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AUTHOR Thorne, Muriel M., Ed. TITLE NASA, The First 25 Years: 1958-83. A Resource for Teachers. A Curriculum Project. INSTITUTION National and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO EP-182 PUB DATE 83 NOTE 132p.; Some colored photographs may not reproduce clearly. AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. PUB TYPE Books (010) -- Reference Materials - General (130) Historical Materials (060)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Education; *Aerospace Technology; Energy; *Federal Programs; International Programs; (Aerospace); History; Secondary Education; *Secondary School Science; *; *Space IDENTIFIERS *National Aeronautics and Space Administration

ABSTRACT This book is designed to serve as a reference base from which teachers can develop classroom concepts and activities related to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The book consists of a prologue, ten chapters, an epilogue, and two appendices. The prologue contains a brief survey of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NASA's predecessor. The first chapter introduces NASA--the agency, its physical plant, and its mission. Succeeding chapters are devoted to these NASA program areas: aeronautics; applications satellites; energy research; international programs; launch ; space ; technology utilization; and data systems. Major NASA projects are listed chronologically within each of these program areas. Each chapter concludes with ideas for the classroom. The epilogue offers some perspectives on NASA's first 25 years and a glimpse of the future. Appendices include a record of NASA launches and a list of the NASA educational service offices. (JN)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *************************************************%********************* NASA, The First 25 Years

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER IERICI 1958 -1983 This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organoiation originating it Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality

Points of view or opinions slated in this docu mpnt do not necessarily represent official NIE position or policy

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A Resource for Teachers NASA, The First 25 Years 1958-1983 A Resource for Teachers

A curriculum project

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 1983

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Table of Contents

4 Introduction

7 Preface

9 Foreword 10 Prologue National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 18 Chapter I National Aeronautics and Space Administration 26 Chapter II Aeronautics 36 Chapter III Applications Satellites 48 Chapter IV Energy Research 56 Chapter V International Programs 64 Chapter VI Launch Vehicles 72 Chapter VII Space Flight 88 Chapter VIII Space Science 104 Chapter IX Technology Utilization 110 Chapter X Tracking and Data Systems 118 Epilogue Perspectives, Plarg, Prospects 126 Appendix I NASA Major Launch Record, 1958-1983 132 Appendix II NASA Educational Services Introduction

In 1958 a unique Federal agency Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF), activities to college and university was established with a mandatefrom and the first materials for the class- engineering and science students. the Congress to "plan. direct, and room teacher, K-12, were produced. Our ISEF program soon added conduct aeronautical and space ac- As NASA's projects were devel- NASA awards for affiliated state and tivities." That simply stated charge to oped, conducted, and completed. our regional science fairs. Next, there the National Aeronautics and Space educational office and programs grew were Youth Science Congresses fol- Administration began 25 years of apace. The staff now encompasses a lowed by the Student Project aeronautical and space programs branch in the Public Affairs Division which enabled 19 high school stu- and projects that brought dreams to at NASA Headquarters in Washing- dents to fly experiments on the reality, made engineering ideas into ton, D.C. and educational programs , and a Student technological accomplishments, de- officers in seven NASA Centers that Project to select an emblem for the veloped practical applications of nerve specific geographic regions. In Viking Lander spacecraft. Since 1980 , presented ever-new 1983, the Spacemobile is but one the Shuttle Student Involvement Proj- frontiers of science, and at last part of the Aerospace Education ect has given high school students effected regular operational service Services Project (AESP) and now an opportunity to develop experi- of the Shuttle. These 25 years of provides lecturers who work in class- ments for Shuttle . At several space ventures and discoveries and rooms as well as assembly halls: the NASA Centers there are academic the excitement they engendered were simple experiments and scale mod- year and summer programs for se- shared by millions. For the new els of space hardware used in their lected local students, and career agency had another mandate: to lectures have changed through the information related to NASA and "provide for the widest practicable years with each new NASA activity. aerospace industry has been made and appropriate dissemination of in- There is also an Aeronauticsmobile available. formation concerning its activities that visits schools to discuss NASA Through the years we have also and the results thereof." research and development in that responded to the community, making Thus, in 1960. NASA established field. Two years ago the AESP both educational staff and AESP an office to serve the educational introduced two new programs: the specialists available for civic clubs community. Our staff was small, the Urban Community Enrichment Pro- and professional organizations. Au- programs few. Aerospace specialists gram (UCEP) to stimulate learning at diovisual consultants assist in the travelled to schools with the Space the middle school level in large Tities, programming of materials for mobiles assembly program and as- and CLASS (College Lecturers on and television. and we provide sup- sisted aerospace education summer Aeronautics and Space Sciences), to port to programs operated by plane- workshops for teachers. there were bring a better understanding of the tariums, m iseums. and science NASA awards at the International agency's research and development centers. On invitation from individual

4 communities, our "Community In- and folders has come a wide range historical overview of NASA's first 25 volvement Programs" involve the en- of materials. There are curriculum years, the growth and scope. tire spectrum of the local populace in supplements, bibliographies, single The Shuttle has fostered a new an aerospace event. resource units, reprints from profes enthusiasm and interest among We have developed a strong audio- sional journals, and explanatory school students who have grown up visual program over the years, which briefs. There are teacher's guides for with daily weather maps and now includes the production of films, specific publications as well as class- with the and as places with teaching guides, for specific room films, and the NASA Report to to visit. We hope this compilation of classroom use; full-length planetari- Educators, a quarterly newsletter. outstanding events since 1958 not um programs; and curriculum mate- Often, publications have been sug- only celebrates NASA's 25th anniver- rials on videotape. We attempt to gested by teachers searching for sary, but also contributes to today's stay in the forefront in the use of pertinent up-to-date information with classrooms a sense of the un- educational technologylast year, which to enrich their programs. paralleled wonder and excitement the laser disc was added to the NASA, The First 25 Years is a that accompanied each succeeding lecture programs and aerospace a:- response to such requests. A record event. It may even serve as a tivities for microcomputers have been book of aerospace facts, it differs springboard for the imaginations of developed for teacher workshops. from earlier publications in both sub- youngsters whose ideas will become Another special program devel- ject and form. Today's high school reality in their future, the next 25 oped for teachers is the Lunar students were born after the first years. Sample Educational Packet, a lunar satellites discovered the Van Allen NASA's Technical Monitor and and planetary sciences teaching aid belts and revolutionized editor for this project was Muriel M. using samples of lunar material en- communications and , Thorne, Educational Programs capsulated in a clear plastic disc. and after men had orbited ; Officer, under the general direction of And several Vis :tor Information Cen- today's elementary students did not William D. Nixon, Chief of Education ters at NASA installations have 9s- watch the lunar landings. For their Services, NASA. tablished resource rooms for teachers, this is a summary of the educators. important dates, projects, goals, and National Aeronautics and From the outset, our educational achievements that are history for Space Administration publications have covered a variety of their charges. With an introduction Washington, D.C. subjectsthe broad scope of the outlining the research May 1983 agency's programs, the aims of indi- in air and during vidual projects, the specific results of the first half of the century, it is othersand from the initial booklets intended as a ready reference, an Preface

The United States has been in the research, writing, and editing of space for 25 years. During these this book. Particular thanks go to years we have seen many "firsts," Muriel Thorne of the Education Ser- including the first American satellite vices Branch. We are also indebted in , the first Americans in space, to the Public Affairs Officers for the the first humans to set foot on the several program offices: Kenneth C. Moon. We have pushed the state of Atchison, Aeronautics and Space the art in aeronautical research and Technology; David W. Garrett and probed the secrets of planets in our James F. Kukowski, Space Flight; system. To remember or to Debra J. Rahn, International Affairs; recall each of the many accomplish- and Charles R. Redmond, Space ments would be difficult. We have Science and Applications. compiled on the 25th anniversary this historical resource book to give teachers easy access to NASA ac- Jane D'Alelio tivities since the agency was founded Jane Tully in 1958. Wendy Cortesi We are grateful to the many scientists and at NASA Washington, D.C. Headquarters who have supported May 1983

7 7 Forewo.

Because it is impossible to mation the user may wish to add. describe the 25 years of NASA's The epilogue offers some perspec- research and missions in detail, this tives on these first 25 years and a book is designed to provide a glimpse of the future. Appendices reference base from which teachers include a record of NASA launches can develop classroom concepts and and a list of the NASA educational activities. services offices. It begins with a prologue, a brief For detailed research the teacher history of the National Advisory Com- should: Request a current catalogue mittee for Aeronautics, NASA's pre- of publications with a price list from decessor. Chapter I introduces the Superintendent of Documents, NASAthe agency, its physical Government Printing Office, Wash- plant, and its mission. Succeeding ington, DC 20402; obtain a copy of chapters are devoted to major NASA NASA's annotated Aerospace Bibli- programs, in alphabetical order: with- ography, Seventh Edition from the in the chapters projects are listed GPO (Stock No. 033-000-00861-9, chronologically. Each chapter con- $6.00): and, of course, consult the cludes with ideas for the classroom indispensable Readers' Guide to and space for notes and new infor- Periodical Literature.

9 ---

9 Prologue National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

Nineteen hundred. The first Age of Flight was 117 years old and balloons were both transportation and sport. Jules Verne that year would see many of hisfictional ideas as technical fact at the Paris World's Fair. His younger contemporary H. G. Wells, was a recognized author of spaceand time fiction. Orville and Wilbur Wright, two brothers who owned a bicycle shop in Dayton,Ohio, were preparing to test their newly-invented on the North Carolina Outer Banks. And 17-year-oldRobert Goddard held fast a vision of that had come to himwhen he climbed a cherry tree. Three years later Orville and Wilbur Wright changed the world. On December 17, 1903, at 10:35 a.m. nearKitty Hawk, North Carolina, in a 27-mile-an-hourwind from the north, Orville Wright made thefirst powered flight. 12 seconds. 120 feet. The machinewith the homemade 12-hp engine rose from the ground and

First Tunnel. Dedicated in 1920, this wind tunnel wasactually put into operation In 1918 at the Langley MemorialAeronautical Laboratory.

11 landed at a point as high as the one powered flight; the English Channel in America began operation in 1914. from which it started. Quietly, un- was crossed; international meets Passenger and cargo potential were heralded, in an isolated spot the two took place on both sides of the being recognized. FiInes and fly- brothers fulfilled an age-old dream Atlantic; the Wright Factory in Dayton ing schools were established. When and the age of heavier-than-air flight produced manufactured to a World War I came, every major was reality. standard design pattern. There was nation had aeronautical research fa- After the Wrights invention be- radio from plane to ground, a landing cilitiesexcept the United States. came known, progress in aeronautics on the deck of a ship, and the first was rapid and continual with new practical seaplane. The first U.S. flight records established regularly. transcontinental flight from Long Is- During the next decade: The Wrights land to took 49 days, NACA sold their Military Flyer to the U.S. including 82 hours, 2 minutes flying Army; in 1906 Europe saw its first time, and 70 landings. 1912 was the year for the first jump from It was this lack of a government an and when the aircraft laboratory devoted to tho science of speed record was 108.17 mph. flight that prompted the creation of The first regularly scheduled airline

12 11 Orville Wright at the controls of the Wright Flyer as the first flight was made on December 17, 103. Wilbur Wright, running alongsia9 one wing tip, was to keep up with it.

seeing; the NACA cowling (1928) for air-cooled radial engines, a stream- lined shape that increased aircraft speed, led to the low-wing multi- engine air transports and bombers of the 1930s; systematic studies of aerodynamic reduction improved design practices, including the ad- vantages of retractable landing wheels over fixed, exposed landing gear. 1" S A second research center, the SAP Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, was constructed near San Francisco in *V10,4 1939 with a wind tunnel that dwarfed its predecessor at Langley. A third facility, which was later named the Lewis Fligt.t Propulsion Laboratory, was built in Cleveland in 1940 to perform basic research, develop and test aircraft engines, and study fuels. Research on the jet engine began there in 1943.

LI The second World War focused aeronautical research on combat air-

IOW craft and NACA work on aerodynam- -"vidow. ics and structural research resulted in extremely effective fighter planes. Vit: ..:. Postwar research at higher speeds led to high-altutude drop-test models 4,rtm,leer r4" Joi 4ft, -.77.1=0 to gather flight data; then, to using * 01 itaikbb .4 rock 'tto launch models to transonic .ove.40 taw (speeus from just below to just above 110 the speed of sound) and supersonic 1110, speeds. Langley acquired a surplus naval station on Wallops Island, Vir- the National Advisory Committee for aircraft and the research needs of ginia, and called it the Pilotless Aeronautics, or NACA. It was found- aeronautics, then set about building Aircraft Research Division. Next, a ed in 1915, just before the United the scientific staff and unique re- High-Speed Flight Research Station StateS entry into the War, to bring search facilities required. was established at Muroc (later Ed- competence to the backwardness of wards), California, for a series of American . Facilities special research aircraft. For 43 years the NACA excelled in In June 1920, the first laboratory, carrying out its chartered mandate the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Research During the years of aeronautical ". . . tosupervise and direct the sci- Laboratory.in Hampton, , was entific study of the problems of flight, dedicated; became the progress, a lone figure had been with a view of their practical solu- major research effort and wind-tun- investigating as "A Method of tion." nels the chief tool. Within ten years Reaching Extreme ." Dr. The Committee first surveyed the the results were impressive and rec- Robert H. Goddard published such a current stage of development of ognition worldwide: The up-to-date titled paper in 1919. Seven years later wind tunnels were hailed as far- he launched the first liquid

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First meeting of the National Advi- roclec. For the next two decades. he By the end of World War II NACA's sory Committee for Aeronautics, ducted idsearch, built and flew research had led to propulsion tpril 23, 1915. Seated, left to right: -ts, provided a mathematical and air and space flight had met. Dr William F. Durand, Stanford ar uis for multistage rockets, and The X-series of rocket research air- University; Dr. S. W. Stratton, Di- amassed more than 150 pates is by craft began in 1944. The X-1 was reutor, National Bureau of Stan- the time of his death in 1945. built specifically to investigate the dards; Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven, Chief Signal Officer, War Department; Dr. Charles F. Marvin, Chief, U.S. Weather Bureau; Dr. Michael I. Pupin, Columbia Univer- sity. Standing, left to right: Holden C. Richardson, Naval Constructor; Dr. John F. Hayford, Northwestern University; Capt. Mark L. Bristol, Director of Naval Aeronautics; Lt. Col. Samuel Reber, Signal Corps, in Charge of Aviation Section. Also present were Dr. Joseph S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University and the Hon. B. R. Newton, As- 'Uctd:': sistant Secretary of the Treasury (above).

Dr. Richard T. Whitcomb with a research model of a superson'c transport. The indentation in the incorporated the Area Rule design concept he dis- covered (right).

