena, and advanced the study of the interaction of the atmosphere and land and ocean surfaces. Improved versions of the instruments were built for GEOS-3 and Seasat.
46 45 For the Classroom
1. Research topics: History of communications Commercial satellites The development of Earth re- sources satellites Sources of pollution in the at- mosphere 2. What advantage does geological study from space have over study from Earth's surface? from Earth over study from space? 3. Why is a study of the atmosphere important? 4. Secondary school teachers may obtain a copy of Teachers' Guide for Building and Operating Weather Satellite Ground Stations from the Educational Programs Officer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (202.3), Greenbelt, MD 20771. The publication gives the information needed to con- struct, modify, and operate a weather satellite recording station. 5. Have your students list the possi- ble benefits of Earth resources satellites; which are apparent in their local community? their state?
46
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4 IV Energy Research
NAeeting the challenges of aerospace explora- tion brought extraordinary advances in sci- ence and engineering and enabled technology personnel to develop expertise in many disciplines. Several years ago it was recognized that NASA's capabilities, developed for aeronautical and space programs, were potentially useful for some areas of energy research and development (R&D). In 1975 NASA and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA)now the Department of Energy (DOE)--established a working relationship and identified the types of support NASA might provide. Thus NASA assumed an active role in the national energy R&D program with activities ranging from wind turbines to systems studies and with assistance in developing new power sources and more efficient use of fossil fuels. NASA's major energy programs, which are being conducted at the
Wind turbine on Block Island, Rhode Island. The turbine's blades, 37.5 meters (125 ft) tip to tip, convert wind energy into 200 kilowatts of electric power to supply up to 15 percent of the island's electricity.
48 49 Lewis Research Center (LeRC), Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), are in the following areas: Wind Energy, Photovoltaics, Solar Heating and Cooling, Advanced Ground Propulsion, Stationary Power, and Energy Conversion Systems.
Wind Energy
Windmills, sailing shipspictur- esque examples of a clean, re- plenishable source of energy, wind energy, used since ancient times. And for the past 50 years in many countries, it has been a means of generating electricity. Renewed interest in wind power has been focused in DOES Wind Energy Program which aims to devel- op large scale, reliable, cost-effective wind turbines, with operational life- times of 20 to 30 years. NASA has a major role and built the first turbine in 1975 to collect research data; designated MOD-0, it is an experimental 100-kilowatt (kw) machine with a rotor diameter of 38 meters (125 ft) that continues to provide research and engineering data for the design of larger ma- chines. An uprated 200-kw version, ° the MOD -OA, operated in four loca- tions between 1977 and 1982, In another project, NASA has been The Papago Indian village of providing experience in operating working with the Department of the Schuchull in Arizona became the wind turbines with electric utility Interior (DOI) developing megawatt- first solar electric community in networks. A larger 61-m (200-ft di- size wind turbines to provide power 1978. The 3,500 watt solar cell ameter), experimental machine, in conjunction with hydroelectric system provides energy for light- called MOD-1, was installed and plants. Two machines, a WTS-4 and ing homes, powering refrigerators, tested at Boone, North Carolina. a MOD-2, were installed near Medi- and running a communal water Three 2.5 megawatt MOD-2 ma- cine Bow, Wyoming and dedicated in pump and washing machine. chines have been operational near September 1982. The WTS-4, pro- Goldendale, Washington, and an ad- ducing 4 megawatts of electric power, vanced MOD-5 design is under de- is the most powerful in the world velopment. The newer designs today. Data from these experimental employ larger rotors, which operate turbines will be collected for two at lower wind speeds and could be years. If the concept is successful, Photovoltaic used in many locations throughout DOI will consider construction of a the United States. A single MOD-2 wind farm of up to 40 machines. Development turbine could power 1,000 average sized homes. Projects
The Sun is our most constant source of energy, but utilizing that energy is difficult and costly. Pho- 50 49 , ' efl .1 TTP:'!-'-4p*EP IC.) "t,tkg` "'
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tovoltaic or solar cells are used to Schuchuli, Arizona the world's first convert the Sun's light into electricity. solar community. Solar cells have powered most of NASA has also worked with the Thermal NASAs spacecraft, but high costs Agency for International Development have made them impractical for in- (AID) on several projects. The first of dustrial, residential, or commercial these was a 3.6 kilowatt solar power Energy use. A program at JPL focuses on system at Tangaye, Upper Volta. The developing low-cost, long-life solar latest was a village power system cells for widespread use on Earth. and a solar-powered drip irrigation Direct Solar Heating and Substantial progress has been made system installed in a small village in Cooling in improving quality. efficiency, and Tunisia. The photovoltaic power sys- The Sun's power can be captured. cost-effectiveness of solar cell mod- tem provides 30 kilowatts of electrici- stored, and used to heat and cool ule designs. ty at peak. A variety of ether homes, offices, and industrial build- Several photovoltaic demonstration projects, including development of ings, but technology for solar heating projects involving NASA and DOE five photovoltaic powered medical and cooling has been, like pho- were undertaken during the past systems, is underway for installation tovoltaic systems. expensive and im- decade. They ranged in size from in Guyana. Ecuador, Kenya, and practical. In an effort to stimulate small photovoltaic-powered insect Zimbabwe. growth in the solar heating and traps to a 3.5 kilowatt system that cooling industry and aid development made the Papago Indians in of affordable. efficient systems,
50 51 The reflective surfaces of these heated and cooled by solar panels tricity. The reflectors, which are made parabolic dish concentrators col- on the roof. NASA monitored the of silvered glass or aluminized lect and focus sunlight for gener- performance of the equipment and fiberglass, concentrate sunlight onto ating electrical power or high analyzed the results. Solar heating a heat source for an efficient heat temperature industrial-use process and cooling systems have been in- engine. The engine powers an elec- heat. A JPL-DOE project, testing stalled on 48 Federal buildings and tric generator. The parabolic dish and was conducted at the NASA Para- all have performed well. NASA's role engine will be combined for use in bolic Dish Test Site, Edwards, in these projects ended in 1981. the Small Community Experiment in California. Osage City, Kansas. Solar Thermal NASA joined the DOE and industry Electric Conversion in a number of demonstrations be- In another project for DOE, JPL tween 1974 and 1981. One project uses large parabolic reflecting dishes was the Kaw Valley State Bank in to focus sunlight for generating elec- Topeka, Kansas, which is completely
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The research on automotive gas This experimental bus is powered turbines NASA is conducting requires by an advanced automotive gas the use of ceramic components to turbine which provides advantages Advanced achieve required engine efficiency in fuel efficiency, reduced emis- and low cost. Two parallel develop- sions, lower noise levels, and less Ground ment efforts have been underway dependence on petroleum prod- since 1979, and ceramic component ucts. The bus was one of four advancements are now being tested used on the Washington-Boston Propulsion in rigs prior to their evaluation in test route in a two-year experiment. engines. Ground transportation vehicles The Stirling cycle engine, designed gram is expected to be useful in the automobiles, trucks, busescon- by United Stirling of Sweden, em- high temperature diesel. Operation at sume enormous amounts of gasoline ploys an advanced automotive pro- the higher temperature will improve and oil every year. As world supplies pulsion system capable of a the engine efficiency and broaden of petroleum decrease, new automo- significantly lower fuel consumption the fuel tolerance of the diesel tive technologies will be needed. In a than the internal combustion engine. engine. number of joint NASA/DOE projects, By 1982, four engines had been buiit In another effort to develop auto- research using alternative fuel and extensively tested. The program motive alternatives, a joint NASA/ sources and engine systems has now focuses on developing compo- DOE program was authorized in been underway for several years. nents and materials that will provide 1976 to develop electric-powered ve- A major effort is being directed a cost competitive engine. hicles for widespread use. Current toward new designs of automotive Recently a smaller effort has beeti electric vehicles have limited range heat engines, which not only would started to develop the technology for and poor acceleration and speed be more efficient but could use fuels a high temperature diesel engine for performance. NASA's role since 1977 like gasoline, coal, or kerosene. The trucks. Much of the materials tech- has been to develop technologies for majority of the work is directed nology and improvements in aerody- propulsion. Working with industry, toward two concepts: gas turbine and namics of small turbomachinery NASA is scheduled to complete its Stirling-cycle engines. Both engines being developed in the turbine pro- development efforts on advanced are potentially fuel efficient, clean. propulsion components and systems and capable of burning a variety of in 1983. fuels, including methanol and eth- anol.
2 53 gas. Until 1981, NASA provided system engineering support for com- mercial development of the nation's Stationary (On-Site) Power first coal gasification engineering de- velopment facility.
While electric utilities currently sup- In support of DOE's Phosphoric ply most of industry's electrical power Acid Fuel Cell Systems Program, Advanced needs, auxiliary boilers fired by pre- NASA is advancing the technology mium fuels are utilized on site to base to allow early development of Coal provide processing heat. Significant efficient, cost-effective fuel cells with energy savings can be acheved with extended lifetimes, for both multi- Extraction an approach called cogeneration, in megawatt electric power plants and which one power generation on-site smaller multi-kilowatt cogeneration system would simultaneously provide systems for dispersed residential arid New automated processes for cut- all of an industrial plant's electrical industrial use. ting and transportation of coal in an and thermal power needs. Cogenera- underground mine have been sub- tion systems offer the potential for 611111111111111111111111111111111111111=1 jects of research since the using up to 80 percent of the mid-1970s. Extraction systems must available energy in the fuel. A num- be suitable for resources available ber of technologies for industrial Energy after the year 2000, and must prom- cogeneration systems and advanced ise substantial improvements in pro- electric generating systems are being Conversion duction cost and miner safety. NASA developed. has also developed advanced sen- sors for partially automating current Gas Turbines Systems longwall mining machines. These NASA has been advancing the sensors use radar and gamma rays technology for gas turbines for use in to detect the depth of coal available. industrial cogeneration systems. Tur- Magnetohydrodynamics One such device, the Natural Back- bines designea to burn heavy oils Magnetohydrodynarnics is an ad- ground Sensor, has been tested and coal-derived liquid and gaseous ,anced coal burning energy conver- extensively underground. A final re- fuels efficiently at high temperatures sr.in process for generating electricity port on a system of automated and with acceptable emissions are by iassing a high temperature gas mining components was submitted to being tested. NASA will complete its through a strong magnetic field. DOE DOE in 1982. research efforts in 1983. studies of this potentially off :lent method were supported by NASA Fuel Cells from 1977 to 1S81 in areas of Fuel Lolls have been important systems engineering and modelling, power sources for spacecraft and critical components assessment, and Space also offer potential for significant experimentation. energy savings in cogeneration sys- Utilization tems. Fuel cells col vert a hydrogen- Coal Gasification rich fuel and oxygen (from air) into Another potential on-site power electricity, providing hot water and generation system uses coal gas- Systems steam as by-products in the process. ification. This concept offers a way to They are clean, quiet, and efficient, turn polluting high-sulfur coal into a and could be used to power large clean-burning gas and to provide Between 1977 and 1981, NASA residential and commercial complex- usable thermal energy for an indus- and DOE explored the possible de- es while providing usable thermal trial cogeneration system. The coal velopment of satellite power stations energy for heating and air condition- gasification process begins in a gas- to provide large amounts of energy ing. ifiersomething like a giant pressure to cities on Earth. They concluded cookerwhere treated coal reacts that development of such a system with heated oxygen to produce a fuel was unjustified at the time, but that the possibility for future studies should be left open.
54 53 For the Classroom
1, Research topics: Wind power through history Wind turbines Scientists and solar cell re- search Solar energy Automobile engines of the future 2, Have your students investigate local uses of solar energy. How does it (or might it) affect architec- ture? 3. Purchase solar cell kits from a local hobby shop, electrical supply store, or other retail store. Let the class build and operate cell- powered models or lights. 4. Have students research solar cell uses and demonstrate them (a possible science fair project).
54 55 /
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` , V International Programs
nternational cooperation is an important dimension of NASA's program. The agency's 1958 mandate recognized this importance and stated that it "may engage in a program of internationalcooperation in work done pursuan, 43 this Act, and in the peaceful application of the results thereof...." During NASA's first year, the United States invited foreign scientists to propose experiments for launch- ing by the new agency. In the 25 years since, an extensive program of international cooperation involv- ing more than 1000 projects with over 100 countries has opened the entire range of space activities to foreign participation, has demonstrated the many peaceful purposes and applications of space science and technology, and has provided opportunities for contribution by scientists and agencies of other countries. NASA's international cooperation contributes to the U.S. aeronautical and space research program and
The STS-9 orbiter will carry aloft Spacelab 1, shown under construction.
57
1 , 1 56 to broader national objectives by: data, are built into all operational developing cost-sharing and meteorological satellites developed complementary space programs; by NASA for NOAA. NASA makes stimulating scientific and techni- available APT receiving station tech- Canada cal contributions from abroad; nology to anyone wishing to obtain Alouette I, September 1962 enlarging the potential for the real-time local cloud cover images. development of the state of the art; APT stations are currently located in Alouette II, November 1965 Satellites for ionospheric research (C) providing access to foreign areas 87 countries, many of which have of geographic significance for track- made significant investments in APT. International Satellite for Ionospheric ing and contingency landing sites; Over the years, NASA's wide Studies (ISIS) I, January 1969 enhancing satellite experiments range of cooperative and reimburs- with foreign scientific supporting able programs has benefited both the Isis II, March 1971 (C) data; United States and the international Telesat F (Anik) extending ties among scientific community. Since 1962, over 40 November 13, 1982 and national communities; and cooperative satellites have been The second satellite launched from the Shuttle supporting U.S. foreign relations placed in orbit, and since 1965, more on STS-5. Since 1972 NASA has launched Canada's and foreign policy. than 60 reimbursable satellite Telesat, the world's first satellite system to use The programs fall into two catego- launches have been completed. In geostationary satelllites for domestic telecom ries: cooperative and reimbursable. addition to satellite projects there munications. In orbit each Telesat satellite is designated Anik, the Eskimo word for brother. The cooperative activities, ranging have been over 2,000 joint ground- (R) from flight of foreign-built spacecraft based and space research activities, to ground-based study and analysis including sounding rocket, balloon, Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) of data, include contributions of ex- data investigations, and space sci- January 1976June 1979 periments on payloads to be flown in ence experiments. The following is a space by NASA, joint projects to summary of international joint satel- The Remote Manipulator System develop flight hardware, analysis of lite projects, listed in alphabetical (RMS), developed by the National lunar samples or data provided by order by country; a (C) denotes a Research Council of Canada, was NASA satellites, training, visits, and cooperative, and an (R) a reimburs- first tested on STS-2 aboard the joint publication of scientific results. able, project. orbiter Columbia. NASA also provides on a reim- bursable basis services for which the ,..digoff-1:14,1'^wt- MillIIROFITITY 41- -*on user country pays; these range from alb, space launch services to data and tracking services. NASA maintains a number of for- eign tracking stations overseas for both the Space Tracking and Data Network (STDN) and the Deep Space Network (DSN), which have
been indispensable for the acquisi- 4. tion data from NASA's many scientific and applications satellites. The host countries have provided sites and personnel for these sta- tions, a cry. oeration greatly appreci- ated by NASA. Ten countries have established Landsat (See Chapter III) receiving, processing, and data distribution fa- cilities and many benefited from the application of Landsat data during the ten years that NASA managed the program. Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) capabilities which allow local readout of meteorological satellite
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58 57 A joint US-Canadian program to advance International Radiation Investigation Satel- A key Shuttle payload Is Spacelab communications via satellite: used for a lite [IRIS (ESR0/11)] (center), a multipurpose laboratory number of experiments in health, education, May 1968 that will enable scientists to con- and business. (See Chapter III) (C) Integrated study of solar radiation and cosmic rays. (C) duct experiments in the micro- Remote Manipulator System (RMS) gravity environment of space. November 1981June 1983 Aurorae (ESRO /I) Canada designed and built the Remote Manip- October 1968 ulator System (RMS) for use on the Shuttle to Eight exoeriments integrated a study of high deploy and retrieve payloads: first tested on latitude energetic particles and their effects on Donna (ESRO /IB) STS2 in November 1981. a year later NASA the ionosphere. (C) October 1969 formally accepted the RMS. when it was Carried experiments designed to study declared ready for operational use. (C) Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite (HEOS) ionospheric and auroral phenomena, particu- On STS-7, June 1983, the RMS's deploy- HEOS-1, December 1968 larly over the North Pole at night in winter. (R) ment retrieval capabilities will be tested with HEOS-2, January 1972 the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS). A camera Investigated interplanetary space, high altitude Thor-Delta (TD/1) mounted on SPAS will provide photo coverage magnetosphere, and solar and cosmic ray . March 1972 during deployment, free flight, retrieval, and (R) Astronomy satellite carrying seven scientific reberthing on the Shuttle. experiments. (R)
t. 4, SARSAT 1 .4"7°. .41,N, _0;41 March 28, 1983 Canada, France, the US. and the Soviet Union are cooperating on an experimental satellite- aided search and rescue project to aid in rescue of ships and planes in distress. (See USSR) IC)
European Space Agency (ESA) [formerly European Space Research Organization (ESRO)] amia-NIJL1011 Membership: Belgium, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Ger- many, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Canada and Austria have "observer" status: Norway is an "Associate" member.
Technicians check ESA's Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite (HEOS) prior to launch by NASA. 58 59 ESRO/IV November 1972 Investigated and measured several phe- nomena in the polar ionosphere. (R)
Cosmic Ray Satellite (COS/13) August 1975 For study of cosmic gamma rays. (R)
Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite (GEOS/A) April 1977 Designed to investigate waves and particles in the magnetosphere. (R) 410 GEOS/B July 1978 Studied atmospheric radiation particles, (R)
International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-2) October 22, 1977 One of two spacecraft launched by a single rocket. With NASA's ISEE-I, was placed in an elliptical orbit to provide detailed data on Earth's immediate space environment and a variety of solar-terrestrial phenomena. In 1978, ISEE-3 was placed in a halo orbit to study the same phenomena from a different vantage point. (See Chapter VIII, Solar-Terrestrial Physics) (C)
International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) January 26, 1978 A joint ESA-UK-US satellite project to study a wide range of celestial objects in one of the most important regions of the spectrum; an advanced telescope, the IUE complements ESA's TD-1 satellite and is establishing a system for observing by astronomers of all nations, an objective of the Space Telescope. (C)
Spacelab 1 Scheduled for September 1983 Spacelab, developed and built by ESA, is Europe's contribution to the NASA Space Transportation System. It consists of a cylindri- cal module in which both astronauts and civilian scientists, called payload scientists, will AO; arliW 44A Al work and a series of unpressurized pallets which will support experiments requiring direct exposure to space. Carried in the cargo bay of the Shuttle orbiter, Spacelab will serve as a Adel, the first international satel- center for conducting scientific investigations lite, being checked on the weight not possible on Earth. France and balance machine with its solar The first mission of Spacelab (Spacelab 1) will be a nine-day flight, a joint NASA-ESA FR-1 panels and antennas in orbit posi- mission during which over 70 investigations in December 1965 tiun. five different scientific disciplines will be For ionospheric research. (C) conducted. Both NASA and ESA are providing experiments for the mission. (See Epilogue, Eoie HEAO-3 International) (C) August 1971 September 20, 1979 An experimental balloon satellite designed to France provided a heavy primary cosmic ray Space Telescope (ST) gather meteorological data, measuring wind experiment for the third High Energy Astrono- Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1986. speeds at various altitudes. (C) my Observatory (HEAO). (See Chapter VIII, (See Epilogue, International) (C) Astronomy and Astrophysics) (C) Symphonle A and B International Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) December 1974 and August 1975 SARSAT Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1986. Communications satellites, a joint project with March 28, 1983 (See Epilogue, International) (C) Germany to provide service to Europe, Africa, CNES provides receivers/processors for a joint and South America. (R) US/French/Canadian search and rescue satel- lite-aided project. (See USSR) (C) TIROS N October 13, 1978 Centre Nationale D'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) provides data collection systems for the TIROS N advanced meteorological satellite and seven follow-on operational spacecraft. (C)
60 53 ,v 4 are,. Germany , tvt 4
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Small satellite for particles and fields research. v , (C) ,T Symphonle A and B ore December 1974 and August 1975 ,041. FrenchGerman communications satellites.
Hellos I and 2 December 1974 and January 1976 Two deep-space probes for interplanetary and solar studies inside the orbit of Mercury. (C)
Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-01) Scheduled for Shuttle launch (STS-7), June 18, 1983 The first payload to be deployed and retrieved by the Canadian RMS. Materials processing research experiments will be conducted while SPAS is in the Shuttle cargo bay; when these are finished, NASA will use the payload in a test of the RMS's deploymentiretrieval capabili- ties. A camera mounted on SPAS will provide photo coverage during deployment, free flight, retrieval, and reberthing on the Shuttle, (R)
Active Magnetospherlc Particle Tracer Ex- plorers (AMPTE) Scheduled for launch in 1984. (See Epilogue, International) (C) The San Marco 3, an Italian- Spacelab D-1 built satellite, was launched by Scheduled for launch in June 1985. Indonesia NASA from a launch plat' 'irm off (See ESA, above and Epilogue, International) the coast of Kenya in the Indian (R) Palapa Ell and B2 Scheduled for Shuttle launch, B1 on STS-7 in Ocean. Galileo June 1983 and B2 in 1984. Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1986. To replace the first Palapa (Al, A2) communi- (See Epilogue, International) (C) cations satellites that have served the Indone- sian archipelago, Thailand, Malaysia, and ROSAT Singapore since 1976 and 1977. The new Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1987. spacecraft will relay stronger signals and are (See Epilogue, International) (C) expected to operate for eight years. (R) International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat) India Italy Intelsat is an international consortium formed in 1964, including over 90 member nations Satellite Instructional Television Experiment San Marco 1-111 and managed by the Communications Satellite (SITE) December 1964February 1974 Corporation (COMSAT). A series of 24 com August 1975July 1976 Geostationary satellites for upper atmospheric mercial Intelsat satellites provided an interna Used the ATS-6 communications satellite for a research. (C) tional communications system from 1965 to program of educational telecasting to rural 1982. Five more are scheduled for launch by villages in India. Indian-produced programs in Sirio 1985. (R) health, agriculture, education, and family plan- August 1977 ning were broadcast in 2,400 villages. (See Geostationary satellite designed to investigate Chapter III, Communications) (C) trapped radiation flux, variation, and the primary electron energy spectrum. (R) INSAT 1B Japan Scheduled for Shuttle launch on STS8, San Marco D/L August 1983. Scheduled for launch in July 1983. NASA has launched three satellites for Japan, A geostationary satellite with telecommunica- Consists of two spacecraft equipped to study all (R). tions. community broadcasting, and mete- solar and meteorological phenomena. (C) orological capabilities. (R) Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS) July 1977
Communications Satellite (CS) December 1977
61 60 ce)
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Artist's concept of the Infrared An artist painting the US-UK iden- Soyuz spacecraft as seen from Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), a tification on the Thor-Delta vehicle Apollo. cooperative Netherlands/US/UK that launched Ariel, the first inter- project. national satellite.
