sign in sign up
<<
Home , Amasra, Amasya, Edremit gulf, Fatsa, Gulf of Fethiye, Gulf of Izmit

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226113643

Tsunamis Observed on and Near the Turkish Coast

Article in Natural Hazards · January 2000 DOI: 10.1023/A:1008155117243

CITATIONS READS 91 453

2 authors:

Yıldız Altınok Şükrü Ersoy University Yildiz Technical University

64 PUBLICATIONS 834 CITATIONS 64 PUBLICATIONS 544 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

TRANSFER View project

Acil saha gözlem View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Şükrü Ersoy on 08 November 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Natural Hazards 21: 185–205, 2000. 185 © 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Tsunamis Observed on and Near the Turkish Coast

Y. ALTINOK1 andS. ¸ ERSOY2 1Department of Geophysical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Istanbul, 34850 Avcilar, Istanbul, ; 2Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Istanbul, 34850 Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey

(Received: 21 July 1998; in final form: 6 December 1999) Abstract. For centuries, inhabitants of coastal areas have suffered from the effects of tsunamis. Turkey, with a coastline of 8333 km, has experienced many tsunamis. Historical records reveal that, during the observation period over 3000 years, the coastal and surrounding areas of Turkey have been affected by more than ninety tsunamis. These tended to cluster around the Sea, the city of Istanbul and the gulfs of Izmit, Izmir, and Iskenderun. Each of the occurrences surveyed in this paper deserves further individual study. The most extensive available information concerns the tsunamis associated with the Istanbul of 1509 and 1894, the Eastern Mar- mara in 1963 and that of Izmit in 1999, which disturbed the Marmara Sea; the Earthquake of 1939 in Erzincan in eastern ; and the 1968 Bartın Earthquake, which affected and on the . In addition to these, it is known that a tsunami occurred in 1598 on the shores of the Black Sea in connection with an earthquake at in northern Anatolia.

Key words: tsunamis, Turkish coasts.

1. Introduction Throughout human history, coastal communities have been aware of tsunami haz- ards. This natural catastrophe has been responsible for great loss of life and immense damage to property. When we look at the geographical distribution of tsunamis, the majority of them have been generated in the Pacific Ocean. Ac- cording to Gusiakov et al. (1997), more than 800 tsunamigenic events occurred all over the Pacific from A.D. 684 to 1994. The last major Pacific-wide tsunami occurred on 17 July 1998 in Sissano Lagoon, Papua , and around 3000 people were killed or missing. Imamura (1998) stated that a survey of the damaged area confirmed 7 to 10 m wave heights and found a place where waves up to 15 m or above were centered. He also observed that the severe damage and extreme wave heights were confined to a relatively short (30 km) stretch of coast. Destructive tsunamis have also occurred in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as well as in the . In the , historical records can be traced back to the 15th century B.C. The volcanic eruption of produced a tremendous tsunami and, as a result, the was wiped out. Many more destructive tsunamis have occurred in the eastern Mediterranean since then (Heck, 1947; Ambraseys, 1962; Karnik, 1971; Moreria, 1971; Shebalin et al., 186 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

1974; Antonopoulos, 1978; Guidoboni et al., 1994). The eastern Mediterranean tsunamis mostly took place in the and surrounding areas (Calvi, 1941; Ambraseys, 1960, 1962; Antonopoulos, 1978; Poirier and Taher, 1980; Papado- poulos and Chalkis, 1984; Papazachos et al., 1985; Papadopoulos, 1993). It has been observed that most of these occurred along the Turkish coasts. Therefore Turkey, a country of frequent earthquakes and with a coastline of 8333 km, is also exposed to tsunamis. From historical documents, it has been found that earthquake- produced tsunamis had indeed occurred and that these had caused great material losses in Turkey and vicinity (Birand, 1944; Soysal et al., 1981; Soysal, 1985; Kuran and Yalçıner, 1993; Altınok and Ersoy, 1996–1997; Altınok and Ersoy, 1997).

2. Data Tsunamis that occurred on or near the Turkish coasts and those believed to have affected the Turkish coasts are listed in the Appendix. This list, which includes tsunamis that occurred between 1410  100 B.C. and 1999 A.D., is based on published work. The Iida (1984) Scale modified by Soloviev (1990) and, Tinti and Maramai (1996) has been used for the assessment of the reality of the events as follows: (0), very improbable tsunami; (1), improbable tsunami; (2), questionable tsunami; (3), probable tsunami; (4), definite tsunami. The following criteria have been considered in applying the scale to the listed tsunamis: (0) Occurrence improbable. The event has been documented, but is impossible to confirm and there is no general agreement. (1) Doubtful credibility. Insufficient data or evidence for confirmation are avail- able. (2) Probable tsunamis noted in various sources and catalogues, but with discrep- ancies, or confirmed in a single source of doubtful reliability. (3) Sources specific and reliable, but occurrence dates old. Discrepancies present in some sources and catalogues. Reliable report, but confirmed in only a limited number of sources. (4) The most reliable tsunamis which took place more recently. Multiple reli- able sources: historic documents, church manuscripts, manuscripts by various authors, state archives, biographies, essays, private letters, magazines and reports.