14 13 transonic region and to break the sound barrier. On October 14, 1947, Air Force Capt. Charles E. Yeager piloted the X-1 through the speed of sound for the first time. Beginning with the X-1's historic flight, the Research Airplane Program success- fully provided a series of flight vehi- cles that explored areas of performance and effects of designs in the transonic and supersonic re- gions for more than 20 years. At Langley a transonic wind tunnel was created in 1950, a tool that researcher Richard T. Whitcomb used in discovering the "area rule" (the cross-section areas of an aircraft should not alter (co rapidly from the Prot to back of a plane). A genuine breakthrough in airplane design, its immediate application allowedmili- tary aircraft to break the sound barrier in level flight. Most famous of the X research planes was the X-15. An idea in 1952, it achieved its designed alti- tude and speed objectives in 1968, thus spanning the transition from The X-1, first aircraft to fly faster aeronautical research to the new than the speed of sound in level . flight.

International NACA Geophysical Becomes Year NASA

The International Geophysical Year (IGY) was observed from July 1957 The success of spurred the creation of a new agency to to December 1958. Its scientific program included a proposal to develop a national space program, launch satellites that would measure which President Eisenhower wanted Earth from space. Russia orbited to emphasize the peaceful uses of Sputnik on October 4, 1957, and the research and development. Three United States, , four agencies vied for leadership: the months later. The first U.S. satellite Atomic Energy Commission, the De- partment of Defense, and NACA. was launched by the Army. Named Explorerits mission was to explore The NACA proposal combined the unknownthe satellite fulfilled aeronautic and space research with a '1 America's commitment to the IGY. 4 solid scientific base. The Committee also could offer experience in work- And its small package of instruments produced the first major discovery of , 1958. The Jupltcr -C ing closely with the military as well the Space Age, the Van Allen radia- rocket on the launch pad at Cape tion belts surrounding Earth. Canaveral prior to launching Ex- plorer 1.

15 14 Flight Research Team. Pilot and scientist worked together in early aeronautical research tests at the Langley Laboratory (right).

Dr. Robert H. Goddard standing beside the first liquid-propellant rocket which flew at Auburn, Mas- sachusetts, March 16, 1926 (below).

as providing research for civil appli- cations. By April 1958, the adminis- tration's position and the NACA proposal had been combined into a bill for creating a national aeronautics and space agency. On July 29, w, President Eisenhower signed into law the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. NACA was a service agency. By discharging its primary responsibil- ityscientific laboratory research in aeronauticsit both served the needs of all Government depart- ments and coordinated aeronautical research in the U.S. Through mem- bership on committees and subcom- mittees, it linked government agencies concerned with flight, the aviation and allied industries, and education and scientific institutions; through sponsored research, sym- posia, and technical conferences and reports, it distributed research infor- mation. The new agency had NACA as its nucleus. The NACA staff, facilities, programs and respot sibilities wore transferred to NASA. Its tradition of excellence also was a legacy to the new organization when NACA ceased to exist on September 30, 1958.

16 For the Classroom

1. Have your students prepare a timeline of human interest in flight, of a history of flight, of powered flight. 2. Research topics: The precursors of the Wright Brothers The X-series of research aircraft Flight between 1903 and 1918 Flight as sport and as transpor- tation The history of rocketry 3. For book reports, have your stu- dents select biographies of avia- tion and space pioneers.

16 17 c ti eCICLe k*, t#3 4 I

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

On October 1, 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration came into being

"...devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind." NACA Headquarters staff in Washington and their colleagues in the three laboratories and two flight stations became the foundation of the new organiza- tion. Later, two Army programs were transferred: the Development Operations Division of the Army Agency at Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, and the Jet Propulsion Labora- tory in Pasadena, California.

18 I Organization

From the start, NASA was a network of centers and facilities across the

United States with its headquarters in It , L Washington, D.C. . Headquarters The NASA Headquarters offices manage the spaceflight centers, re- search centers, and other installa- tions. The staff t-as responsibility for determining projects and programs; establishing management policies, 4 procedures, and performance criteria and review; and analysis of all phases of the aerospace program. As with any vital, growing, active organization there have been many reorganizations during NASA's 25 years. Programs have been initiated, conducted, concluded. Directions have changed and management has -A1411 I adapted to each succeeding realign- ment. But the overall mission has remainedaerospace research and development for the benefit of all which can be introduced through the program offices. 11 The Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology has two primary responsibilities: In aeronautics, to develop the technology needed to assure safer, more efficient, economi- The Office of Space Flight is The Dolley Madison House, named cal, and environmentally acceptable responsible for the research, devel- for the President's wife who lived air transportation systems; in space opment, and operations of space- there for several years, was the site research and technology, to provide flight programs, including the Space of NASA's first Headquarters. a technology base to support current Shuttle. and future space activities, to coordi- The Office of Tracking and Data of research and development ac- nate the agency's total program of Systems is responsible for the devel- tivities is conducted in the installa- supporting research and technology opment, implementation, and opera- tions by government-employed related to carrying out specific flight tion of tracking, data acquisition, scientists, engineers, and technicians missions to insure an integrated and command, communications, data who also manage contracts with balanced agency research program, processing facilities, and systems universities and industries. Its many and to coordinate NASA's support of and services required to support laboratoriessubsonic, transonic, other federal agencies in energy NASA flight missions. supersonic wind tunnels; propulsion research and development. test facilities; elaborate computer The Office of Space Science and Facilities systems; flight simulators; Applications is responsible for re- In addition to Headquarters there capabilitieshave rightly been called search and development activities in are now ten NASA field installations a national resource. Earth resources; meteorology; com- and a contract-operated laboratory. munications; life sciences; and. by Three were specifically sited and using a variety of flight systems and constructed for NASA. A broad range (ARC) ground-based observations, to in- When NACA's Ames Laboratories crease knowledge of the universe. in Mountain View, California, became

20 19 (JSC) The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center near is responsible for design, development, and testing of manned flight vehicles; for selec- tion and training of spaceflight crews;

111 ground control of manned flights; and

i. many of the experiments carried aboard the flights. The lead Center in management of the program, one of its best known facilities is the Mission Control Center from which manned flights, starting with Gemini IV, have

ri been controlled.

It sIFA t ,:t ,,rs.,, `, Ri (KSC) The John F. Kennedy Space Cen- ter in is NASA's primary NASA's first leaders. Hugh L. Dry- neer, the Goddard Space Flight Cen- center for the test, checkout, and den is presented his commission ter at Greenbelt, Maryland, was the la'rnch of space vehicles and will be as deputy administrator by Presi- first facility built for NASA. Its main the primary launch and landing site dent Eisenhower with T. Keith responsibility has concerned the de- for the Space Shuttle. Glennan, administrator, looking sign, development, and construction Located on Merritt Island near on. of Earth-orbiting scientific and appli- , KSC was created to cation satellites and their tracking launch the lunar missions and NASA's Ames Research Center, it and data analysis. Its first program, was used for both Skylab and the continued to focus on basic and , was followed by other Apollo- Test Project. KSC also applied research in the aeronautical, Explorers, several space- launches a variety of unmanned physical, space, and life sciences. Its cral c, and meteorological and Earth vehicles from facilities at the Eastern programs include short and vertical resource satellites. It manages the Space and Missile Center, Cape takeoff and landing (STOL and program, and the Canaveral, and the Western Space VTOL) technology, operation of Tracking and Data Relay Satellite and Missile Center in California. NASA's Kuiper airborne observatory, System (TDRSS) is under its aegis. and Pioneer, its first space project. GSFC also operates the National Space Science Data Center for stor- (LaRC) ing and distributing information NACA's first laboratory in Hamp- Dryden Flight Research gained from NASA Earth-orbital and ton, Virginia, has continued as a Facility (DFRF) deep space missions, F1nd, in New research center where the develop- NACA's High Speed Flight Station York City, the Goddard institute for ment of advanced concepts and at Edwards. California, was first re- Space Studies. technology for future aircraft empha- named Flight Research Center and sizes environmental effects, perfor- later. for Hugh L. Dryden, long-time Jet Propulsion mance, range. safety. and oconomy. director of NACA and NASA's first Laboratory (JPL) The Center was responsible for the deputy administrator. Its functions NASA-owned and contract-op- Lunar Orbiter and Viking Mars lander have always been related to aero- erated by the California Institute of projects and was the home of Project nautical programsthe X series of Technology in Pasadena, JPL devel- . It is developing the Long research aircraft. lifting bodies. and ops and manages planetary pro- Duration Exposure Facility for use now the design of remotely-piloted grams and operates the Deep Space with the Space Shuttle as well as vehicles. In 1978 it was the site of Network. The Ranger and large advanced space systems con- the Shuttle's Approach and Landing lunar programs; the Mariner, Viking cepts. Tests and served as landing site for orbiter. and Voyager planetary pro- five of the first six Shuttle orbital grams; and the current Infrared As- Lewis Research Center flights. tronomical Satellite number among (LeRC) the Laboratory's projects. The Lewis Center in Cleveland has Goddard Space Flight continued its NACA activities as a Center (GSFC) Named for America's rocket pio- 20 21 -.um" Aerial view of Ames Research Center

libr.toi propulsion laboratoryadvancing technologies for aircraft propulsion, propulsion and power generation for spaceflight, and space communica- 4, tions systemsand manages two major launch programs, e and Centaur. It also manages many of NASA's support of -1.--vsquillib other Federal energy programs. Its MP114%._ specialized facilities include a zero- drop tower and chambers for testing jet engine efficiency and noise. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Ss ,411fr Known for its role in developing the launch vehicles, the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, is now respon- sible for the External Tank, Solid Rocket Boosters, and engines for the . Its staff also developed the ,

Viiiii.11L11.LIELVar had program responsibility for the High Energy Astronomical Obser- vatories, and now is responsible for and the Space . MSFC also operates the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans and the Slidell Computer Complex, ., . ---"m1111111WSINIV Slidell, Louisiana. 'tZ

4Adiviolisie 1- 4r.1%i , A National Space Technology Laboratories (NSTL) NSTL in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, is responsible for the static test firing of large space and engines. It also houses a selection of environmental research and Earth resources activities of NASA and other government agencies. 0. N t (WFF) .41+ doe- NACA's Pilotless Aircraft Research

A Station on Wallops Island, Virginia, AP". 4 became NASA's only rocket flight- \ Vs * test range. It prepares, assembles, e- launches, and tracks space vehicles -,Aliat . .4., 1963 aerial view of Goddard Space A Flight Center, the first facility built INV " 441 by NASA. .o"" ., 1 ratio"

22 21 Mission Control at Johnson Space II0S°P. /IMP. - Center during STS-2, November 1981.

Kennedy Space Center, launch and recovery site for the Space Shut- tle: The 525-ft Vehicle Assembly Building dominates the at right and the Orbiter Processing Facility at left. The landing runway is visible in the background.

11 from small sounding rockets to the four-stage solid fuel rocket. Its Q S.. facilities are used for aeronautical 'v. research projects from and I *a aircraft drop tests and noise projects to laser and tracking of aircraft.

NASA's

Beginning _1-atistsim0310-0-4e-,

The civilian space program was formed from a group of space proj- ects being conducted by the Depart- Ays ment of Defenselunar probes, a -1erdirs , rocket en- - gine research. A week later the first 114 w. U.S. man-in-space effort, Project IOW ,p Mercury, was approved. 4V.1; lifi .ip *NDd There followed, first tentatively, .r1,.... ow 4IRF-. - then with mounting confidence and success, a wide array of projects. NASA's aeronautical programs were well-known and recognizable, but its .611144,,- \NP-41, li if"' .4 new space programs brought a new , vocabulary and new objects to daily _ ...... 1 life. space science. have three possible objectives: flyby, Spacecraft, Sounding A satellite is a spacecraft that has orbit around the body, or impact on been given sufficient by its the surface with either a hard or soft Rockets, Satellites, Space launch vehicle to be placed in orbit. landing. Flyby probes often go into Probes Ultimately, the of orbit about the after planetary A spacecraft is any vehicle that still present at satellite altitudes will encounter. operates above the altitudes attain- slow the satellite down and gravity Spacecraft have innumerable clas- able by research balloons and air- will pull it back to Earth. sifications: manned or unmanned, craftapproximately 30,480 m Spacecraft launched deep into recoverable or unrecoverable, active (100,000 ft) of . space that escape the gravitational or passive. A passive satellite trans- Sounding rockets break through pull of Earth completely are called mits no radio signals, but may reflect the atmosphere into space for only a space probes. Depending on the them back to Earth: active satellites few minutes. Although they do not target, they are called lunar, plane- emit radio signals to make tracking linger long at high altitudes, they tary, or deep space probes, and they easier and to transmit data from their have made major discoveries in instruments to ground stations. They are classified by . A polar

23 22 working underwater in the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator at the Marshall Space Flight Center to evaluate methods of equipment that might be used to service large structural beams in space. , - wAiky,aus---iaf A Names, Letters, and Numbers The names given to projects and programs originate from no single sr source or method Some have their foundations in mythology, legend, and folklore. Some have historic connotations Some are based on straightforward descriptions of their missions, often resulting in acro- nyms. Some grew out of a formal process within NASA under the NASA Project Designation Commit- tee; others evolved more casually . , and were officially adopted after their ,. use had become widespread. ..1 e.:1p4,41 Spacecraft that are part of a series are usually designated with a letter (Pioneer A) before launch and with a numeral () after a success- ful launch. The First 25 Years NASA's first quarter century is a story of learning, a combination of science, technology, engineering, and human experience. It is the continued progress of NASA aero- - nautical research and the develop- ment of true aerospace vehicles. It is the progress from the first small satellite, from the time when 4 only a handful of scientists and engineers believed humans would fly in space through many changes. The WIT present family of spacecraft differ greatly in size, shape, complexity, and purpose. They are small. large; 4 dr. spin-oriented and attitude-controlled: V Arc: air manned or automated robots; some are in low orbits, some on their way satellite orbits over Earth's polar Wallops Flight Faculty launch site. out of the solar system; some are in regions. A synchronous satellite or- space until they expire, some are bits Earth in the same len jth of time NASA divides satellites into major commanded to return to Earth. Some it takes the Earth to make one categories: (1) Scientific satellites, are hardly noticed, others engender revolution on its axis. If the syn- which carry instruments to measure tremendous excitement. chronous satellite is also an equa- magnetic fields, space radiation. so- The following chapters introduce torial satellite, it will seem to remain lar characteristics, or for NASA's programs. in the same position in the at all particular uses; and (2) Application times and is then a stationary, or satellites, which forecast weather, geostationary, satellite. survey Earth resources, extend com- munications.

24 23 For the Classroom

1. NASA is an independent agency. Ask your students to investigate how it differs from, is similar to, other government agencies (Na- tional Science Foundation, Feder- al Aviation Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- istration). 2. Have your students read the myths that suggested names for space projects familiar to them and discuss their aptness; sug- gest alternate names; suggest names for future projects. 3. Locate the NASA facilities on a map. Ask your students to list the reasons why particular sites were chosen (research the history and geography of the area).