Broadcast Satellite Experiment (BSE) April 1978 USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) United Kingdom July 15, 1975 Col. Aleksey A. Leonov Ariel 1-VI Valeriy N. Kubasov April 26, 1962June 2, 1979 The first joint manned space mission between Netherlands First international satellite; the series con- the US and the USSR. (See Chapter VI, ducted ionospheric research. (C) ASTP) (C) Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS) August 1974 Skynet 1 COSFAS-SARSAT Satellite for ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy. November 1969 (replaces COSPASstill under USSR) (C) Geostationary communications satellite located Cosmos 1383 (USSR), June 30, 1982 over the Indian Ocean. (R) Cosmos 1447 (USSR), March 25, 1983 NOAA 5 (US), March 28, 1983 Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) The Satellite-Aided Search and Rescue Proj- January 25, 1983 January 26, 1978 ect (COSPAS-SARSAT) is a multilateral coop- A cooperative Netherlands-US-UK project with A joint satellite project with ESA and the US. erative project involving the US, Canada, a Netherlands-built spacecraft, an infrared UK provides hardware and ground support for France, and the USSR. US and Soviet telescope supplied by NASA, and tracking the spacecraft and telescope, which studies satellites equipped with transponders are to services provided by the UK: its 11-month the ultraviolet spectra of stars, gas clouds, receive emergency signals from ships and mission is to produce an all-sky survey of planets, and comets. (C) aircraft in distress and relay them to ground discrete infrared sources. A Dutch Additional stations in the four countries for independent Experiment package includes three instru- search and rescue operations. The goal of this ments, two photometers and a low-resolution Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) humanitarian project is to demonstrate the spectrometer, to aid in the classification and January 25, 1983 effectiveness of satellites in reducing the time mapping. (C) Cooperative project with The Netherlands and it takes to locate and rescue air and maritime the US; the UK is providing tracking services distress victims, thus significantly increasing for the spacecraft during its 11-month mission the possibility of saving lives. (C) to produce an all-sky survey of discrete infrared sources. (C) Spain
INTASAT November 1974 Ionospheric beacon transmitting radio signals to a world-wide network of 20 ground stations. (C)
62 61 For the Classroom
1. Have your students keep a clip- ping file on foreign space pro- grams, bon those of individual countries and those that are coop- erative ventures with the US. 2. Using the information in Chapter X, locate tracking stations around the world. How might these facili- ties affect the local communities? 3. Many countries have issued com- memorative stamps honoring space projects. Have your stu- dents research examples and compare with US air and space commemoratives.
62 - .e
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;V 1 VI Launch Vehicles
Overcoming the pull of Earth's gravity is the first challenge of any space mission. Whether small and suborbital or large and traveling to another planet, every spacecraft must be carried into space before it can do its job. NASA has a family of launch vehiclesa graduated series of multistage rockets to accomplish its space programs. A family of launch vehicles was developed because a number of different vehicles were re iuired for missions that range from simple to complex. Until the Space Shuttle, launch vehicles were expendable, and the most efficient method of launching was to use a vehicle adapted to the payload, its weight, and its trajectory. The vehicles are combinations of two or more stages, which burn one after the other, each being discarded when it is no longer needed,so only a small part of the whole vehicle is necessary to propel the spacecraft into the final orbit or space
Liftoff of the Mercury-Redstone 3, May 5, 1961. The following list and accompany- Thrust: 77,100 kg (170,000 lbs) sea level trajectory. Verniers: (2) 453 kg (1000 Ibs) each When NASA was formed, its ing chart will introduce the primary Guidance: Radio (stages 1, 2) launch capability depended upon launch vehicles that NASA has used Second Stage: Delta through its 25-year history, Length: 6 m (20.6 ft) what was available and most of the Diameter: 1.3 m (4.3 ft) vehicles were derived from the mili- Propellant: liquid tary missile program. In time, addi- Thrust: 3400 kg (7500 Ibs) vacuum Third Stage: Altair (spin stabilized) tional vehicles were developed, using Length: 150 cm (59 in) both solid and liquid propellant rock- Redstone Diameter: 45 cm (18 in) ets, specifically to acquire a variety of Adapted by NASA from an Army Propellant: solid ballistic missile, the Redstone was Thrust: 2630 kg (5800 Ibs) vacuum launch vehicle combinations suited to Status: Operational the expanding space exploration pro- used to launch Project Mercury sub- Launch Pads: KSC, WSMC gram. orbital flights. Note: Originally called Thor-Delta and consist- From the small Scout, which is still ed of the Thor stage inherited from the Mercury-Redstone Department of Defense plus the second stage used for small payloads, to the 1960-61, flew successfully five limes after an of Vanguard modified somewhat and called mighty Saturn V that took men to the initial failure. Two unmanned flights and one Deltathus the Thor-Delta original name. This Moon and was last used to put the with the chimpanzee Ham preceded the first was later augmented by adding Castor strap- U.S. manned spaceflight by Alan B. Shephard, on solid fuel motors to the Thor creating the Skylab space station into Earth orbit, Jr. in May 1961, and Virgil I. Grissom's flight in nomenclature TAD (Thrust Augmented Delta). NASA's launch vehicles evolved and July 1961. TAD could place a 590 kg (1300-1b) satellite improved both as a group and as Height: 18 m (59 ft) into a 300-nm orbit or rocket a 113.3 kg (250- 25 m (83 ft) with capsule and escape lb) spacecraft to escape velocity. individual vehicles. Each vehicle is tower constantly uprated and finally re- Single Stage moved from service when no longer Propellant: liquid Thrust: 35,380 kg (78,000 Ibs) needed. In 1962 Scout could put i00 kilograms (220 Ibs) and Delta, sever- Thor-Agena D al hundred kilograms, into near-Earth Height: 23.3 m (76.3 ft) Weight: classified orbit; Delta also could send 25 kg Payload: 725 kg (1600 Ibs) (300 nm orbit) (55 Ibs) to Mars or Venus. Ten years Scout First Stage: Thor later Scout's performance was dou- Height: 20 m (68 ft) Length: 17 m (55.9 ft) Weight: 17,463 kg (38,500 lbs) Diameter: 2.5 m (8 ft) bled and Delta could send 340 kg Payloads: 108 kg (240 Ibs) (300 nm orbit) Engine: MB3 Blk 11 (749 Ibs) to the near planets. These First Stage: Algol 118 Propellant: liquid two vehicles remain the workhorses Length: 9.07 m (30.8 ft) Thrust: 77,100 kg (170,000 Ibs) sea level Diameter: 1.14 m (4 ft) Verniers: (2) 453 kg (1000 Ibs) each of the space program. First used in Propellant: solid Guidance: radio 1960 to put Echo into orbit, Delta is Thrust: 39,916 kg (88,000 Ibs) at sea level Seco,7d Stage: Agena D still operational, and in fact Delta was Guidance: strapped down gyros (stages 1, 2, LencIth: 6.3 m (20.9 ft) 3) Diameter: 1.5 m (5 ft) responsible for the first successful Second Stage: Castor Engine: Bell 8096 (restartable) launch of 1983, the Infrared Astro- Length: 6.3 m (20.7 ft) Propellant: liquid nomical Satellite. Diameter: 78.74 cm (31 in) Thrust: 7,257 kg (16,000 Ibs) vacuum Propellant: solid Guidance: inertial NASA not only launches its own Thrust: 27,669 kg (61,000 lbs) vacuum Status: Operational spacecraft, but it conducts many Third Stage: Antares X-259 Launch Pads: WSMC launches for commercial organiza- Length: 3.5 m (11.5 ft) Note: The Thrust-Augmented Thor-Agena Diameter: 76 cm (30 in) (TAT) has three rockets strapped to its first tions, other Federal agencies, other Propellant: solid stage, bringing total first-stage thrust to nations, and multi-national groups. Thrust: 10,432 kg (23,000 Ibs) vacuum 150,594 kg (332,000 Ibs). (See note for Delta.) For such missions NASA is reim- Fourth Stage: Altair (spin stabilized) TAT can launch a 2200-lb satellite into a 300 - Length: 149 cm (59 in) nm orbit. bursed for the cost of the vehicle and Diameter: 45 cm (18 in) launch services. Propellant: solid NASA owns launch sites at the Thrust: 2,630 kg (5800 Ibs) vacuum Status: Operational Eastern and Western Space and Launch Pads: Wallops, WSMC, San Marco Missile Centers (ESMC and WSMC) The only NASA vehicle to use solid pro- Atlas in Florida and California and the pellants exclusively. The first stage Atlas launch vehicle Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, and was adapted from the first Air Force has access to the San Marco launch ICBM. Modified Atlases have been complex off the east coast of Africa used in several multistage vehicles to owned by Italy. Delta launch both manned and unmanned Height: 35.4 m (116 ft) missions. Weight: 51.800 kg (114,200 Ibs) Payload: 399 kg (880 Ibs) (300 nm orbit) 68 kg (150 Ibs) (escape) First Stage: Thor Length: 17 m (55.9 ft) Diameter: 21/2 m (8 ft) Mercury-Atlas Height: 20.5 m (67.3 ft) Propellant: liquid 29 m (95.3 ft) with capsule and escape tower 66 65 Diameter 3 m (10 ft) Propellant liquid Thrust 139.797 kg (308.000 Ibs) sea level First used for John Glenn s orbital flight in February 1962. the Atlas launched all suc- ceeding Project Mercury orbital flights.
Atlas-Agena D Height: 36.6 m (120 ft) Weight. Classified Payloads: 2699 kg (5950 lbs) (300 nm orbit) First Stage: Atlas D Length 20.5 m (67 4 ft) Diameter 3 m (10 ft) Propellant: liquid Thrust 175.996 kg (388.000 Ibs) sea level Verniers: (2) 226.8 kg (500 lbs) each. Guidance: radio Second Stage: Agena D Length 6.3 m (20.9 ft) Diameter1 5 m (5 ft) Engine: Bell 8096 (restartable) Propellant: liquid Thrust 7,257 kg (16X Ibs) vacuum Guidance: inertial Status: Operational Launch Pads WSMC & ESMC A versatile multi-purpose two-stage vehicle used to place unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit or into the proper trajectory for planetary or deep-space probes. It was also used as the rendezvous target vehicle for the Gemini spacecraft in 1965-66.
Atlas-Centaur Height: 40.8 m (134 ft) Weight: 136.079 kg (300.000 lbs) Payload 3856 kg (8500 Ibs) (300 nm) 1043 kg (2300 lbs) (escape) First Stage Atlas D (modified) Length: 23 m (75 ft) Diameter: 3 m (10 ft) Propellant: liquid Thrust: 431.000 lbs sea level 1 7 million newtons Verniers. (2) 453 kg (1000 Ibs) each Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2) Second Stage: Centaur Lengtn 9.75 m (32 ft) Diameter: 3 m (10 ft) Engines (2) RL-10 A-3 Propellant liquid Thrust: 13,608 kg (30.000 los) vacuum 133.450 newtons Status Operational Launch Pads: ESMC Centaur was the first high-energy, liquid- hydrogen liquid-oxygen propelled upper stage. Developed by NASA, it has been used in combination with Atlas and Titan boosters to launch both Earth-orbital satellites and inter- planetary space probes. The Centaur can be restarted several times, which gives flexibility in launch times.
Prelaunch view of Titan-Centaur 5 with Helios B.
66 Titan Titan, an Air Force ICBM, was modified by NASA as (1) Titan II for Project Gemini, 1964-66, and (2) Ti- tan HI a decade later for large payloads. Titan HIC launched the ATS-8 communications satellite in 1974: Titan III-Centaur, the Viking and Voyager missions: and Titan III- E Centaur, Helios 1 and 2 toward the Sun.
Titan III-E/Centaur First launched in 1974, had an overall height of 48.8 m (160 ft). The Titan III-E booster was a two stage liquid-fueled rocket with two large solid-propellant rockets attached. At liftoff the solid rockets provided 10.7 million newtons (2.4 million Ibs) of thrust.
Space Transportation System The launch system for the Space Shuttle consists of an expendable External Tank (ET), which contains the propellants used for liftoff and ascent by the orbiter's three main engines, and two Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB's). Launched in a conventional manner, the Shuttle's Main Engines and the SRB's produce approximately 30,800,000 newtons of thrust. At 45 kilometers (28 ml) above Earth the SRB's separate, descend by parachute, and are recovered in the ocean. Eight minutes into the flight. at approximately 110 krns (68.3 mi) altitude, the ET propellants are exhausted: the tank separates from the orbiter and disintegrates upon entry into the atmosphere.
Solid Rocket Boosters The SRBs provide the major portion of the thrust at the time of liftoff They are the largest solid roc'iet boosters ever built, the first to be ustid to launch humans into space, and the first designed for reuse Length 45 46 rn (149 ft) Diameter 3 70 m (12 ft) Mass empty 82.879 kg each (222.195 Ibs)
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' will 4 Apo sic Propellant mass: 503,627 kg each (1,350,206 One of the two solid rocket boost- Ibs) ers used in the launch of STS-1 Thrust: 12,899,200 newtons each at sea level Uprated Saturn 1 floating in its horizontal, or "log," External Tank Height: 68 m (223 ft) with payload mode for towing to Florida where Length: 47 m (154 ft) Weight: 589,676 kg (1,300,000 Ibs) it is being refurbished for reuse. Diameter: 8.38 m (27.5 ft) Payloads. 18,143 kg (40,000 Ibs) (100 nm Mass empty: 37,452 kg (100,407 Ibs) orbit) Propellant: liquid First Stage: S-IB First Stage: ;WC Propellant mass: 710,801 kg (1,905,633 Ibs) Length: 24 m (80 ft) Length: 42 m (138 ft) Diameter: 6.6 m (21.6 ft) Diameter: 10 di (33 ft) Propellant: liquid Propellant: liquid Thrust: 725,755 kg (1,600,000 Ibs) sea level, Thrust: 3,515,377 kg (7,750,000 Ibs) sea level, 7.1 million newtons 34.5 million newtons Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2) Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2, 3) Saturn I Second Stage: S-IVB Second Stage: S-II Height: 58 m (190 ft) with payload Length: 18 m (59 ft) Length: 24 m (80 ft) Weight: 528,440 kg (1,165,000 Ibs) with Diameter: 6.6 m (21.7 ft) Diameter: 10 m (33 ft) payload Propellant: liquid Propellant: liquid Payloads: 10,205 kg (22,500 Ibs) (100 nm Thrust: 90,719 kg (200,000 Ibs) vacuum Thrust: 453,597 kg (1,000,000 Ibs) vacuum orbit) Launch Pads: ESMC Third Stage: S-IVB First Stage: S-1 Length: 18 m (59 ft) Length: 25 m (82 ft) Saturn IB Diameter: 6.6 m (21.7 ft) Diameter: 6.6 m (21.6 ft) 1966-75, the "uprated" Saturn, was developed Propellant: liquid Propellant: liquid to test Apollo hardware in Earth orbit. Four Thrust: 90,719 kg (200,000 Ibs) vacuum Thrust: 682,209 kg (1,504,000 Ibs) sea level such tests were flown between 1966 and Launch Pads: KSC 39A, B Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2) 1968. Saturn IB also launched Skylab 2, 3, Second Stage: S-lV and 4 in 1973 and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Saturn V Length: 12 m (40 ft) Project in 1975. 1967-73, was the large launch vehicle devel- Diameter 5.5 m (18 ft) oped for the Apollo lunar missions. It launched Propellant: liquid 12 successful flights, putting 27 men into lunar Thrust: 40,823 kg (90,000 Ibs) vacuum orbit, 12 of whom landed on the Moon. Status: All flights completed successfully America's most powerful rocket, it carried out Launch Pads: ESMC (Saturn V its last scheduled manned mission on Decem- Height: 111 m (363 ft) with payload ber 7, 1972, when it launched Apollo 17. It Saturn I Weight: 2,766,942 kg (6.100,000 Ibs) was last used on May 14, 1973, when it lifted 1961-65. was a arge capacity launch vehicle. Payloads: 129,275 kg (285,000 Ibs) (100 nm the unmanned Skylab space station into Earth Ten successfill Jights tested the rocket's orbit) 43,092 kg (95,000 Ibs) escape orbit. structP. ,Measured the performance of its Saturn V with the Apollo spacecraft stood motors, studied the effects of micrometeoroids 111 m (363 ft) tall. and developed 34.5 million on the spacecraft, and diagnosed other as- newtons (7.75 million Ibs) of thrust at liftoff, pects of vehicle performance.
70 69 For the Classroom
1. Research topics: The history of rocketry Solid vs. liquid propellant rock- ets New propellants that would make long-duration flights to deep space possible 2. For book reports, suggest biogra- phies of rocket pioneers. 3. Experiment with model rocketry by purchasing commercially-pro- duced solid rocket engines and rocket body kits (available at many hobby and toy stores and through mail order catalogs). Be sure your students follow the included instructions for construct- ing these rockets and check with local authorities for any regula- tions governing model rocketry. CAUTION: Constructing rocket engines, whether liquid or solid propellants are used, is a very dangerous activity when partici- pated in by amateurs. Literally hundreds of students, teachers, and home experimenters have been seriously injured by explod- ing rockets. Propellant perfor- mance, chamber bursting strength, and nozzleshape are design and construction problems beyond the scope of most ama- teur experimenters. Model rocket- ry is an excellent substitution to amateur rocketry.
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ti VII Space Flight
believe that this Nation should commit itself a. . . to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth. No single space project in this period will be more exciting, or more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish....But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the moon we make this judgment affirmativelyit will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there." President John F Kennedy, Special Message to Congress, May 25, 1961 When President Kennedy delivered his national objective to Congress, the spaceflight of fiction was already becoming reality. Project Mercury had tested the spacecraft and Redstone booster (MR-1A) that the program would use; Ham, a chimpanzee named for the Holloman Aerospace Medical Center, had
The first America 1 space walk. During the third orbit of the Gemini IV flight, Astronaut Edward H. White II floated into space secured to the spacecraft by a 25-foot umbilical line and a 23400t tether Ilne wrapped together with gold tape to form one cord.
72 been a passenger in a successful as America's first astronauts: Lt. M. suborbital flight (MR-2); and 20 days Scott Carpenter, USN; Capt. L. Gor- hefore the President's address, the don Cooper, Jr., USAF; Lt. Col. John first manned suborbital flight had Project H. Glenn, Jr., USMC; Capt. Virgil I. been accomplished. Grissom, USAF; Lt. Comdr. Walter The Congress approved and the M. Shirra, Jr., USN; Lt. Comdr. Alan American public enthusiastically sup- Mercury B. Shepard, Jr., USN; ana Capt. ported the expanded and ambitious Dona la K. Slayton, USAF. Six of the long-term space exploration program. seven would make a Mercury flight. Project Mercury with its solo pilots, Initiated in 1958, completed in Slayton was grounded for medical Project Gemini and its two-man 1963, Project Mercury was the reasons, but remained as director of crews, and Project Apollo with a crew United States first man-in-space pro- the astronaut office. In 1975, re- of three became a methodical pro- gram. The objectives of the program, turned to flight status, he served as gression to complete the U.S. com- which made six manned flights from Docking Module Pilot on the Apollo- mitment to a lunar landing. 1961 to 1963, were specific: Soyuz flight. The basic research, the program To orbit a manned spacecraft decisions, the engineering tests, the around Earth; The Spacecraft trained staff, all overlapped during To investigate man's ability to The first U.S. spaceship was a the decade of these three programs. function in space; cone-shaped one-man capsule with The entire country, through major To recover both man and space- a cylinder mounted on top. Two contractors and thousands of sub- craft safely. meters (6 ft, 10 in) long, 1.9 meters contractors, brought the programs to All were met by the fourth flight, and (6 ft, 21/2 in) in diameter, a 5.8 meter fruition. Technological lessons were new objectives of longer missions, (19 ft, 2 in) escape tower was learned and managerial techniques different in quality and quantity of fastened to the cylinder of the cap- refined. orbits, were added. sule. The blunt end was covered with Project Mercury ended in 1963. an ablative heat shield to protect it Twenty years later it seems elemen- The Astronauts against the 3000° heat of entry into tary. But its pioneering experiments In April 1959 seven military jet test the atmosphere. laid the groundwork for great pilots were introduced to the public The Mercury program used two achievements. Project Gemini, in turn, provided the experience of how to live and maneuver in space. It established an experienced ground teamin the control room, at tracking stations, in industry. It readied America for the fulfillment of its national commitment. Project Apollo, an extraordinary technological and scientific accom- plishment. proclaimed the United States a leader in space exploration. It was a bridge between the early manned spaceflight pro, Skylab, the application learned. It provided th rig 0110 for the international exr ,nt Apollo-Soyuz Test Proj,
Project Mercury Astronauts, whose selection was announcb, only six months after NASA was formally established, included: Front row, left to right, Walter M. Schirra. Jr., Donald K. Slayton,
. hn H. Glenn, Jr., and M. Scott arpenter; beck row, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Virgil L Grissom, and L. Gordon Cooper, Jr.
73 r7,1A14111,107.,
Astronaut Alan Shepard being lift- ed into the helicopter after his IN? '415a4145ito '4,S successful suborbital flight. ..., 4. , "4641. s111.: pia A launch vehicles: A Redstone for the .44.41k41# atkl ...>. :r suborbital and an Atlas for the four ap )4.1' orbital flights. (See Chapter V). Prior t,* , to the manned flights, unmanned No. "tei48441t4sm.', :obe tests of the booster and the capsule, 1,4.krolors. carrying a chimpanzee, were made. ;40 Each astronaut named his capsule .. and added the numeral 7 to denote the teamwork of the original astro- i.mwe ..% , nauts. I to,. kl 41.,..%*.t
IA1 fita,',W The Manned Flights 4.4 4;4*. j t' Mercury-Redstone 3 (MR -3). Freedom 7 May 5. 1961 Alan B Shepard. Jr . 15 minutes. 22 seconds Suborbital flight that successfully put the first .abifitlailiat1I American in space 1., Mercury-Redstone 4 (MR-4), Liberty Bell 7 July 21. 1961
Virgil I Grissom 15 minutes. 37 seconds Also suborbital. successful flight but the spacecraft sank sh)rtly after splashdown. I
Mercury-Atlas 6 ;MA-6), Friendship 7 t, February 20. 1962 John H Glenn. Jr 4 hours. 55 minutes Three-orbit flight that placed the first American into orbit. vai Mercury-Atlas 7 (MA-7), Aurora 7 May 24 1962 2 dn. "! M. Scott Carpenter 4 hours, 56 minutes Confirmed the success of MA-6 by duplicating the flight
Mercury-Atlas 8 (MA-8), Sigma 7 October 3. 1962 Walter M. Schirra. Jr 9 hours. 13 minutes Six-orbit engineering test flight
Mercury-Atlas 9, Faith 7 May 15-16. 1963 L Gordon Cooper. Jr 34 hours. 19 minutes Last Mercury mission. completed 22 orbits to evaluate effects of one day in space. 10 Sketches showing the comparative sizes of the Mercury capsule, the Gemini spacecraft, and the Apollo Command Module.
