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The Origin of Stepped Rock-Cut Tunnels in Eastern Anatolia Kemalettin KÖROĞLU and Harun DANIŞMAZ

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The Origin of Stepped Rock-Cut Tunnels in Eastern Anatolia Kemalettin KÖROĞLU and Harun DANIŞMAZ doi: 10.2143/ANES.55.0.3284687 ANES 55 (2018) 107-124 The Origin of Stepped Rock-Cut Tunnels in Eastern Anatolia Kemalettin KÖROĞLU and Harun DANIŞMAZ Abstract Stepped rock-cut tunnels are among the most interesting remains at many fortresses in Eastern Ana- tolia. The construction of these tunnels, which are cut deep into rock surfaces up to a length of 350 m, must have been at least as difficult as that of the fortification walls and expertise would have been required. Stepped rock-cut tunnels and associated fortresses in Eastern Anatolia have not so far been evaluated as a whole. The stepped rock tunnels in Eastern Anatolia have been accepted as one of the basic criteria indi- cating the Urartian period since the beginning of the 20th century. In this study, we first consider the types of stepped rock-cut tunnels in Eastern Anatolia, the purposes of their construction, and their distribution. We then discuss their dating and our interpretation of the period of their arrival in the region of Eastern Anatolia. Keywords: Rock-cut stepped tunnel; Eastern Anatolia; Urartian Kingdom; Hellenistic-Roman Period. Introduction Stepped rock-cut tunnels are among the most interesting remains at many fortresses in Eastern Anatolia. The construction of these tunnels, which are cut deep into rock surfaces up to a length of 350 m, must have been at least as difficult as that of the fortification walls and would have required expertise. Taking into consideration also the labour spent on their construction, these tunnels can be said to have had important functions. Rock-cut tunnels are found not only in Eastern Anatolia, but also in many other regions of Anatolia (Figs 12). Stepped rock-cut tunnels in general have attracted the interest of travellers and researchers since the middle of the 19th century.1 Lehmann-Haupt was the first to write that the stepped tunnels were a characteristic of Chaldian (Urartu) fortresses.2 This interpretation seems to have influenced Burney, who did research on Urartu fortresses and drew their plans about 50 years later. Burney did not doubt that the stepped tunnels at Tunceli/Bağın Fortress and Van/Toprakkale were associated with the Kingdom of Urartu. Bağın and the stepped tunnels are described as follows in his report, which has been a source for many subsequent studies on Urartu: 1 Taylor 1868, pp. 282–285, 295; Perrot et al. 1872, p. 373; Lehmann-Haupt 1910, p. 103; Leonhard 1915, pp. 236–238; Osten 1929, pp. 123–136. 2 Lehmann-Haupt 1910, p. 103. 108 K. KÖROĞLU – H. DANIŞMAZ Fig. 1. The distribution of stepped rock-cut tunnels in Anatolia. It stands on an impregnable rock, round whose foot flows the swift Peri Su. On the north and west sides the medieval walls are built directly on the remains of the Urartian, which stand three or four courses high. Nowhere is the contrast between the large, unmortared Urartian ashlar and the medieval masonry of small stones set in mortar more easily seen. A cuneiform inscription confirms the Urartian date of the original defences. Circular pits cut down into the rock, inside the castle, may have served as cisterns. Certainly the purpose of the spiral staircase, cut up from the river in a tunnel through the rock and continued in perilous steps up the cliff-face, was probably to enable the garrison to collect water from a place which the enemy could reach only with diffi- culty. Comparison with Toprakkale suggests that this staircase belongs to the original Urartian defences.3 Careful inspection of cut-stone/ashlar courses at Bağın (Fig. 3), which Burney considered to be from the Urartian period, shows that they were mortared; therefore, they must have been later than the Urartian period. The Urartian cuneiform inscription on the upper part of the wall is not in situ, but has been brought from elsewhere and reused for the construction of the wall. Today, part of this inscription is on the wall, and the other part of it is in Elazığ Museum.4 3 Burney 1957, p. 52. 4 Schäfer 1973–1974. THE ORIGIN OF STEPPED ROCK-CUT TUNNELS IN EASTERN ANATOLIA 109 Fig. 2. The distribution of stepped rock-cut tunnels in Eastern Anatolia and surrounding regions. While two single-chambered rock-cut tombs at Bağın were once thought to be Urartian,5 later they were found to belong to the Hellenistic-Roman period.6 There are no distinct remains that can be dated to the Urartian period at Bağın. About 10 years after Burney, von Gall reviewed stepped tunnels in many regions of Anatolia, starting from Phrygia.7 This study includes a total of six fortresses and stepped tunnels in Eastern Anatolia, at Palu, Bağın, Kemah, Pekeriç, Hasankale and Toprakkale. Von Gall, like Burney, dated all but Pekeriç and Kemah to the Urartian period. Following these preliminary reports, stepped rock-cut tunnels found at fortresses in Eastern Anatolia have been accepted as one of the criteria identifying Urartu. Thus, Kleiss, Hauptmann, Barnett, Salvini, Köroğlu, Zimansky, Çevik, Kroll, Sevin,8 and many other researchers have 5 Çevik 2000, p. 126. 