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first A in NASA stands for aeronautics. In T 1he 983 your students accept aviation as an part of their lives. Contrast for them air travel in 1958 and nowpropeller planes andjet transpor- tation, 70-passenger airliners and jumbo jetsthat carry over 400 people,the dominant sea travel of 25 years ago and today'sregular SST flights across the Atlantic. Flying is so accepted a part of life that the immense strides made in just 25 years arehardly remembered. Nor is it recognized that of the advances of these 25 years began withresearch in NASA's laboratories. The aeronautical researchof the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was assigned to NASA in its charter, including the objectives: The expansion of human knowledge of phe-

nomena in the atmosphere .. .; The improvement of the usefulness,perfor-

An X-15 rocket airplane streaks across the Mohave Desert sky leaving a plume contrail after being released from the mother aircraft 8-52.

26 27 Technicians assist NASA pilot Joseph A. Walker following a rec- ord- breaking flight in the X-15, April 30, 1962.

and in flight beyond the atmosphere, like a spacecraft. It was launched from beneath the wing of a B-52 at an altitude of 13,716 meters (45,000 feat). After its drop, the was fired and the craft climbed in a steep trajecto- ry, then nosed over to descend in a glide to a landing. Through a series of progressive steps, the X-15 set new altitude (17,960 m or more than 67 mi) and speed (6.7 times the speed of sound) records. Its 199-flight pro- gram contributed important data about weightlessness, aerodynamic heat, , the effect of noise on aircraft materials, and pilot- ing techniques. The X-15 was a joint NASA/Air Force/Navy project. First piloted by A. Scott Crossfield, both Neil Arm- mance, speed, safety, and efficiency would-be fliers through history. Or by strong, commander of , and of aeronautical...vehicles; disciplineaerodynamics, guidance , commander of the Shut- The prese, .tion of the role of and navigation, materials and struc- tle's second flight, wero among the the United States as a leader in tures, propulsion. pilots who flew the X-15 into unex-

aeronautical.. .science and tech- A third method is to study the tools plored areas of flight. nology; of aeronautical research: mathemati- The most elective utilization of cal and physical analysis, now the sC9ntific and engineering re- largely computerized; wind tunnels; Supersonic Cruise sourceof the United States in order simulators; and full-scale flight re- to avoid unnecessary duplication of search. Aircraft Research (SCAR) effort, facilities, and equipment. Finally, there are the programs NASA researchers worked With some of the most sophisti- themselves. In examining individual throughout the 1960s on technolo- cated aeronautical laboratories and projects, history, discipline, and tool gies for supersonic transport. By flight test facilities, NASA's research come together to provide an overall 1971, 's Supersonic Commer- has continued that of NACA. At the view of little-known but challengirg cial Air Transport (SCAT) was ready major aeronautical centersAmes areas of aeronautical researchfile for production, but concerns about Research Center (ARC), Dryden following list is an introductior to noise, economy, and pollution pre- Flight Research Facility (DFRF), aeronautics at NASAthe res,,arch vented further funding. Convinced Langley Research Center (LaRC), subjects, their aims, and their rssults. that supersonic transport research Lewis Research Center (LeRC) would eventually pay off, in 1973 the NASA scientists, engineers, and test government funded the Supersonic pilots work closely with universities, Cruise Aircraft Research (SCAR) other government agencies, and U.S. X-15 program. Nine years of a sustained, industry in a wide range of programs March 25, 1960October 24, 1968 focused technology program involv- and projects. The X -15- -a 15-meter (50-foot- ing NASA and major U.S. propulsion Aeronautics is a many-faceted sub- long), black, stub-winged, rocket- and airframe companies resulted in ject that can be studied from sevene powered flight research craft with a significant improvements over earlier different approaches. First, chrono- conventional nose-wheel and skids supersonic transport concepts. By logically, by investigating the at- mounted at the rear for landingwas the early 1980s, the SCAR program tempts, successes, and 'auras of a true aerospace vehicle. With wings had developed technologies permit- and aerodynamic controls it traveled like an airplane in the atmosphere,

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ting a greatly increased range, great- In 1979 the TCV was used to The Ames-Dryden-1 (AD-1) In a er passenger capacity, lighter , demonstrate the Microwave Landing flight test of its pivoted wing. and cleaner, quieter, more efficient System (MLS) and Area Navigation engines. in efficient descent and airport ap- The AD-1 flight research program, proach paths and precision flight completed in 1981, tested the pivot- control. Its success led to the Inter- ing wing in 39 flights at speeds up to national Civil Aviation Organization's 165 mph. Terminal-Configured adoption of MLS as the world Vehicle (TCV) standard. With the continually growing use of air transportation, air terminal prob- HiMAT lems increased: approach and land- Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Tech- ing in bad weather, safety and Pivoting Wing nology (HIMAT) is a NASA/Air Force efficiency in controlling high-density Several decades ago Robert T. flight research program to study and traffic, and noise of aircraft in take-off Jones, NASA scientist at ARC, in- test advanced technol- and landing over densely populated vented the concept of an aircraft ogies. areas. wing that could pivot up to 60 The HiMAT vehicle is a 44-percent Recently renamed Advanced degrees in flight; years of analysis scale model with wing tip-mounted Transport Operating Systems Pro- and wind tunnel tests suggested the winglets and a small forward gram (ATOPS), the Terminal-Config- results would be considerable fuel wing for high maneuverability. It ured Vehicle (TCV) is a research tool, economy. consists of a core design to which a standard Boeing 737 twin-jet trans- A small, piloted research aircraft modular components can be at- port with a second cockpit in the called Ames-Dryden-1 (AD-1) was tached easily and replaced, a format passenger cabin. Equipped with built, and in 1979 made its first flight. that allows low-cost testing of a state-of-the-art instrumentation, the During takeoff, landing, and low- variety of concepts. second cockpit is the flight center for speed cruise, the AD-1 flies with In 1979 the remotely-controlled the research, while safety pilots fly in wings at right angles to the fuselage. research aircraft made its first flight. the conventional cockpit for backup. At higher speeds, the wing pivots so The following year it achieved near- that the right half sweeps forward maximum design maneuverability at and the left half sweeps back. The sustained near-supersonic speeds, pivoted wing decreases air drag, and in 1981 its flight testing was allowing the plane increased speed. expanded to transonic speeds. The HiMAT flight test program ended in January 1983. The vehicles

29 28 Forward Swept Wing I (r3W) The Forward Swept Wing (FSW) offers the potential for high perfor- mance design with both civil and military applications. In a joint pro- gram with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, NASA is 4- testing the unusual wing which is swept forward at a 30 degree angle to the fuselage. Wind tunnel tests, composite ele- ment tests, and simulations indicate the FSW design should give greater maneuverability at transonic speeds and superior low-speed performance. To avoid structural deflection of the wing, its design calls for laying up the composite material plys in defi- nite patterns. The X-29A Is sched- uled for demonstrator flights at the Dryden Facility early in 1984.

Quiet Engine Research .'"464..bir..- The Lewis Research Center has led the investigation for reducing noise and pollution produced by . Beginning in the late 1960s, the Quiet Engine program focused on developing an engine with noise levels 15 to 20 PNdB This six-foot diameter experimen- before its application to an aerospace (Perceived Noise Decibels) below tal turbofan was evaluated in noise flight. levels then In use. The results: (1) a tests as part of the Quiet Engine NASA has had three experimental high bypass ratio turbofan engine to Program at Lewis Research Cen- lifting bodies, which are wingless and help produce with low velocity ter. achieve the aerodynamic and air; and (2) a retrofittable acoustic maneuverability necessary for flight nacelle, an engine housing lined with had performed superbly with maneu- from their body shape alone. The sound absorption material. verability equal to or above the goals first, ARC's M2, featured a flat top of the design. and round belly. The second, HL-10, was developed at LaRC and had a Quiet, Clean, Short-haul rounded top and flat belly. The third Experimental Engine is the NASA/AF X-24. The vehicles (QCSEE) Lifting Bodies were carried aloft by a B-52 and In the late 1970s, the QCSEE Aeronautical research does not released to glide to landings on a dry program began testing two research often extend to the problems of lake bed. The X-24B had made 33 engines at LeRC. One engine is spacecraft. An aerospace vehicle, successful flights when the program mounted beneath the wing, and the such as the Space Shuttle orbiter, to was completed in 1975. other is designed for placement fly in the atmosphere safely, must be above the wing. Developed for a aerodynamically stable and maneu- Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) verable at hypersonic, supersonic, aircraft but applicable to the larger transonic, and subsonic speeds. commercial airliners, these engines Known as a , this type of direct their exhaust downward with craft was researched for many years wing flaps to add lift for short take-off

30 29 Model of a Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) aircraft in Langley Research Center's Full-Scale Wind and landing. Tests have demon- strated the engine's ability to operate at a noise level 60 to 75 percent -11LA6 below that of engines now in service. SAL Carbon monoxide and unburned - drocarbon emissions have also been dramatically reduced.

Quiet, Clean, General Aviation Turbofan Engine (QCGATE) The QCGATE program was di- rected toward meeting U.S. environ- 4....; 4,14, mental standards for general aviation ;4, engines. An existing turbojet or tur- 11t bofan engine core was used in the L!. experimental, quiet high-bypass tur- . bofan engine which incorporated the latest quiet engine technologies. In 1980 the QCGATE program was completed with the resulting research engines producing from 50 to 60 percent less noise than the most quiet current business jets.

V /STOL Research NASA is developing a number of new flight technologies for safe, clean, quiet, and efficient Vertical and Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) aircraft. er, more reliable helicopter perfor- Lifting Bodies. Left to right: Two VTOL programs, Rotor Sys- mance. X-24A, M2-F3, HL-10. tems Research Aircraft (RSRA) and Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (TRRA), Tilt Rotor Research are joint NASA/Army projects. In Aircraft (TRRA) amount of fuel and achieved a top STOL research, NASA is experiment- The XV-15 Tilt Rotor Research speed of 557 km/h (346 mph). ing with propulsive-lift concepts with Aircraft (TRRA) employs two large the Quiet Short-haul Research Air- rotors to combine the advantages of Quiet Short-haul craft (QSRA). a helicopter's vertical lift with an Research Aircraft (QSRA) airplane's cruising speed. In the air, An experimental vehicle, the Quiet Rotor Systems Research the rotors tilt forward to become Short-haul Research Aircraft (QSRA) Aircraft (RSRA) propellers for cruising. This versatile addresses airport congestion and The Rotor Systems Research Air- aircraft can take off and land ver- noise problems. The QSRA has craft (RSRA) is designed to test tically, hover, and fly forward, side- demonstrated the effectiveness of various advanced rotor systems. Able ways, or rearward. propulsive-lift technology, where the to fly as a conventional helicopter, The TRRA is potentially valuable engine's exhaust is directed over the the RSRA also flies with wings to as a commercial commuter liner wing surfaces, which increases lift assist the lift and is able to operate operating out of close-to-city heli- and allows quiet takeoffs and land- in a wide range of speeds. The two ports. In 1981 the TRRA completed ings from short runways. RSRA currently in use are helping to the proof-of-concept flight research In 1981 the QSRA completed a develop technologies for safer, quiet- phase. It flew twice as fast and twice flight evaluation series during which as far as a helicopter on an equal

31 30 cruising speeds, howeve:, flow be- comes turbulent, cP:ising drag and reduced efficiency. The Laminar Flow Control (LFC) program aims to achieve smooth air flow at cruising speeds. Technology combining the promising concept of lightweight suc- tion systems to remove portions of turbulent air through multiple slots or tiny holes on the wing surface with the new supercritical wing designs is being tested for use on commercial aircraft in the 1990s. The LFC program has combined detailed anal- ysis and model testing in its early phases of research and develop- ment. Flight testing, the third phase of the program, is scheduled to extend through September 1986. Advanced Tlirboprop (ATP) Renewed interest in fuel economy has the more fuel-efficient turboprop engine being reconsidered and im- proved for future use. Odd-looking new multi-bladed propellers are being developed for use on a turbo- shaft engine. The improved turboprop government, military, airline, and in- A technician at Dryden Flight Re- aircraft is expected to compete favor- dustry pilots flew the aircraft. search Faculty readies the pilot's ably with jetliners for speed and cockpit of the supercritical wing noise, but be more fuel efficient. test aircraft for flight. The three-phased Advanced Turbo- prop (ATP) program is testing small- Aircraft Energy Efficiency proved wing designs is a major task scale propeller models to establish (ACEE) of the Energy-Efficient Transport proof-of-concept. In the second In response to a U.S. Senate (EET) program. phase, large-scale propellers will be request in 1975, NASA established NASA's supercritical wing is used to validate structural dynamics, the Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE) shaped to minimize air drag without and in the third, a full-scale experi- program to develop fuel-saving tech- loss of lift.It also increases volume mental propeller will be tested in nologies for both existing and future for fuel storage while improving flight. aircraft. Using an inter-disciplinary structural efficiency of the wing, approach, ACEE includes six major leading to lower weight. A well- Engine Component technology programs to explore ways designed supercritical wing can re- Improvement (ECI) to improve both engine and airframe duce fuel consumption 10 to 15 The Engine Component Improve- performance: more efficient wings percent. Further fuel efficiency can ment (ECI) program objectives were and propellers; new composite mate- be achieved with the use of nearly- to reduce the cycle of wear and rials for airframes that are lighter and vertical winglets installed on the deterioration that affects fuel efficien- more economical than metal: ways to wingtips of aircraft, which help to cy of jet engines. ECI developed new make today's jet engine more fuel reduce air drag and produce thrust. components for existing engine de- efficient; new engine technologies for signs to resist the erosion, leaking, energy-saving aircraft of the future. Laminar Flow Control and warping responsible for efficien- (LFC) cy loss; a highly effective seal for the Energy-Efficient Transport The smooth flow of air over the turbine engine to prevent the engine's (EET) surfaces of an airplane, called lami- high-pressure gases from leaking out An important factor in flight effi- nar flow, occurs at low speeds. At of the main flow path and remain ciency is the shape of an aircraft and effective under conditions that cause the resulting flow of air over its surfaces in flight. Developing im- 31 32 ti

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conventional seals to fail; new mate- to complete testing of new compo- A test aircraft is suspended at rials or ceramic coatings that can nents early in the 1980s. Langley Research Center's impact reduce erosion and corrosion of One area of study focuses on Dynamics Facility for a simulated turbine blades; And improved aerody- increasing the engine's cycle pres- free flight crash test. namic design of the compressor and sure ratio and turbine operating tem- blades that contributes to engine perature, converting a greater epoxy. By arrangement of the fiber efficiency. proportion of fuel into energy. An- orientation, the great strength of Major successes of the ECI pro- other component mixes the engine's these materials can be directed gram were realized early in the cool bypass air with the hot core along a line or in random directions. 1980s and have become available for stream, increasing propulsion without Light, yet strong and stiff, the mate- use in the new Boeing 767 and the added fuel. These E3 components rials offer possible weight reductions McDonnell Douglas DC-9 Series 80 will also help to reduce noise and of 25 percent or more. Beginning aircraft. exhaust pollution. with secondary structures not critical to flight safety, some new materials Energy Efficient Engine Composite Materials have been flight-tested. The goal is (E3) Unnecessary weight adds to the to monitor the materials in daily use The Energy Efficient Engine (E3) amount of fuel needed for flight, so on a commercial airline, where the program is planning a completely the ACEE program has been devel- normal wear on the pieces can be new engine design for use after oping technolgy for new lightweight observed; because they replace met- 1990. Using the standard building- composite materials for airframe con- al parts on aircraft in service, each block technique of engine manufac- struction. new part will be certified by the turers. NASA researchers and engi- Conventional aircraft are con- Federal Aviation Administration neers refine each new component to structed primarily with alloys of alu- (FAA). Eventual testing of a complete develop a core design to which the minum, magnesium, titanium, and wing and fuselage will provide a fan, turbine. and exhaust nozzle are steel: the new composite materials design base for future energy effi- added. The E3 program is scheduled consist of graphite, glass, or Kevlar('v cier.t aircraft. fibers arranged in a matrix, generally