APOLLO
19 GEMINI
74 ver the docked combination by using The Manned Flights the target vehicle's propulsion sys- Gemini III, Molly Brown tem; March 23, 1965 Project To perfect methods of entering 4 hours, 53 minutes the atmosphere and landing at a Virgil I. Grissom, John W. Young First manned Gemini flight, three orbits. preselected point on land. Its goals Gemini were also met, with the exception of Gemini IV a land landing, which was cancelled June 3-7, 1965 James A. McDivitt, Edward H. White II in 1964. 97 hours, 56 minutes The second U.S. manned space Included first extravehicular activity (EVA) by program was announced in January The Spacecraft an American; White's "space walk" was a 22- minute EVA exercise. 1962. Its two-man crew gave it its The spacecraft was an enlarge- name, Gemini, for the third constella- ment of the familiar Mercury cap- Gemini V tion of the Zodiac and its twin stars, sule-5.8m (19 ft) long, 3m (10 ft) in August 21-29. 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Charles Conrad, Jr. Castor and Pollux. Gemini involved diameter, and about 3810 kilograms 8 days, 21 hours 12 flights, including two unmanned (8400 pounds) in weight. Engineering First use of fuel cells for electrical power; flight tests of the equipment. changes simplified maintenance and evaluated guidance and navigation system for future rendezvous missions. Completed 120 Like Mercury's,its major objectives made it more maneuverable for the orbits. were clear-cut: pilots. The Titan II rocket, more To subject man and equipment powerful than the Redstone, placed Gemini VII December 4-18, 1965 to space flight up to two weeks in the larger spacecraft into orbit. 13 days, 18 hours, 35 minutes duration; Sometimes referred to as Gemini- Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr. To rendezvous and dock with Titan for the craft and its launch When the Gemini VI mission was scrubbed because its Agena target for rendezvous and other orbiting vehicles and to maneu- vehicle, each flight was designated docking failed, Gemini VII was used for the rendezvous instead. Primary objective was to determine whether humans could live in space for 14 days.
Gemini VI December 15-16, 1965 Walter M. Shirra, Jr., Thomas P. Stafford 25 hours, 51 minutes First space rendezvous accomplished with Gemini VII, station-keeping for over five hours at distances from 0.3 to 90 m (1 to 295 ft).
Gemini VIII March 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong, David R. Scott age 10 hours, 41 minutes Accomplished first docking with another space 4 vehicle, an unmanned Agena stage. A mal- - function caused uncontrollable spinning of the craft; the crew undocked and effected the first emergency landing of a manned U.S. space mission.
.a Gemini IX June 3-6, 1966 vr , Thomas P. Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan
141111110%... 3 days, 21 hours Rescheduled from May to rendezvous and dock with augmented target docking adapter - (ATDA) after original Agena target vehicle +.14, failed to orbit. ATDA shroud did not completely separate, making docking impossible. Three . Bi ORO different types of rendezvous. two hours of EVA, and 44 orbits were completed.
Suit technician assisting Gemini by a Roman numeral. Only the first Gemini X VI Pilot Thomas Stafford during capsule was nicknamed; Command July 18-21, 1966 suiting up as Command Pilot Pilot Virgil Grissom called it the Molly John W. Young, Michael Collins 5 days Walter Schirra looks on Brown in reference to his Mer,ury First use of Agena target vehicle's propulsion spacecraft that sank. systems. Spacecraft also rendezvoused with Gemini VIII target vehicle. Collins had 49 minutes of EVA standing in the hatch and 39 minutes of EVA to retrieve experiment from Agena stage. 43 orbits wmpleted. 75 /6 a
Photograph of the Gemini VII spacecraft taken through the hatch window of Gemini VI during rendezvous and station-keeping maneuvers at an altitude of ap- proximately 160 miles on December xr 15, 1965 (above). a
"Any y r.:;igator" was the Gemini IX crew's description of the Aug- mented Target Docking Adaptor with its shroud partly open arid still attached (upper right). ANN To carry out a program of scien- tific explorations of the Moon; and Gemini XI September 12-15. 1966 To develop man's capability to Charles Conrad. Jr.. Richaru F. Gordon, Jr. Project Apollo work in the lunar environment. 5 days. 8 hours Gemini record altitude. 1.189 3 km (739 2 mg The cumulative experience of Mer- iegched using Agena proptsion system after cury and Gemini started Apollo with firs( orbit rendezvuiand docking Gordon "That's one small step for a man, confidence. The mighty Saturn made 33-minuta EVA and two-hour standup launch vehiclesfor both Earth orbit EVA 44 orbits. one giant leap for mankind." The national effort that enabled Astronaut anlunar flightshad perfect test Gemini Xi( Neil Armstrong to speak those words flights. November 11-.15. 1966 James A Lovell. Jr . Edwin E Aldrin. Jr as he stepped onto the lciar surface, Apollo 204/Apollo 1 3 days. 22 hews. 34 minutes fulfilled a dram as old as humanity. Final Gemini flight Rendezvoused and docked But Project Apollo's goals went be- January 27, 1967. Tragedy struck with its target Agena and kept station with it during EVA Aldrin set an EVA record of 5 yond landing Americans on the Moon on the lau;1ch pad during a preflight hours. 30 minutes for one space walk and two and returning them safely to Earth: test for Apollo 204. the first Apollo stand-up exercises To estabi'sh thtechnology to manned mission. Astronauts Virgil meet other national interests in Grissom. Edward White, and Roger space: C,.9fee lost their lives when a fire To achieve preeminence in space swept through the Command Mod- for the United States: ule. Had it flown, the mission would
76 77 have been Apollo 1, a designation that was officially assigned to it. The investigation and re-engineer- ing of the spacecraft based on the findings caused an 18-month delay. But in the fall of 1968 Apollo was ready for flight. The Spacecraft Apollo was a three-part spacecraft: the command module (CM), the crew's quarters and flight control section: the service module (SM) for the propulsion and spacecraft sup- port systems (when together, the two modules are called CSM): and the lunar module (LM), to take two of the crew to the lunar surface, support them on the Moon, and return them to the CSM in lunar orbit. A The flight mode, lunar orbit ren- dezvous, was selected in 1962. The Pr boosters for the program were the .n Saturn IB for Earth orbit flights and #1. ;,,t4' ,ciiii ....t the Saturn V fo. lunar flights. The .. crews that made lunar flights where 4 both CM and LM were involved, again selected call names. In the list s "i 2"/:4"." 'kV/ of flights, crews are named in the .1.14:41r I,:4+;* following order: Commander, CM Pi- lot, LM Pilot. The call names for the 're 0 s,Apollo 7 October 11-12. 1968 Walter M. Schwa, Jr, Donn F. Eisele R Walter Cunningham 10 days. 20 hours 163 Earth orbits First manned CSM opera- tions in lunar landing program. First live TV from manned spacecraft. Rendezvous with upper stage Apollo 8 December 21-27, 1968 Frank Borman James A Lovell. Jr William A Anders 6 days. 3 hours In lunar orbit 20 hours. with 10 orbitsFirst manned lunar orbital mission Support facilities tested Photographs taken of Earth and Moon. Live TV broadcasts
The Eagle Has Landed by Franklin v-C McMahon
. r , -4'44-t,ok vtr4,44,,r14afeat,
dics droc4pa.,, .
7 H A composite lunar scene showing scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt standing next to a boulder at the Apollo 17 Taurus-Littrow landing site and the lunar rover in the distance.
Apollo 9 (Gumdrop and Spider) March 3-13, 1969 James A. McDivitt David R. Scott Russell L. Schweickart 10 days. 1 hour First manned flight of all lunar hardware in Earth orbit. Schweickart performed 37 minutes EVA. Human reactions to space and weight- lessness tested in 152 orbits. First manned flight of lunar module. Apollo 10 (Charlie Brown and Snoopy) May 18-26, 1969 Eugene A. Cernan John W. Young Thomas P. Stafford 8 days, 3 minutes Dress rehearsal for Moon landing. First manned CSM LM operations in cislunar and YvTy lunar environment; simulation of first lunar landing profile. In lunar orbit 61.6 hours, with ,:',1,.;-)er 31 orbits. LM taken to within 15,243 m (50.000 ror,44.= ft) of lunar surface. First live color TV from space. LM ascent stage jettisoned in orbit.
7 : aPiel "jr,t. :4, 41.4 Apollo 11 (Columbia and Eagle) 11. Pik'P.4. ,,41, July 16-24. 1969 ilk II V4,-51:4*:;-`14if IL Neil A. Armstrong oite Michael Collins .7: 4./....0.4" Edwin E. Aldrin. Jr. `414: f%."e- 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes 1,y, \.- a, . 17'", First manned lunar landing mission and lunar ;.10.1 '-71c.(4111:, fol4,*.r surface EVA. "Houston. Tranquillity Base here. ""*. The Eagle has landed."July 20. Sea of Tranquillity. 1 EVA of 2 hours, 31 minutes. Flag and instruments deployed; unveiled plaque on the LM descent stage with inscription: "Here Men From Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon the Moon. July 1969 A.D. We Came In Peace For All Mankind." Lunar surface stay time, 21.6 hours; 59.5 hours in lunar orbit, with 30 orbits. LM ascent stage left in lunar orbit. 20kg (44 Ibs) of Material gathered. Apollo 12 (Yankee Clipper and Intrepid) November 14-24. 1969 Charles Conrad. Jr. Richard F. Gordon, Jr. Alan L. Bean 10 days, 4 hours. 36 minutes Landing site: Ocean of Storms. Retrieved parts of the unmanned Surveyor 3, which had landed on the Moon in April 1967 Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) deployed. Lunar surface stay -time. 31.5 hours; in lunar orbit 89 hours, with 45 orbits LM descent stage impacted on Moon. 34kg (75 Ibs) of material gathered.
Apollo 17 view of Earth.
78 79 Apollo 13 (Odyssey and Aquarius) April 1117. 1970 James A loveli. Jr John ISwidert. Jr Fred W Haise. Jr 5 days. 22 9 hours 41 \ Third lunar landing attempt. Mission aborted after rupture of service module oxygen tank. Classed as successful failure" because of /ii experience in rescuing crew Spent upper stage successfully Impacted on the Moon. Apollo 14 (Kitty Hawk and Antares) January 31-February 9, 1971 Alan B Shepard. Jr. Stuart A. Roosa Edgar D Mitchell 9 days Landing site Fra Mauro ALSEP and other instrun lents deployed Lunar surface stay time, 33 5 hours. 67 hours in lunar orbit. with 34 orbits 2 EVAs of 9 hours, 25 minutes. Third stage impacted on Moon. 42 kg (94 Ibs) of material gathered, using hand cart for first time to transport rocks.
scientific payload landed on Moon doubled. Improved spacesuits gave increased mobility Apollo 17 spacecraft floating to and stay-time. Lunar surface stay-time, 66.9 splashdown. hours. Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), electric- powered, 4-wheel drive car, traversed total 27.9 km (17 mi). In lunar orbit 145 hours, with 74 orbits. Small sub-satellite left in lunar orbit for first time. 6.6 kgs (169 Ibs) of material gathered. Apollo 16 (Casper and Orion) Skylab April 16-.27, 1972 John W. Young Thomas K. Mattingly II America's first experimental space Charles M. Duke, Jr. station. Designed for long duration 11 days, 1hour, 51 minutes missions, Skylab program objectives Landing site: Descartes Highlands. First study were twofold: To prove that humans of highlands area. Selected surface experi- ments deployed, ultraviolet camera spectro- could live and work in space for graph used for first time on Moon. and LRV extended periods, and to expand our used for second time. Lunar surface stay-time, 71 hours; in lunar orbit 126 hours, with 64 knowledge of solar astronomy well orbits. Mattingly performed 1 hour in-flight beyond Earth-based observations. EVA. 95.8 kg (213 Ibs) of lunar samples Successful in all respects despite collected. early mechanical difficulties, three Apollo 17 (America and Challenger) three-man crews occupied the Skylab December 7-19, 1972 workshop for a total of 171 days, 13 Eugene A. Cernan Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., Ronald B. Evans hours. It was the site of nearly 300 lunar module pilot, descending the Harrison H. Schmitt scientific and technical experiments: steps of Lunar Module ladder as 12 days. 13 hours. 52 minutes medical experiments on humans Last lunar landing mission Landing site he prepares to walk on the Moon. Taurus-Littrow, highlands and valley area. 3 adaptability to zero gravity, solar EVAs of 22 hours, 4 minutes Evans per- observations, and detailed Earth re- Apollo 15 (Endeavor and Falcon) formed trans-Earth EVA lasting 1 hour. 6 sources experiments. Skylab re- July 26-August 7. 1971 minutes. First scientist-astronaut to land on mained in orbit for more than six [.)avid R Scott Moon. Schmitt. Sixth automated research James B Irwin station set up. LRV traverse total 30.5 km years, completing 34.981 orbits. It Alfred M Worden Lunar surface stay-time, 75 hours. In lunar returned to Earth July 11, 1979 and 12 days. 17 hours. 12 minutes orbit 17 hours 110.4 kg, (243 Ibs) of material disintegrated in the atmosphere. Landing site Hadley-Apennine region near gathered. Apennine Mountains 3 EVAs of 10 hours. 36 scattering debris over the Indian minutes Worden performed 38 minutes EVA Ocean and the sparsely settled re- on way back to Earth First to carry orbital gion of Western Australia. s-nsors service module of CSM ALSEP cii.eloyed and scientific studies begun on Apo to 1113 and 14 missions continued.
tit) 73 `--%0WC. te,e $ The Spacecraft Skylab was a modification of the original Apollo equipment. Elongated 4 through the use of a "dry" third stage $1 . of the Saturn V rocket, the spacecraft was completely outfitted as a work- shop area before launch. The Flights Skylab I ; May 14, 1973 Unmanned The station was launched into orbit by a Saturn V booster. Almost immediately, techni- cal problems developed due to vibrations during lift-off A critical meteoroid shield ripped off taking one of the cralt's two solar panels with it. a piece of the shield wrapped around the other panel keeping it from deploying. Skylab was maneuvered so its Apollo Astronaut Thomas Stafford and Telescope Mount (ATM) solar panels faced the Cosmonaut Aleksey Leonov in the Sun to provide as much electricity as possible. Soyuz orbital module. Because of the loss of the meteoroid shield. Apollo-Soyuz however. this positioning caused workshop temperatures to rise to 52 Celsius (126F). 59 days. 11 hours Continued maintenance of the space station Test Project Skylab 2 and extensive scientific and medical experi- May 25--June 22 1973 ments. Completed 858 Earth orbits and 1.081 Charles Conrad. Jr hours of solar and Earth experiments; three Apollo-Soyuz was the first interna- Paul J Weitz EVAs totalled 13 hours, 42 minutes. Joseph P Kerwin tional manned spaceflight. It was 28 days. 50 minutes Skylab 4 designed to test the compatibility of First manned mission The crew rendezvoused November 16, 1973February 8. 1974 rendezvous and docking systems for with Skylab on the fifth orbit: after making Gerald P. Carr American and Soviet spacecraft, to substantial repairs. including deployment of a William R. Pogue parasol sunshade which cooled the inside Edward G. Gibson open the way for international space temperatures to 23.8 C (75 F) by June 4. the 84 days. 1 'lour rescue as well as future joint manned workshop was in full operation. In orbit the Last of the Skylab missions: included observa- flights. crew conducted solar astronomy and Earth tion of the Comet Kohoutek among numerous resources experiments. Medical studies. and experiments. Completed 1,214 Earth orbits five student experiments. 404 orbits and 392 and four EVAs totalling 22 hours. 25 minutes. The Spacecraft experiment hours were completed: three EVAs totalled five hours. 34 minutes. The existing American Apollo and View of the Skylab space station Soviet Soyuz spacecraft were used. Skylab 3 cluster in Earth orbit taken from The Apollo spacecraft was nearly July 28September 25, 1973 Alan L Bean the Skylab 3 Command/Service identical to the one that orbited the Jack R Lousma Module during the "fly around" Moon and later carried astronauts to Owen K Garriott inspection prior to docking. Skylab. The Soyuz craft was the primary Soviet spacecraft used for manned flight since its introduction in 1967. A docking module was de- signed and constructed by NASA to serve as art airlock and transfer corridor between the two craft. The Flight
ASTP July 15-24. 1975 Thomas P. Stafford Vance L. Brand Donald K. Slayton 9 days. 7 hours. 28 minutes The Soyuz was launched Just over seven hours prior to the launch of the Apollo CSM Apollo then maneuvered to rendezvous and docking 52 hours after the Soyuz launch The Apollo and Soyuz crews conducted a variety of experiments over a two-day period. After separation. Apollo remained in space an additional 6 days Soyuz returned to Earth approximately 43 hours after separation
81 0 n Space Transportation System (STS)
The Space Transportation System Because of its versatility and re- includes the first reusable spacecraft. usability, the Shuttle is expected to The Space Shuttle is a four-part reduce the cost of space operations vehicle: a reusable orbiter, which significantly. resembles a jetliner, mounted piggy- back on an expendable liquid pro- The Spacecraft pellant external tank (ET) and two The manned component of the recoverable and reusable solid rocket STS is the orbiter. Capable of being boosters (SRBs). used up to 100 times, it is a 68,000 Designed for routine use of space kg (150,000-1b) craft measuring and to provide the first commercial about 38 m (125 ft) in length with a space operations, the Shuttle op- wingspan of about 24 m (78 ft). Its erates in low Earth orbit. In space, it payload bay is 18.3 m (60 ft) long is a base to deploy payloads; it will and 4.6 m (15 ft) in diameter. also be used to repair and service It is launched in the conventional satellites in orbit, to retrieve satellites, manner, and, in orbit, operates like a Assembly of the first Space ShuttlE and to serve as a platform for spacecraft. When returning to Earth, vehicle was completed in Novem- ber 1980 with the mating of the scientific research. upon entry into the atmosphere, the orbiter sails back like a glider and orbiter Columbia to its external Touchdown of the Columbia at the lands at a designated ground loca- tank and solid rocket boosters. conclusion of STS-1. tion.
'AU
-; ... ,... A,..,. !Sri:"t _0.0 ,;;;Vr\S';;,',I.,,,. :`,,:", ,,b15,,414i,t, '0...., i ',i . ., ,.f ,,,..J:":3\ . -4''',%:,i4....,,,A,1vi.z4 , e tViti*Sfe.:6Aataf4'.50e v ..'.'!,,' . `'. ...7.4 '..'4,1.., --..tnif: ...,.. A/s. i (.4.,,...4._ ..*I".'"4,, . ve--" l'..,....,;., . .,: ',is: ,7),',4'. .4:iN-:,7 C'.P.-..,.,s1,%,},e.1.1;.,. ...is.:::71 h''°"44:11;4161**".*"*"""4:s --.....c .-..,,, , >1: ;1: 7:;,:''-', - .. ,o i-,,b ,0::::::,,,, :6-',:,..."1:-:.-1"".;:-.17 ' .,.i '..42."24:"` '4.1:'
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....,,37.:',i...fr-,;..:,i.:".::::,...,:..kt.iS-:':":" '''':.1..,..;.:-.';I:'!".;413'.. -:.1.-:::!-4t.74,.,1'..'-::":3,,. -:- The Flights Second flight tested tha craft's Remote Manip- 7 days, 1 hour ulator System (RMS) (See Chapter IV, Cana- Final test flight. Although the two solid rocket Approach and Landing Tests da) and other components of the vehicle; Cut boosters sank in the Aiientic Ocean, the In September 1976, the Soo') Shuttle short by the failure of a fuel cell. mission was otherwise routine, and the Space Orbiter 101. the Enterprise (named Iry the Shuttle was declared operational. Star Trek spaceship), was rolled out ,n the STS-3, Columbia Rockwell International final assemb.) iacility. March 22-30, 1982 The following January, it was transported C. Jack R. Lousma The President and Mrs. Reagan overland by a 90-wheel trailer to Dryden Flight P: C. Gordon Fullerton inspect the Columbia after its Research Facility There, during 1977, it 8 days STS-4 landing at Edwards, Califor- underwent a series of 13 Approach and First Shuttle mission to be launched on the Landing Tests (ALT) from atop a modified originally scheduled day, the major goal was nia, on July 4, 1982. Left to right: Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA). to thermal testing of the orbiter and continuation Astronauts Henry Hartsfield, pilot, verify its aerodynamic and flight control char- of experiments with Shuttle systems. acteristics. avionics, structures, and mechan- and Thomas Mattingly, command- ical systems performance. STS4, Columbia er; Mrs. Reagan; President Rea- June 27-July 4, 1982 gan. Columbia's fourth flight Phase C: Thomas K. Mattingly II February-March P: Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. completed the test phase of the Five flights of the mated SCA Enterprise. The Space Transportation System. orbiter was unmanned and its systems tur ed off.
Phase II Three manned captive flights of the Enterprise Aro. I0 .4Aria r;CA with astronauts at the controls of the . 41MATc,nr orbiter verified crew procedures and systems .lit. operations , " . -,.. 4. ,, Two crews of two astronauts were selected ..,, ...... -.', ' .V ''s 4 la 46 for the ALT flights: Fred W. Heise, Jr. and C. t'i,,%." 41141OK... 4,*tat * 11",4- 40,4, 4..`464w.4i10- Gordon Fullerton and Joe H. Engle and Richard H. Truly Flights 1 (June 18) and 3 (July 26) were flown by Heise and Fullerton; Flight 2 (June 28) by Engle and Truly.
