Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62664-5

Ancient religious artworks in Central (8th–10th century AD)

A.A. Munandar Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas , Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: In , Hindu-saiva and Buddha thrived between the 8th and 10th centuries AD. The main hypothesis of this study is that Central Java was governed by two different dynasties in that period, namely the “Sailendravamsa” dynasty, which adopted , and the “Sanjayavamsa” dynasty, which adhered to . In this study, we discuss the ancient religious artworks related to Hinduism and Buddhism developed between the 8th and 10th centuries AD. Iconography and the architecture of sacred structures and the technique of making the fine arts are the tools used to explore the religious art style. We also discuss the theory proposed by Dutch archeologist E.B. Vogler, namely the theory of “the tied art” from the ancient Javanese society. Several conclusions are drawn from the interpretation achieved in this study, which is aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the ancient religious artworks in Central Java. The author believes that this study could provide further academic explanation on the origin of the supporters of these old artworks in Central Java.

1 INTRODUCTION

The form of art discussed in this study is limited to the fine artworks supported by available data, which could be retrieved anytime. The artworks selected in this study are those that are devoted to religious and ritual needs for worship or complementing the ancient sacred struc- tures. Therefore, the forms of art chosen for this study include the following three aspects, namely the works of religious architecture, sculpture art, and reliefs. In the central part of Java, based on the dated inscription, there is evidence of existence of a civilization that had thrived under the principles of Hinduism and Buddhism. The Hinduism discussed in this study is the Hindu-saiva, in which Siva is the god. Meanwhile, the Buddhism discussed in this study is from Mahayana-ism, which recognizes pantheon in its system of belief. Interestingly, according to the existing data, Hinduism and Buddhism had developed well in the central part of Java region only from the 8th to 10th centuries, and no archeological evidence was found in that region after the 10th century. In the study of Indonesian archeol- ogy, the period of development between the 8th and 10th centuries is often called the Old Classic period. In the late 10th century, apparently, the central powers of the royal govern- ment shifted from the central part to the eastern part of Java; thus, the cultural activities of the ancient Javanese society also shifted to the eastern part of Java region. The ancient Mata- ram Kingdom initially had developed in the central part of the Java region, and according to the Canggal inscription dated 732 AD, the kingdom was ruled by King Sanjaya, who was the first king to adhere to Hindu-saiva (Poerbatjaraka, 1952, pp. 49–58). From the perspec- tives of political history and archeology, it is crucial to identify the causes of the frequent relocation of the capital town of Mataram. According to the inscriptions, the capital of Mataram was named Medang or Mdang; however, in some places, it was known as Mdang i Mataram, Mdang i Poh Pitu, and Mdang i Mamratipura. Yet the exact location of Kedaton Mdang is unknown to date. The inscriptions also show that the kings ruling Mata- ram were the family members of King Śailendra or Śailendravamsa. This dynasty is often related to Buddha Mahayana, because the term Śailendravamsa was used for the first time in the inscription (700 Saka/778 AD), and King Śailendra apparently adopted the

661 principles of the Buddha Mahayana. The inscription also describes King Tejapurnnapanna Panangkarana,1 named Sailendravamsatilaka (“the pearl of Śailendra dynasty”), who was ordered to build some type of sacred structure to worship Goddess , named Tarabhawa- nam. Tara is a common name for any goddess that is considered sakti (enchanting) in many Buddha levels in the Buddha Mahayana religion. Another inscription named Kelurak inscription (in 782 AD) mentioning Śailendravamsa was found in the west of the complex. It states that a sacred structure used for worshipping under the Manjusri belief was built and hence it was called Manjusrigrha in the inscription, which is the current Sewu Temple. Śailendravamsa is also mentioned in the Abhayagirivihara inscription (792 AD), which is found in the archeological area of Ratu Baka (Boechari, 2012, p. 198). Here, we agree with the opinions of experts from previous studies that rebutted the theory of the two dynasties, “Sanjayavamsa” and “Śailendravamsa” existing in the central part of Java from the 8th to 10th century. Nevertheless, only the Śailendravamsa dynasty existed in this period, and some members practiced Hindu-saiva, whereas others practiced Buddha Mahayana. This study was conducted to gain in-depth knowledge about the forms of religious fine arts during the old Mataram period in Central Java and to under- stand its characteristics, nature, and art style developed by the artists. As stated above, the artworks developed during this period were used for religious pur- poses. Thus, it is assumed that the artists were highly associated with religious activities under the Hindu-saiva or Buddha Mahayana belief and not with any other purposes. It was certain that the adherents of both religions needed a sacred place to hold religious ceremonies, place the statues of gods as a symbol of worship, and display the reliefs depicting the teachings and systems of religious belief. Meanwhile, many other artworks, such as those of the performing arts, could not be studied because of the difficulty in obtaining the relevant data.

