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Ancient Religious Artworks in Central Java (8Th–10Th Century AD)

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Ancient Religious Artworks in Central Java (8Th–10Th Century AD) Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62664-5 Ancient religious artworks in Central Java (8th–10th century AD) A.A. Munandar Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia ABSTRACT: In Central Java, Hindu-saiva and Buddha Mahayana thrived between the 8th and 10th centuries AD. The main hypothesis of this study is that Central Java was governed by two different dynasties in that period, namely the “Sailendravamsa” dynasty, which adopted Buddhism, and the “Sanjayavamsa” dynasty, which adhered to Hinduism. In this study, we discuss the ancient religious artworks related to Hinduism and Buddhism developed between the 8th and 10th centuries AD. Iconography and the architecture of sacred structures and the technique of making the fine arts are the tools used to explore the religious art style. We also discuss the theory proposed by Dutch archeologist E.B. Vogler, namely the theory of “the tied art” from the ancient Javanese society. Several conclusions are drawn from the interpretation achieved in this study, which is aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the ancient religious artworks in Central Java. The author believes that this study could provide further academic explanation on the origin of the supporters of these old artworks in Central Java. 1 INTRODUCTION The form of art discussed in this study is limited to the fine artworks supported by available data, which could be retrieved anytime. The artworks selected in this study are those that are devoted to religious and ritual needs for worship or complementing the ancient sacred struc- tures. Therefore, the forms of art chosen for this study include the following three aspects, namely the works of religious architecture, sculpture art, and reliefs. In the central part of Java, based on the dated inscription, there is evidence of existence of a civilization that had thrived under the principles of Hinduism and Buddhism. The Hinduism discussed in this study is the Hindu-saiva, in which Siva is the god. Meanwhile, the Buddhism discussed in this study is from Mahayana-ism, which recognizes pantheon in its system of belief. Interestingly, according to the existing data, Hinduism and Buddhism had developed well in the central part of Java region only from the 8th to 10th centuries, and no archeological evidence was found in that region after the 10th century. In the study of Indonesian archeol- ogy, the period of development between the 8th and 10th centuries is often called the Old Classic period. In the late 10th century, apparently, the central powers of the royal govern- ment shifted from the central part to the eastern part of Java; thus, the cultural activities of the ancient Javanese society also shifted to the eastern part of Java region. The ancient Mata- ram Kingdom initially had developed in the central part of the Java region, and according to the Canggal inscription dated 732 AD, the kingdom was ruled by King Sanjaya, who was the first king to adhere to Hindu-saiva (Poerbatjaraka, 1952, pp. 49–58). From the perspec- tives of political history and archeology, it is crucial to identify the causes of the frequent relocation of the capital town of Mataram. According to the inscriptions, the capital of Mataram was named Medang or Mdang; however, in some places, it was known as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram, Mdang i Poh Pitu, and Mdang i Mamratipura. Yet the exact location of Kedaton Mdang is unknown to date. The inscriptions also show that the kings ruling Mata- ram were the family members of King Śailendra or Śailendravamsa. This dynasty is often related to Buddha Mahayana, because the term Śailendravamsa was used for the first time in the Kalasan inscription (700 Saka/778 AD), and King Śailendra apparently adopted the 661 principles of the Buddha Mahayana. The inscription also describes King Tejapurnnapanna Panangkarana,1 named Sailendravamsatilaka (“the pearl of Śailendra dynasty”), who was ordered to build some type of sacred structure to worship Goddess Tara, named Tarabhawa- nam. Tara is a common name for any goddess that is considered sakti (enchanting) in many Buddha levels in the Buddha Mahayana religion. Another inscription named Kelurak inscription (in 782 AD) mentioning Śailendravamsa was found in the west of the Sewu Temple complex. It states that a sacred structure used for worshipping under the Manjusri belief was built and hence it was called Manjusrigrha in the inscription, which is the current Sewu Temple. Śailendravamsa is also mentioned in the Abhayagirivihara inscription (792 AD), which is found in the archeological area of Ratu Baka (Boechari, 2012, p. 198). Here, we agree with the opinions of experts from previous studies that rebutted the theory of the two dynasties, “Sanjayavamsa” and “Śailendravamsa” existing