Phase During five flights the orbiter was released from the SCA and glided to a runway landing 8110111111 at Edwards. California. Flights 1 (August 12), 3 (September 23), and 5 (October 26) were flown by Heise and Fullerton. Flights 2 (September 13). and 4 (October 12) were A flown by Engle and Truly. t. Orbital Flights Selected from sea vessels used in world exploration, the names of the first four orbiting Space Shuttle craft are Col'irnbia. Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. In the list of the flights, the commander's name is placed first, then the pilot's and mission specialists
STS1, Columbia April 12-14. 1981 C John W Young wa P Robert L Crippen 2 days. 6 hours First flight of the reusable Space Transporta- tion System. proved the feasibility of ground landings and module reuse.
STS-2. Columbia November 12-14. 1981 C Joe H Engle P Richard H Truly 2 days. 6 hours Prime crew for the first orbital flight test of the Space Shuttle Columbia: John W. Young, left, K commander, and Robert L. Crip- .40 pen, pilot. ii11011;IP
83 STS-5, Columbia uled for launch in January 1983, liftoff was November 11-16, 1982 delayed due to a variety of technical problems. C Vance D Brand In orbit, the mission began placement of the P Robert F Overmyer Tracking and Delta Relay Satellite System MS. Dr. Joseph P Allen (TDRSS). The system will provide high- Mr 'r. W Ilram B Lenoir capacity communications between numerous 5 C 2 hours spacecraft and Earth. ix First operational flight and first with mission .er specialists aboard, who were trained in sate) STS7, Challenger t lite deployment, EVA, and use of the RMS Scheduled launch, June 18. 1983 Two communications satellites, Satellite Bus! C: Robert L. Crippen ness Systems SBS-3 and Telesat Canada's P: Frederick H. Hauck Anik C3. were deployed from the cargo bay. MS: Dr. Sally K. Ride MS: John M. Fabian STS-6, Challenger MS: Dr. Norman E. Thagard April 4-9, 1983 The 6-day flight crew includes the first First flight of the Challenger. Onainally sched- American woman in space. Payloads: a Ger-
-
X: 41` P,S; . 4ig,F;t;tefr14-s:/*'. At. .et, -.Y.r?
fit Astronaut Joseph Allen participat- . ing in a biomedical test in the mid- deck area of the Columbia during STS-5. Electrodes connected to his 4 face monitored his responses in zero gravity.
el man shuttle pallet >satellite (SPAS), which will be used in a test of the Canadian RMS deployment retrieval capabilities: the second Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications package (OSTA -2); and Canadian and Indone- sian communications satellites.
3TS-8, Challenger Scheduled launch, August 1983 C: Richard H. Truly P: Daniel C. Brandenstein STS-7, the first five-member crew: MS: Dale A. Gardner Ride, Crippen,Hauck (front row, left STS-8 crew: (left to right) Daniel C. MS: Guion S. Bluford, Jr. MS: Dr. William E. Thornton to right); Fabian (left) and Thagard, Brandenstein, Dale A. Gardner, This 3-day mission will put into orbit a (right). Richard H. Truly, William E. Thorn- communications satellite cur India's Depart- ton, and Guion S. Bluford, Jr. ment of Science. STS-9, Columbia Scheduled launch. Fall 1983 C: John W. Young A P: Brewster H. Shaw, Jr MS: Dr. Owen K. Gamott MS. Dr. Robert A. Parker PS: Ulf Merbold, ESA PS: Dr. Byron K. Lichtenberg. NASA Columbia will return to space carrying Space- 9. lab. a reusable laboratory designed for use in Ilkat missions lasting from seven to 30 days. It will be carried in the orbiters t.,-.90 bay and allow experimenters to work in a shirtsleeve environ- ment or on external instrument platforms exposed to space The Spacelab crews are Payload Specialists.
S:185-3 just moments inllowing its release from a spin table during its deployment from the carro bay ofNe Columbia on STS-5. 83
OSTA-1 NASA's Office of Space and Terrestrial Appwations (OSTA) sponsored the first scien- tific and applications payload (OSTA-1), which 116.,a I ad flew on STS-2. The payload was a set of instruments that involved remote sensing of land resources, atmospheric phenomena, and ocean conditions: Shuttle Imaging Radar, Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Fea- ture Identification and Location Experiment, I Ocean Color Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Night. Day Optical 00,7# Survey of Lightning, and Heflex Bioengineering 44, Test. OSS-1 The first Office of Space Science experi- ments package (OSS-1) flew on STS-3. This group of experiments included eight mounted on a pallet in the orbiter's cargo baysix to "I study the interaction of the orbiter with its environment, trap meteoroids, and monitor the buildup of contaminants in the cargo bay, and two solar experimentsand a ninth in the crew cabin, a miniature terrarium called Plant Growth Unit, to study the effects of weightless- ness on plants. Also included were an Electrophoresis 1116:6,, vt.s. Equipment Verification Test and a Mono- disperse Latex Reactor, a materials-processing experiment, which were flown on later flights as well.
Shuttle Student Involvement Project (SSIP) The SSIP is a competition to give secondary A school students opportunities to develop pay- load experiments suitable for flight aboard the Shuttle. Each winning student has a NASA scientist and corporate sponsor who give f advice and instructions on readying experi- ments for flight; payload assignments are given to Shuttle flights as the experiments are ready and payload space is available. Six SSIP projects have flown. The first to fly, Insects in Flight Motion Study, was on STS-3. Two more flew on STS4 and three were on STS-5.
Getaway Special Getaway Specials, Small Self-contained Payloads, are low-cost experiments flown in canisters. Scheduled for flight on a space- available basis, they are available to educa- OSTA-1, the pallet of experiments The Experiments tional organizations, industry, individuals, and governments. There are no stringent require. that was the Shuttle's first payload The science and engineering ex- ments, but the canister must meet safety on STS-2, being lowered into the periments flown aboard early Space criteria and the experiment must have a Columbia's payload bly. Shuttle flights suggest the great scientific or technological objective. A test canister was flown on STS3. The potential of the orbiter as a platform first operational Getaway Special flew on STS-10, Challenger for scientific and applications re- STS-4, a 61 x 91 cm (24 x 35 in) canister that Scheduled launch. November 1983 search and the benefits of routine held nine experiments designed by Utah State C: Thomas K. Mattingly II University students. The second flew on P. Loren J. Shaver access to low Earth orbit. The pay- STS-5; STS-6 had three; and STS-7 will carry MS. Ellison S. Onizuka loads have been NASA-sponsored, seven, including an ant colony experiment MS James F. Buchli Getaway Special canisters, and co- developed by Camden (NJ) high school students. A Department of Defense mission. operative International projects; they span the scientific disciplines; and they include experiments from the private sector, commercial concerns, students, and foreign governments.
83 86 For the Classroom
1. Research topics: Spaceflight in fact and fiction Environmental elements that must be considered in designing space suits, capsules, laborato- ries, stations Necessities for comfortable liv- ing on long-duration spaceflights (arrangement of living space, decor, music, books) Space foods and nutritious menus History of space suit design 2. For book reports, suggest auto- biographies and biographies of the astronauts. 3. Have your students suggest names for future Shuttle orbiters and explain their selections. 4. Compare the Shuttle space suit with those worn by comic book characters. 5. Collect information for a class file on the Shuttle flights, the Shuttle payloads, the crews. 6. What kinds of jobs can robots do better than humans? 7. High school teachers interested in involving their Nudents in future Shuttle Student Involvement Proj- ect competitions should write to the following address: Shuttle Student Involvement Project National Science Teachers Association 1742 Connecticut Avenue, NW. Washington, DC 20009
86 87 ':4 VIII Space Science
n 1958, when NASA received responsibility for developing space science, the Moon, the planets, the Sun, the universe seemed remote and inaccessi- ble. Only Explorer 1's discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts suggested the knowledge that was to come. In the ensuing 25 years more has been learned about the universe than during all history. NASA's space science programs began with the Pioneer spacecraft. In 1958 and 1959 eight were launched to study Earth-Moon relationships. Failures outnumbered successes at first. Then remarkable strides were made with a variety of projectslunar and solar investigations, planetary programs, obser- vations of distant stars and galaxies. Scientists searched for life on another planet, observed the sky with telescopes above the atmosphere, studied human performance in spacethe accumulated data will occupy them for years. And the solar system became a neighborhood, the universe a
Saturn and its satellites, Tethys (outer left), Enceladus (inner left), and Mimes (right of rings), photographed by Voyager 1 on October 30, 1980, from 18 million kilometers (11 million miles).
89 S8 source of boundless energy and will take place when Pioneer 10 ft) tip to tip to determine the rate of mysterious objects. becomes the first spacecraft to leave meteoroid penetrations. Results: In- In NASA's 25th year, an event that the solar system, June 13, 1983, terplanetary dust particles are about will occur only once in human history 5:00 a.m. PDT. 10,000 times less abundant than had been indicated by earlier space ex- periments. The dates noted are launch and Astronomy and Astrophysics data collection termination. Pegasus 1 February 16, 1965January 13, 1968
Pegasus 2 May 25, 1965March 14, 1968 Two major areas of space science First US satellite to be launched by another that NASA has studied intensit )ly country, it was launched from the San Marco Pegasus 3 platform off the coast of Kenya on that July 30, 1965August 29, 1968 are astronomy and astrophysics. Sat- country's Independence Day, and was chris- ellites and space probes have investi- tened Uhuru, Swahili for "Freedom." gated planetary atmospheres, Orbiting Explorer 49 (SAS-2) including Earth's; radio physics; inter- Novembv 1972 AstronomicaJ planetary space; and wavelengths of Performed sky survey of high energy gamma Observatory (0A0) the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation, discovered gamma ray pulses from the pulsar in the Vela X supernova remnant, 0A0.1 results have provided extensive infor- and the first radio pulsar in a binary system. April 1966 mation about Earth, its relation to the First of three successfully launched Orbiting rest of the solar system, our galaxy, Explorer 53 (SAS-3) Astronomical Observatories, large sophisti- May 1975April 1979 cated satellites for studying stars. The space- and the universe beyond. Was a prolific producer of X-ray astronomy craft was lost due to power failure and no The astronomy and astrophysics data long past its design lifetime of one year. scientific results wore obtained. research has been especially valu- SAS-3e detailed studies of the positions, spectra, and time variations of individual X-ray 0A0-2 able because the investigations were sources strengthened the expectation thdi December 1968February 1973 conducted beyond Earth's atmos- many more extremely distant extragalactic Took the first ultraviolet photographs of stars; phere which distorts images seen objects would be discovered by the more discovered hydrogen clouds around comets sensitive detectors aboard the HEAO (High detectable only in ultraviolet light. through telescopes and filters out Energy Astronomy Observatory) spacecraft. A radiation wavelengths. Scientists main accomplishment was the discovery of 0A0.3 (Copernicus) have beer' able to observe clearly several X-ray bursters, stars that emit gigantic, August 1972 brief bursts of X-rays once every few hours; all Named Copernicus after launch as part of the and study closely phenomena they the known bursters are at least a billion times international celebration of the 500th anniver- are unable to view from Earth. fkirther away than the Sun. sary of the astronomer's birth. Carried first In the list that follows, the first date instrumentation for ultraviolet spectroscopy of stars from Earth orbit. Results: Found evi- noted for each project is the launch Pegasus date. Named for the winged horse of mythology, these satellites featured Drawing of Pegasus being de- Explorer huge wing-like panels 30 meters (96 ployed and wings unfolding. The Explorers comprise a long series of small scientific satellites that vary widely in design and pur- pose. In more than 50 missions they have studied Earth's shape and sur- face, near-Earth space and inter- planetary space, and astronomical t. and astrophysical phenomena. Many had project names that were used before they orbited, but were sup- planted by Explorer designations once in orbit.
Explorer 42, Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS-1) December 12, 1970 4 First of NASA's Small Astronomy Satellites and first orbiting Xray satellite: mapped the universe in X-ray wavelengths for four years and discovered X-ray pulsars and evidence of black holes.
90 or ..,....r .110...... L. 14 44- - 1,01 dence for 'Open Universe theory. which says I Oftbra, ;,...;111 141000.4,,. er 14 ti ,1 expansion of universe will never end bulk cf neutral interstellar qah is contained in small dense clouds rather than uniformly dr,,tributed el Mi.. a theory that low density caviticu, gmea..100 cmoasseer ow, space are caused by supernova explosions. Or.r... ow-m."6 -..Vn ,e t High Energy /.,...... astronomy ..".....,...... ,..y..;...... '...".""' ....a...a..."...... ^^...... "*..... Observatory (HEAO) ...... ,,,76..._.....r.4,,,,...... ,.....,...... aaomip ..I.....e .!...y. Ire a...... ;...... 4..,,...... 1...... "; ...... _.___...... uare..m...... rt A three-mission program of large ...".i...'t ..,.."."...... --*,.. "*"""":::....---.-"" ''''1.",...'...... *:,...... "...... -...... ,''""'-...... --m----....--..-- ...... /. ...n observatories designed to study high ar_. energy raysX-ray, gamma rays, . and cosmic raysthat cannot be studied through ground-based tele- scopes because of Earth's atmos- phere. HEAO-1 and HEAD-3 were scanning missions. HEAO-2 a point- ing mission. A mosaic map composed from Gravity Probe A HEAO-1 August 1977-March 1979 data relayed by the Infrared Astro- June 1976 Conducted a generalray sky survey. The nomical Satellite (IRAS) shows A scientific probe to test Einstein's quality of data was so excellent that its design theory of relativity. Proved the dilation life of six months was extended to 17 part of the Large Magellanic Three :mportant results: The catalogue of Cloud, the nearest galaxy outside of time effect. celestial X-ray sources was increased from our own Milky Way, at 155,000 350 to nearly 1500: a new black hole candidate was located near the Constellation light years away and at a wave- International Scorpius. bringing the total to four: and a length of 100 microns. universal hot plasma constituting a major Ultraviolet fraction of the mass of the universe was Explorer (IUE) discovered. as well as a cloud of dust and gas known as the Einstein Observatory, it carried January 1978 with a mass equal to a million billion Suns the largest X-ray telescope built to that time to enveloping a supercluster of galaxies. search for information about quasars, pulsars, An advanced telescope, it comple- exploding galaxies, and black holes. ments and extends observations HEAO-2 Discoveries: Double the number of known made by 0A0-2 and Copernicus and November 1978-June 1981 X-ray sources; new quasars and a new class A pointing mission to point to specific X-ray of stars known as 0 stars: new clues to some ESA's TD-1 satellite. sources identified by HEAO-1. Popularly of the most intriguing phenomena in the Findings: Information about the universeremnants of supernovae. pulsars. way in which galaxies are able to neutron stars. "cosmic boosters- in globular emit so much energy that they are X-ray picture taken in 1979 by the clusters; images of X-ray sources in galaxies receding from us at 900 /o of the High Energy Astronomy Observa- outside our own; oldest. most distant clusters of galaxies yet observed. velocity of light; the first discovery of tory 2 (HEAO-2) reveals a newly- the element sulfur in a comet: acety- discovered object (upper left) HEAO-3 lene in the atmosphere of Saturn; a which appeared to be the most September 1979-August 1981 Conducted an all-sky survey searching for corona of 100.000"C around the distant quasar observed. Its Red cosmic ray particles and gamma ray emis- Milky Way galaxy and coronae Shift of Z-2.6 indicated that the sions. Provided valuable new information on the high energy processes of cosmic rays and around the Magellanic Clouds. light reaching us began its journey detected strong gamma ray emission from more than 10 billion years ago. major features along the galactic plane. In;:ared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) January 25, 1983 In a near-polar orbit. IRAS is conducting the first infrared survey of the sky. An international project with a telescope supplied by NASA. a spacecraft built by The Nether.: Inds. and tracking services supplied by the UK, it is expected to complete two sky surveys during its 11-month operational life. Initial discoveries: Two regions where stars like our Sun are being born and two comets. IRAS and IRAS-Araki-Aicock.
91 ments: the flight failed on recovery and only Demonstrating weightlessness in engineering tests were completed because the Skylab. biological experiments were dependent upon recovery for data acquisition. Life Sciences ducted medical experiments associ- Blosatellite 2 September 7-9, 1967 ated with the extension of manned The objective of life science re- Carried 13 experiments: obtained information spaceflight: cardiovascular science, search is to determine the require- on the effects of Jiation and weightlessness cell biology, endocrinology, immunol- on plants. cells, avid low-order animal life ments for human safety in space: to forms such as gnats, bacteria. and larvae. ogy, and radiobiology. learn as much as possible about the Capsule recovered by aircatch. function of biological, biochemical, Apollo-Soyuz Teat Project Blosatellite 3 and physiological systems in the June 29July 7. 1969 (ASTP) space environment; to utilize space Biological experiments with a monkey as July 1975 conditions for isolation, purification subject provided information on the effects of Many ASTP experiments were prolonged weightlessness. and synthesis of biological materials: conducted by the US alone or by the to assure that Earth applications for US and USSR jointly. Joint science space technology and hardware are Orbiting Frog Otilith projects included experiments with fully exploited: and to understand the (0F0-1) zone-forming fungi and a microbial origin and distribution of life in the November 1970May 1971 exchange test. US experiments in- universe. A biological experiment designed cluded microorganism growth (of pro- NASA space life sciences research to study the adaptability of the otolith tea vulgaris), fish embryonic has focused on studies of cellular (frog's inner ear balance mechanism) development, and genetic experi- and molecular biology, radiobiology, to sustained weightlessness to pro- ments (in seeds). In two medical botany. zoology, cardiovascular sys- vide information for manned space- experiments, an electric field was tem, respiration. metabolisrn and flight. used to separate blood samples into human performance. chemical evolu- their constituents to help determine tion studies. and the search for life Skylab whether the unique space environ- on Mars. May 1973--Februaly 1974 ment might offer a better means of Skylab was designed to determine isolating viruses, enzymes, and other Biosatellite the safety of long term spaceflight for small particles for analysis. humans. During three of the Skylab Bi. atellite 1 'T)eccmher 1966 missions, scientist-astronauts con- First satellite to conduct biological expen- 91 Solar-Terrestrial Physics
Studies of Sun-Earth relationships, the interplanetary medium, and as- tronomical studies of the Sun began in 1958 with a variety of spacecraft. The broad spectrum of investigations included: air density studies over the entire globe to measure how density variations are affected by latitude, season,nd local solar time; Earth's atmosphere in regions of high solar energy absorption to measure tem- perature, composition, and density; energetic particles experiments; ion- ization in the immediate vicinity of Earth to determine the nature, dy- namic beh'evior, and distribution of charged particles, electrons, and ions; Earth's magnetosphere to mea- sure how this area affects Earth's weather and climate; and solar phys- ics studies. Beacon In October 1958, August 1959, and Mar, .'- 1964 Beacons 1, 2, and 3 we 3 launched for ionospheric re- series, numbering ten, was launched from search using a small radio beacon. 1963 to 1973. The majority were placed in This photograph of the Sun, taken Laur,ch vehicles for all three failed to highly elliptical Earth orbits and one in lunar by Skylab 4, i hows one of the place them in orbit. orbit, to study inter, anetary radiation and most spectacular solar flares ever magnetic fields in cislunar space (between Earth and Moon), and to extend knowledge of recorded. Explorer Sun-EarthMoon relationships. Results: Advance warning of solar flare directly onto the lunar surface and that a solar Explorer 8 activity that might affect astronauts in space; wind void exists directly behind the Moon. November 1960 first accurate measurement of the interplane- To study the ionosphere and atmospheric tary magnetic r eld; first mapping of the shock Explorers 47 and 50 (IMP8 and 10) composition; confirmed the existence of a front boundary of the magnetosphere and September 22, 1972 and October 25, 1973 helium layer in the upper atmosphere. magnetopause; first detailed information on In near-circular Earth orbit, worked in conjunc- magnetosphere tail region; first evidence of tion throughout a year The two craft were Explorer 9 energetic electrons in the neutral area which frequently 180 degrees apart permitting simul- February 1961-April 1964 may be the source of radiation causing the taneous studies of solar phenomena from First in a series of Air Density Explorers aurora; and first on-line interplanetary cosmic opposite sides of the Earth. designed to determine the effect of thin air on ray monitor. satellite motion; the spacecraft was a 3.7-m Explorer 17 (12-ft) diameter inflatable sphere covered with Explorer 18 (IMP-1) April 1963 aluminum foil over My lar. November 11)63-December 1965 First of five Atmosphere Explorers (AE), Data First accurate measurement of the interplane- on temperature, composition, density, and Explorer 12 tary magnetic field. pressure permitted the study of global atmos- August 1961-September 1963 pheric physics; discovered a belt of neutral First of four Energetic Particle Explorers Explorer 34 (IMP-5) helium atoms around Earth. designed to study injection. trapping. and loss May 1967-May 1969 mechanisms of Earth's trapped radiation belts; Discovered that Saturn emits radio waves, as Explorer 19 identified the Van Allen Belt as a magneto- do Earth and Jupiter. December 1963 sphere. An inflatable Air Density Explorer in polar Explorer 35 (IMP-6) orbit; measured the upper thermosphere and Explorers 18, 21, 28, 33-35, 41, 43, 47, 50 July 1967 lower exosphere over the entire globe. (Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms) First IMP to achieve lunar orbit; discovered The Interplaneta. y Monitoring Platform (IMP) that positive ions from the solar wind crash Explorer 20 August 1964 An Ionosphere Explorer, a topside sounder 92 93 that examined the ionosphere from above
Explorer 22 October 1964 Measured the total electron c ()Went of the ionosphere by acting as a radio beacon r Explorer 24 I November 1964October 1968 A 3 6 ro (12-ft) sphere Air Density Explorer. hilt of NASAs first dual payload launch with Explorer 25
Explorer 25 (Injun 4) First of the Injun Explorers Interdisciplinary project to investigate the magnetosphere (25) and correlate atmospheric density (24) infor- iwto9.1' mation with energy measurements
Explorer 27 \. April 1965 Last of the Ionosphere Explorers obtained descriptions of Earth s gravitational field
Explorer 30 (Solar Explorer I) November 1965 Monitored solar X-rays for correlation with optical and radio ground-based observations during the International Quiet Sun Year The Orbiting Solar Observatory Orbiting Solar Explorer 31 (international Satellite for (OSO -5) flight spacecraft under- Observatory Ionospheric Studies, ISIS-X) goes checks in preparation for The Orbiting Solar Observatory November 1965 launch. (OSO) spacecraft were the first of the A cooperative project with Canada. the dual launch consisted of two spacecraft, the Cana- observatory-class satellites and were dian Alouette II and the American Direct Launched into a polar orbit to study the solar designed for continuous observations Measurements Explorer, for ionospheric and wind magnetic field interactions in the vicinity of the Sun and its atmosphere during solar research. of the magnetic neutral point over Earths North Pole cap. most of its 11-year cycle in X-ray, Explorer 32 ultraviolet. and infrared wavelengths. May 1966 Explorer 54 Some celestial objects were studied An atmosphere Explorer. similar to Explorer 17 October 1975 as well. but with solar cells to extend its life: for To study atmospheric physics: although turned atmospheric and ionospheric research. off after four months of operation. returned a The spacecraft consisted of a full set of data on the daylight side of Earth's spinning "wheel" and a despun "sail" Explorer 37 (Solar Explorer 2) atmosphere from North to South Poles. March 1968 section which allowed some experi- Joint Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)-NASA Explorer 55 ments to remain constantly pointed spacecraft November 1975 at the Sun. Last of the Atmosphere Explorers. this satellite Results: The first X-ray from a Explorers 39 and 40 is still investigating the chemical processes [Air Density (39) and Injun 5 (40)] and energy transfer mechanisms that control spacecraft of a beginning solar flare August 1968 Earth's atmosphere. and of solar "streamers" (structures Interdisciplinary project to continue detailed in the corona): first observation of the scientific study of density and radiation char- Solar Mesopt, .'e Explorer (SME) acteristics of Earth's upper atmosphere at a October 1981 corona in white light and extreme time of high solar activity. Designed to determine what changes occur in ultraviolet: solar flare temperatures of the ozone distribution in the upper atmosphere 30 million degrees and of the Sun's Explorer 44 (SOLRAD 10) as a result of changes in incoming radiation July 1971 poles of one million degrees Celsius. NRL spacecraft to monitor solar X-ray radia- tion and ultraviolet emissions and to improve Pioneer OSO -1 prediction techniques of solar activity and March 1962 ionosophenc disturbances. Pioneer 5 Provided 77 days of solar observations includ March 1960 ing 140 solar flares: the first extended studies Explorer 45 Studied the area between Earth and Sun of the solar ultraviolet spectrum and of solar November 1971 Provided the first data on solar flares and '( -ray emissions. mapped the sky in gamma Investigated the ring current and magnetic established the existence of interplanetary radiation wavelengths. and discovered coronal storms in the teardrop-shaped envelope th.it magnetic fields. holes. surrounds the Earth and mitigates the effects of particles emitted by the sun Pioneer 6-9 OSO -2 December 1965November 1968 February 1965 Explorer 52 (Hawkeye 1) A network of solar weather satellites which Scanned the solar disc to measure X-ray and June 1974 cle the Sun Measurements of the Sun and ultraviolet emissions and the white light in the Last of the Injun series renamed Hawkeye for interplanetary space by the four spacecraft Suns corona. the University of Iowa-built spacecraft from widely separated points are used to predict solar storms for some 1.000 users,v; OSO -3 four have provided data for years beyond their March 1967 six-month design lives Expan4ed typical OSO experiments to include cosmic gamma rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
OS0-4 October 1967 Designed to concentrate studies on shorter wavelengths and sunspot areas rather than the entire solar disc.