1.1 Sacred ancient structures The sacred structures of Hinduism and Buddhism do not have a specific term, such as grha, bhavanam, candi, vihara, kuti, and katyagan; however, a common term that has always been used to refer to these structures is “temple”. In addition, the term patirthan denotes a sacred compound in the form of a sacred water source; in Buddhism, there are terms like and caitya. The sacred structures of Hindu-saiva in the central region of Java are (in Ambarawa), , , , Morangan, Merak, Pendem, , and Asu , and the largest complex is Temple, whose original name is Sivagrha. Meanwhile, Buddhist temples include Kalasan Temple (Tarabhavanam), Sari, Lumbung Temples, Sewu Temples (Manjusrigrha), Temple, Lor, Pla- osan Kidul, Sajiwan, , , , and , and the grandest Buddhist stupa is in Temple. Furthermore, it can be concluded that the differences between Hindu-saiva and Buddhist temples are attributed to their differences in belief systems and ritual tools. However, an interesting finding is that the temples belonging to those two religions have several similari- ties. The data on the similarities and differences between the architectural components of these two religions are presented in Table 1. On the basis of the data presented in Table 1, similarities between the Hindu or Buddhist temples are described as follows: 1. Two types of materials, namely stone blocks (outer structures) and bricks (central struc- ture) are used in the structures of the temples. 2. The temples have a three-level roof shape with a kemuncak (the top of the roof), which has the shape of either a ratna (in Hindu temples) or a dagob (a small stupa in Buddhist temples). 3. The edge of stairway is known as the ikal-lemah (weak-bend form) with the end, and its base is adorned with the head of Kala. 4. The frames are flat (patta) with variations, namely semicircles (kumuda) and bell shape (padma). 662 Table 1. Similarities and differences in the architectural components of Hindu and Buddhist temples.

No. Components compared Similarity Difference

1. The temples use two materials, namely stone block and bricks √ – (as well as other materials that quickly weather) 2. Their architecture shows religious symbols – √ 3. Hindu temples are equipped with 3 ancillary temples (perwara – √ temples) in front of the main temple, whereas the perwara of Buddhist temples are built surrounding their main temple 4 The temples have a three-graded roof shape with one kemuncak √ – 5. The temples have the edge of stairs called “ikal-lemah” with a √ – Makara end, and their base is adorned with the head of Kala 6. The yard of Hindu temples is not paved with stone blocks, – √ whereas the surface of a yard is covered with stone blocks 7. The frames used are flat (patta) with variations, namely √ – semicircles (kumuda) and bell sides (padma) 8. The outer walls of Hindu temples have niches, whereas – √ Buddhist temples do not have niches placed on their outer walls 9. The entrance to the chambers of the temples and niches √ – (parsvadevata) is adorned with the head of Kala above 10. The temples are known to have a fence structure (vedika) √ – on the edge of pradaksinapatha floor around the body of Hindu-saiva or Buddhist temples

5. The entrance to the chambers of the temples and niches (parsvadevata) is adorned with the head of Kala positioned above the entrance. 6. The temples are known to have a fence structure (vedika) on the edge of the pradaksinap- atha floor in the body of Hindu-saiva or Buddhist temples. Furthermore, the significant differences between the Hindu-saiva and Buddhist temples are as follows: 1. Their architecture shows religious symbols, with the roof component in the shape of a ratna for the Hindu temples and a dagob (a small stupa) for the Buddhist temples. 2. Hindu temples are complemented with three ancillary temples (pervara temples) in front of their main temple, whereas the pervara of the Buddhist temples is built surrounding their main temple. 3. Hindu temples have a niche on their outer wall, whereas Buddhist temples have no niches in their outer wall. 4. The surface of the courtyard of Buddhist temples is covered with stone blocks,2 which are absent in the compounds. The similarities in the structures of the Hindu and Buddhist temples show that the archi- tectural art form is developed and supported together by the silpin (artisan) from both reli- gions. Considering the similarities in the architecture of the temples, it can be assumed that the characteristics of the Hindu and Buddhist sacred buildings originated in the Old Classic period in Central Java. With the development of the ancient Mataram Kingdom in that period, it can be concluded that the Hindu temples have the same architectural characteris- tics as the Buddhist sacred buildings during the Mataram period under the reign of the royal family of Sailendravamsa.