32 33 Less flammable jet fuels are also make test airplanes significantly under development, most notably the more resistant to spin. British-developed AMK safety fuel, The stallispin research has pro- Aeronautical Safety FM-9. Full-scale tests have demon- duced a large body of data that aids Today's aircraft incorporate many strated the new fuel's ability to industry in the design of safer air- improvements developed over the prevent major fires caused by ignition planes. years to make them safer for flight in of jet fuel during and after a crash. both good and bad weather, and to Along with the FAA, NASA has been Icing Research increase safety during takeoff and testing the safety fuel and evaluating An increasing demand for all- landing. its compatability with the most com- weather flights brought on by ad- mon engine in service. vances in systems, has Crashdynamics brought a renewed interest in improv- Recent studies have included an Automated Pilot Advisory ing aircraft performance under icing investigation of airplane crashdynam- System conditions. Current research is aimed ics information with the intent of For general aviation pilots operat- toward developing lightweight, low- increasing the survivability of pas- ing out of small uncontrolled airfields, power consumption, cost-effective ice sengers in an accident. For several NASA has developed and success- protection systems. Analysis, wind years, NASA has been deliberately fully demonstrated the Automated tunnel testing, and flight research are crashing controlled, extensively in- Pilot Advisory System (APAS) to being used to validate the effective- strumented aircraft, both single- and provide weather, traffic, and airport ness of these protection systems. twin-engined. information. The APAS includes a In 1981, NASA developed a long The planes, containing anthropo- tracking radar, weather sensors, a term icing research program in coop- morphic dummies harnessed in the computer, and a transmitter. eration with the Army, Air Force, crew and passenger seats, are Computer-generated voices broad- FAA, and the governments of Cana- crashed onto a runway from a test cast traffic information every 20 sec- da and Great Britain to evaluate icing rig. The data collected helps re- onds within three miles of the airport, instrumentation that had been tested searchers understand how an aircraft and every two minutes, information at Lewis. The Center also initiated absorbs the energy of impact and on airport identification, active run- research on protection systems for transfers the shock to passengers. way, wind speed and direction, baro- leading edges, using an elec- The tests include the study of im- metric pressure, and . tro-impulse concept. NASA also pro- proved seats, harnesses, and vides the FAA with icing research crushable sub-floor and fuselage Stall/Spin Research data to support upgraded aircraft structures. The stallispin phenomenon has certification, particularly for rotorcraft. been a major cause of accidents in Fireworthiness general aviation. A stall occurs when Reporting In a related effort, NASA resL arch- the angle of attack of the wing System ers at the Ames and Johnson Cen- increases to the point where air In cooperation with the FAA, NASA ters are developing fire resistant across the wing separates instead of completed in 1982 the development materials for use inside cabins. One following the upper surface; this of the Aviation Safety Reporting concept uses fire resistant wrappings causes a loss of lift. Followir .1 a stall, System (ASRA), a voluntary, confi- over conventional polyurethane foam an airplane sometimes will r.,4n to dential, nonputative reporting system cushions. Another fire resistant, light- spin downward at a rapid rate. designed to surface deficiencies in weight polymide seat cushion has Stall/spin tests have ranged from the National Aviation System before been developed at Johnson and is early studies with models in wind accidents occur. Since April 19, being evaluated in service by three tunnels and special spin tunnels to 1976, the System has received more airlines. Similar lightweight fireworthy more recent use of simulators and than 30,000 reports, issued 740 alert materials are being applied to ceiling, full-scale flight research vehicles. bulletins, and published 240 reports. wall, and floor panels. In the 1970s a large-scale effort focused on vertical tail designs and went on to develop a number of leading-edge wing extensions. These extensions have been shown to

33 34 For the Classroom

1. Research topics: The uses of general aviation Compare a large metropolitan airport and a small general avia- tion airport Airport terminalsthe early structures, contemporary com- plexes, airports of the future How the local airport, or lack of one, affects a community 2. Plan a field trip to your local airport. 3. Have students list as many types of aircraft as they can, their characteristics and their uses. How are they alike? different? 4. Have your students research Reynolds and Mach numbers: dif- ferentiate between subsonic, su- personic, transonic, and hyper- sonic speeds. 5. The difference between laminar and turbulent flow can be easily demonstrated with a burning piece of punk or stage cigarette in an ash tray; note the smooth flow upward which abruptly changes to turbulent. The same effect can be shown with a stream of from a faucet. The point at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is at the Reynolds num- ber. To show how an aircraft flies, i.e., the flow around the wing, one can demonstrate the coanda ef- fect by placing one's finger (or a test tube) in the water flow.

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40_4 . as ' 2111 46V' 1111111;40' Ai' ,". '.414114 , r -"X . 35 .4,c, . ,4 . dert40i r iii Applications Satellites

hen the first satellites were launched in the late 1950s, many people were skeptical about the practical value of a space program. In just three years, however, observations and measure- ments from Earth-orbiting satellites were revolutioniz- ing communications and weather forecasting and showing Earth on a global scale. These were the applications satellites, spacecraft with experiments and instruments that provided unique, direct benefits to life on Earth. They and those that evolved from them have made it possible for people on opposite sides of Earth to communicate instantaneously, for people in remote areas of the world to learn by television, for ships to know where storms and icebergs threaten passage, for forecasters to watch weather develop, for oil companies to locate drilling sites, for environmentalists to monitor the spread of pollutants. In both domestic and foreign applications satellite

Many well-known landmarks in New York City and its environs are visible in these 30-meter resolution Thematic Mapper images taken from .

36 37 4, programs, NASA has contributed re- have become complex multipurpose search and development, launching systems. capabilities, and evaluation of space- Once NASA has developed the craft. The technologies developed weather and communications satel- produced passive and active commu- lites, the responsibility for operating nications satellites, the first syn- them falls to other government agen- chronous and geostationary orbits, cies or to private industry. NASA and the cloud cover pictures that now continues its research role, seeking are a regular feature of daily weather and developing advanced technolo- reports. gies. From Echo, the that was The following list introduces the the first satellite everyone could see, major groups of these satellites, their and the scientific Explorer 6 that also purposes, and the benefits they have took the first crude cloud cover contributed. picture, the applications satellites 1141., . Communications

In 1945 British scientist and sci- Echo ence fiction writer, Arthur C.Clarke, The Echos were inflated in space to published a technical paper in which spherical balloons of aluminized My- he suggested that communications lar, 30.5 and 40 meters (100 and 135 satellites were feasible. Fifteen years feet) in diameter, respectively. Pas- later, NASA launched its first commu- sive communications satellites, they nications satellite, Echo, a silvery reflected radio signals between balloon that orbited Earth every 114 ground stations. They also provided minutes. information about the density of the Echo was a passive satellite that upper atmosphere. Echo 1 was reflected radio signals back to Earth. launched August 12, 1960, Echo 2 in Two years later, Relay, the first active January 1964. satellite was launched to receive signals, amplify them, and transmit Relay them back to Earth. Relay 1 was NASA's first active Echo. Today's split-second global com- repeater experimental satellite; munications by voice, television, and launched December 13, 1962, it Relay 1, NASA's first active repeat- computer ar such a part of daily life handled 12 simultaneous two-way er satellite, was aneight-sided that the evolution from simple pas- telephone conversations or one tele- prism 33" high & 29" in diameter at sive reflectors to complex active vision channel and provided the first its broad end. The exterior hon- transmitters is hardly remembered. satellite communications link be- eycomb aluminum panels were After NASA completed research and tween North and and studded with 8,215 solar cells. development, private companies pro- Europe. Relay 2, an improved ver- sion, was launched in January 1964. duced their own communications sat- II ellites, and in 1962 Congress July 26. 1963 authorized the Communications Sat- Syncom First satellite placed in synchronous orbit. Three experimental, active satellites; Many successful intercontinental communica- ellite Corporation, Comsat, which is tion experiments. the U.S. representative in and man- the name, coined from the first ager of , the International syllables of "synchronous communi- Syncom III cations," referred to their orbits. August 19. 1964 Telecommunications Sate !lite Organi- First stationary Earth satellite. Demonstrated zation. For both industry aid Intelsat, Weight: 38.5 kg (about 85 Ibs) each. the practicality and effectiveness of stationary, NASA launches and tracks satellites on a cost-reimbursable basis. Syncom I February 14. 1963 In nearly synchronous orbit, but communica- tions failed. 37 38 The Applications Technology Sat- ellite (ATS-6) is shown in final systems test and checkout at the Fairchild Industries Plant, German- town, Maryland.

used a movable terminal to investi- gate the possibility of transmitting public service in'ormation to small, inexpensive antennas in remote loca- tions.

arth Resources

Earth observation satellites have brought us a new view of our . Mountains, prairies, deserts, lakes, rivers, reservoirs, forests, farms, cities, highways, have become in- frared and scenes. Millions of these pictures have been dis- tributed to users of Earth resources information around the world. From the outset, the remote sen- sory devices of these spacecraft have produced a continuous flow of data. The results, including often dramatic pictures, have been tangible and the satellites unique tools of enormous practical value for a wide range of interests: urban develop- ment and land use and water re- active communication satellites. In orbit near ATS-3 the International Date Line. it was used to source management, agriculture, telecast the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo to Carried advanced communications, meteorol- locating pollution, , forestry, the United States, the first television program ogy, and navigation experiments; transmitted to cross the Pacific. color images of one complete side of Earth. mapping and charting. Geologists use the data to locate ATS-6 drilling sites, to predict earthquakes, Applications Technology May 1974 The first communications satellite with power and to study volcanoes. Satellites (ATS) to broadcast TV photos to small local receiv- Skilled photointerpreters among A series of six multipurpose Applica- ers; also used for a number of experimental agriculturists can readily distinguish public health and education telecasts to tions Technology Satellites designed remote rural areas in the U.S. and India. (See among a variety of crops in the to test new space instruments and Chapter IV, India.) satellite images. With computers, demonstrate new satellite technolo- maps can be produced showing the gies, particularly those used in syn- precise location of each crop over chronous orbit satellites. Communications large areas of land. Using this tech- Technology Satellite nology. NASA participated in a three- ATS-1 (CTS) year experiment to monitor global December 6. 1966 Took first U.S. high-quality photographs of January 17, 1976 wheat production beginning in 1974. Earth from synchronous orbit, showing chang- The CTS was a joint project with The Large Area Crop Inventory Ex- ing cloud-cover patterns. Also relayed color . A high-powered satellite, it periment (LACIE) successfully tested television across the U.S. and was the first satellite to permit two-way VHF communication several techniques for predicting crop between ground and aircraft in flight. production early in the grr wing sea- son.

39 38 Much of the everyday disposal of tons of garbage and trash and toxic wastes dumped into the environment ends up in our rivers, lakes, and =NV oceans. The challenge to clean up polluted areas and to protect those areas yet untouched requires infor- mation on a scale that was unavail- able before satellites. Earth resources spacecraft have provided valuable surveys of large areas of land, helping scientists and environ- mentalists trace the sources of pollu- tion and monitor the dissemination of waste. Wise management of the Earth's water resources is necessary for both present and future generations. Data from satellites has been helping hydrologists to predict floods and estimate flood damage, as well as to monitor water supplies. First coast-to-coast color photo- From the simple PAGEOS balloon mosaic of the United States made of 1966 to the advanced Landsat 4 of from 569 virtually cloud-free im- 1982, the Earth resources experi- ages taken by the satel- ments have changed radically the lite orbiting at a height of 570 miles way we see Earth, collect information (above). about it, and interpret the results. Landsat 4 (right).

Passive Geodetic Earth The cartwheel TIROS meteorologi- Orbiting Satellite cal satellite, (far right) which pro- (PAGEOS) vided near global coverage daily, June 1966 viewed Earth from the sides of the A large metalized balloon, 30 meters spacecraft rather than from the (98.4 ft) in diameter, similar to the bottom. Echo satellites. A passive satellite, it reflected sunlight and, photographed called Multispectral Scanner (MSS), a ra- by ground stations around the world, diometer that obtains imagery of Earth's established a worldwide triangulation surface in four discrete spectral bands. The decade of their -collecting showed the dinary details, and for the first time, natural network to map Earth's surface. unique types of data that MSS imagery could color images, of Earth's surface features. providevegetation types, bare soil and rock NASA has transferred the operation and conditions, snow coveron a highly repetitive management of Landsat to the National Landsat basis. The images Landsats 1, 2, and 3 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration A series of satellites that have pro- collected represent the first historical record of (NOAA). Management control over the TM will vided a wealth of observations which Earth's global surface conditions. be retained during the experimental research have improved our ability to monitor Landsat 1 was removed from service in and development phase of the new sensor 1978, in 1982, and will system: NASA expects to transfer control of and understand the dynamics and be retired in 1983. the TM to NOAA in early 1985. character of the various features and materials covering the surface of the Landsat 4, July 1982 Landsat imagery is available for a lab In addition to the MSS, Landsat 4 has a more service charge. For information about ordering Earth. sophisticated sensor, the Thematic Mapper pictures, write to the EROS Data Center, Sioux (TM) which measures the intensity of surface Falls, SD 57198. radiation in seven discrete bands and has Landsat 1, July 1972 approximately twice the spectral resolution. three times the spatial resolution, and four Landsat 2, January 1975 times the sensitivity of the MSS. From a 695 - kilometer (432-mi) orbit, it is providing extraor- Landsat 3, March 1978 The first Landsats 11 and 2 were originally called ERTS for Earth Resources Technology Satellite) carried an Earth-viewing sensor

40 33 Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) Aar April 1978 First in a series of small experimental satellites designed for the Applica- tions Explorer Missions. Later called AEM-1, it had one sensor for one purpose, making thermal measure- ments of Earth's surface and atmos- phere across the U.S. Its unique sensor could read daytime tempera- tures associated with and nighttime associated

4. >, with radiative cooling.