3. Tsunamis Observed on the Turkish Coasts and Adjacent Areas The spatial distribution of the listed tsunamis is shown in Figure 1. Most of the tsunamis occur in the Marmara Sea, particularly near Istanbul and the , but also in the Gulf of Izmir and environs of the and in part the Gulf of Iskenderun. The chronological distribution of the tsunamis is presented in Figure 2, which shows a notable increase in the frequency of tsunamis in the TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 187

6th century. These were particularly prominent on the coast of Marmara Sea. It may be that this apparent clustering is the result of meticulous record keeping rather than a real effect, since the 6th century was the time of the greatest glory of the Byzantine era, when scholarship was at its peak. During the second part of the 19th century a considerable number of tsunamis took place. The majority of these were concentrated on the Aegean coasts. The cluster of events in the 19th century appears to be real, rather than the result of more detailed recording. Both the spatial and temporal distributions demonstrate the importance of the Marmara Sea with regard to tsunamis. Historical documents reveal that tsunamis clustered particularly around Istanbul and the Gulf of Izmit. The most detailed information presently available on tsunamis concerns those associated with the earthquakes of 10 September 1509, 10 July 1894, 18 September 1963 and 17 August 1999. The historical documents show that the most important tsunamis observed along the Black Sea were the Amasya Earthquake Tsunami in 1598 and the Erzincan Earthquake (Fatsa Tsunami) in 1939 and the Bartın Earthquake (Amasra Tsunami) in 1968.

3.1. THE ISTANBUL EARTHQUAKE,10SEPTEMBER 1509 This was one of the largest and most destructive earthquakes of the last five centur- ies in the eastern Mediterranean. It occurred in the Marmara Sea and was felt over a very large area, causing damage from Bolu to Edirne, and possibily as far as Mt. Athos. Maximum damage occurred in Istanbul. The earthquake killed 4000–5000 people in the city and destroyed over 1000 houses. The number of injured in the earthquake was put at 10000. The walls of Galata were damaged and the massive Galata Tower was shattered. Along the coast, the sea flooded the shores and waves crashed against the walls in the narrows between Pera and Istanbul (Ambraseys and Finkel, 1995). Waves overtopped the walls in Yenikapı and Aksaray was flooded. The walls of Izmit Castle on the shore were damaged beyond repair, the quay walls of the shipyard collapsed and waves flooded the dockyard and the lower districts of the city. An isoseismal map of this earthquake is shown in Figure 3. The tsunami waves of the earthquake overtopped the sea walls in Yenikapı, the wave height was most probably more than 6.0 m and the magnitude of the earthquake was close to 8.0 (Öztin and Bayülke, 1991).

3.2. THE ISTANBUL EARTHQUAKE,10JULY 1894 The earthquake occurring at 12.24 a.m. on 10 July 1894, damaged Istanbul and the surrounding area, and was felt at Ioanina, Bucharest, , , Konya and most of Anatolia. The earthquake killed 474 people and injured 482 more and des- troyed 1773 houses (Öztin, 1994). The isoseismal map of this earthquake according to Eginitis (1894) is shown in Figure 4. The author mentioned that, along the coast, many disturbances were seen in many parts; the sea receded up to 50 m and then 188 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY 100 B.C. and 1999 A.D. Numbers indicate the  Locations of tsunamis which have occurred in Turkey and adjacent areas between 1410 Figure 1. chronological order in the Appendix. TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 189 100 B.C. and 1999 A.D.  Chronological in Turkey and adjacent areas between 1410 Figure 2. 190 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

Figure 3. Isoseismal map of Istanbul earthquake, 10 September, 1509 (Öztin and Bayülke, 1991). Intensity evaluations are according to the MSK Scale. returned. In another part, the sea rose and then receded. There was no permanent change to the coastline. Although the earthquake was felt over a large area, it was not supposed that the hypocenter was very deep. The depth was estimated by the method of Dutton and Hyden to be 34 km. According to Mihailovic (1927), the sea rose up and inundated 200 m, and after a few disturbances became normal. The tsunamis were observed to occur around the Prens Islands and on the northern coast of the Marmara Sea from Büyükçekmece to Kartal. During the earthquake, at first the sea was at a low level, and then later a strong wave hit the shore to the west of Istanbul. There was definitely a tsunami, though probably a small one. The tsunami height was less than 6.0 m and the earthquake magnitude was less than 7.0 (Öztin and Bayülke, 1991).