1.2 Statues of gods Apparently, there is a significant iconographic difference between the statues of the Hindu- saiva and Buddha pantheon, which is not necessarily discussed further. This difference attributes to the differences found among , Visnu, Siva, , and other Hindu 663 statues and Panca Tathagata, Bhoddhisattva, and other statues of the Buddha pantheon. It is interesting to note that the same components are found in the statues of Hindu-saiva and Buddha pantheon. This similarity can be due to the characteristic features of the statue art developed in the central region of Java from the 8th to 10th century AD. On the basis of the observation of several statues of the Hindu and Buddhist gods in the central region of Java, many similarities can be concluded as follows: 1. The pedestals of the statues are always in the form of a blooming lotus () in both standing and sitting positions. 2. The shape of the backrest for the statues’ body is called the Prabhamandala, and there is a circle named Sirascakra behind the head of the statues, which is considered as the symbol of god’s divine light. 3. The ornaments in the Hindu and Buddhist statues have the same pattern, which is a series of jewels (ratna). A large jewel is in the center, which is surrounded by small jewels. 4. The statues are depicted as wearing clothes and accessories without many jewels. The accessories not only complement the appearance of the statutes but also contribute to their elegance. 5. The accessories include crown, ear accessories (earrings), upavita (a string of caste), brace- let, necklace, arm ring, belt, and ankle bracelet. Through an in-depth study, many other similarities can also be examined, such as the size (height) of statues, which seems to be almost similar in both religions, or the working process of the surface, which depends on the materials used for making statues (e.g., stone or metal). The similarities in the appearance of those statues can thus be assumed to be due to the similarities in their working process, which are the characteristics of the Hindu and Buddhist statue arts found in Central Java during the Old Classical era (8th to 10th century AD).

1.3 Characteristics of narrative relief art in the Old Classical era The characteristics of narrative reliefs developed in the Old Classical era (8th to 10th century AD) in Central Java are as follows: 1. The figures are described realistically or with a naturalist shape. 2. The faces of human and animal figures are always oriented toward the observers. 3. On the panel, there is an empty space, but there are no accessories at all. 4. Almost half of the media’s depth (e.g., stone) is used for the relief sculpture. 5. A haut relief is carved into the stone surface (Bernet, Kempers 1959, pp. 45–46, Munandar 2003, p. 28). After careful observation, it can be concluded that there are several characteristics closely related to the description of story reliefs in the Old Classical temples. First, each human fig- ure is depicted in a dynamic position, not in a static position, describing a movement. Statues in standing person always bear a smile, depicted as talking or meditating. It means that the impression of such a story relief is alive, teaching a lesson to the observers. Furthermore, the scene depicted is always the front ground, and not background; a far second ground or third background is found in the relief depiction in the temples during the era (14th to 15th century) found in Central Java. Every work of art is always produced using a creative process of its artists. They process the idea and use it in different art media and expressions, such as stone, metal, wood, body movement, and voice. An artwork would have no value if it is not appreciated by society. Therefore, the society becomes an important element in the artistic process. The elements of art are shown in Chart 1. In the ancient Javanese society, the artworks of Hinduism and Buddhism have five ele- ments, as shown in the chart. However, their idea and concept always come from the lessons of the two religions. A silpin that carves the statue of Avalokistesvara from a stone borrows the concept of Bhoddisattva from the lesson of Buddhadharma Mahayana. Then, after com- pleting the sacred idea expression and the working process that are equivalent to medita- 664 Chart 1. Elements of artwork that are interrelated (Source: Munandar et al. 2009). tion, the statue is presented to the people for worshipping. The statue is then placed by the adherents of the Buddha Mahayana in a chamber of the temple accompanying the statue of Siddharta Buddha or others. For example, the statue of Avalokitesvara is appreciated by the people when it is used as one of the ritual tools in the worship of Buddhadharma. This proc- ess of religious artwork creation, according to E. B. Vogler (1948), is called “bound and used art”, which developed in Central Java from the 8th to 10th century. “Bound” means that the art is subject to the rules and concepts of Hinduism and Buddhism, and “used” means that it is accepted by the society as a ritual facility, because the work of art produced has to be in accordance with the religious concepts used as the reference of its creation. According to Vogler, “bonded and used” art is difficult to change. Such art can experience some changes if there are several strong influences, such as any forces from outside of the artists. In fact, the artists are actually a group of clergy that is bound to the religious belief they adhere to. To examine the changes of “bound art”, a different study needs to be conducted. Claire Holt (2000), an expert in Indonesian cultural history, found that the art of Hinduism and Buddhism developed in Central Java from the 8th to 10th century had unique features. The statue art in Buddhism and the description of the stories in the relief of Borobudur Tem- ple show the intricate smoothness and composure exhibited by the artists on their artworks. The artworks do not show any tension or dynamic quality on the reliefs in the Rupadhatu part of the temple, and all the images are kept in harmony. Nevertheless, the relief scenes on the covered base part (Kamadhatu) show a more dynamic movement (Holt 2000, pp. 49–50). Thus, Borobudur Temple shows two different impressions of beauty, and the artists showed their religious idea through their artworks. At Prambanan Temple, the reliefs carved are in fact more dynamic in their composition and more dramatic from the perspective of expressed feelings. It can be concluded that a real stylization symptom at Prambanan is more apparent, which is evident from its relief panel rooms that are more dominant than those of Borobudur Temple. According to Holt, those who have brought a greater impression will then lead the way to glory (2000, p. 63), which is especially true based on the existing archeological data. The impression resulted from seeing the form of fine art at Borobudur Temple is “a gentle flow of calmness”. The calmness itself can be seen from the building of its temple, which is in fact a giant stupa decorating the peak of a hill in the midst of natural scenery and sur- rounded by mountains. All statues of Tathagata that decorate the niche also show a flow of smoothness leading to sunyata. This impression can also be observed in the description of the story reliefs. Although the panel rooms are filled with many figures described, their presence does not appear to be crammed or crowded. In fact, those figures complement each other 665 in a silent narration. Meanwhile, all of the forms of fine art in Sivagrha temples have the same objective, that is, to show glory and victory. The three main temples (Temples of Siva, Brahma, and Visnu) are complemented with the temples for worshipping other gods, and 224 pervara (ancillary) temples are added surrounding them. The statues are depicted in dynamic and “live” impressions, in the position of either meditation or welcoming the worshippers entering their sacred chambers. The relief portrays several meanings. The is an epic story presenting the victory of as the good side that beats the evil, which is sym- bolized by the figure of Rahwana. The story is full of heroism of the god-incarnated knights. It can be concluded that the main characteristics of the ancient Mataram art created by the silpins (artisans) from the Sailendra dynasty are “devotion and victory”. Artworks are a full devotion to god by humans (people and other kingdoms). Both concepts could be maintained until the beginning of the 10th century; however, in the second half of the 10th century, they abandoned Central Java and migrated to the eastern part of Java region thereby bringing a different concept of art.