Meteorology

Weather affects everyonefood supplies, travel, recreationand along with other applications satel- lites, the weather satellites have brought special advantages to life on Y. Earth They enable people to plan ahead, assist meteorologists with forecasting, and help scientists to understand better the air around us. Advance knowledge of weather systems that can be disastrous is the most striking advantage; part of that knowledge comes from the abil ly to see the sparsely populated regions Earth Resources as a tool for professionals concerned of the world where weather is born, with management of resources. thus aiding long-term prediction. For Experiment Package local meteorologists, daily photo- (EREP) Laser Geodynamics graphs show how their local weather SKYLAB, May 1973February 1974 Satellite (LAGEOS) patterns fit into the overall picture. Objectives: To test the use of sen- May 1976 On April 1, 1960, TIROS 1, the sors operating in the visible and A heavy sphere, 411 kg (906 Ibs), 60 first true , was infrared portions of the spectrum, to centimeters (2 ft) across and covered launched. With each succeeding test a complex microwave sensor that with laser reflectors, designed to generation of satellites, remote sens- provided a space-based radar sys- demonstrate the feasibility and utility ing instruments became increasingly tem for Earth resource studies, and of a ground-to-satellite laser system sophisticated and today's high quality to develop data analysis techniques. to contribute to the study of solid- pictures are a far cry from the first Investigations: Agriculture, range, Earth dynamics; provided valuable tentative trials. and forestry; land use and cartogra- data to scientists analyzing condi- phy; geology and hydrology; oceans tions leading to earthquakes. TIROS and atmosphere. The Television and Infrared Observa- Results: Demonstrated the poten- tion Satellite (TIROS) was a simple tial and practicality of using quality hatbox-shaped craft carrying special photos from orbiting spacecraft for television cameras that viewed large geographic as well as regional and local areas and their usefulness

41 40 3 ' A ti las 6.00.4 411( wi x. . rit.tite-'4( ". . . .; c, .h . :77; '", !;111...- P A ' 4 f 4 1."'" sAl g r Arv., .6. ar 40 ' It' (Far left)The first infrared (tem- perature) data acquired by the Applications Explorer Mission 1 the Heat Capacity Mapping Mis- sion covering an area approx- imately 700 kilometers (434 miles) wide, running from south of Cape Hatteras, N.C. to Lake Ontario. Temperature values have been ?l color-coded so that cold to hot is represented by the sequence of purple, blue, green, brown, yellow, orange, red, gray, and white. Black areas at the upper left represent 4, cold clouds. EREP photo of San Francisco, Sacramento River, Oak- land, and Concord, California pho- tographed from Earth orbit (left).

LAGEOS (left below), looking like a cosmic golfball, provides a sta- ble point in the sky to reflect pulses of laser light.

Earth's cloud cover from a 725-km (450-mi) orbit. The pictures radioed back to Earth provided meteorolo- gists with a new toola nephanalysis, or cloud chart. By 1965, nine more TIROS satel- lites were launched. They had pro- gressively longer operational times, carried infrared radiometers to study Earth's heat distribution, and several were placed in polar orbits to in- crease picture coverage over the first TIROS in its near-equatorial orbit. TIROS 8 had the first Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) equip- ment that allowed pictures to be sent back right after they were taken instead of having to be stored for later transmission. Eventually, APT pictures could be received on fairly simple ground stations anywhere in the world, even in high school class- rooms. TIROS 9 and 10 were test satel- .k lites of improved configurations for the Tiros Operational Satellite (TOS)

a system. (When it became part of another acronym, TIROS was written Tiros.) Operational use started in 1966. In orbit, the TOS satellites were called ESSA for the Environmental Sci- ences Services Administration, the government agency that financed

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The first weather picture from space (top) by TIROS 1, April 1960, and a view by TIROSN, April 1980, a third generation advanced meteorological satellite.

A meteorologist (above) examines a sequence of cloud images from ATS3.

Artist's concept of the Nimbus weather satellite in Earth orbit (right).

44 43 it

and operated them. TOS satellites Seven were placed in orbit be- Second in a series of weather were placed in Sun-synchronous or- tween 1964 and 1978. , satellites, the Synchronous Mete- bits, so they passed over the same launched in April 1969, provided data orological Satellite 2 is prepared position on Earth's surface at exactly for the U.S. portion of the Global for launch. the same time each day; this allowed Atmospheric Research Program meteorologists to view local cloud (GARP), an international program ATS-3 cover changes on a 24-hour basis. formulating and coordinating re- November 1967 Several ITOS (for Improved TOS search for achieving long-range Recorded the first color images of the full Earth disc. Took photos every 20 minutes satellites) have been launched since global weather forecasting. enabling meteorologists to put them together 1970 and are the workhorses of the The Nimbus satellites tested in a sequence and make a motion picture of meteorologists. In orbit they are apace-borne meteorological equip- cloud movements; until 1975, the cloud cover pictures seen on TV came from this satellite. called NOAA for the National Ocean- ment and their experiments led to ographic and Atmospheric Adminis- operational, 24-hour satellite weather Synchronous tration which is responsible for their coverage. operation. Meteorological Satellites (SMS-1 and 2) Nimbus Applications Technology May 1974 and February 1975 More complex than TIROS, Nimbus Satellites (ATS) First experimental craft for a geo- was a second-generation research Intended primarily for communica- synchronous satellite system de- satellite. Each carried advanced tions technology, these multipurpose signed specifically to provide weather cameras, an APT system, an ad- spacecraft contributed much to ad- data and to serve as prototypes for vanced TV cloud mapping camera vance weather forecasting. later operational satellites funded by system, and an infrared radiometer NOAA. Following launch and check- ATS-1 that allowed pictures at night for the December 1966 first time. Took repetitive photographs of the same area, greatly aiding in the early detection of severe storms.

45 44 out by NASA, SMS-1 and SMS-2 GOES (Geostationary Operational to improve the geodetic model of were transferred to NOAA for use in Environmental Satellite), were con- Earth and knowledge of Earth-sea the National Operational Meteorologi- structed and launched by NASA, interactions. Third in the series of cal Satellite System. funded and operated by NOAA. Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellites Successive satellites, designated (GEOS), GEOS-3 was renamed Geo- dynamic Experimental Ocean Satel- lite to emphasize its specific mission in NASA's ocean physics program while retaining the GEOS acronym. (Specialized Experimental Geodynamic Seventy percent of Earth is cov- Applications ered by oceans. These vast areas of Experimental Ocean Satellite) water are a source of energy in the Satellite (GEOS-3) June 26, 1978 form of weather, the home of great April 1975 First satellite for sole study of the schools of fish, a mechanism for the Measured the changing shape of the oceans in a proof-of-concept mission. disposal of waste products, and the oceans' surface, tides, and currents Objectives: To demonstrate tech- major means of transporting the niques for monitoring Earth's oceano- goods of the world by ship. graphic phenomena and features Precise knowledge of the oceans' from space on a global scale; to resources and dynamics has poten- provide oceanographic data in a tial application in many scientific and timely fashion to scientists and com- commercial pursuitsship design mercial users; and to determine the and port development, fishing, weath- key features of an operational ocean er forecasting, environmental sci- monitoring system. ence, shipping, selection of sites for With all-weather and day-night ca- off-shore drilling. Satellite observa- pability, it circled Earth 14 times a tions have contributed to our under- day and crossed 95 percent of the standing with accurate measure- oceans' surface every 36 hours giv- ments of surface wind speeds and ing oceanographers their first world- directions, temperatures, we wide observation of the seas. heights, and tides and currents; the Although contact was lost in Octo- data have helped to detect storms, ber 1978 and the mission terminated map the ocean floor, and monitor the in November, the objectives were movement of icebergs. largely met. Earth Resources Experiment Package Geodynamic Experimental Ocean (EREP) Satellite (GEOS -3) (above). Skylab, May 1973February 1974 Seasat superimposed over an im- A collection of instruments with rela- age of the ocean vessel, HMS tively low-resolution, middle-spectrum Challenger, whose round-the-world imaging sensors, EREP proved the voyage over 100 years ago became feasibility of remote-sensing of wind the model for oceanographic voy- conditions, surface temperatures ages (left). and roughness, and the recording of visible phenomena, and advanced the study of the interaction of the atmosphere and land and ocean surfaces. Improved versions of the instruments were built for GEOS-3 and Seasat.

46 45 For the Classroom

1. Research topics: History of communications Commercial satellites The development of Earth re- sources satellites Sources of pollution in the at- mosphere 2. What advantage does geological study from space have over study from Earth's surface? from Earth over study from space? 3. Why is a study of the atmosphere important? 4. Secondary school teachers may obtain a copy of Teachers' Guide for Building and Operating Weather Satellite Ground Stations from the Educational Programs Officer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (202.3), Greenbelt, MD 20771. The publication gives the information needed to con- struct, modify, and operate a weather satellite recording station. 5. Have your students list the possi- ble benefits of Earth resources satellites; which are apparent in their local community? their state?

46

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4 IV Energy Research

NAeeting the challenges of aerospace explora- tion brought extraordinary advances in sci- ence and engineering and enabled technology personnel to develop expertise in many disciplines. Several years ago it was recognized that NASA's capabilities, developed for aeronautical and space programs, were potentially useful for some areas of energy research and development (R&D). In 1975 NASA and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA)now the Department of Energy (DOE)--established a working relationship and identified the types of support NASA might provide. Thus NASA assumed an active role in the national energy R&D program with activities ranging from wind turbines to systems studies and with assistance in developing new power sources and more efficient use of fossil fuels. NASA's major energy programs, which are being conducted at the

Wind turbine on Block Island, Rhode Island. The turbine's blades, 37.5 meters (125 ft) tip to tip, convert wind energy into 200 kilowatts of electric power to supply up to 15 percent of the island's electricity.

48 49 Lewis Research Center (LeRC), Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), are in the following areas: Wind Energy, Photovoltaics, Solar Heating and Cooling, Advanced Ground Propulsion, Stationary Power, and Energy Conversion Systems.

Wind Energy

Windmills, sailing shipspictur- esque examples of a clean, re- plenishable source of energy, wind energy, used since ancient times. And for the past 50 years in many countries, it has been a means of generating electricity. Renewed interest in wind power has been focused in DOES Wind Energy Program which aims to devel- op large scale, reliable, cost-effective wind turbines, with operational life- times of 20 to 30 years. NASA has a major role and built the first turbine in 1975 to collect research data; designated MOD-0, it is an experimental 100-kilowatt (kw) machine with a rotor diameter of 38 meters (125 ft) that continues to provide research and engineering data for the design of larger ma- chines. An uprated 200-kw version, ° the MOD -OA, operated in four loca- tions between 1977 and 1982, In another project, NASA has been The Papago Indian village of providing experience in operating working with the Department of the Schuchull in Arizona became the wind turbines with electric utility Interior (DOI) developing megawatt- first solar electric community in networks. A larger 61-m (200-ft di- size wind turbines to provide power 1978. The 3,500 watt ameter), experimental machine, in conjunction with hydroelectric system provides energy for light- called MOD-1, was installed and plants. Two machines, a WTS-4 and ing homes, powering refrigerators, tested at Boone, North Carolina. a MOD-2, were installed near Medi- and running a communal water Three 2.5 megawatt MOD-2 ma- cine Bow, Wyoming and dedicated in pump and washing machine. chines have been operational near September 1982. The WTS-4, pro- Goldendale, Washington, and an ad- ducing 4 megawatts of electric power, vanced MOD-5 design is under de- is the most powerful in the world velopment. The newer designs today. Data from these experimental employ larger rotors, which operate turbines will be collected for two at lower wind speeds and could be years. If the concept is successful, Photovoltaic used in many locations throughout DOI will consider construction of a the United States. A single MOD-2 wind farm of up to 40 machines. Development turbine could power 1,000 average sized homes. Projects

The Sun is our most constant source of energy, but utilizing that energy is difficult and costly. Pho- 50 49 , ' efl .1 TTP:'!-'-4p*EP IC.) "t,tkg` "'

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tovoltaic or solar cells are used to Schuchuli, Arizona the world's first convert the Sun's light into electricity. solar community. Solar cells have powered most of NASA has also worked with the Thermal spacecraft, but high costs Agency for International Development have made them impractical for in- (AID) on several projects. The first of dustrial, residential, or commercial these was a 3.6 kilowatt solar power Energy use. A program at JPL focuses on system at Tangaye, Upper Volta. The developing low-cost, long-life solar latest was a village power system cells for widespread use on Earth. and a solar-powered drip irrigation Direct Solar Heating and Substantial progress has been made system installed in a small village in Cooling in improving quality. efficiency, and Tunisia. The photovoltaic power sys- The Sun's power can be captured. cost-effectiveness of solar cell mod- tem provides 30 kilowatts of electrici- stored, and used to heat and cool ule designs. ty at peak. A variety of ether homes, offices, and industrial build- Several photovoltaic demonstration projects, including development of ings, but technology for solar heating projects involving NASA and DOE five photovoltaic powered medical and cooling has been, like pho- were undertaken during the past systems, is underway for installation tovoltaic systems. expensive and im- decade. They ranged in size from in Guyana. Ecuador, Kenya, and practical. In an effort to stimulate small photovoltaic-powered insect Zimbabwe. growth in the solar heating and traps to a 3.5 kilowatt system that cooling industry and aid development made the Papago Indians in of affordable. efficient systems,

50 51 The reflective surfaces of these heated and cooled by solar panels tricity. The reflectors, which are made parabolic dish concentrators col- on the roof. NASA monitored the of silvered glass or aluminized lect and focus sunlight for gener- performance of the equipment and fiberglass, concentrate sunlight onto ating electrical power or high analyzed the results. Solar heating a heat source for an efficient heat temperature industrial-use process and cooling systems have been in- engine. The engine powers an elec- heat. A JPL-DOE project, testing stalled on 48 Federal buildings and tric generator. The parabolic dish and was conducted at the NASA Para- all have performed well. NASA's role engine will be combined for use in bolic Dish Test Site, Edwards, in these projects ended in 1981. the Small Community Experiment in California. Osage City, . Solar Thermal NASA joined the DOE and industry Electric Conversion in a number of demonstrations be- In another project for DOE, JPL tween 1974 and 1981. One project uses large parabolic reflecting dishes was the Kaw Valley State Bank in to focus sunlight for generating elec- Topeka, Kansas, which is completely

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The research on automotive gas This experimental bus is powered turbines NASA is conducting requires by an advanced automotive gas the use of ceramic components to turbine which provides advantages Advanced achieve required engine efficiency in fuel efficiency, reduced emis- and low cost. Two parallel develop- sions, lower noise levels, and less Ground ment efforts have been underway dependence on petroleum prod- since 1979, and ceramic component ucts. The bus was one of four advancements are now being tested used on the Washington- Propulsion in rigs prior to their evaluation in test route in a two-year experiment. engines. Ground transportation vehicles The Stirling cycle engine, designed gram is expected to be useful in the automobiles, trucks, busescon- by United Stirling of Sweden, em- high temperature diesel. Operation at sume enormous amounts of gasoline ploys an advanced automotive pro- the higher temperature will improve and oil every year. As world supplies pulsion system capable of a the engine efficiency and broaden of petroleum decrease, new automo- significantly lower fuel consumption the fuel tolerance of the diesel tive technologies will be needed. In a than the internal combustion engine. engine. number of joint NASA/DOE projects, By 1982, four engines had been buiit In another effort to develop auto- research using alternative fuel and extensively tested. The program motive alternatives, a joint NASA/ sources and engine systems has now focuses on developing compo- DOE program was authorized in been underway for several years. nents and materials that will provide 1976 to develop electric-powered ve- A major effort is being directed a cost competitive engine. hicles for widespread use. Current toward new designs of automotive Recently a smaller effort has beeti electric vehicles have limited range heat engines, which not only would started to develop the technology for and poor acceleration and speed be more efficient but could use fuels a high temperature diesel engine for performance. NASA's role since 1977 like gasoline, coal, or kerosene. The trucks. Much of the materials tech- has been to develop technologies for majority of the work is directed nology and improvements in aerody- propulsion. Working with industry, toward two concepts: gas turbine and namics of small turbomachinery NASA is scheduled to complete its Stirling-cycle engines. Both engines being developed in the turbine pro- development efforts on advanced are potentially fuel efficient, clean. propulsion components and systems and capable of burning a variety of in 1983. fuels, including methanol and eth- anol.