6 Köroğlu 2007. 7 von Gall 1967, p. 520. 8 Kleiss 1976; Kleiss and Hauptmann 1976; Hauptmann 1972, p. 113; Barnett 1982, p. 362; Salvini 1995, pp. 147–148; Köroğlu 1996; Zimansky 1998, p. 181 no. 781; Çevik 2000; Kroll 2011, pp. 157–158. Sevin (Sevin et al. 2011, pp. 228–229) was cautious in associating stepped rock-cut tunnels with the Kingdom of Urartu. He wrote that the tunnels were located in the periphery rather than the central region of Urartu. 110 K. KÖROĞLU – H. DANIŞMAZ Fig. 3. A detailed view of fortification wall of Bağın citadel. accepted stepped rock tunnels as features that are important indications of the Urartian period in dating fortresses and sites. It seems that the expertise of the Urartians in stone masonry has been a factor in this idea becoming the common view. Numerous striking examples of Urartian construction works in Eastern Anatolia such as citadels, monumental fortifications, stepped rock-cut foundations, open- air altars in the form of gates, canals and ponds have overshadowed similar remains that may have been built in different time periods in the region. For this reason, a majority of the fortresses in Eastern Anatolia, rock-cut tombs and stepped tunnels have been associated with Urartu without discussion. Stepped rock-cut tunnels and associated fortresses in Eastern Anatolia have not so far been evaluated as a whole, and the main bases for their dating have not been questioned. For example, the types of stepped rock-cut tunnels in the region and their functions have not been sufficiently studied. Moreover, the precise spread of these tunnels in Eastern Anatolia and their relationship with other tunnels beyond Eastern Anatolia are also unknown. In recent years Köroğlu, one of the present authors, suggested in a study on rock-cut tombs in Eastern Anatolia that among the tombs that until then had been dated to the Urartian period, THE ORIGIN OF STEPPED ROCK-CUT TUNNELS IN EASTERN ANATOLIA 111 those with single chambers may have been built in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.9 This evaluation shows that the stone masonry expertise in the region is not limited to Urartu, and it encouraged us also to study and discuss stepped rock-cut tunnels using a similar method. In this article, we study and evaluate 10 stepped rock-cut tunnels at seven separate fortresses in the province of Elazığ, 11 tunnels at seven fortresses in the province of Tunceli, seven tunnels at six fortresses in the province of Erzincan, nine tunnels at eight fortresses in the province of Erzurum, and one tunnel in the province of Ağrı (Fig. 2). We discuss our findings at these places, also with reference to the stepped rock-cut tunnels in the provinces of Ordu, Samsun, Tokat, Giresun, Kastamonu, Sinop, Amasya in the Black Sea region; in Çorum, Ankara, Eskişehir and Konya in Central Anatolia; and in Diyarbakır, Adıyaman and Batman in Southeastern Anatolia (Figs 12). We will first consider the types of stepped rock-cut tunnels encountered in Eastern Anatolia, the purposes of their construction, their areas of use, and the areas of their distribution. We will then discuss their dating and our interpretation of the period of their arrival in the region of Urartu. Types of Stepped rock-cut Tunnels Stepped rock tunnels are placed within or on the edges of fortresses built on high rocky places. While these tunnels look similar at first sight, they can be organised into two groups and there are both typological and functional differences between them. Stepped rock-cut tunnels of the first group were built within the fortification walls surrounding the fortresses, cut down into the rocks starting from the surface. The tunnels within this group do not have any exits (Type A). The tunnels in the second group start within the fortification walls, wind down the side of the fortress and reach the water beside the rocky hills (Type B). Characteristics identifying these groups are as follows: Type A: Stepped Rock Tunnels without Exits – They are made within the fortification walls and they do not have exits. – There is rocky ground or a closed gallery at the end of the tunnel (Fig. 4). – They are cut from the top of the rocks to the ground, with an inclination of 30–45 degrees. – The ceiling of the tunnel is usually barrel vaulted (Fig. 5). – Some, like the tunnel at Pekeriç, have water canals directed toward the tunnel entrance. – Dimensions may vary. In the examples we visited, the width of the tunnels is 2.5–3 m, the number of steps is over 50 (Şirinlikale), and the depth is c.
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