OS0-5 January 1969 Contained an ultraviolet spectroheliograph to map the solar disc.
OS0-6 August 1969 Expanded OSO -5 studies.
OS0-7 September 1971 Conducted experiments in conjunction with the Apollo Telescope Mount carried on Skylab. Obtained first identification of gamma ray emission lines in solar flares and firs'. photo- graphs of rapidly moving structures in the Sun's white light corona.
OS0.8 September 1978 Artist's concept shows the OGO Skylab Obtained the most accurate observations of in orbit around Earth. May 1973February 1974 the solar chromosphere and transition region; found that the cumber of X-ray bright points Scientist astronauts observed a wide on the Sun du; rig minimal solar activity was carried 20 experiments to investigate the range of solar conditions over a nine greater than in mid-solar cycle. atmosphere, ionosphere, mas 'cltic field, radia- month period, using the Skylab Apol- tion belts, cosmic rays, micrometeorites, and solar emissions. lo Telescope Mount (ATM). The ATM Orbiting Geophysical carried an X-ray spectroheliograph, Observatory OGO-3 an X-ray telescope, a white light June 1966 coronagraph, an ultraviolet spectro- The Orh Ling Geophysical Observa- Essentially the same experiments as OGO-1; tory (OGO) missions were designed remained spinstabilized for 46 days. graph, an extreme ultraviolet spec- to conduct varied physical experi- troheliograph, and an extreme OGO-4 ments within Earth's atmosphere and July 1967 ultraviolet spectrometer-spectro- magnetosphere and in cislunar space Obtained data during increased solar activity heliometer. (between Earth and Moon) to study to complement near-solar minimum data of Over 18 100 frames were taken OGO-2. Earth-Sun relationships and the with the ATM. In addition to the Sun, Earth itself. The spacecraft, a OGO-5 the ATM and a far-ultraviolet camera 0.9x0.9x1.8-m (3x3x6-ft) rectangular March 1F68 were used to view Comet Kohoutek Considered most successful OGO for its prism with 13 appendages, demon- number of successful experiments (22 of 25) in 1973. strated the feasibility of three-axis and number of experimental hours of data stabilized observatories whose de- (636,000). Helios sign could be used repeatedly. The OGO-6 Hellos 1, December 1974 names EGO and POGO were devel- June 1969 oped to apply to OGO satellites in Carried 26 experiments to study interrelation- Hellos 2, January 1976 ship of Earth and Sun during a period of particular orbits: highly eccentric Joint two-spacecraft project with West Ger- increased solar activity. Power and equipment many to investigate interplp tary space and (EGO) for OGO-1, 3, and 5; and degradation left 14 experiments operating explore the near-solar regio., Named for the polar (POGO) for OGO-2, 4, and 6. normally, three partially operating and nine off ancient Greek god of the Sun, the probes by September 1970. carried instruments closer to the Sun than any OGO-1 previous spacecraftwithin the outer edge of September 1964 the corona 45 million kilometers (28 million Designed for diversified and interrelated physi- International Radiation miles) from the Sun. cal experiments within Earth's atmosphere. Its Investigation Satellite orbit provided a capability for mapping and studying Earth's magnetosphere and inter- (IRIS-1) International Sun-Earth planetary space. Not all the booms deployed Ma/ 1968May 1971 Explorer (ISEE) properly and OGO-1 did not stabilize. Measured radiation from the Sun and ISEE-1 and ISEE-2 October 22, 1977 OGO-2 cosmic rays including X-rays, solar October 1965 and Van Allen belt protons, cosmic ISEE-1, built and operated by NASA. was Placed in a near-polar lowaltitude orbit; followed into orbit on the same day by ISEE2, ray protons, and high energy elec- built and operated by the European Space trons.
95 94 Agency (ESA) The craft were placed in the The first eight were designed as same elliptical orbit, but at a distance ranging In rn several hundred to thousands of kilome- lunar probes. Because of launch ters apart. to study solarterrestrial relation- vehicle failure, the program met with 3. ships at the outermost boundaries of Earths little successonly Pioneer 4 magnetosphere. reached the Moonbut Pioneer 1 ISEE-3 discovered the radial extent of the August 12. 1978 radiation belts, Pioneer 2 returned Placed in a giant -halo orbit around the L-1 'Liberation Point located between Earth and data about the atmosphere, and Sun about 1 6 million km (1 million miles) from Pioneer 3 discovered the second Earth The first satellite to orbit a point rather radiation belt. than a body. ISEE-3 measured solar wind and other phenomena while ISEE-1 and 2 mea- Pioneer 4 sured the effect of the same phenomena on March 1959 the near-Earth environment. Measured particles and fields in a flyby of the In 1982. it was moved to a new position to Moon: entered a heliocentric orbit. conduct an exploratory survey of Earth's magnetotail. in 1985 it will be the first to fly through a comets tail. Ranger The Ranger program was a probe Solar Maximum Mission series to transmit close-up black and (SMM) white photographs of the Moon be- Model of the Ranger VI spacecraft. February 14, 1980 fore crashing into the lunar surface. Planned to coincide with the solar Three of the nine Rangers (7, 8, 9) maximum period, the peak of the 11- were successful. Rangers 1 through Surveyor year sunspot cycle, to provide scien- 5 experienced technical problems Following the Ranger hardland- tists with observations of solar flares which affected the success of the ings, from 1966 to 1968, the Sur- over a wide band of wavelengths missions: the launch vehicles mal- veyor series was conducted to from visible light to the gamma ray functioned for Rangers 1 and 2, softland unmanned spacecraft on the region of the spectrum. Rangers 3 and 5 missed the Moon, Moon, survey it with TV cameras, and Ranger 4 landed on the back and analyze the chemical composi- side of the Moon and returned no tion of the lunar surface. data. Five of the seven Surveyors were Ranger 7, 8. and 9 findings: A successful. They operated on the Solar gently rolling terrain with no sharp lunar surface over a combined time relief: and a layer of powdery rubble. of 17 months, transmitted more than System with rocks and craters down to at 17,000 pictures, and made analyses least one meter in diameter every- of surface and subsurface samples. where. Exploration Surveyor 1 May .30-June 2. 1966 Ranger 6 Successful soft landing in Ocean of Storms. January 30-February 2. 1964 From its beginning NASA has Lunar impact point of hard landing within 32 11.237 pictures returned: found that the surface is firm and capable of supporting km (20 mi) of target. TV system failed to been interested in the scientific study machines ano astronauts. of the Moon and planets. In 1961 it operate. had the added responsibility of secur- Ranger 7 Surveyor 3 April 17-20. 1967 ing lunar information that would be July 28-31. 1964 First successful Ranger mission. 4.316 high Landed in the Sea of Clouds and returned needed for a manned expedition to resolution TV pictures of the lunar surface 6.315 pictures. First soil scoop. Piece of the the Moon. were returned, with objects less than .9m (3 ft) spacecraft brought back by Apollo 14. discernible. Impact on Sea of Clouds 13-16 km (8-10 mi, from aim point. Flight time: 68 Surveyor 5 September 8-10. 1967 hours. 36 minutes. The Moon Soft landing in the Sea of Tranquillity. Re- Ranger 8 turned over 19.000 pictures. First alpha scatter February 17-20. 1965 instrument analyzed chemical coliposition and Pioneer 7.137 pictures returned from Sea of Tran- found that the surface of the maria resembles Pioneer was chosen as the name quillity. Flight time: 64 hours. 63 minutes. that of terrestrial basalt lava. for the first U.S. space probe, a Ranger 9 Surveyor 6 series initiated for the International March 21-24. 1965 November 7-10. 1967 Geophysical Year by the Department 5.814 pictures of Crater Alphonsus and vicinity Soft landing in the Central Bay region Returned 30.065 picturesFirst lift-off from o' Defense. Like the Explorer series. returned 4 8 km (3 mi) from target. Flight time 64 hours. 31 minutes. lunar surface moved it ten feet to new NASA inherited the responsibility for location. the probe and kept its name. Surveyor 7 January 7-10. 1968 Successful soft landing on ejecta blanket adjacent to Crater Tycho. First combination of
96 9;3 the three major experiments: TV, alpha scatter, Earth; consists of a crust, mantle, and perhaps (4) Bombardment by cosmic dust seems to and surface sampler. Found that the highlands a metallic core; is seismically inactive; and has have occurred at a constant rate over the last composition differs from that of the maria and unexplained fossil magnetism in the rocks, few million years; rocks have remained ex- is aluminum rich. although the Moon has no magnetic field. posed on the lunar surface for as long as 500 (3) The rocks are igneous or derived from million years without being destroyed; the solar igneous rocks; ranging in age from 3 billion to wind striking the Moon has a higher hydrogen Lunar Orbiter 4.6 billion years, they are generally like those helium ratio than the Sun itself; no major Final unmanned lunar program. of Earth in chemistry and minerals, but are changes in the intensity of solar flares and The Orbiters worked in conjunction deficient in volatile elements such as hydro- composition of particles erupted from them gen, sodium, and potassium; three new miner over the past 100,000 years; and the flux of with Surveyor to acquire pho- als never found on Earth were discovered galactic cosmic rays has apparently been tographic and scientific data in prep- (tranquillityite, armalcolite, and pyroxferroite). constant. aration for the Apollo landings. All five Lo ',far Orbiters were successful. They made more than 6,000 orbits of The Planets the Moon and photographed more than 99 percent of the lunar surface, Planetary studies by unmanned The first three provided sufficient spacecraft have been flybys, orbiters, coverage for selection of eight candi- or landers. date sites for Apollo, the fourth The first planet in the solar sys- supplied detailed coverage of the tem, Mercury, was the focus of the front side of the Moon, and the fifth .er 10 mission which gave aci- supplemented data provided by the .ts their first close look at the others. At the end of their lifetimes, planet during three flybys. The all were commanded to impact the spacecraft reached Mercury with a Moon so as not to interfere with gravitational assist from Venus. manned spacecraft. Venus was the objective of Mari- ners 1, 2, 5, and 10, though only 2, Lunar Orbiter 1 August 10, 1966 5, and 10 were successful. Later, First US spacecraft to orbit another planetary Pioneer Venus 1, an orbiter, and bode. Returned medium and high resolution Pioneer Venus 2, a multiprobe, were photos of nine primary and seven potential Apollo landing sites; crashed on Moon, Octo- a six-spacecraft effort to study the ber 29, 1966. second planet from the Sun and closest one to Earth. Lunar Orbiter 2 November 6, 1966 Mars was approached by both Returned 211 frames (422 medium and high Mariner and Viking spacecraft, Viking resolution pictures); crashed on Moon, Octo- landers reached the planet's surface ber 11. 1967. in 1976, achieving the first soft Lunar Orbiter 3 landing of a spacecraft on another February 5. 1967 planet, Returned 211 frames including photographs of Surveyor 1; crashed on Moon, October 9, Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft 1967. were sent to Jupiter, Voyager 1 reached Jupiter in March 1979 and Lunar Orbiter 4 May 4. 1967 Saturn in November 1980. Its plane- Returned 163 frames; crashed on Moon, tary mission completed, it continues October 6, 1967. to search for the edge of the solar Lunar Orbiter 5 system, August 1, 1967 Voyager 2 encountered Jupiter in Returned 212 frames including five Apollo July 1979, Saturn in August 1980, sites. and provided near-lunar micrometeoroid data. Crashed on Moon. January 31, 1968. and is now en route to a rendezvous with Uranus in January 1986 and Apollo Neptune in August 1989. Thus, by the end of this decade, Apollo 11-Apolln 17 all planets in the solar system will July 1969-December 1972 During six missions, astronauts landed and Model of Surveyor. have been visited except Pluto, studied the lunar surface, collecting and bringing back lunar ft..* and soil samples and Thin section of a lunar sample Mariner leaving instruments to study the Moon's interior. collected on the Apollo 14 mis- Mariner 2 Findings: (1) The Moon is a complex, sion. August 1962 evolved planet with three basic rock types and First successful interplanetary probe, a flyby of no life. past or present. (2) It is slightly egg- Venus; data led to an accurate determination shaped, with the small end pointing toward of the planet's mass, and measured high temperatures.
96 97 Mariner 3 desolate landscapes, remarkably similar to the Pioneer 11 (Pioneer Saturn) November 1%4 Moon's with huge craters: long narrow valleys: April 6. 1973 Mars flyby Shroud failed to jettison and a feature unique to Mercury, long scarps. or Jupiter encounter December 2. 1974 communications were lu5f with this soctrecratt cliffs: flat plains: and a huge circular impact Carries plaque identical to Pioneer 10. basin (Mare Caloris) about 13.000 km (810 mi) Passed within 42.760 km (26.725 mi) of the planet's cloud tops taking the only existing Mariner 4 in diameter: (2) it's closer to a perfect sphere than Earth is: (3) not only the smallest planet. pictures of its polar regions. Jupiters gravita- November 28. 1964 tional field was used to swing it back across Mars flyby Reached the planet July 14 1965. but the densest with a metal-rich core. (4) a Photographed a heavily cratered. moonlike tenuous atmosphere includes exotic gases the solar system to Saturn. surface Found that the Martian atmosphere is such as argon. neon. and helium: (5) its Saturn encounter. September 1. 1979 thin. with less than 1 percent the pressure of magnetic field is about a tenth as strong as Renamed Pioneer Saturn after Jupiter en- Earths atmosphere. and is composed largely Earth's. and (6) the temperatures are extreme, counter. 565 new discoveries came from its of carbon dioxide. from 425 C (770 F) to 183 C (297.4 F). path through the ring plane 12.000 kri (1.200 mi) below them) and within 21.400 km (13,300 Mariner 5 mil of the cloud tops June 1967 Pioneer Results: The planet has a magnetic field. magnetosphere, and radiation belts: its core is Venus flyby Found weak magnetic field and about twice the size of Earth: its magnetic field very dense atmosphere. Pioneer 10 (Pioneer Jupiter) March 3. 1972 is 1.000 times stronger than Earths: it appears Jupiter encounter, December 3. 1973 to have more and narrower belts and zones Mariners 6 and 7 than Jupiter: identified two new rings and Launched February 25 and March 27. 196F: First spacecraft to leave the solar system. found an 11th moon: measurements of Titan Mars flybys. Closest approach to planet 5:00 a.m. PDT, June 13. 1983. Carries plaque discouraged evidence for possibility of life The achieved on July 31 and August 5. 1969. with an easily-interpreted message: drawing of Findings Nitrogen is virtually absent from a man and a woman, a diagram of the solar data was useful for planning encounters of the atmosphere, solid carbon dioxide ("dry system. and a map locating the solar system Voyagers 1 and 2. ice' ) occurs in the clouds and near the polar with reference to some galactic pulsars Pioneer Venus 1 caps. and the dust particles in the Martian Basic mission was the first flyby of Jupiter. atmosphere probably consist of silicate mate- In addition. was the first flight beyond Mars May 20. 1978 Reached Venus. December 4 rials derived from the planetary surface and first crossing of the asteroid belt: first close-up pictures of Jupiter's Great Red Spot Orbiter mission to observe Venus for one complete rotation on its axis: globally surveyed Mariner 8 and atmosphere: and first crossings of orbits of Uranus. Pluto, and Neptune. its atmosphere and environment, studied its May 1971 topography, calculated its shape and density. Mars orbiter mission. Launch vehicle failed. Discoveries: (1) The heliosphere (Sun s atmosphere) extends much farther than pre. Results: (1) First full-disc picture of Venus shows a turbulent, cloudy atmosphere, bright Mariner 9 viously thought and appears to 'breathe" in and out once every 11-year cycle: (2) Jupiter cloud areas wr ?pped about both polar regions. May 30. 1971 and a Y feature covering most of the central First Mars-orbiting spacecraft. November is a liquid planet; (3) first model of Jupiter's 1971 Transmitted 7.400 pictures of 100 huge magnetosphere; (4) first accurate mea- percent of Martian surface as well as the surements of rass and densities of Jupiter's Artist's concept of Pioneer 10 planets small moons. Phobos and Deimos. planet-sized moons; (5) proof of origh. of the Results' (1) Mars is a two-part world, with gegenschein and zodiacal light. leaving the solar system. an ancient cratered surface in the Southern Hemisphere and a geologically younger sur- face. with volcanoes, canyons, and dry river channels. in the Northern Hemisphere. (2) It has a huge canyon. some enormous vol- canoes. and sinuous channels wnich appear to be former river beds. (3) Landforms resembling lava flows occur in flat regions. (4) Layered deposits in the Martian polar regions suggest glacial periods in past times. (5) Solar ultraviolet light is not absorbed by the atmos phere and reaches the surface of Mars. (6) Periodic global dust storms were observed. (7) Phobos and Deimos are very dark and have irregular shapes and cratered surfaces.
Mariner 10 November 3, 1973 Venus (February 5, 1974) Mercury (March 29, 1974) flyby The trajectory around the Sun swung it back for a second encounter with Mercury in September 1974 and for a third in March 1975 Data from Venus: (1) No significant magnet- ic field. (2) a notable disturbance in thesolar wind is produred as it flows past Venus: (3) it is closer to a perfect sphere than Earth is:(4) ultraviolet images of the atmosphere revealed streamline and circulation patterns, including V. and C-shaped structures: (5) the upper atmosphere rotates much more rapidly (once in about 4 Earth days) than Venus itself: (6) hydrogen and helium were detected in the atmosphere Data from Mercury (1) Photographs showed
98 Artist's concept of Aphrodite, Venus' largest highland region, with an outline of the continental United States.
an orbiter carrying a sterilized lander were launched in 1975 from Cape Canaveral and cruised through space for almost a year.
Viking 1 August 20. 1975 Began orbiting Mars. June 19. 1976 Landed July 20
___41111R,& Viking 2 September 9. 1975 Began orbiting Mars. August 7. 1976 Landed September 3 Viking's primary mission ended November 15. 1976. 11 days before Mars passed behind the Sun. After conjunction in mid-December 1976, telemetry and command communica- tions were reestablished, and the extended mission operations began. Orbiter 1 continued working until the summer of 1980. Orbiter 2
and a surface temperature of 482 C (900 F) The Orbiter's mission has been extended to Full-disc picture of Venus taken evf4,:-4 1985 from 65,000 kms (40,000 mi) by /*N01:4;g1 'A,Y` Pioneer Venus 2 the Pioneer Venus Orbiter on August 8. 1978 February 10, 1979. Reached Venus, December 9 A multiprobe mission made up of a Bus. a Large Probe, and three identical Small Probes 0 to measure the atmosphere top to bottom. The Bus measured the upper atmosphere and then burned up. The Probes descended to the qt.), surface: not designed to survive impact. but 4.4,4 ( one returned data for approximately 67 min- utes. 4, il "'e Data showing the presence of large amounts of rare gases in the atmosphere 11 14 suggest a far larger contribution by the Sun to SI %$ 4i j1 Venus atmosphere than to Earth's during the t early evolution of the solar system.
Photomosaic of 18 pictures of Mer- Viking cury taken by Mariner 10 when the Viking was designer to orbit Mars spacecraft was 200,000 kms and land and operate on its surface. (124,000 mi) distant on its approach Two identical spacecraft consisting of to the planet March 29, 1974. part of this disc (?) a thick pale yellow opaque atmosphere obscures the surface, but radar scanner revealed flat rr fling plains a mountain as high as Mount Everest great rift valleys ontinent -sized highland areas and two large volcanoes (31 data provided mea- Y/TPITlfni'l on high-speed winds changing giohdi p.itterns of clouds and cloud-level winds a high altitude haze of sulfuric acid
Artist's concept of the Viking launcher mission profile showing, left to right: bloshield separation, lander capsule separation, the de- scent parachute deployment, ter- minal propulsion, and entry to landing. V". 98 apilIMMOIN ... 4,044, y4 .Ynt
svy
View of Jupiter showing never- previously-seen aspects of the planet's cloud tops taken by the Pioneer 10 spacecraft as it flew past the giant planet in December 1973, from 1,840,000 km (1,121,000 mi) away (above left).