2 53 gas. Until 1981, NASA provided system engineering support for com- mercial development of the nation's Stationary (On-Site) Power first coal gasification engineering de- velopment facility.

While electric utilities currently sup- In support of DOE's Phosphoric ply most of industry's electrical power Acid Fuel Cell Systems Program, Advanced needs, auxiliary boilers fired by pre- NASA is advancing the technology mium fuels are utilized on site to base to allow early development of Coal provide processing heat. Significant efficient, cost-effective fuel cells with energy savings can be acheved with extended lifetimes, for both multi- Extraction an approach called cogeneration, in megawatt electric power plants and which one power generation on-site smaller multi-kilowatt cogeneration system would simultaneously provide systems for dispersed residential arid New automated processes for cut- all of an industrial plant's electrical industrial use. ting and transportation of coal in an and thermal power needs. Cogenera- underground mine have been sub- tion systems offer the potential for 611111111111111111111111111111111111111=1 jects of research since the using up to 80 percent of the mid-1970s. Extraction systems must available energy in the fuel. A num- be suitable for resources available ber of technologies for industrial Energy after the year 2000, and must prom- cogeneration systems and advanced ise substantial improvements in pro- electric generating systems are being Conversion duction cost and miner safety. NASA developed. has also developed advanced sen- sors for partially automating current Gas Turbines Systems longwall mining machines. These NASA has been advancing the sensors use radar and rays technology for gas turbines for use in to detect the depth of coal available. industrial cogeneration systems. Tur- Magnetohydrodynamics One such device, the Natural Back- bines designea to burn heavy oils Magnetohydrodynarnics is an ad- ground Sensor, has been tested and coal-derived liquid and gaseous ,anced coal burning energy conver- extensively underground. A final re- fuels efficiently at high temperatures sr.in process for generating electricity port on a system of automated and with acceptable emissions are by iassing a high temperature gas mining components was submitted to being tested. NASA will complete its through a strong . DOE DOE in 1982. research efforts in 1983. studies of this potentially off :lent method were supported by NASA Fuel Cells from 1977 to 1S81 in areas of Fuel Lolls have been important and modelling, power sources for spacecraft and critical components assessment, and Space also offer potential for significant experimentation. energy savings in cogeneration sys- Utilization tems. Fuel cells col vert a - Coal Gasification rich fuel and (from air) into Another potential on-site power electricity, providing hot water and generation system uses coal gas- Systems steam as by-products in the process. ification. This concept offers a way to They are clean, quiet, and efficient, turn polluting high-sulfur coal into a and could be used to power large clean-burning gas and to provide Between 1977 and 1981, NASA residential and commercial complex- usable thermal energy for an indus- and DOE explored the possible de- es while providing usable thermal trial cogeneration system. The coal velopment of satellite power stations energy for heating and air condition- gasification process begins in a gas- to provide large amounts of energy ing. ifiersomething like a giant pressure to cities on Earth. They concluded cookerwhere treated coal reacts that development of such a system with heated oxygen to produce a fuel was unjustified at the time, but that the possibility for future studies should be left open.

54 53 For the Classroom

1, Research topics: Wind power through history Wind turbines Scientists and solar cell re- search Solar energy Automobile engines of the future 2, Have your students investigate local uses of solar energy. How does it (or might it) affect architec- ture? 3. Purchase solar cell kits from a local hobby shop, electrical supply store, or other retail store. Let the class build and operate cell- powered models or lights. 4. Have students research solar cell uses and demonstrate them (a possible science fair project).

54 55 /

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` , V International Programs

nternational cooperation is an important dimension of NASA's program. The agency's 1958 mandate recognized this importance and stated that it "may engage in a program of internationalcooperation in work done pursuan, 43 this Act, and in the peaceful application of the results thereof...." During NASA's first year, the United States invited foreign scientists to propose experiments for launch- ing by the new agency. In the 25 years since, an extensive program of international cooperation involv- ing more than 1000 projects with over 100 countries has opened the entire range of space activities to foreign participation, has demonstrated the many peaceful purposes and applications of space science and technology, and has provided opportunities for contribution by scientists and agencies of other countries. NASA's international cooperation contributes to the U.S. aeronautical and space research program and

The STS-9 orbiter will carry aloft Spacelab 1, shown under construction.

57

1 , 1 56 to broader national objectives by: data, are built into all operational developing cost-sharing and meteorological satellites developed complementary space programs; by NASA for NOAA. NASA makes stimulating scientific and techni- available APT receiving station tech- Canada cal contributions from abroad; nology to anyone wishing to obtain Alouette I, September 1962 enlarging the potential for the real-time local cloud cover images. development of the state of the art; APT stations are currently located in Alouette II, November 1965 Satellites for ionospheric research (C) providing access to foreign areas 87 countries, many of which have of geographic significance for track- made significant investments in APT. International Satellite for Ionospheric ing and contingency landing sites; Over the years, NASA's wide Studies (ISIS) I, January 1969 enhancing satellite experiments range of cooperative and reimburs- with foreign scientific supporting able programs has benefited both the Isis II, March 1971 (C) data; United States and the international Telesat F () extending ties among scientific community. Since 1962, over 40 November 13, 1982 and national communities; and cooperative satellites have been The second satellite launched from the Shuttle supporting U.S. foreign relations placed in orbit, and since 1965, more on STS-5. Since 1972 NASA has launched Canada's and foreign policy. than 60 reimbursable satellite Telesat, the world's first satellite system to use The programs fall into two catego- launches have been completed. In geostationary satelllites for domestic telecom ries: cooperative and reimbursable. addition to satellite projects there munications. In orbit each Telesat satellite is designated Anik, the Eskimo word for brother. The cooperative activities, ranging have been over 2,000 joint ground- (R) from flight of foreign-built spacecraft based and space research activities, to ground-based study and analysis including sounding rocket, balloon, Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) of data, include contributions of ex- data investigations, and space sci- January 1976June 1979 periments on payloads to be flown in ence experiments. The following is a space by NASA, joint projects to summary of international joint satel- The Remote Manipulator System develop flight hardware, analysis of lite projects, listed in alphabetical (RMS), developed by the National lunar samples or data provided by order by country; a (C) denotes a Research Council of Canada, was NASA satellites, training, visits, and cooperative, and an (R) a reimburs- first tested on STS-2 aboard the joint publication of scientific results. able, project. orbiter Columbia. NASA also provides on a reim- bursable basis services for which the ,..digoff-1:14,1'^wt- MillIIROFITITY 41- -*on user country pays; these range from alb, space launch services to data and tracking services. NASA maintains a number of for- eign tracking stations overseas for both the Space Tracking and Data Network (STDN) and the Deep (DSN), which have

been indispensable for the acquisi- 4. tion data from NASA's many scientific and applications satellites. The host countries have provided sites and personnel for these sta- tions, a cry. oeration greatly appreci- ated by NASA. Ten countries have established Landsat (See Chapter III) receiving, processing, and data distribution fa- cilities and many benefited from the application of Landsat data during the ten years that NASA managed the program. Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) capabilities which allow local readout of meteorological satellite

4'

58 57 A joint US-Canadian program to advance International Radiation Investigation Satel- A key Shuttle payload Is Spacelab communications via satellite: used for a lite [IRIS (ESR0/11)] (center), a multipurpose laboratory number of experiments in health, education, May 1968 that will enable scientists to con- and business. (See Chapter III) (C) Integrated study of solar radiation and cosmic rays. (C) duct experiments in the micro- Remote Manipulator System (RMS) gravity environment of space. November 1981June 1983 Aurorae (ESRO /I) Canada designed and built the Remote Manip- October 1968 ulator System (RMS) for use on the Shuttle to Eight exoeriments integrated a study of high deploy and retrieve payloads: first tested on latitude energetic particles and their effects on Donna (ESRO /IB) STS2 in November 1981. a year later NASA the . (C) October 1969 formally accepted the RMS. when it was Carried experiments designed to study declared ready for operational use. (C) Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite (HEOS) ionospheric and auroral phenomena, particu- On STS-7, June 1983, the RMS's deploy- HEOS-1, larly over the North Pole at night in winter. (R) ment retrieval capabilities will be tested with HEOS-2, January 1972 the (SPAS). A camera Investigated interplanetary space, high altitude - (TD/1) mounted on SPAS will provide photo coverage , and solar and . March 1972 during deployment, free flight, retrieval, and (R) Astronomy satellite carrying seven scientific reberthing on the Shuttle. experiments. (R)

t. 4, SARSAT 1 .4"7°. .41,N, _0;41 March 28, 1983 Canada, France, the US. and the are cooperating on an experimental satellite- aided search and rescue project to aid in rescue of ships and planes in distress. (See USSR) IC)

European Space Agency (ESA) [formerly European Space Research Organization (ESRO)] amia-NIJL1011 Membership: Belgium, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Ger- many, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Canada and Austria have "observer" status: Norway is an "Associate" member.

Technicians check ESA's Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite (HEOS) prior to launch by NASA. 58 59 ESRO/IV November 1972 Investigated and measured several phe- nomena in the polar ionosphere. (R)

Cosmic Ray Satellite (COS/13) August 1975 For study of cosmic gamma rays. (R)

Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite (GEOS/A) April 1977 Designed to investigate waves and particles in the magnetosphere. (R) 410 GEOS/B July 1978 Studied atmospheric radiation particles, (R)

International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-2) October 22, 1977 One of two spacecraft launched by a single rocket. With NASA's ISEE-I, was placed in an elliptical orbit to provide detailed data on Earth's immediate and a variety of solar-terrestrial phenomena. In 1978, ISEE-3 was placed in a halo orbit to study the same phenomena from a different vantage point. (See Chapter VIII, Solar-Terrestrial Physics) (C)

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) January 26, 1978 A joint ESA-UK-US satellite project to study a wide range of celestial objects in one of the most important regions of the spectrum; an advanced telescope, the IUE complements ESA's TD-1 satellite and is establishing a system for observing by astronomers of all nations, an objective of the . (C)

Spacelab 1 Scheduled for September 1983 Spacelab, developed and built by ESA, is Europe's contribution to the NASA Space Transportation System. It consists of a cylindri- cal module in which both astronauts and civilian scientists, called payload scientists, will AO; arliW 44A Al work and a series of unpressurized pallets which will support experiments requiring direct exposure to space. Carried in the cargo bay of the Shuttle orbiter, Spacelab will serve as a Adel, the first international satel- center for conducting scientific investigations lite, being checked on the weight not possible on Earth. France and balance machine with its solar The first mission of Spacelab (Spacelab 1) will be a nine-day flight, a joint NASA-ESA FR-1 panels and antennas in orbit posi- mission during which over 70 investigations in tiun. five different scientific disciplines will be For ionospheric research. (C) conducted. Both NASA and ESA are providing experiments for the mission. (See Epilogue, Eoie HEAO-3 International) (C) August 1971 September 20, 1979 An experimental designed to France provided a heavy primary cosmic ray Space Telescope (ST) gather meteorological data, measuring wind experiment for the third High Energy Astrono- Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1986. speeds at various altitudes. (C) my Observatory (HEAO). (See Chapter VIII, (See Epilogue, International) (C) Astronomy and Astrophysics) (C) Symphonle A and B International Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) December 1974 and August 1975 SARSAT Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1986. Communications satellites, a joint project with March 28, 1983 (See Epilogue, International) (C) Germany to provide service to Europe, Africa, CNES provides receivers/processors for a joint and South America. (R) US/French/Canadian search and rescue satel- lite-aided project. (See USSR) (C) TIROS N October 13, 1978 Centre Nationale D'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) provides data collection systems for the TIROS N advanced meteorological satellite and seven follow-on operational spacecraft. (C)

60 53 ,v 4 are,. Germany , tvt 4

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Small satellite for particles and fields research. v , (C) ,T Symphonle A and B ore December 1974 and August 1975 ,041. FrenchGerman communications satellites.

Hellos I and 2 December 1974 and January 1976 Two deep-space probes for interplanetary and solar studies inside the orbit of Mercury. (C)

Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-01) Scheduled for Shuttle launch (STS-7), June 18, 1983 The first payload to be deployed and retrieved by the Canadian RMS. Materials processing research experiments will be conducted while SPAS is in the Shuttle cargo bay; when these are finished, NASA will use the payload in a test of the RMS's deploymentiretrieval capabili- ties. A camera mounted on SPAS will provide photo coverage during deployment, free flight, retrieval, and reberthing on the Shuttle, (R)

Active Magnetospherlc Particle Tracer Ex- plorers (AMPTE) Scheduled for launch in 1984. (See Epilogue, International) (C) The San Marco 3, an Italian- Spacelab D-1 built satellite, was launched by Scheduled for launch in June 1985. Indonesia NASA from a launch plat' 'irm off (See ESA, above and Epilogue, International) the coast of Kenya in the Indian (R) Ell and B2 Scheduled for Shuttle launch, B1 on STS-7 in Ocean. Galileo June 1983 and B2 in 1984. Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1986. To replace the first Palapa (Al, A2) communi- (See Epilogue, International) (C) cations satellites that have served the Indone- sian archipelago, Thailand, Malaysia, and ROSAT Singapore since 1976 and 1977. The new Scheduled for Shuttle launch in 1987. spacecraft will relay stronger signals and are (See Epilogue, International) (C) expected to operate for eight years. (R) International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat) India Italy Intelsat is an international consortium formed in 1964, including over 90 member nations Satellite Instructional Television Experiment -111 and managed by the Communications Satellite (SITE) December 1964February 1974 Corporation (COMSAT). A series of 24 com August 1975July 1976 Geostationary satellites for upper atmospheric mercial Intelsat satellites provided an interna Used the ATS-6 communications satellite for a research. (C) tional communications system from 1965 to program of educational telecasting to rural 1982. Five more are scheduled for launch by villages in India. Indian-produced programs in Sirio 1985. (R) health, agriculture, education, and family plan- August 1977 ning were broadcast in 2,400 villages. (See Geostationary satellite designed to investigate Chapter III, Communications) (C) trapped radiation flux, variation, and the primary energy spectrum. (R) INSAT 1B Japan Scheduled for Shuttle launch on STS8, San Marco D/L August 1983. Scheduled for launch in July 1983. NASA has launched three satellites for Japan, A geostationary satellite with telecommunica- Consists of two spacecraft equipped to study all (R). tions. community broadcasting, and mete- solar and meteorological phenomena. (C) orological capabilities. (R) Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS) July 1977

Communications Satellite (CS) December 1977

61 60 ce)

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Artist's concept of the Infrared An artist painting the US-UK iden- Soyuz spacecraft as seen from Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), a tification on the Thor-Delta vehicle Apollo. cooperative Netherlands/US/UK that launched Ariel, the first inter- project. national satellite.