in the central part of Java from the 8th to 10th century. Nevertheless, only the Śailendravamsa dynasty existed in this period, and some members practiced Hindu-saiva, whereas others practiced Buddha Mahayana. This study was conducted to gain in-depth knowledge about the forms of religious fine arts during the old Mataram period in Central Java and to under- stand its characteristics, nature, and art style developed by the artists. As stated above, the artworks developed during this period were used for religious pur- poses. Thus, it is assumed that the artists were highly associated with religious activities under the Hindu-saiva or Buddha Mahayana belief and not with any other purposes. It was certain that the adherents of both religions needed a sacred place to hold religious ceremonies, place the statues of gods as a symbol of worship, and display the reliefs depicting the teachings and systems of religious belief. Meanwhile, many other artworks, such as those of the performing arts, could not be studied because of the difficulty in obtaining the relevant data. 1.1 Sacred ancient structures The sacred structures of Hinduism and Buddhism do not have a specific term, such as grha, bhavanam, candi, vihara, kuti, and katyagan; however, a common term that has always been used to refer to these structures is “temple”. In addition, the term patirthan denotes a sacred compound in the form of a sacred water source; in Buddhism, there are terms like stupa and caitya. The sacred structures of Hindu-saiva in the central region of Java are Gedong Songo (in Ambarawa), Gunung Wukir, Sambisari, Kedulan, Morangan, Merak, Pendem, Lumbung, and Asu Temples, and the largest complex is Prambanan Temple, whose original name is Sivagrha. Meanwhile, Buddhist temples include Kalasan Temple (Tarabhavanam), Sari, Lumbung Temples, Sewu Temples (Manjusrigrha), Bubrah Temple, Plaosan Lor, Pla- osan Kidul, Sajiwan, Banyunibo, Ngawen, Mendut, and Pawon, and the grandest Buddhist stupa is in Borobudur Temple. Furthermore, it can be concluded that the differences between Hindu-saiva and Buddhist temples are attributed to their differences in belief systems and ritual tools. However, an interesting finding is that the temples belonging to those two religions have several similari- ties. The data on the similarities and differences between the architectural components of these two religions are presented in Table 1. On the basis of the data presented in Table 1, similarities between the Hindu or Buddhist temples are described as follows: 1. Two types of materials, namely stone blocks (outer structures) and bricks (central struc- ture) are used in the structures of the temples. 2. The temples have a three-level roof shape with a kemuncak (the top of the roof), which has the shape of either a ratna (in Hindu temples) or a dagob (a small stupa in Buddhist temples). 3. The edge of stairway is known as the ikal-lemah (weak-bend form) with the Makara end, and its base is adorned with the head of Kala. 4. The frames are flat (patta) with variations, namely semicircles (kumuda) and bell shape (padma). 662 Table 1. Similarities and differences in the architectural components of Hindu and Buddhist temples. No. Components compared Similarity Difference 1. The temples use two materials, namely stone block and bricks √ – (as well as other materials that quickly weather) 2. Their architecture shows religious symbols – √ 3. Hindu temples are equipped with 3 ancillary temples (perwara – √ temples) in front of the main temple, whereas the perwara of Buddhist temples are built surrounding their main temple 4 The temples have a three-graded roof shape with one kemuncak √ – 5. The temples have the edge of stairs called “ikal-lemah” with a √ – Makara end, and their base is adorned with the head of Kala 6. The yard of Hindu temples is not paved with stone blocks, – √ whereas the surface of a Buddhist temple yard is covered with stone blocks 7. The frames used are flat (patta) with variations, namely √ – semicircles (kumuda) and bell sides (padma) 8. The outer walls of Hindu temples have niches, whereas – √ Buddhist temples do not have niches placed on their outer walls 9. The entrance to the chambers of the temples and niches √ – (parsvadevata) is adorned with the head of Kala above 10. The temples are known to have a fence structure (vedika) √ – on the edge of pradaksinapatha floor around the body of Hindu-saiva or Buddhist temples 5. The entrance to the chambers of the temples and niches (parsvadevata) is adorned with the head of Kala positioned above the entrance. 6. The temples are known to have a fence structure (vedika) on the edge of the pradaksinap- atha floor in the body of Hindu-saiva or Buddhist temples. Furthermore, the significant differences between the Hindu-saiva and Buddhist temples are as follows: 1. Their architecture shows religious symbols, with the roof component in the shape of a ratna for the Hindu temples and a dagob (a small stupa) for the Buddhist temples.
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