Jupiter's Grent Red Spot and sur- rounding region photographed by Voyager 1 on March 1, 1979 from a distance of 5 million km (3 mil- lion mi) (below left).
First color picture taken on the surface of Mars by the Viking 1 Lander (above). The scene, cover- ing about 67' from left to right, was scanned three times, each time with a different color filter. The color was reconstructed with computer processing.
99 from the landers and 52.000 from the orbiters Voyager 2 The landers provided the first close.up look at August 20. 1977 the surface, monitored variations of atmospher- ic opacity over a full Martian year. and Voyager 1 determined the mean size of the aerosols The September 5, 1977 orbiter cameras observed new terrain and Jupiter encounter. March 5. 19/9 provided clearer detail on known features. Launched after Voyager 2 but placed on a inluding some color and stereo observations. faster trajectory. Voyager 1 passed it and and mapped about 97 percent of the surface. reached Jupiter four months earlier Flew by within 280,000 km (172,750 mi) of the atmosphere. Observations- (1) The colorful Voyager striped, constantly moving atmosphere has The Voyager missions to Jupiter dozens of storms and complex cloud struc- and Saturn were built on the data tures: (2) discovered a torus (doughnut-shaped tub) circling the planet, a plasma cloud of previously acquired during the Pio- intense heat that encloses the orbit of lo. (3) neer 10 and 11 flybys of Jupiter. The discovered a thin, flat ring of dark particles: (4) photographs of the planetstheir aurorae fill Jupiter's skies and there are intense, bright lightning strikes: (5) the Great atmosphere, rings, and satellites Red Spot is surrounded by rolling clouds and surpassed anything scientists ex- spiral streams of clouds, (6) the Galilean pected. With the scientific data they satellites were the first found to have color: lo. bright orangish, has active volcanoes: ':iuropa, accumulated, the Voyagers trans- amber, has long linear streaks crossing its formed completely our view of and surface: Ganymede, brown. larger than Mercu- knowledge about the giant planets. ry. has impact craters with right ray systems: and Callisto has a basin surrounded by a Each Voyager carries a "Sounds of series of concentric rings. Earth" record made of copper and Saturn encounter, November 12, 1980 gold-plated. The records contain two Only 19 km (12 mi) off course. observations hours of sounds and music, digital at Saturn were equally surprising. (1) The atmosphere is similar to Jupiter's with dark and data containing pictures, and a digital light cloud markings and swirls, eddies, and message from President Jimmy Car- curling ribbons: but the belts and zones are ter. more numerous and a thick haze mutes the
(Right), global color images of the four Galilean satellites taken by Voyager 1: lo (upper left), Europa (upper right), Ganymede (lower left), and Callistu dower right). ended its mission in July 1978. and Lander 2 in April 1980 Lander 1 was the longest-lived: it operated until November 1982. With but one exception. the science instru- ments acquired more data than was expected: ill Biology experiments analyzed Martian soil and discovered chemical activity. but no evidence of life12) measurements were made of some physical and magnetic properties of the soil and the composition and physical properties of the upper atmosphere: (3) there was nearly continuous monitoring of weather at the landing sites where surface tempera- tures ranged from 29 C (20 F) in the afternoon to 84 C ( 120 F) at night: (4) there were dust storms, but wind velocities were low. (5) the north potar ice cap is composed of water ice The first color photographs showed the Red Planet truly red. the color due to oxidized iron. The total number of pictures exceeded 4.500 markings (2) the planets rotation period is 10 the planet, and one thick outer ring balloons cannot carry equipment how,,, 39 minutes. 26 seconds: (3) the rings whose orbit may not be exactly above 48.27 km (30 mi) and satel- became likened to the grooves of a phono- circular. lites are impractical below 160.9 km graph. rings within rings numbering rn the hundreds. there were spokes in the B ring and (100 mi). A few sounding rockets shepherding satellites controlling the F ring. reach altitudes of 6,436 km (4,000 mi). (4) Titan. the satellite almost as large as Those designed for lower altitudes Jupiter s Ganymede, has a dense haze that Sounding Rockets hides its surface: (5) the inner five satellites investigate properties of the upper Mirnas, Enceladus, Tethys. Drone, and The first adventures into space atmosphere: at higher altitudes they Rheaare mainly water ice and each has were with suborbital sounding rockets have contributed to high energy as- distinctive features: of the outer satellites. Iapetus has one bright. one dark hemisphere. and the Sounding Rocket Program trophysics and solar astronomy. (6) the satellite count went up to 15. continuos to conduct scientific experi- Sounding rockets are used to test ments that require only a few min- prototype instruments for satellites, to Voyager 2 Jupiter encounter. July 9. 1979 utes duration above the atmosphere. provide scientists with instruments at Concentrating on areas and characteristics Their effective lifetimewhen all sci- the precise time and place needed, of the planet and its satellites that comple- entific data is collectedis the few and to support observations by satel- mented the findings of Voyager 1. Voyager 2 brought new images and scientific data. (1) minutes before dropping back to lites. Confirmed the constant changes of the atmos- Earth. phere and changes in the Red Spot in size They tra% in nearly vertical trajec- Possible variations in the chemical and color (2) photographed the ring above and below to fird it 6.500 km (4.000 mi) wide tories, may have one or more stages, composition of Saturn's ring system and 10 km (6 mil thick and a fainter ring within carry packages of instruments to are revealed by this computer-en- the inner edge of the bright ring: (3) a time- between 48 and 161 km (30-100 mi), hanced color composite of two im- lapse movie was made of 150 frames to record the volcanic activity on lo. another view and return data by telemetry or ages transmit ed by Voyager 2 on of Callisto showed uniform impact crater capsule. They are the only vehicles August 17, 1981, from 8.9 million km distribution. ano Europas flat surface came to effective at those heights because (5.5 million mi). resemble a cracked egg shell. Saturn encounter August 25 1981 Just 2 7 seconds early and only 48 27 kilometers (30 miles) from the aim po:nt Voyager 2 approached Saturn from above the rings. Its instruments had been adjusted to k take advantage of knowledge gained from Voyager 1 and 23 000 km (14.294 mi) closer, concentrated on selected targets A closer study of atmospheric motion showed new features cloud vortices (small hurricanes) high-speed jet streams eddies at higher latitudesIts temperature ranges from 80 K to 95 K (176 F-203 F) at the cloudtops It discovered a plasma torus around the planet with temperatures 300 times hotter than the Sun s corona and twice as hot as the torus around Jupiter Better cameras revised the ring count to thousands and a series of time-lapse movies studied the B ring spokes Close looks at several satellites showed distinctive features and high-resolution photographs were taken of seven of the newly-discovered satellites Kuiper Airborne Observatory March 1977 The Kuper Airborne Observatory, a modified C-141 aircraft. carries the world's largest airborne telescope Scientists discovered the rings of Uranus while observing the temp- rary disappearance of a faint star behind the planet Five rings 1,e 18.000 km (1 1 000 mi) from the planet s cloud tops, they appear to consist of four thin inner rings that follow nearly circular orbits around
713 . -
101 1 For the Classroom
1. Research topics: Planetary images taken by spacecraft vs. those taken by Earth-based telescopes Compare the old and new infor- mation about a planet that has been visited by a spacecraft Infrared and ultraviolet astronomy Robotics 2. Collect images of the planets and their satellites taken by spacecraft and compare them with pictures in pre-Space Age books. 3. Encourage students to construct and test robotic devices for sci- ence fair projects. 4. Have your students investigate local use of robots. If they are being used, arrange a field trip. 5. Design a robot for future planetary missionsto land, collect surface samples, and return the samples to Earth. 6. Teachers, Grades 6-12, inter- ested in becoming certified for use of the Lunar Sample Educa- tional Packet should contact their Center Educational Programs Of- ficer. (See Appendix.)
102 103 . . .1.i : t.,,, .... 1 I:/ . 1 .....- : , . 9. : . .. . . e e. . ,11 - e I i r.-1
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O ix Technology Utilization
Technologytechnical "know-how"is almost limitless in its adaptability and uses. During 25 years of aerospace research, NASA's programs have required and produced technological advances. The resultant technologies are diverse and have accumulated to bey ie an important national asset. One of the demands of the agency's mandate is the widest possible use of this resource. Because technology is transferable and there is always a potential for new applications, NASA's Technology Utilization Program was established to provide the link between the technology and the user. Earlier chapters outlined the NASA programs that have generated much of today's new technology. This chapter introduces a selection of products and processes, called spinoffs, that came from second- ary application of that technology.
A technician inspects the electronic circuitry of a auadraScan R Longterm Flow Monitoring System provides information on the water flow of city sewer systems.
104 105 A glass-enclosed subway station in Toronto, Canada, was made possible by a unique glazing con- Computers cept developed by PPG Industries.
Computer processing is having a The NASA Structural Analysis profound impact on American busi- (NASTRAN) r computer program has ness and industry. Computerization also found wide application in indus- of the private sector is expected to try. This general purpose program continue growing throughout the analyzes a design and pi-edicts how
1980s. St it will stand up to vibration and other With its wealth of computer re- forms of stress. ources developed in the aerospace At its glass research center, PPG program, NASA is uniquely equipped Industries of Pittsburgh, uses the to aid businesses as they make the NASTRAN computer program to transition to the computer age. analyze the stability of enclosures Computer programs, or software, made entirely of glass, to simulate are sets of instructions that tell a stresses on large containers of mol- computer how to retrieve its stored COSMIC inventory providing aids ten glass, and to analyze stress ef- information for the desired results. and refinements for structured fects of solar heating on flat glass. Developing new programs is expen- assembler language programming Ingalls Shipbuilding Division of Lit- sive and time-consuming. Often, techniques. ton Industries, Pascagoula, Mississip- however, a program developed for COSMIC has more than 1,500 pi, a leading designer and producer one application can easily be adapt- computer programs available, which of Navy combat ships, oil drilling rigs, ed to a new purpose. Thus many of are serving a variety of fields from barges, and other vessels for the NASA's computer programs can be developing huge gears for wind tur- offshore marine industry, has used used to great advantage in business bines to bank record processing to the NASTRAN program in shipbuild- and industry. analyzing blood samples in medical ing. Through the Computer Software research laboratories. Management and Information Center (COSMIC) R at the University of Geor- gia, NASA makes software from space programs available to the private sector at a fraction of the Fabric Structures origir.al cost. Thousands of programs have been distributed, resulting in the savings of millions of dollars. in one such instance, Shell Oil In 1967, NASA was searching for a Company of Houston, Texas, adapt- fabric for astronaut space suits. ed a COSMIC program for use in the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corpora- production of chemicals for plastic tion of Toledo, Ohio, produced a products. Computer analysis of glass fiber yarn that was woven into a chemical compounds helps scientists fabric and coated with Teflon°. This predict how new composite struc- fabric was subsequently developed tures will perform when applied to into heavier versions and used to such products as automobiles, appli- construct permanent tent-like roofs ances, and children's toys. The on large public buildings. Tne Silver- COSMIC program was used to evalu- dome, home of the National Football ate the accuracy of the company's League's Detroit Lions in Pontiac, new computer code. Michigan, is one of the best-known of Rohr Industries, Inc., Chula Vista, these which include department California, specialists in manufacture stores, university recreation centers, The Silverdome, home of the of nacelles, has made extensive use and Sea World's Florida Festival in ,NFL's Detroit Lions in Pontiac, of a COSMIC program, saving six Orlando. 'Michigan, is an air-supported Tef- man-months of programmer time lon-coated Fiberglas fabric roof for necessary to develop alternative soft- year-round utility. ware. Since 1979, the Information Systems Department of Illinois Bell Telephone has been using a
106 105
1 Consumer Products
Space technology has led to a variety of consumer products. A NASA engineer, who helped design cooling systems for space suits, with some of his colleagues has devel- oped a line of liquid-cooled sports- wear for joggers and other athletes. Known as Techni-Clothes, they use heat-absorbing gel packs and are made to allow more strenuous activi- ty without overheating. Another entrepreneur used NASA technical information from the Space A third businessman repairs plastic These New York marathoners are Shuttle program to develop his own canoes used for whitewater canoeing doing warmups, wearing the Tech - water filter. About the size of a ther- with an Inductron Toroid Welder, an ni- Clothes cooling headbands. mos bottle, the filter attaches to a advanced welder that was developer, faucet and removes chemical tastes at the Langley Research Center for and odors from tap water. use in space to repair plastics and other synthetic materials. Health and Medicine
In the space program, controlling fluids has been important in the huge liquid-propellant rockets as well as in the tiny automated equipment that scooped up Martian soil. This sophis- ticated fluid control technology is now being applied in medicine: an artifi- cial sphincter for urinary control, an implantable system to deliver internal medication automatically, and a blood filtration E ystem for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A portable Medical Status and Treatment System developed for use in remote areas incorporates astro- naut-monitoring, electronic circuitry, and microminiaturization. The Ames Research Center assisted in the being used in medical research. The A chemist at the Centers for development of a crawling aid for Centers for Disease Control ;CDC) in Diseatte Control in Atlanta where brain-injured children. Atlanta, Georgia, use a COSMIC the COSMIC exchange is used for NASA's computer systems are program to analyze data from tests of many medical research programs. human body substances. A medical laboratory in Maine uses NASA com- puterized technology to develop new diagnostic techniques. 107 106 Industry
At a time when worker productivity is dramatically affecting the economic futures of many industries, NASA technologies are being brought in to Il help. The Cool Vest"' is an example of a spin-off product that can in- ...d,11, crease worker productivity. This light- weight cooling garment can be worn by workers in high temperature e-- vironments to allow longer working periods. Another NASA-supported device is the automatic welding sys- tem, designed to replace manual welding with a technology higher in productivity and lower in cost. One superefficient insulation devel- oped to keep the Saturn V's fuel tanks cold was a spray-on poly- urethane foam technique devised by Rockwell International Corp.; the technique found commercial applica- tion as insulation for the storage wells on tuna boats. NASA technology developed for accurate pressure measurements in wind tunnels is being applied in industrial plants to automatically con- inadequate or redundant sewage Ulna boats use a NASA-developed trol individual valves and actuator°. treatment facilities. A new monitoring spray-foam insulation for improved The DPT6400, produced by Pressure system called QuadraScan borrows refrigeration. Systems Incorporated, is an out- satellite sensing technology to take growth of electronically scanned accurate readings of water flow in a industry has a special problem: ma- pressure (ESP) technology devel- sewage system. terials used to absorb noise must be oped at Langley Research Center. Fire safety has also been en- washable and must not allow bac- For several years some building hanced by NASA spinoffs. Durette terial growth. In a three-year pro- construction has been based on a a fire-resistant fabric developed for gram, Georgia Tech's Engineering money-saving method of preparing the oxygen-enriched (hyperbaric) at- Experiment Station (EES), supported building specifications derived from mospheres of spacecraft, has a vari- by NASA and the Georgia Depart- NASA technology; the technique was ety of Earth applications: researchers ment of Agriculture, developed a developed to obtain quality construc- on deep diving ano oxygen therapy sound-absorbing panel for use in tion while holding down cost of use Durette in their hyperbaric cham- poultry plants. EES ,,ses a three-inch launch facilities, test centers, and bers, auto racers wear Durette suits, fiberglass core covered by a polyes- other structures. and Durette filters clean emissions ter film similar to that used in space from a high-temperature furnace at a for vapor protection. The results of metal products company. the EES demonstration are consid- High noise levels can pose prob- ered applicable to other food pro- Environment lems in any industry, but the poultry cessing industries where similar sanitary constraints exist.
Environmental and public safety management are more effective as a result of space age technologies. Sewer monitoring has long been an inexact practice, resulting in either 10? 108 For the Classroom
1. Have your students compile a list of consumer products from the space program that they find in daily use. 2. Ask your students to find out if any of the community benefits (environmental, health, industrial) listed in this chapter are found in their area; how are they used? if not, could they be ? 3. Have your students research new products, other than those men- tioned in the text, that had a be- ginning in NASA programs. Do they have local, national, or inter- national applications? 4. Divide the class into special inter- est groupssports, architecture, medicine, environmentto pre- pare in-depth reports on benefits from NASA research.
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pioneer 10 at the edge of the solar system. Columbia and Challenger crews in space. Landsat. Voyager encounters with Jupiter and Saturn. Lunar bases. The vital link between these missions and Earth is the Space Tracking and Data Systems. Their name describes their workto keep track of where spacecraft are in orbit, tell them what to do, get information from them, and process that information into a meaningful form. This is done primarily through two worldwide networksone for Earth-orbiting operations and the other for deep space missions. A global communications system called NASCOM (NASA Communications System) links the networks with NASA mission control centers. The networks support an average of 20 to 30 different satellites and space probes daily. Through the years they have enjoyed some remark-
The 64-meter Deep Space Network antenna at the Madrid Tracking Station Complex. ill 110 Workmen standing in the reflector of the 64-meter diameter antenna of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Deep Space Network station at Goldstone, California.
able s iccesses as they have adapt- ed to changing requirements and technological progress. Originally able only to receive and transmit data, tracking stations now also have advanced data processing and command capabilities. Today Lal 'C.trie f' there are two separate tracking sys- "";kpde). ° tems. The Space Tracking and Data Network (STDN), managed by the Goddard Space Flight Center U (GSFC), is an international system of tracking facilities for Earth-orbital and Re ha qi suborbital missions. The Deep Space Network, managed by the Jet Propul- 00. sion Laboratory (JPL), consists of three tracking stations around the world for the support of deep space 47. .7._...... zt. nissions. 1N The new Tracking and Data Relay i - Satellite System (TDRSS), with the .. ,; N 1 va , first satellite launched from the /.4IL , ',PSI'r.? *lb , \ s'I 1 up 4 .. Space Shuttle Challenger on STS-6 in April 1983, is an in-orbit communi- -r<-1- cations link with other spacecraft and eventually will replace ground-based STDN.
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national network of "Minitrack" sta- Project Apollo tracking ship, USNS tions that had been formed by the Mercury, at Port Hueneme, Califor- Naval Research Laboratory to sup- Satellite Network nia. port the International Geophysical 1963-1964 Year. These stations could receive, As 26-m antennas were added to STADAN Stations: record, and transmit telemetry data, the Minitrack system in the early Canberra (Orroral Valley), Australia Fairbanks, AK but could not give commands. Be- 1960s, the system became known as Fort Myers. FL tween 1959 and 1963, NASA added the Satellite Network. In 1964, 12-m Goldstone, CA new stations to support the growing (40-ft) antennas were added in Jo- Johannesburg (Hartebeesthoek), South Africa space program and upgraded the hannesburg, South Africa; Quito, Ec- Quito, Ecuador capabilities at existing stations. In uador; and Santiago, Chile. Rosman, NC 1962, construction of the first 26- Santiago, Chile Tananarive, Madagascar meter (85-foot) diameter parabolic Winkfield, England antenna was completed at Fairbanks, Alaska. Space 'Tracking and Minitrack Stations: 1958 Data Acquisition Manned Space Flight San Diego, CA Network (STADAN) Blossom Point, MD Network (MSFN) Antigua. West Indies 1964-1972 1962-1972 Quito. Ecuador In 1964, NASA installed the Satel- There was a separate tracking Lima, Peru Antofagasta. Chileto 1963 lite Telemetry Automatic Reduction network for mantled spaceflight until Santiago. Chile (STAR) system, a data processing 1972. The network created in 1958 Woomera, Australia system that significantly expanded to support Project Mercury was aug- Eselen Park, South Africa Johannesburg, South Africa the satellite network's capabilities. mented in 1962 for Project Gemini. 1959 The network, which became known The MSFN stations consisting of Fort Myers. FL as STADAN, could command satellite airplane, ship, and ground-based an- 1960 East Grand Forks, MN functions and acquire data, as well tennas could track, command, re- Goldstone, CA as track satellites. Increased capabili- ceive data, and communicate with 1961 ties of the STADAN system allowed the astronauts and the target vehicle. Fairbanks. AK St. John's. Newfoundland some Minitrack stations to be phased The system was updated again for Winkfield. England out. At the end of 1969, ten STADAN the Apollo program and consisted of 1963 stations were operational. ten 9-meter antennas, one 9-meter Rosman, NC Canberra, Australia transportable station, five ships, and eight aircraft. 112 113 I,
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MSFN Stations: Antigua Ascension Island Bermuda Canary Islands Canberra. Australia (Honeysuckle Creek) (Orroral Valley) Canton Island STDN Stations: Carnarvon, Australia The Tracking and Data Relay Satel- Ascension Island Corpus Christi. TX lite System (TDRSS) Space Bermuda Eghn AFB. FL Canberra (Orroral Valley), Australia Goldstone. CA Ground Link Ku-Band Antenna Fairbanks. AK Grand Bahama Island System, at White Sands, New Mex- Greenbelt, MD Grand Turic Island ico. Goldstone. CA Guam Guam Guaymas. Mexico Kausi. HI Kano. Nigeria orbital and suborbital missions. Three Madrid, Spain Kauai. Hawaii special purpose stations will be used Merritt Island. FL Madrid. Spain for support of the Space Shuttle. Quito. Ecuador Merritt Island. FL Rosman. NC Muchea. Australia During the 1970s, the STDN network Santiago. Chile Point Arguello. CA was continually improved to provide Winkfield. England Tananarive. Madagascar White Sands. NM greater data processing capabilities. The STDN system provides cover- In 1972. MSFN was merged with STADAN age up to about 20 percent of the time. Most equipment on the STDN Deep Space Network network was installed in the (DSN) mid-1960s to support the Apollo The Deep Space Network is a Spaceflight Tracking and program, and although obsolescence system designed to provide com- Data Network (STDN) and maintenance difficulties have mand, control, tracking, and data 1972to date increased with time, the network has acquisition for deep space missions. STADAN and MSFN became continued to provide consistent ser- Its three sites in Goldstone. Califor- STDN. an international network of 15 vice longer than expected.The new nia: Madrid, Spain: and Canberra. stations. Twelve of these stations TDRS system will allow many STDN track manned and unmanned Earth- stations to be closed.