Broadcast Satellite Experiment (BSE) April 1978 USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) United Kingdom July 15, 1975 Col. Aleksey A. Leonov -VI Valeriy N. Kubasov April 26, 1962June 2, 1979 The first joint manned space mission between Netherlands First international satellite; the series con- the US and the USSR. (See Chapter VI, ducted ionospheric research. (C) ASTP) (C) Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS) August 1974 1 COSFAS-SARSAT Satellite for ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy. November 1969 (replaces COSPASstill under USSR) (C) Geostationary communications satellite located Cosmos 1383 (USSR), June 30, 1982 over the Indian Ocean. (R) Cosmos 1447 (USSR), March 25, 1983 NOAA 5 (US), March 28, 1983 Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) The Satellite-Aided Search and Rescue Proj- January 25, 1983 January 26, 1978 ect (COSPAS-SARSAT) is a multilateral coop- A cooperative Netherlands-US-UK project with A joint satellite project with ESA and the US. erative project involving the US, Canada, a Netherlands-built spacecraft, an infrared UK provides hardware and ground support for France, and the USSR. US and Soviet telescope supplied by NASA, and tracking the spacecraft and telescope, which studies satellites equipped with transponders are to services provided by the UK: its 11-month the ultraviolet spectra of stars, gas clouds, receive emergency signals from ships and mission is to produce an all-sky survey of planets, and comets. (C) aircraft in distress and relay them to ground discrete infrared sources. A Dutch Additional stations in the four countries for independent Experiment package includes three instru- search and rescue operations. The goal of this ments, two photometers and a low-resolution Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) humanitarian project is to demonstrate the spectrometer, to aid in the classification and January 25, 1983 effectiveness of satellites in reducing the time mapping. (C) Cooperative project with The Netherlands and it takes to locate and rescue air and maritime the US; the UK is providing tracking services distress victims, thus significantly increasing for the spacecraft during its 11-month mission the possibility of saving lives. (C) to produce an all-sky survey of discrete infrared sources. (C) Spain

INTASAT November 1974 Ionospheric beacon transmitting radio signals to a world-wide network of 20 ground stations. (C)

62 61 For the Classroom

1. Have your students keep a clip- ping file on foreign space pro- grams, bon those of individual countries and those that are coop- erative ventures with the US. 2. Using the information in Chapter X, locate tracking stations around the world. How might these facili- ties affect the local communities? 3. Many countries have issued com- memorative stamps honoring space projects. Have your stu- dents research examples and compare with US air and space commemoratives.

62 - .e

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;V 1 VI Launch Vehicles

Overcoming the pull of Earth's gravity is the first challenge of any space mission. Whether small and suborbital or large and traveling to another planet, every spacecraft must be carried into space before it can do its job. NASA has a family of launch vehiclesa graduated series of multistage rockets to accomplish its space programs. A family of launch vehicles was developed because a number of different vehicles were re iuired for missions that range from simple to complex. Until the Space Shuttle, launch vehicles were expendable, and the most efficient method of launching was to use a vehicle adapted to the payload, its weight, and its trajectory. The vehicles are combinations of two or more stages, which burn one after the other, each being discarded when it is no longer needed,so only a small part of the whole vehicle is necessary to propel the spacecraft into the final orbit or space

Liftoff of the Mercury-Redstone 3, May 5, 1961. The following list and accompany- Thrust: 77,100 kg (170,000 lbs) sea level trajectory. Verniers: (2) 453 kg (1000 Ibs) each When NASA was formed, its ing chart will introduce the primary Guidance: Radio (stages 1, 2) launch capability depended upon launch vehicles that NASA has used Second Stage: Delta through its 25-year history, Length: 6 m (20.6 ft) what was available and most of the Diameter: 1.3 m (4.3 ft) vehicles were derived from the mili- Propellant: liquid tary missile program. In time, addi- Thrust: 3400 kg (7500 Ibs) Third Stage: (spin stabilized) tional vehicles were developed, using Length: 150 cm (59 in) both solid and liquid propellant rock- Redstone Diameter: 45 cm (18 in) ets, specifically to acquire a variety of Adapted by NASA from an Army Propellant: solid ballistic missile, the Redstone was Thrust: 2630 kg (5800 Ibs) vacuum launch vehicle combinations suited to Status: Operational the expanding space exploration pro- used to launch sub- Launch Pads: KSC, WSMC gram. orbital flights. Note: Originally called Thor-Delta and consist- From the small Scout, which is still ed of the Thor stage inherited from the Mercury-Redstone Department of Defense plus the second stage used for small payloads, to the 1960-61, flew successfully five limes after an of modified somewhat and called mighty that took men to the initial failure. Two unmanned flights and one Deltathus the Thor-Delta original name. This Moon and was last used to put the with the chimpanzee Ham preceded the first was later augmented by adding strap- U.S. manned spaceflight by Alan B. Shephard, on solid fuel motors to the Thor creating the Skylab into Earth orbit, Jr. in May 1961, and Virgil I. Grissom's flight in nomenclature TAD (Thrust Augmented Delta). NASA's launch vehicles evolved and July 1961. TAD could place a 590 kg (1300-1b) satellite improved both as a group and as Height: 18 m (59 ft) into a 300-nm orbit or rocket a 113.3 kg (250- 25 m (83 ft) with capsule and escape lb) spacecraft to . individual vehicles. Each vehicle is tower constantly uprated and finally re- Single Stage moved from service when no longer Propellant: liquid Thrust: 35,380 kg (78,000 Ibs) needed. In 1962 Scout could put i00 (220 Ibs) and Delta, sever- Thor-Agena D al hundred kilograms, into near-Earth Height: 23.3 m (76.3 ft) Weight: classified orbit; Delta also could send 25 kg Payload: 725 kg (1600 Ibs) (300 nm orbit) (55 Ibs) to Mars or Venus. Ten years Scout First Stage: Thor later Scout's performance was dou- Height: 20 m (68 ft) Length: 17 m (55.9 ft) Weight: 17,463 kg (38,500 lbs) Diameter: 2.5 m (8 ft) bled and Delta could send 340 kg Payloads: 108 kg (240 Ibs) (300 nm orbit) Engine: MB3 Blk 11 (749 Ibs) to the near planets. These First Stage: Algol 118 Propellant: liquid two vehicles remain the workhorses Length: 9.07 m (30.8 ft) Thrust: 77,100 kg (170,000 Ibs) sea level Diameter: 1.14 m (4 ft) Verniers: (2) 453 kg (1000 Ibs) each of the space program. First used in Propellant: solid Guidance: radio 1960 to put Echo into orbit, Delta is Thrust: 39,916 kg (88,000 Ibs) at sea level Seco,7d Stage: Agena D still operational, and in fact Delta was Guidance: strapped down gyros (stages 1, 2, LencIth: 6.3 m (20.9 ft) 3) Diameter: 1.5 m (5 ft) responsible for the first successful Second Stage: Castor Engine: Bell 8096 (restartable) launch of 1983, the Infrared Astro- Length: 6.3 m (20.7 ft) Propellant: liquid nomical Satellite. Diameter: 78.74 cm (31 in) Thrust: 7,257 kg (16,000 Ibs) vacuum Propellant: solid Guidance: inertial NASA not only launches its own Thrust: 27,669 kg (61,000 lbs) vacuum Status: Operational spacecraft, but it conducts many Third Stage: X-259 Launch Pads: WSMC launches for commercial organiza- Length: 3.5 m (11.5 ft) Note: The Thrust-Augmented Thor-Agena Diameter: 76 cm (30 in) (TAT) has three rockets strapped to its first tions, other Federal agencies, other Propellant: solid stage, bringing total first-stage thrust to nations, and multi-national groups. Thrust: 10,432 kg (23,000 Ibs) vacuum 150,594 kg (332,000 Ibs). (See note for Delta.) For such missions NASA is reim- Fourth Stage: Altair (spin stabilized) TAT can launch a 2200-lb satellite into a 300 - Length: 149 cm (59 in) nm orbit. bursed for the cost of the vehicle and Diameter: 45 cm (18 in) launch services. Propellant: solid NASA owns launch sites at the Thrust: 2,630 kg (5800 Ibs) vacuum Status: Operational Eastern and Western Space and Launch Pads: Wallops, WSMC, San Marco Missile Centers (ESMC and WSMC) The only NASA vehicle to use solid pro- Atlas in Florida and California and the pellants exclusively. The first stage Atlas launch vehicle Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, and was adapted from the first Air Force has access to the San Marco launch ICBM. Modified Atlases have been complex off the east coast of Africa used in several multistage vehicles to owned by Italy. Delta launch both manned and unmanned Height: 35.4 m (116 ft) missions. Weight: 51.800 kg (114,200 Ibs) Payload: 399 kg (880 Ibs) (300 nm orbit) 68 kg (150 Ibs) (escape) First Stage: Thor Length: 17 m (55.9 ft) Diameter: 21/2 m (8 ft) Mercury-Atlas Height: 20.5 m (67.3 ft) Propellant: liquid 29 m (95.3 ft) with capsule and escape tower 66 65 Diameter 3 m (10 ft) Propellant liquid Thrust 139.797 kg (308.000 Ibs) sea level First used for s orbital flight in February 1962. the Atlas launched all suc- ceeding Project Mercury orbital flights.

Atlas-Agena D Height: 36.6 m (120 ft) Weight. Classified Payloads: 2699 kg (5950 lbs) (300 nm orbit) First Stage: Atlas D Length 20.5 m (67 4 ft) Diameter 3 m (10 ft) Propellant: liquid Thrust 175.996 kg (388.000 Ibs) sea level Verniers: (2) 226.8 kg (500 lbs) each. Guidance: radio Second Stage: Agena D Length 6.3 m (20.9 ft) Diameter1 5 m (5 ft) Engine: Bell 8096 (restartable) Propellant: liquid Thrust 7,257 kg (16X Ibs) vacuum Guidance: inertial Status: Operational Launch Pads WSMC & ESMC A versatile multi-purpose two-stage vehicle used to place unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit or into the proper trajectory for planetary or deep-space probes. It was also used as the rendezvous target vehicle for the Gemini spacecraft in 1965-66.

Atlas-Centaur Height: 40.8 m (134 ft) Weight: 136.079 kg (300.000 lbs) Payload 3856 kg (8500 Ibs) (300 nm) 1043 kg (2300 lbs) (escape) First Stage Atlas D (modified) Length: 23 m (75 ft) Diameter: 3 m (10 ft) Propellant: liquid Thrust: 431.000 lbs sea level 1 7 million newtons Verniers. (2) 453 kg (1000 Ibs) each Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2) Second Stage: Centaur Lengtn 9.75 m (32 ft) Diameter: 3 m (10 ft) Engines (2) RL-10 A-3 Propellant liquid Thrust: 13,608 kg (30.000 los) vacuum 133.450 newtons Status Operational Launch Pads: ESMC Centaur was the first high-energy, liquid- hydrogen liquid-oxygen propelled upper stage. Developed by NASA, it has been used in combination with Atlas and Titan boosters to launch both Earth-orbital satellites and inter- planetary space probes. The Centaur can be restarted several times, which gives flexibility in launch times.

Prelaunch view of Titan-Centaur 5 with B.

66 Titan Titan, an Air Force ICBM, was modified by NASA as (1) Titan II for , 1964-66, and (2) Ti- tan HI a decade later for large payloads. Titan HIC launched the ATS-8 communications satellite in 1974: Titan III-Centaur, the Viking and Voyager missions: and Titan III- E Centaur, Helios 1 and 2 toward the Sun.

Titan III-E/Centaur First launched in 1974, had an overall height of 48.8 m (160 ft). The Titan III-E was a two stage liquid-fueled rocket with two large solid-propellant rockets attached. At liftoff the solid rockets provided 10.7 million newtons (2.4 million Ibs) of thrust.

Space Transportation System The launch system for the Space Shuttle consists of an expendable External Tank (ET), which contains the used for liftoff and ascent by the orbiter's three main engines, and two Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB's). Launched in a conventional manner, the Shuttle's Main Engines and the SRB's produce approximately 30,800,000 newtons of thrust. At 45 kilometers (28 ml) above Earth the SRB's separate, descend by parachute, and are recovered in the ocean. Eight minutes into the flight. at approximately 110 krns (68.3 mi) altitude, the ET propellants are exhausted: the tank separates from the orbiter and disintegrates upon entry into the atmosphere.