NOTES

1. The name of King Tejapurnnapanna Panangkarana, according to the Mantyasih inscrip- tion (829 Saka/907 AD) issued by King Balitung, was possibly Rakai , who ruled Mataram after King Sanjaya. 2. Because the courtyard of the temples is covered with stone blocks, from an archeologi- cal viewpoint, it can be concluded that several activities were held in that yard in the era of the Buddhism. Possibly, these Buddhists followed a kind of ritual of circling the main temple in a pradaksina motion. Therefore, in order not to damage the yard by the numer- ous pilgrims (especially during the rainy season), it had to be paved with the reinforcement structure of stone blocks. In the Hindu-saiva temple complexes, the yard of the temples was not covered with stone blocks. It can be concluded that the religious activities of the Hindu society in that era were not as active as those of the Buddhist society in their tem- ples (Munandar 2016, pp. 23–24). Examples of Buddhist temples paved with stone block structure include Sewu Temple, which has a stone block structure in its first yard that is the closest to the main temple, and the Banyunibo, Plaosan Lor, and Lumbung Temples.

REFERENCES

Boechari. (2012) Melacak sejarah kuno Indonesia lewat prasasti (Tracing the ancient history of Indone- sia through inscriptions). : Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. Holt, C. (2000) Melacak jejak perkembangan seni di Indonesia (Tracing the art development footsteps in Indonesia). (R.M. Soedarsono, Trans.). Bandung: Masyarakat Seni Pertunjukan Indonesia (Society of Performing Arts in Indonesia) & arti. line. Kempers, A.J.B. (1959) Ancient . Amsterdam: C.P.J.van der Peet. Munandar, A.A, et al. (2009) Lukisan Basoeki Abdullah tema dongeng, legenda, mitos dan tokoh (Basoeki Abdullah’s paintings with the themes fairytales, legends, myths, and famous figures). Jakarta: Museum Basoeki Abdullah. Munandar, A.A. (2003) Aksamala: Bunga rampai karya penelitian (Aksamala: Research work anthol- ogy). Seri Kajian Arkeologi (Archeological Studies Series). Bogor: Akademia. Munandar, A.A. (2016) Candi-candi Buddha di Jawa: Bukti perkembangan agama Buddha Mahayana dalam masyarakat Jawa kuno (Buddhism Temples in Java: Evidence of Buddha Mahayana religion development in ancient Javanese society). [Symposium] Muara Jambi and Sriwijaya Saturday, 14 May 2016 for Festival Waisak for Indonesia 28th April—29th Mei 2016, NAS Building, Fl. 2, Pasar Seni, Taman Impian Jaya Ancol, North Jakarta. Poerbatjaraka, R.M.Ng. (1952) Riwayat Indonesia I ( I). Djakarta: Jajasan Pembangunan.

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