113, Australia are located approximately most advanced communications sat- 120 apart and provide 24-hour line ellites developed thus far. TDRSS will of sight coverage. Tracking and Data consist of two satellites and an in- DSN, managed by JPL, consists of Relay Satellite orbit spare. They will provide almost three 64-m (210-ft) diameter anten- System (TDRSS) full-time coverage of the Space Shut- nas, five 26-m (85-ft) antennas, and When operational, the in-orbit tle and up to 26 other satellites. one 34-m (111-ft) antenna. During tracking system, TDRSS, will revolu- The TDRSS satellites weigh about the Voyager 1 encounter with Saturn, tionize global coverage of Earth- 2,250 kilograms (5,000 Ibs) and DSN recovered over 99 percent of orbiting spacecraft. The largest and measure 17 meters (57 ft) across. the 17,000 images transmitted. The network was able to determine the TDRSS CONCEPT position of Voyayer 1 to within 337 SHARED SPARE km (209 mi) upon its closest ap- (CENTRAL) proach to Saturn. This high level of TDRSS TDRSS performance was made possible with SERVICE <4°' SERVICE (EAST) the use of the network's radiometric (WEST)/ \a system. the spacecraft cameras, and tt- 4 6." the use of antenna arraying. The TDRSS UPLINK arraying technique is done elec- FORWARD AND DOWNLINK RETURN LINK LINK tronically by combining signals re- KBAND ceived from two antennas at each MULTIPLE x -BAND site. ACCESS K -BAND S -BAND M; X rIPL E cS soN.I E BAND SINGLE :t cS tiAN:) ACCESS K HAND S- AND K BAND
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The operational satellites will be the White Sands ground terminal Artist's concept of TDRS. The positioned over the Equator about include three 18-m (59-ft) Ku-band spacecraft bus is in the center; 130 degrees apart, with the spare communications. from it project the two steerable centrally located for use in case of a Initially, TDRSS will support the dish antennas, which are five malfunction. Space Shuttle, Spacelab, and Land- meters (16 ft) in diameter; the The data acquired will be sent sat 4. solar panels on booms extending directly to NASA's White Sands Test perpendicularly to the big dish Facility in New Mexico. Facilities at axis; and the smaller white dish, which is the space-toground link.
116 115 For the Classroom
1. Have your students locate tracking stations on a map. Discuss why several stations are needed for one system, but only three for another. 2. Keep a class file on the TDRS System. 3. Have your students research one tracking stationits use, geogra- phy, history, impact on the com- munity. 4. Secondary school teachers may obtain a copy of Teachers' Guide for Building and Operating Weather Satellite Ground Stations from the Educational Programs Officer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (202.3), Greenbelt, MD 20771. The publication gives the information needed to con- struct, modify, and operate a weather satellite recording station.
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4s. t Epilogue Perspectives, Plans, Prospects
On October 1 this year NASA will be 25 years old, a short time in the life of a nation but a quarter century of extraordinary advancement. Achievements of these 25 years are part of history. The exhilarating moments of accomplishments have become logical steps in progress. Consider the legacy of this period: Apollo 11, the climax of humanity's long striving to break away from the confines of Earth to explore another world, and the beginning of a future that already has seen exciting advancements in knowl- edge and new discoveries in exploration. Ten more men landed on the Moon; a decade later astronauts and scientists are working in low Earth orbit. Pioneer, Mariner, Voyager, and Viking with cameras that extended our eyes to the outer planets, experiments that added immeasurably to our knowl- edge of the solar system, pictures that brought a new sense of wonderment, and discoveries that
Rockwell International concept of a space station. The picture also shows an Orbital Transfer Vehicle delivering a communications satellite to geosynchronous orbit from the space station.
119 A A 118 brought once-distant worlds closer. edge of the universe. Germany Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and their satel- Aeronautical research that leads lites are now places, familiar and the world. Active Magnetosphetic Particle Tracer Ex- unforgettable. Applications satellites, now a plorers (AMPTE) Scheduled for launch in 1984 Scientific satellites that have in- part of our daily routine. AMPTE will study the interaction between the troduced us to the elements of Applications of space technology solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere through Earth's immediate neighborhood, the that have enriched our lives. release of chemical tracer elements. For tl is dual spacecraft mission to be launched on the Sun, and the baffling mysteries at the same Delta vehicle, NASA will provide the Charge Composition Explorer (CCE) and Wes! Germany, the Ion Release Module. (C)
Some Biomedical Laboratory (Spacelab 4) Scheduled for Shuttle launch, December 1985 What Nextthe 1980s Mission duration: 7 days Objective: The mission is devoted to life sciences research related to the safety, well- being, and productivity of humans in space and to fundamental problems in gravitational biology. The common test subjects are the six ". . the dream of yesterday is the International human crew n embers, four squirrel monkeys, hope of today, and the reality of and 48 rats. (C) tom°, low." European Space Agency Galileo Robert H. Goddard (ESA) Scheduled for Shuttle launch, 1986 High school graduation talk, 1904 A two-spacecraft mission to Jupiter. Germany Spacelab 2 is contributing a Retro Propulsion Module to Scheduled for Shuttle launch, November 1984 inject one spacecraft into Jovian orbit as well Aeronautics Mission duration: 7 days as other mission hardware. (C) (See Space An evolutionary science, the aero- Objective: To demonstrate Spacelab's capabili- Sciences, below.) nautical progress made since 1958 is ties through a multidisciplinary research pro- gram and to verify system performance. First ROSAT but the groundwork for the next mission with a multipallet configuration, an Scheduled for Shuttle launch, 1987 generation of vehicles, the current igloo (a pressurized container attached to the A NASA/German Federal Ministry for Re- research in laboratories, wind tun- first pallet and containing the avionics needed search and Technology (BMFT) astrophysics to operate and control all Spacelab sub- mission; an X-ray telescope, it will produce an nels, and computers. 1984 will see systems and cargo bay experiments), and the X-ray survey of the sky with detailed observa- tests of the X29A. Flight testing of ESA-developed Instrument Pointing System. tions of specific sources. (C) the Laminar Flow Control program (C) will continue through September Spacelab 3 Space Science 1986. The conceptual designs of the Scheduled for Shuttle launch, September 1980s will become the aircraft of the 1984 Pioneers 10 and 11 Mission duration: 7 days After crossing the orbit of Neptune in June 1990s. Objective: First operational mission. Multi- 1983, Pioneer 10 will continue to gather and disciplinary, emphasizing investigations requir- relay detailed scientific information from pre- ing the low-gravity environment of Earth orbit. viously unexplored outer reaches of the solar Performance of equipment and facilities de- system. It is seeking the heliopause. the signed for life science investigations on Space- boundary where the solar wind hits interstellar lab 4 will be evaluated. (C) gas. Pioneer 11, also known as Pioneer Saturn. Spacelab 4 after successfully concluding its mission to the Scheduled for Shuttle launch, December 1985 ringed planet, also headed out of the solar (See Germany, below.) system to interplanetary space.
International Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) Voyager 1 Scheduled for Shuttle launch, 1986 Voyager 1 has the distinction of being the Designed to explore the polar regions of the fastest object made by humans. traveling with Sun, ISPM will travel outside the ecliptic plane a heliocentric velocity of 20 km second. Like of the solar system. NASA v ;:i launch the Pioneers 10 and 11, it continues to send radio satellite which will have a U.S. experiment on signals as it travels to the edge of the solar board, and provide tracking through the Deep system and joins them as part of the first Space Network. (C) exploration of deep space beyond.
Space Plasma Laboratory Large Format Camera (LFC) Scheduled for Shuttle launch, August 1988 Scheduled for Shuttle launch, January 1984 Mission duration: 7 to 9 days Mission duration: 7 days Objective: To conduct experiments in low Objective: To acquire synoptic, high-resolution 1980s conceptual design of a Earth orbit using radio frequency transmitters images of Earth's surface. The photographs 1990s commuter aircraft. and beam accelerators to perturb the near- will verify the LFC performance and will be space plasma environment: direct practical used for making maps. interpreting geological benefit will be in predicting the effects of features, and mineral exploration. geomagnetic storms on communications. power line grids, over-the-horizon radars. (C)
120 119 Materials Science Laboratory will descend into Jupiter's atmosphere, mea- Scheduled for Shuttle launch. March 1984 suring its chemical composition. The orbiter Mission duration 6 days will photograph the planet's clouds, weather, Objective To perform material,' processing and satellites, and measure its magnetic fields experiments in a zero-gravity !.piicri environ- for a year or more. Objective: Information ment that allows in-flight monitoring of phe- about the origin and evolution of the solar nomena, sample production, and postflight system through the Jovian system, which may analysis of samples. A series of flights of the reveal new insights into large-scale planetary MSL is planned at 6 to 12month intervals. phenomena.
Solar Array Flight Experiment (SAFE) Cosmic Background Explorer Scheduled for Shuttle launch, May 1984 (COBE) Solar arrays are huge wings which convert 1987 sunlight into energy to supply power to Objective: To make a definitive exploration and satellites and other free-flying modules. Future study of the diffuse radiation of the universe arrays will be more lightweight, efficient, and between the wavelengths of1 micrometer and flexible than those used in past programs. 916 millimeters; this includes the cosmic NASA will fly a new single-wing configuration background radiation thought to be the re- solar array on STS-14 for a seven-day test. sidual radiation from the Big Bang that is presumed to have started the expansion of the Voyager 2 universe. January 24. 1986 A flyby of Uranus at a distance of 107.000 km Tethered Satellite System (66.000 mi) making measurements and taking Scheduled for Shuttle launch, 1987 pictures that will provide the first close-up look A data-gathering satellite to be carried into at the planet. orbit by the Shuttle, then released from the cargo bay on a tethera super-strong cord August 1989 that can be 97 kms (60 mi) longand trolled The first flyby of Neptune through Earth's upper atmosphere. Key ele- ments of the system include a reel and an ASTRO extendable boom, which are essential to the Launches: March 1986 deployment and retrieval of the satellite. Artist's concept of the Venus November 1986 Radar Mapper. July 1987 Venus Radar Mapper (VRM) Mission duration: 7 days Proposed for launch in 1988 Objective: To obtain ultraviolet (UV) data on Objective: To provide a radar map of the vatories, the GRO will observe extremely astronomical objects. using three independent cloud enveloped surface of Venus. with a energetic particles emitted from the active but complementary UV astronomical tele- resolution of one km (.6214 mi): it will carry a nuclei of galaxies. These particles, very high scopes and a pair of auxiliary wide-field film radar altimeter to provide topographic informa- energy X-rays and gamma rays, can provide cameras. A three-mission program is planned. tion and a gravity sensor. information on the formation of elements and the first to occur during the 1985-86 appari- on the evolution of galaxies. tion of Halleys Comet. Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) Proposed for launch in 1988 Solar Optical Telescope (SOT) Space Telescope (ST) Newest in a long line of astronomical obser- Scheduled for launch in October 1989 Scheduled for Shuttle launch. 1986 Mission duration: Up to 14 days Above Earth's atmosphere, the STS 2.4-rn (96- A 1-meter class multi-user facility with very in) mirror will be able to observe 350 times the The Space Telescope, scheduled high spatial resolutions. the SOT will be used volume of space now visible from ground- for launch into orbit by the Space to study small-scale, dynamic phenomena on based observatories. Its combination of high Shuttle in 1986. the Sun's surface. resolution. increased sensitivity. and relatively lenge aperture should allow it to "see- objects 50 times fainter than uan be seen from Earth. The ST is 13 m (14 09 ft) long. 4.3 m (4.6 ft) in diameter, and weighs 11.500 kgs (25.500 lbs): it will be placed in a circular orbit 600 kms (375 mi) above Earth.
Space Telescope Science Institute (STSI) The STSI is located at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore The Institute will perform critical mission science activity for the ST, hosting astronomers who will come to the
facility to use the telescope much as they .10 would a ground-based observatory It will process. archive. and publicize the STS findings '4! A, 44;4, Galileo Scheduled for Shuttle launch. 1986 A two-spacecraft mission to Jupiter one spacecraft is an orbiter. the other a probe that
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40 Space Flight .14 Space Transportation System (STS) t t+ Regularly scheduled run!, (il itio Space Shuttle ;4:. 4&AM.& will make spaceflight in the 1980s a routine occ mence Payloads and crews for some gS ti Shuttle nights have been announced. In the Airl I*.114'. following list. the crews are named in order of 8.1111114:4. Commander (C), Pilot (P), Mission Specialists .8 "A-4Akiii (MS), and Payload Specialists (PS).
STS-11, Columbia January 1984 11 Mission duration. 7 days C Vance D Brand P Robert L Gibson MS Bruce McCandless II MS Robert L Stewart MS Dr Ronald E McNair Payload Palapa B-2 Indonesian communica- tions satellite. Large Format Camera (LFC). Payload Deployment and Retrieval System test article. a 4 9 4 6-m (16x15-ft) rectangular frame with lead ballast 11. . 1111141144,1411141111
STS-12. Discovery STS-17, Columbia March 1984 The third Shuttle orbiter, Discovery, August 1984 C Henry W Hartsfield in construction at the Rockwell Payload: Earth Radiation Budget Explorer P Michael L Coats International Palmdale (CA) facility. Satellite (ERBE); OSTA-3 scianttfic experi- MS Dr Judith A Resnick Delivery date: late 1983. ments: Large Format Camera (LFC). and MS. Dr Stephen A Hawley Spartan-1. a small astronomical payload. MS Richard M Mullane First launch of the third operational orbiter IV-I, TELESAT-I, and RCA-K; Office of Aero- STS-18, Columbia Discovery Payload Tracking and Data Relay nautics and Space Technology 1 (OAST-1) September 1984 Satellite-C (TDRS-C) and Materials Experi- experiments package: Solar Array Flight Ex- C: Robert F. Overmyer ment Assembly (MEA). periment. P: Frederick D. Gregory MS: Dr. Don L. Lind STS-13. Challenger STS-15, Discovery MS: Dr. Norman E. Thagard April 1984 June 1984 MS: Dr. William E. Thornton C Robert L Crippen Payload. TDRS-D. last of the Tracking and PS: To be named P Francis R Scobee Data Relay Satellite series. and SBS-D. a Payload: Spacelab 3 the first operational MS Dr. George D. Nelson commercial communications satellite. Spacelab mission carrying experiments in MS Terry J. Hart materials processing, space technology. and MS: Dr James D van Hoften STS-16, Challenger life sciences: ARABSAT-A. an Arabian satel- Payload Long Duration Exposure Facility July 1984 lite: Telstar 3-C; SYNCOMIV-2: and Westar ILDEFI. a free-flying passive satellite for long- Payload Department of Defense VII. term experiments in space which will be retrieved or a later flight The crew will retrieve the Solar Maximum Mission satellite, repair and deploy it back into space. Visionsthe 1990s
Aeronautics The future is the investigations. questions, and answers of today's scientists and engineers.
Commuter Aircraft AN& Nose-mounted horizontal wings and rear- mounted twin prop engines represent some of NASAs latest thinking about the shape of things to come in commuter aircraft. Artist's concept of the Long Dura- Solar High Altitude Power Platform (Solar tion Exposure Facility in the bay of HAPP) A Sun vehicle for the 1990s. Solar HAPP will the Shuttle orbiter. have solar cells covering both sides of vertical stabilizers and wingtips Daytimes the wingtips hinge up to catch maximum solar power. STS-14, Columbia May 1984 %. Payload Communications sateilites SYNCOM- Multi-body Transport. 121 Space Science Mars Geosclence/Climatology Orbiter Proposed for launch in 1990 Titan Probe/Radar Mapper Objective: To orbit Mars for one Martian year Proposed for launch, 1988-1992 gathering information on the planet's surface Objective: To examine the atmosphere and composition, magnetic field, and season cy- surface of Saturn's largest moon: a package of cles of carbon dioxide, water. and dust that instruments will parachute through the atmos- interact between the surface and atmosphere. phere and use the probe carrier to send back radar images of the surface. If upgraded. the Mariner Mark II mission will also employ a full-scale Saturn 1990s orbiter to study the planet. its satellites, and its A new generation of deep-space planetary rings. Explorers being developed at the Jet Propul- .04 sion Laboratory. A new concept in spacecraft Shuttle infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) design, it will incorporate technological break- 1990 throughs that will be standardized for use on A 1-meter class, cryogenically-cooled, multi- many spacecraft and for a variety of missions. user facility consisting of a telescope and associated focal plane instruments for infrared Starlab astronomy and astrophysics. SIRTF will be 1990s deployed on the Shuttle and will remain An Australia-Canada-USA orbiting 1-meter attached to it as a Spacelab payload during telescope to be placed on a free-flying space astronomical observations; it will be returned Ring Wing aircraft. to Earth for refurbishment and refiight. Starlab. nighttimes they are horizontal for better aero- dynamic performance. Launched on fuel cell power at 3 a.m. when winds are minimal. HAPP would spiral up to 21.3 km (70.000 ft) in four hours and could maintain station for months.
Multibody Transport NASA and the Lockheed-Georgia Co are studying a large multibody transport aircraft concept that offers potential benefits in weight. performance. cost. and fuel efficiency over conventional single-body aircraft.
Ring Wing On the drawing board for the post-2000 year time period. Lockheed-Georgia Co aircraft designers have a Ring Wing configuration the wings curl upward to meet above the fuselage. Space In 25 years our world has left the limitations of Earth, moved outward 0 beyond the solar system and back- ward toward the beginning of time. In F the next quarter century new satel- lites and space probes. observatories and telescopes. space systems and space platforms will open other doors to the use of space. expand our knowledge of the universe. and con- r. tinually take us to new frontiers. "There can be no thought of finish- ing. for 'aiming at the stars.' both literally and figuratively. is a problem to occupy generations. so that no matter how much progress one makes. there is always the thrill of just beginning. .." Robert H. Goddard Letter to H. G. Wells, 1932
123 122 platform for a series of six-month missions. modules will carry communications equipment, Then will come building the structures in With unique capabilities for astrophysical prob- scientific experiment payloads, a telescope, a space. An Automated Beam Builder has been lems in optical and ultraviolet spectral regions, communications dish. The basic Space Plat- designed, a machine that will sit at the end of Star lab will complement the Space Telescope form can evolve into advanced systems, the Shuttle's cargo bay and heat, shape, and in imagery and spectroscopy including, with the addition of a life-supporting weld material :nto meter-wide triangular module, a Science and Applications Manned beams. The beams will be cut to desired Space Platform. lengths and joined together to create large Space Structures structures of any configuration. The early large The Shuttle's ability to carry cargoes Large Space Antennas space platforms and antennas could become into space has led to designs for 1990s the first space settlements. Large space antennas that will fold into complicated space structuresgiant containers on Earth, will go up whole in one platforms and antennas that will take Shuttle trip and deploy automatically in space. The next twenty-five years. Eag!e us to the next century, to a time They will revolutionize worldwide communica- Engineering concept of :..tsar tionsa few in high geostationary orbits will when space stations may become cover the globe while millions of small home mining operations to produce liquid the first space settlements. rooftop dishes will receive the signals. They oxygen from ilmenite, an oxygen also will have applications for remote sensing rich component of lunar soil. The Space Platforms of Earth resources and spaceciaft tracking. lunar lander at the top background 1988-199C Several designs have been exploredhoop- Space platforms, large multi-purpose systems, column (or maypole) antenna, offset wrap-rib of the picture would transport the will have a central "bus" to house the power antenna, wire-wheel antennaall measuring in liquid oxygen to an orbiting space generator and electronic and thermal systems; the 100-meter (328-f t) class. station.
124 123 For the Classroom
1. Ask your students to list what they think will be included in NASA's 50th anniversary book. 2. Research topics: Life in the year 2008 Space stations Transportation of the future Solar power stations 3. Discuss new uses for the Shuttle during the next two decades. 4. Discuss what astronomers might learn with the advanced tele- scopes of the 1980s and 90s. 5. Have your students read a current science fiction novel or see a science fiction film that involves large space structures and write a critique of the hardware created for the story. 5. Keep a clipping file on the Pio- neer and Voyager journeys be- yond the solar system.