Solid Rocket Boosters The SRBs provide the major portion of the thrust at the time of liftoff They are the largest solid roc'iet boosters ever built, the first to be ustid to launch humans into space, and the first designed for reuse Length 45 46 rn (149 ft) Diameter 3 70 m (12 ft) empty 82.879 kg each (222.195 Ibs)

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' will 4 Apo sic Propellant mass: 503,627 kg each (1,350,206 One of the two solid rocket boost- Ibs) ers used in the launch of STS-1 Thrust: 12,899,200 newtons each at sea level Uprated Saturn 1 floating in its horizontal, or "log," External Tank Height: 68 m (223 ft) with payload mode for towing to Florida where Length: 47 m (154 ft) Weight: 589,676 kg (1,300,000 Ibs) it is being refurbished for reuse. Diameter: 8.38 m (27.5 ft) Payloads. 18,143 kg (40,000 Ibs) (100 nm Mass empty: 37,452 kg (100,407 Ibs) orbit) Propellant: liquid First Stage: S-IB First Stage: ;WC Propellant mass: 710,801 kg (1,905,633 Ibs) Length: 24 m (80 ft) Length: 42 m (138 ft) Diameter: 6.6 m (21.6 ft) Diameter: 10 di (33 ft) Propellant: liquid Propellant: liquid Thrust: 725,755 kg (1,600,000 Ibs) sea level, Thrust: 3,515,377 kg (7,750,000 Ibs) sea level, 7.1 million newtons 34.5 million newtons Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2) Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2, 3) Second Stage: S-IVB Second Stage: S-II Height: 58 m (190 ft) with payload Length: 18 m (59 ft) Length: 24 m (80 ft) Weight: 528,440 kg (1,165,000 Ibs) with Diameter: 6.6 m (21.7 ft) Diameter: 10 m (33 ft) payload Propellant: liquid Propellant: liquid Payloads: 10,205 kg (22,500 Ibs) (100 nm Thrust: 90,719 kg (200,000 Ibs) vacuum Thrust: 453,597 kg (1,000,000 Ibs) vacuum orbit) Launch Pads: ESMC Third Stage: S-IVB First Stage: S-1 Length: 18 m (59 ft) Length: 25 m (82 ft) Saturn IB Diameter: 6.6 m (21.7 ft) Diameter: 6.6 m (21.6 ft) 1966-75, the "uprated" Saturn, was developed Propellant: liquid Propellant: liquid to test Apollo hardware in Earth orbit. Four Thrust: 90,719 kg (200,000 Ibs) vacuum Thrust: 682,209 kg (1,504,000 Ibs) sea level such tests were flown between 1966 and Launch Pads: KSC 39A, B Guidance: inertial (stages 1, 2) 1968. Saturn IB also launched , 3, Second Stage: S-lV and 4 in 1973 and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Saturn V Length: 12 m (40 ft) Project in 1975. 1967-73, was the large launch vehicle devel- Diameter 5.5 m (18 ft) oped for the Apollo lunar missions. It launched Propellant: liquid 12 successful flights, putting 27 men into lunar Thrust: 40,823 kg (90,000 Ibs) vacuum orbit, 12 of whom landed on the Moon. Status: All flights completed successfully America's most powerful rocket, it carried out Launch Pads: ESMC (Saturn V its last scheduled manned mission on Decem- Height: 111 m (363 ft) with payload ber 7, 1972, when it launched . It Saturn I Weight: 2,766,942 kg (6.100,000 Ibs) was last used on May 14, 1973, when it lifted 1961-65. was a arge capacity launch vehicle. Payloads: 129,275 kg (285,000 Ibs) (100 nm the unmanned Skylab space station into Earth Ten successfill Jights tested the rocket's orbit) 43,092 kg (95,000 Ibs) escape orbit. structP. ,Measured the performance of its Saturn V with the Apollo spacecraft stood motors, studied the effects of 111 m (363 ft) tall. and developed 34.5 million on the spacecraft, and diagnosed other as- newtons (7.75 million Ibs) of thrust at liftoff, pects of vehicle performance.

70 69 For the Classroom

1. Research topics: The history of rocketry Solid vs. liquid propellant rock- ets New propellants that would make long-duration flights to deep space possible 2. For book reports, suggest biogra- phies of rocket pioneers. 3. Experiment with model rocketry by purchasing commercially-pro- duced solid rocket engines and rocket body kits (available at many hobby and toy stores and through mail order catalogs). Be sure your students follow the included instructions for construct- ing these rockets and check with local authorities for any regula- tions governing model rocketry. CAUTION: Constructing rocket engines, whether liquid or solid propellants are used, is a very dangerous activity when partici- pated in by amateurs. Literally hundreds of students, teachers, and home experimenters have been seriously injured by explod- ing rockets. Propellant perfor- mance, chamber bursting strength, and nozzleshape are design and construction problems beyond the scope of most ama- teur experimenters. Model rocket- ry is an excellent substitution to amateur rocketry.

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believe that this Nation should commit itself a. . . to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth. No single space project in this period will be more exciting, or more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish....But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the moon we make this judgment affirmativelyit will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there." President John F Kennedy, Special Message to Congress, May 25, 1961 When President Kennedy delivered his national objective to Congress, the spaceflight of fiction was already becoming reality. Project Mercury had tested the spacecraft and Redstone booster (MR-1A) that the program would use; Ham, a chimpanzee named for the Holloman Aerospace Medical Center, had

The first America 1 space walk. During the third orbit of the Gemini IV flight, Edward H. White II floated into space secured to the spacecraft by a 25-foot umbilical line and a 23400t tether Ilne wrapped together with gold tape to form one cord.

72 been a passenger in a successful as America's first astronauts: Lt. M. suborbital flight (MR-2); and 20 days , USN; Capt. L. Gor- hefore the President's address, the don Cooper, Jr., USAF; Lt. Col. John first manned suborbital flight had Project H. Glenn, Jr., USMC; Capt. Virgil I. been accomplished. Grissom, USAF; Lt. Comdr. Walter The Congress approved and the M. Shirra, Jr., USN; Lt. Comdr. Alan American public enthusiastically sup- Mercury B. Shepard, Jr., USN; ana Capt. ported the expanded and ambitious Dona la K. Slayton, USAF. Six of the long-term space exploration program. seven would make a Mercury flight. Project Mercury with its solo pilots, Initiated in 1958, completed in Slayton was grounded for medical Project Gemini and its two-man 1963, Project Mercury was the reasons, but remained as director of crews, and Project Apollo with a crew United States first man-in-space pro- the astronaut office. In 1975, re- of three became a methodical pro- gram. The objectives of the program, turned to flight status, he served as gression to complete the U.S. com- which made six manned flights from Docking Module Pilot on the Apollo- mitment to a lunar landing. 1961 to 1963, were specific: Soyuz flight. The basic research, the program To orbit a manned spacecraft decisions, the engineering tests, the around Earth; The Spacecraft trained staff, all overlapped during To investigate man's ability to The first U.S. spaceship was a the decade of these three programs. function in space; cone-shaped one-man capsule with The entire country, through major To recover both man and space- a cylinder mounted on top. Two contractors and thousands of sub- craft safely. meters (6 ft, 10 in) long, 1.9 meters contractors, brought the programs to All were met by the fourth flight, and (6 ft, 21/2 in) in diameter, a 5.8 meter fruition. Technological lessons were new objectives of longer missions, (19 ft, 2 in) escape tower was learned and managerial techniques different in quality and quantity of fastened to the cylinder of the cap- refined. orbits, were added. sule. The blunt end was covered with Project Mercury ended in 1963. an ablative to protect it Twenty years later it seems elemen- The Astronauts against the 3000° heat of entry into tary. But its pioneering experiments In April 1959 seven military jet test the atmosphere. laid the groundwork for great pilots were introduced to the public The Mercury program used two achievements. Project Gemini, in turn, provided the experience of how to live and maneuver in space. It established an experienced ground teamin the control room, at tracking stations, in industry. It readied America for the fulfillment of its national commitment. Project Apollo, an extraordinary technological and scientific accom- plishment. proclaimed the United States a leader in space exploration. It was a bridge between the early manned spaceflight pro, Skylab, the application learned. It provided th rig 0110 for the international exr ,nt Apollo-Soyuz Test Proj,

Project Mercury Astronauts, whose selection was announcb, only six months after NASA was formally established, included: Front row, left to right, Walter M. Schirra. Jr., Donald K. Slayton,

. hn H. Glenn, Jr., and M. Scott arpenter; beck row, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Virgil L Grissom, and L. , Jr.

73 r7,1A14111,107.,

Astronaut being lift- ed into the helicopter after his IN? '415a4145ito '4,S successful suborbital flight. ..., 4. , "4641. s111.: pia A launch vehicles: A Redstone for the .44.41k41# atkl ...>. :r suborbital and an Atlas for the four ap )4.1' orbital flights. (See Chapter V). Prior t,* , to the manned flights, unmanned No. "tei48441t4sm.', :obe tests of the booster and the capsule, 1,4.krolors. carrying a chimpanzee, were made. ;40 Each astronaut named his capsule .. and added the numeral 7 to denote the teamwork of the original astro- i.mwe ..% , nauts. I to,. kl 41.,..%*.t

IA1 fita,',W The Manned Flights 4.4 4;4*. j t' Mercury-Redstone 3 (MR -3). Freedom 7 May 5. 1961 Alan B Shepard. Jr . 15 minutes. 22 seconds Suborbital flight that successfully put the first .abifitlailiat1I American in space 1., Mercury-Redstone 4 (MR-4), Bell 7 July 21. 1961

Virgil I Grissom 15 minutes. 37 seconds Also suborbital. successful flight but the spacecraft sank sh)rtly after . I

Mercury-Atlas 6 ;MA-6), Friendship 7 t, February 20. 1962 John H Glenn. Jr 4 hours. 55 minutes Three-orbit flight that placed the first American into orbit. vai Mercury-Atlas 7 (MA-7), 7 May 24 1962 2 dn. "! M. Scott Carpenter 4 hours, 56 minutes Confirmed the success of MA-6 by duplicating the flight

Mercury-Atlas 8 (MA-8), Sigma 7 October 3. 1962 Walter M. Schirra. Jr 9 hours. 13 minutes Six-orbit engineering test flight

Mercury-Atlas 9, Faith 7 May 15-16. 1963 L Gordon Cooper. Jr 34 hours. 19 minutes Last Mercury mission. completed 22 orbits to evaluate effects of one day in space. 10 Sketches showing the comparative sizes of the Mercury capsule, the Gemini spacecraft, and the Apollo Command Module.

APOLLO

19 GEMINI

74 ver the docked combination by using The Manned Flights the target vehicle's propulsion sys- Gemini III, Molly Brown tem; March 23, 1965 Project To perfect methods of entering 4 hours, 53 minutes the atmosphere and landing at a Virgil I. Grissom, John W. Young First manned Gemini flight, three orbits. preselected point on land. Its goals Gemini were also met, with the exception of Gemini IV a land landing, which was cancelled June 3-7, 1965 James A. McDivitt, Edward H. White II in 1964. 97 hours, 56 minutes The second U.S. manned space Included first (EVA) by program was announced in January The Spacecraft an American; White's "space walk" was a 22- minute EVA exercise. 1962. Its two-man crew gave it its The spacecraft was an enlarge- name, Gemini, for the third constella- ment of the familiar Mercury cap- Gemini V tion of the Zodiac and its twin stars, sule-5.8m (19 ft) long, 3m (10 ft) in August 21-29. 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Charles Conrad, Jr. Castor and . Gemini involved diameter, and about 3810 kilograms 8 days, 21 hours 12 flights, including two unmanned (8400 pounds) in weight. Engineering First use of fuel cells for electrical power; flight tests of the equipment. changes simplified maintenance and evaluated guidance and navigation system for future rendezvous missions. Completed 120 Like Mercury's,its major objectives made it more maneuverable for the orbits. were clear-cut: pilots. The Titan II rocket, more To subject man and equipment powerful than the Redstone, placed Gemini VII December 4-18, 1965 to space flight up to two weeks in the larger spacecraft into orbit. 13 days, 18 hours, 35 minutes duration; Sometimes referred to as Gemini- , James A. Lovell, Jr. To rendezvous and dock with Titan for the craft and its launch When the Gemini VI mission was scrubbed because its Agena target for rendezvous and other orbiting vehicles and to maneu- vehicle, each flight was designated docking failed, Gemini VII was used for the rendezvous instead. Primary objective was to determine whether humans could live in space for 14 days.

Gemini VI December 15-16, 1965 Walter M. Shirra, Jr., Thomas P. Stafford 25 hours, 51 minutes First accomplished with Gemini VII, station-keeping for over five hours at distances from 0.3 to 90 m (1 to 295 ft).

Gemini VIII March 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong, David R. Scott age 10 hours, 41 minutes Accomplished first docking with another space 4 vehicle, an unmanned Agena stage. A mal- - function caused uncontrollable spinning of the craft; the crew undocked and effected the first emergency landing of a manned U.S. space mission.

.a Gemini IX June 3-6, 1966 vr , Thomas P. Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan

141111110%... 3 days, 21 hours Rescheduled from May to rendezvous and dock with augmented target docking adapter - (ATDA) after original +.14, failed to orbit. ATDA shroud did not completely separate, making docking impossible. Three . Bi ORO different types of rendezvous. two hours of EVA, and 44 orbits were completed.

Suit technician assisting Gemini by a Roman numeral. Only the first Gemini X VI Pilot Thomas Stafford during capsule was nicknamed; Command July 18-21, 1966 suiting up as Command Pilot Pilot Virgil Grissom called it the Molly John W. Young, Michael Collins 5 days Walter Schirra looks on Brown in reference to his Mer,ury First use of Agena target vehicle's propulsion spacecraft that sank. systems. Spacecraft also rendezvoused with Gemini VIII target vehicle. Collins had 49 minutes of EVA standing in the hatch and 39 minutes of EVA to retrieve experiment from Agena stage. 43 orbits wmpleted. 75 /6 a

Photograph of the Gemini VII spacecraft taken through the hatch window of Gemini VI during rendezvous and station-keeping maneuvers at an altitude of ap- proximately 160 miles on December xr 15, 1965 (above). a

"Any y r.:;igator" was the Gemini IX crew's description of the Aug- mented Target Docking Adaptor with its shroud partly open arid still attached (upper right). ANN To carry out a program of scien- tific explorations of the Moon; and Gemini XI September 12-15. 1966 To develop man's capability to Charles Conrad. Jr.. Richaru F. Gordon, Jr. Project Apollo work in the lunar environment. 5 days. 8 hours Gemini record altitude. 1.189 3 km (739 2 mg The cumulative experience of Mer- iegched using Agena proptsion system after cury and Gemini started Apollo with firs( orbit rendezvuiand docking Gordon "That's one small step for a man, confidence. The mighty Saturn made 33-minuta EVA and two-hour standup launch vehiclesfor both Earth orbit EVA 44 orbits. one giant leap for mankind." The national effort that enabled Astronaut anlunar flightshad perfect test Gemini Xi( to speak those words flights. November 11-.15. 1966 James A Lovell. Jr . Edwin E Aldrin. Jr as he stepped onto the lciar surface, Apollo 204/ 3 days. 22 hews. 34 minutes fulfilled a dram as old as humanity. Final Gemini flight Rendezvoused and docked But Project Apollo's goals went be- January 27, 1967. Tragedy struck with its target Agena and kept station with it during EVA Aldrin set an EVA record of 5 yond landing Americans on the Moon on the lau;1ch pad during a preflight hours. 30 minutes for one space walk and two and returning them safely to Earth: test for Apollo 204. the first Apollo stand-up exercises To estabi'sh thtechnology to manned mission. Astronauts Virgil meet other national interests in Grissom. Edward White, and Roger space: C,.9fee lost their lives when a fire To achieve preeminence in space swept through the Command Mod- for the United States: ule. Had it flown, the mission would

76 77 have been Apollo 1, a designation that was officially assigned to it. The investigation and re-- ing of the spacecraft based on the findings caused an 18-month delay. But in the fall of 1968 Apollo was ready for flight. The Spacecraft Apollo was a three-part spacecraft: the command module (CM), the crew's quarters and flight control section: the (SM) for the propulsion and spacecraft sup- port systems (when together, the two modules are called CSM): and the lunar module (LM), to take two of the crew to the lunar surface, support them on the Moon, and return them to the CSM in . A The flight mode, lunar orbit ren- dezvous, was selected in 1962. The Pr boosters for the program were the .n Saturn IB for Earth orbit flights and #1. ;,,t4' ,ciiii ....t the Saturn V fo. lunar flights. The .. crews that made lunar flights where 4 both CM and LM were involved, again selected call names. In the list s "i 2"/:4"." 'kV/ of flights, crews are named in the .1.14:41r I,:4+;* following order: Commander, CM Pi- lot, LM Pilot. The call names for the 're 0 s,