124 125 Appendix I NASA Major Launch Record, 1958-1983
This list is a compilation of (noted with an asterisk beside the launches by NASA of (1) payloads name). Dates given are determined that went into orbit or that achieved by local time at the launch site. Not an altitude of at least 6400 kilome- listed are launch failures or sounding ters (3978 miles) and (2) major rocket launches. suborbital flight tests or experiments
Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Pioneer 1 11 October 1958 Thor-Able I Mercury. 24 March 1961 Redstone Pioneer 3 6 December 1958Juno II Redstone Vanguard 2 17 February 1959Vanguard BD' Pioneer 4 3 March 1959 Juno II Explorer 10 25 March 1961 Thor-Delta Explorer 6 7 August 1959 Thor-Able III Explorer 11 27 April 1961 Juno 11 Big Joe' 9 September 1959Atlas Little Joe 5B* 28 April 1961 Little Joe Vanguard 3 18 September Vanguard Freedom 7* 5 May 1961 Redstone 1959 (Mercury- Little Joe 1* 4 October 1959 Little Joe Redstone 3) Explorer 7 13 October 1959 Juno II TIROS 3 12 July 1961 Thor-Delta Shotput 1* 28 October 1959 Shotput Liberty Bell 7* 21 July 1961 Redstone Little Joe 2* 4 November 1959Little Joe (Mercury- Little Joe 3* 4 December 1959Little Joe Redstone 4) Shotput 2' 16 January 1960 Shotput Explorer 12 16 August 1961 Thor-Delta Little Joe 4* 21 January 1960 Little Joe Ranger 1 23 August 1961 Atlas-Agena B Shotput 3' 27 February 1960Shotput Explorer 13 25 August 1961 Scout Pioneer 5 11 March 1960 Thor-Able IV Mercury-Atlas 413 September Atlas D Shotput 4* 1 April 1960 Shotput 1961 TIROS 1 1 April 1960 Thor-Able Probe A (P-21)*19 October 1961 Scout Shotput 5* 31 May 1960 Shotput Saturn-Apollo 27 October 1961 Saturn I Echo 1 12 August 1960 Thor-Delta 1* (SA-1) Scout 2* 4 October 1960 Scout Ranger 2 18 November Atlas-Agena B Explorer 8 3 November 1960Juno II 1961 Little Joe 5* 8 November 1960Little Joe Mercury-Atlas 529 November Atlas D TIROS 2 23 November Thor-Delta 1961 1960 Echo* (AVT-1) 15 January 1962 Thor Mercury- 19 December Redstone Ranger 3 26 January 1962 Atlas-Agena B Redstone 1A* 1960 TIROS 4 8 February 1962 Thor-Delta Mercury- 31 January 1961 Redstone Friendship 7 20 February 1962Mercury-Atlas D Redstone 2* (Mercury- Explorer 9 16 February 1961Scout Atlas 6) Mercury-Atlas 21 February 1961Atlas Reentry 1* 1 March 1962 Scout 2* 080.1 7 March 1962 Thor-Delta Little Joe 5A' 18 March 1961 Little Joe Probe B 29 March 1962 Scout (P-21A)* 'Thor-Delta launch vehicle configurations are abbreviatof, as Ranger 4 23 April 1962 Atlas-Agena B follows: Thor-Delta (Thor-Delta, Thor-improved Delta), TAT- Saturn-Apollo 25 April 1962 Saturn I Delta (thrust-augmented Thor-Delta), TAID (thrustaugmented 2* (SA-2) Thor-improved Delta), LTTATDelta (long-tank, thrustaug- mented Thorimproved Delta), TAT-Agena (thrustaugmented Ariel 1 26 April 1962 Thor-Delta Thor-Agena). Aurora 7 24 May 1962 Atlas ID 126 12:.) Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* (Mercury- Syncom 3 19 August 1964 TAT-Delta Atlas 7) Explorer 20 25 August 1964 Scout TIROS 5 19 June 1962 Thor-Delta Nimbus 1 28 August 1964 Thor-Agena B Telstar 1 10 July 1962 Thor-Delta OGO-1 5 September 1964 Atlas-Agena B Echo (AVT-2)* 18 July 1962 Thor Apollo-Saturn 18 September Saturn I Mariner 2 27 August 1962 Atlas-Agena B 102 (SA-7) 1964 TIROS 6 18 September Thor-Delta Explorer 21 4 October 1964 Thor-Delta 1962 Explorer 22 9 October 1964 Scout Alouette 1 28 September Thor-Agena B Mariner 3 5 November 1964Atlas-Agena D 1962 Explorer 23 b November 1964Scout Explorer 14 2 October 1962 Thor-Delta Explorer 24 and 21 November Scout Sigma 7 3 October 1962 Atlas D Explorer 25 1964 (Mercury- (Injun 4) Atlas 8) Mariner 4 28 November Atlas-Agena D Ranger 5 18 October 1962 Atlas-Agena B 1964 Explorer 15 27 October 1962 Thor-Delta Apollo 8 December 1964Little Joe II Saturn-Apollo 16 November Saturn I Maximum Q 3* (SA-3) 1962 Abort* Relay 1 13 December Thor-Delta Atlas-Centaur 411 December Atlas-Centaur 1962 1964 Explorer 16 16 December Scout San Marco 1 15 December Scout 1962 1964 Syncom 1 14 February 1963Thor-Delta Explorer 26 21 December Thor-Delta Saturn-Apollo 28 March 1963 Saturn I 1964 4* (SA-4) Gemini-Titan 2* 19 January 1965 Titan II Explorer 17 2 April 1963 Thor-Delta TIROS 9 22 January 1965 Thor-Delta Telstar 2 7 May 1963 Thor-Delta OSO -2 3 February 1965 Thor-Delta Faith 7 15 May 1963 Atlas D Pegasus 1 and 16 February 1965Saturn I (Mercury- Apollo-Saturn Atlas 9) 103 (SA-9) TIROS 7 19 June 1963 Thor-Delta Ranger 8 17 February 1965Atlas-Agena B Syncom 2 26 July 1963 Thor-Delta Ranger 9 21 March 1965 Atlas-Agena B Little Joe II' 28 August 1963 Little Joe II Gemini 3 23 March 1965 Titan II Explorer 18 26 November Thor-Delta Early Bird I 6 April 1965 TAT-Delta 1963 Explorer 27 29 April 1965 Scout Atlas-Centaur 2 27 November Atlas-Centaur FIRE 2* 22 May 1965 Atlas D 1963 Pegasus 2 and25 May 1965 Saturn I Explorer 19 19 December Scout Aoollo-Saturn 1963 104 (SA-8) TIROS 8 21 December Thor-Delta Explorer 28 29 May 1965 Thor-Delta 1963 Gemini 4 3 June 1965 Titan II Relay 2 21 January 1964 Thor-Delta TIROS 10 2 July 1965 TAT-Delta Echo 2 25 January 1964 Thor-Agena B Pegasus 3 and30 July 1965 Saturn I Saturn-Apollo 5 29 January 1964 Saturn I Apollo-Saturn (SA-5) 105 (SA-10) Ranger 6 30 January 1964 Atlas-Agena B Scout (SEV-A) 10 August 1965 Scout Ariel 2 27 March 1964 Scout Centaur- 11 August 1965 Atlas-Centaur Gemini-Titan I 8 April 1964 Gemini-Titan II Suiveyor FIRE 1* 14 April 1964 Atlas D Gemini 5 21 August 1965 Titan II Apollo (A-001)*13 May 1964 Little Joe II OGO.2 14 October 1965 TAT-Agena D (Transonic Explorer 29 6 November 1965 TAID Abort) (GEOS-1) Apollo-Saturn 28 May 1964 Satuin I Explorer 30 19 November Scout 101 (SA-6) 1965 Atlas-Centaur 30 June 1964 Atlas-Centaur Alouette 2 and28 November Thor-Agena B 3* Explorer 31 1965 SERT 1* 20 July 1964 Scout Gemini 7 4 December 1965Titan II Ranger 7 28 July 1964 Atlas-Agena B FR-1 6 December 1965 Scout Reentry 4* 18 August 1964 Scout Gemini 6 15 December Titan II 126 127 Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* 1965 Intelsat-II F-2 11 January 1967 TAID Pioneer 6 16 December TAID ESSA 4 26 January 1967 TAID 1965 Lunar Orbiter 35 February 1967 Atlas-Agena D Apollo (A-004)*20 January 1966 Little Joe II OSO -3 8 March 1967 Thor-Delta Intermediate Intelsat-II F-3 23 March 1967 TAID Altitude Abort ATS-2 6 April 1967 Atlas-Agena D ESSA 1 3 February 1966 Thor-Delta Surveyor 3 17 April 1967 Atlas-Centaur Reentry 5* 9 February 1966 Scout ESSA 5 20 April 1967 TAID Apollo-Saturn 26 February 1966Saturn IB San Marco 2 26 April 1967 Scout 201* Lunar Orbiter 44 May 1967 Atlas-Agena D ESSA 2 28 February 1966TAID Ariel 3 5 May 1967 Scout Gemini-Agena 16 March 1966 Atlas-Agena D Explorer 34 24 May 1967 TAID Target Mariner 5 14 June 1967 Atlas-Agena D Vehicle 8 Surveyor 4 14 July 1967 Atlas-Centaur Gemini 8 16 March 1966 Titan II Explorer 35 19 July 1967 TAID Centaur- 7 April 1966 Atlas-Centaur OGO-4 28 July 1967 TAT-Agena D Surveyor Lunar Orbiter 51 August 1967 Atlas-Agena D 0A0-1 8 April 1966 Atlas-Agena D Biosatellite 2 7 September 1967TAID Nimbus 2 15 May 1966 TAT-Agena B Surveyor 5 8 September 196,Atlas-Centaur Explorer 32 25 May 1966 Thor-Delta Intelsat-II F-4 28 September TAID Surveyor 1 30 May 1966 Atlas-Centaur 1967 Augmented 1 June 1966 Atlas D OSO -4 18 October 1967 Thor-Delta Target ATS-3 5 November 1967Atlas-Agena D Docking Surveyor 6 7 November 1967Altas-Centaur AJapter Apollo 4 9 November 1967Saturn V Gemini 9 3 June 1966 Titan II ESSA 6 10 November TAID OGO-3 7 June 1966 Atlas-Agena B 1967 PAGEOS 1 23 June 1966 TM-Agena D Pioneer 8 and 13 December TAID Explorer 33 1 July 1966 TAID TTS 1 1967 Apollo-Saturn 5 July 1966 Saturn IB Surveyor 7 7 January 1968 Atlas-Centaur 203 Explorer 36 11 January 1968 TAID Gemini-Agena 18 July 1966 Atlas-Agena D (GEOS-2) Target Apollo 5 22 January 1968 Saturn IB Vehicle 10 (Apollo- Gemini 10 18 July 1966 Titan II Saturn 204) Lunar Orbiter 110 August 1966 Atlas-Agena D OGO-5 4 March 1968 Atlas-Agenda D Pioneer 7 17 August 1966 TAID Explorer 37 5 March 1968 Scout Apollo-Saturn 25 August 1966 Saturn IB Apollo 6 4 April 1968 Saturn V 202* Reentry 6* 27 April 1968 Scout Gemini-Agena 12 September Atlas-Agena D IRIS-1 16 May 1968 Scout Target 1966 Explorer 38 4 July 1968 TAID Vehicle 11 Explorers 39 8 August 1968 Scout Gemini 11 12 September Titan II and 40 1966 ATS-4 10 August 1968 Atlas-Centaur Surveyor 2 20 September Atlas-Centaur ESSA 7 16 August 1968 LTTAT-Delta 1966 Aurorae 3 October 1968 Scout ESSA 3 2 October 1966 TAID Apollo 7 11 October 1968 Saturn IB Centaur- 26 October 1966 Atlas-Centaur Pioneer 9 and 8 November 1968TAID Surveyor TETR 2 Intelsat-II F-1 27 October 1966 TAID HEOS-1 5 December 1968TAID Lunar Orbiter 26 November 1966Atlas-Agena D 0A0-2 7 December 1968Atlas-Centaur Gemini-Agena 11 November Atlas-Agena D ESSA 8 15 December LTTAT- Delta Target 1966 1968 Vehicle 12 Intelsat-Ill F-2 18 December LTTAT-Delta Gemini 12 11 November Titan II 1968 1966 Apollo 8 21 December Saturn V ATS-1 6 December 1966Atlas-Agena D 1968 Biosatellite 1 14 December TAID OSO -5 22 January 1969 Thor-Delta 1966 ISIS-1 30 January 1969 TAID
128 127 Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Intelsat-Ill F-3 5 February 1969 LTTAT-Delta TD-1A 12 March 1972 LTTAT-Delta Mariner 6 25 February 1969Atlas-Centaur Apollo 16 16 April 1972 Saturn V ESSA 9 26 February 1969TAID Intelsat-IV F-5 13 June 1972 Atlas-Centaur Apollo 9 3 March 1969 Saturn V Landsat 1 23 July 1972 LTTAT-Delta Mariner 7 27 March 1969 Atlas-Centaur (ERTS-1) Nimbus 3 14 April 1969 LTTAT-Agena D Explorer 46 13 August 1972 Scout Apollo 10 18 May 1969 Saturn V 0A0-3 21 August 1972 Atlas-Centaur Intelsat-III F-4 22 May 1969 LTTAT-Delta Explorer 47 22 September LTTAT-Delta OGO-6 5 June 1969 LTTAT-Agena D 1972 Explorer 41 21 June 1969 TAID NOAA 2 and 15 October 1972 LTTAT-Delta Biosatellite 3 29 June 1969 LTTAT-Delta OSCAR 6 Apollo 11 16 July 1969 Saturn V Anik 1 9 November 1972LTTAT-Delta Intelsat-Ill F-5 26 July 1969 LTTAT-Delta Explorer 48 16 November Scout OSO -6 and 9 August 1969 LTTAT-Delta 1972 PAC ESRO 4 21 November Scout ATS-5 12 August 1969 Atlas-Centaur 1972 Boreas 1 October 1969 Scout Apollo 17 7 December 1972Saturn V Azur 8 November 1969Scout Nimbus 5 11 December LTTAT-Delta Apollo 12 14 November Saturn V 1972 1969 Aeros 16 December Scout Skynet 1 22 November LTTAT-Delta 1972 1969 Pioneer 11 6 April 1973 Atlas-Centaur-TE- Intelsat-Ill F-6 14 January 1970 LTTAT-Delta M-364-4 ITOS-1 and 23 January 1970 LTTAT-Delta Anik 2 20 April 1973 LTTAT-Delta OSCAR 5 Skylab 1 14 May 1973 Saturn V SERT 2 4 February 1970 LTTAT-Agena D Skylab 2 25 May 1973 Saturn IB NATOSAT 1 20 March 1970 LTTAT-Delta Explorer 49 10 June 1973 LTTAT-Delta Nimbus 4 8 April 1970 LTTAT-Agena D Skylab 3 28 July 1973 Saturn IB Apollo 13 11 April 1970 Saturn V Intelsat-IV F-7 23 August 1973 Atlas-Centaur Intelsat-Ill F-7 22 April 1970 LTTAT-Delta Explorer 50 25 October 1973 LTTAT-Delta Intelsat-III F-8 23 July 1970 LTTAT-Delta Mariner 10 3 November 1973Atlas-Centaur OFO and RMS9 November 1970Scout NOAA 3 6 November 1973LTTAT-Delta NOAA 1 and 11 December LTTAT-Delta Skylab 4 16 November Saturn IB CEPE 1970 1973 Explorer 42 12 December Scout Explorer 51 16 December LTTAT-Delta 1970 1973 Intelsat-IV F-2 25 January 1971 Atlas-Centaur Skynet IIA 18 January 1974 LTTAT-Delta Apollo 14 31 January 1971 Saturn V San Marco 4 18 February 1974Scout NATOSAT 2 2 February 1971 LTTAT-Delta UK-X4 8 March 1974 Scout Explorer 43 13 March 1971 TAID Westar 1 13 April 1974 LTTAT-Delta ISIS-2 31 March 1971 TAID SMS-1 17 May 1974 LTTAT-Delta San Marco 3 24 April 1971 Scout ATS-6 30 May 1974 Titan IIIC Mariner 9 30 May 1971 Atlas-Centaur Explorer 52 3 June 1974 Scout PAET 20 June 1971 Scout Aeros 2 16 July 1974 Scout Explorer 44 8 July 1971 Scout ANS 30 August 1974 Sco...t Apollo 15 26 July 1971 Saturn V Westar 2 10 October 1974 LTTAT-Delta Eole 16 August 1971 Scout Ariel 5 (UK-5) 15 October 1974 Scout OSO -7 29 September LTTAT-Delta NOAA 4 and 15 November LTTAT-Delta 1971 OSCAR 7 1974 Explorer 45 15 November Scout and INTASAT 1971 Intelsat-IV F-8 21 November Atlas-Centaur Ariel 4 11 December Scout 1974 1971 Skynet IIB 22 November LTTAT-Delta Intelsat-IV F-3 19 December Atlas-Centaur 974 1971 Helios 1 10 December Titan IIIE-Centaur- Intelsat-IV F-4 22 January 1972 Atlas-Centaur 1974 TE-M-364-4 HEOS-2 31 January 1972 LTTAT-Delta Symphonie A 17 December LTTAT-Delta Pioneer 10 3 March 1972 Atlas-Centaur-TE- 1974 M-364-4 Landsat 2 22 January 1975 Delta 129 Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* SMS-2 6 February 1975 Delta OTS/ESA 11 May 1978 Delta Intelsat-IV F-6 20 February 1975Atlas-Centaur Pioneer Venus 20 May 1978 Atlas-Centaur GEOS-3 9 April 1975 Delta 1 Explorer 53 7 May 1975 Scout GOES-3/NOAA16 June 1978 Delta Anik 3 7 May 1975 Delta Seasat 26 June 1978 Atlas-F Intelsat-IV F-1 22 May 1975 Atlas-Centaur Comstar 3 29 June 1978 Atlas-Centaur Nimbus 6 12 June 1975 Delta GEOSAB/ESA 14 July 1978 Delta OSO -1 21 June 1975 Delta Pioneer Venus 8 August 1978 Atlas-Centaur Apollo-Soyuz 15 July 1975 Saturn 1B 2 iTest Project ISEE-3 12 August 1978 Delta COS-B 8 August 1975 Delta TIROS-N 13 October 1978 Atlas-F Viking 1 20 August 1975 Titan III Centaur Nimbus 7 24 October 1978 Delta Symphonie B 26 August 1975 Delta HEAO-2 13 November Atlas-Centaur Viking 2 9 September 1975Titan III Centaur 1978 Intelsat-IVA F-125 September Atlas-Centaur NATO-III-C 18 November Delta 1975 1978 Explorer 54 6 October 1975 Delta Anik 4 15 December Delta GOES/NOAA 16 October 1975 Delta 1978 Explorer 55 20 November Delta SAGE 18 February 1979Scout 1975 UK-6 (Ariel) 2 June 19". Scout RCA-A 13 December Delta NOAA 6 27 June 1979 Atlas-E/F 1975 Westar 3 9 August 1979 Delta Helios 2 15 January 1976 Titan III Centaur HEAO-3 20 September Atlas-Centaur CTS 17 January 1976 Delta 1979 Intelsat-IVA 29 January 1976 Atlas-Centaur Magsat 30 October 1979 Scout F-2 SATCOM/RCA 6 December 1979Delta Marisat-A 19 February 1976Delta SMM 14 February 1980Delta RCA-B 26 March 1976 Delta NOAA 7 29 May 1980 Atlas-F NATO-III A 22 April 1976 Delta GOES-D 9 September 1980Delta LAGEOS 4 May 1976 Delta SBS-A 15 November Delta Comstar 13 May 1976 Atlas-Centaur 1980 Marisat-B 9 June 1976 Delta Intelsat V-A 6 December 1980Atlas-Centaur Gravity Probe 18 June 1976 Scout Comstar 4 21 February 1981Atlas-Centaur A* Space Shuttle 12 April 1981 STS-1 Palapa Al 8 July 1976 Delta Columbia Comstar 2 22 July 1976 Atlas-Centaur GOES 5 22 May 1981 Delta ITOS-H/NOAA529 July 1976 Delta Intelsat V-B 23 May 1981 Atlas-Centaur Marisat-C 14 October 1976 Delta NOAA C 23 June 1981 Atlas-F NATO-3 B 27 January 1977 Delta Dynamics 3 August 1981 Delta Pa lapa A2 10 March 1977 Delta Explorer GEOS/ESA 20 April 1977 Delta SBS-B 24 September Delta Intelsat-IVA F-426 May 1977 Atlas-Centaur 1981 GOES/NOAA 16 June 1977 Delta SME 6 October 1981 Delta GMS-Japan 14 July 1977 Delta Space Shuttle 12 November STS-2 HEAO.1 12 August 1977 Atlas-Centaur Columbia 1981 Voyager 2 20 August 1977 Titan III Centaur RCA-D 19 November Delta SIRIO-I 25 August 1977 Delta 1981 Voyager 1 5 September 1977 Titan III Centaur Intelsat V-C 15 December Atlas-Centaur ISEE-1 and 2 22 October 1977 Delta 1981 Meteosat/ESA 22 November Delta RCA-C 15 January 1982 Delta 1977 Westar 4 25 February 1982Delta CS/Japan 14 December Delta Intelsat V-D 4 March 1982 Atlas-Centaur 1977 Space Shuttle 22 March 1982 STS-3 Intelsat-IVA F-37 January 1978 Atlas-Centaur Columbia IUE 26 January 1978 Delta INSAT 1A 10 April 1982 Delta Landsat 3 5 March 1978 Delta Westar 5 8 June 1982 Delta Intelsat-IVA F-631 March 1978 Atlas-Centaur Space Shuttle 27 June 1982 STS-4 BSE/Japan 7 April 1978 Delta Columbia HCMM 26 April 1978 Scout Lancsat 4 16 July 1982 Delta 130 123 Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle* Anik D1 26 August 1982 Delta Intelsat V-E 28 September Atlas-Centaur 1982 RCA-E 27 October 1982 Delta Space Shuttle 11 November STS-5 Columbia 1982 SBS-C 11 November STS-5 1982 Anik C 12 November STS-5 1982 IRAS 25 January 1983 Delta NOAA 8 28 March 1983 Atlas-F Space Shuttle 4 April 1983 STS-6 Challenger TDRS-1 4 April 1983 STS-6 RCA-F 11 April 1983 Delta GOES-F 28 April 1983 Delta Intelsat V-F 19 May 1983 Atlas-Centaur EXOSAT 26 May 1983 Delta Space Shuttle June 1983 STS-7 Challenger Anik C June 1983 STS-7 Palapa-B June 1983 STS-7 Galaxy-A June 1983 Delta Telstar 3A July 1983 Delta Space Shuttle August 1983 STS-8 Challenger TDRS-B August 1983 STS-8 INSAT 1B August 1983 STS-8 NOAA F August 1983 Atlas-F RCA-G August 1983 Delta Galaxy-B September 1983 Delta Space Shuttle September 1983 STS-9 Columbia San Marco D/LNovember 1983 Scout Intelsat VA-A December 1983 Atlas-Centaur
tru S 00VERNMENt PHINTINU OFFICE 084-433.521
3 0 131 Appendix II
NASA Educational Services
NASA's educational programs Publications and NASA Films, is make professional curriculum mate- serve the feather, the student, the available from the Education Ser- rials available to teachers, have been school, and the community. Informa- vices Office at the NASA Centers established at most of the NASA tion about the programs and ser- that serve specific geographic areas. centers. Where to write for services: vices, including lists of NASA Special resource centers, which
NASA LEM RESEARCH CENTER,,:;'4(0014--' OH
NASA GODDARD ACE FLIGHT ClIffER WanbI MD
NASA HEADQUARTERS ItioNsMsof DC
NASA AMES NASA LANGLEY RESEARCH RESEARCH CENTER CENTER Meet MN, CA 1600, VA
4'40c./6.z. NASA JET PROPULSION NASA KENNEDY PACE LABORATORY CENTER Psiadsno, CA Itatitsly Spa Color, FL A,1,
v 4 NASA MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER RISM ys" GM% AL
NASA JOHNSON SPACE CENTER Mew, TX NASA H4 (3) 420 SZ
NASA Ames Research Center NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space NASA Lewis Research Center Moffett Field, CA 94035 Center Cleveland, OH 44135 Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Houston, TX 77058 Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Min- Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New nesota, Ohio, Wisconsin Utah, Washington, Wyoming Mexico, N. Dakota, Oklahoma, S. Dakota, Texas NASA George C. Marshall Space NASA Goddard Space Flight Flight Center Center NASA John F. Kennedy Space Marshall Space Flight Center, AL Greenbelt, MD 20771 Center 35812 Connecticut, Delaware, District of Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899 Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, Loui- Columbia, Maine, Maryland, Mas- Florida, Georgia, Puerto Rico, Vir- siana, Mississippi, Missouri, Ten- sachusetts, New Hampshire, New gin Islands nessee Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont NASA Langley Research Center Hampton, VA 23665 Kentucky, N. Carolina, S. Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia
132 1 3 1 National Aeronautics and Space Administration
25th Anniversary 1958-1983
EP-182 132