3.3. THE EASTERN MARMARA EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI IN 1963

18 September 1963, an earthquake at 16 58 14.8 (GMT) of surface wave magnitude Ms = 6.3 with its in eastern Marmara was felt in the coasts of Marmara. The isoseismal map of the earthquake is shown in Figure 5. According to Özçiçek (1966–1967), this earthquake had devastating effects in Çınarcık and neighbouring villages. It led to boiling in the sea and waves in the coast. A strip of sea shells and molluscs was observed in an east to west direction along the coast in Mudanya following the earthquake. Waves reaching height of 1 m run up the sea wall. The focal mechanism of this earthquake was normal faulting (McKenzie, 1972). TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 191

Figure 4. Isoseismal map of Istanbul earthquake, 10 July, 1894 (Öztin and Bayülke, 1991). According to Eginitis (1894), the map defines 3 zones of varying damage level. Öztin and Bayülke (1991), re-evaluating the findings of Eginitis, present intensity evaluations in the MSK Scale.

3.4. THE 17 AUGUST 1999 IZMIT EARTHQUAKE AND IZMIT GULF TSUNAMI On 17 August, 1999 an earthquake in the vicinity of Izmit at 03.02 local time of a moment magnitude Mw = 7.4, a focal depth h = 18 km and having approximately 120 km right lateral strike slip faulting and was felt over a very large area. It lead to great loss of life and extensive damage. It has also generated a tsunami in the Izmit Gulf (S. Tinti and F. Imamura, personal communication, 1999; Yalçıner, 1999; Altınok, 1999). The sea first receded then inundated both sides and ran up more than 2.5 m some places in the Izmit Gulf during the earthquake. Furthermore, the rise of the water was above 10 m in Degirmendere.˘ The bathymetry of the Izmit Gulf and fault plane solution of the earthquake are shown in Figure 6.

3.5. THE AMASYA EARTHQUAKE (BLACK SEA TSUNAMI) IN 1598 According to Ambraseys and Finkel (1995): “This was apparently a major earth- quake in central northern Anatolia”, but the data at our disposal is insufficient to assess its size. In a contemporary letter from we read that . . . ‘in 1598 there was such an earthquake in the Black Sea that Amasya together with other towns 192 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY was thrown to the ground in two towns alone 60 000 men perished in the ruins of their houses; also the sea was driven back drowning a few thousand people in towns and villages”. In another, it is reported that Amasya was “cleaved engulfing many villages”. A further account places this event in the region of Amasya and adds that such an earthquake had not happened for many years and that the sea advanced for a mile inland on the coast of the Black Sea, drowning many people. Contemporary Armenian sources confirm the occurrence of this earthquake. One contemporary mentions it after referring to an eclipse of the sun in May 1047 a.Arm. (May 1598). However, the modern standard work on the dating of eclipses notes eclipses of the sun on only 7 March and 31 August in 1598. In some catalogues, this earthquake was called the Amasya and Çorum Earth- quake (Calvi, 1941; Pınar and Lahn, 1952; Ergin et al., 1967; Soysal et al., 1981). Calvi (1941) mentioned that the earthquake lasted four months. According to Ergin et al. (1967), the intensity of the earthquake on the MS Scale was I0 = VIII. The tsunami created by the earthquake in the gulf between Sinop and showed a wave height of approximately 1 m (Nikonov, 1997).

3.6. THE ERZINCAN EARTHQUAKE (FATSA TSUNAMI) IN 1939 The earthquake occurred on 26–27 December, 1939, at 02.00 a.m. local time. The Erzincan Earthquake whose surface wave magnitude was Ms = 8.0 was probably one of the most destructive earthquakes in the world. About 40 000 people were killed and it destroyed over 12000 houses. An area of 400 km by 120 km was destroyed. The earthquake created a 350 km fault with a right lateral displacement reaching approximately 4 m. The seismic moment (Mo) was calculated as 5.8 × 1027 dyne.cm (Jackson and McKenzie, 1988). The earthquake was felt over a very large area. An isoseismal map is shown in Figure 7. The sea disturbances seen dur- ing the earthquake were very interesting. Parejas et al. (1942) mention that a person in Fatsa wanted to dive into the sea instinctively at the time of the earthquake, but he was not able to reach the sea because it had receded about 50 m. After a while, when the sea came back, the edge of the coast advanced 20 m. The sea receded 100 m during the earthquake in Ünye and sunken rocks appeared for the first time. The sea also receded for 50–60 s in . Moreover, in , the people at the harbour saw that the sea initially became quiet, then receded about 15 m. The level of the sea returned to normal in 5–10 minutes (Eyidogan˘ et al., 1991). Murty (1977) states that the tsunami amplitudes were smaller on the Russian coasts than in Turkey. The initial rise of the sea level was recorded at 6 tidal stations on the northern coast of the Black Sea. TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 193

Figure 5. Isoseismal map of Eastern Marmara Earthquake, 18 September 1963 (Özçiçek, 1966–1967). Intensity evaluations are according to the MS Scale. Focal mechanism solution indicates normal faulting (McKenzie, 1972).

3.7. THE BARTIN EARTHQUAKE (AMASRA TSUNAMI) IN 1968

The earthquake occurred on 3 September, 1968, at 10.20 a.m. local time. Its surface wave magnitude was Ms = 6.6 and its seismic moment (Mo)was3.9× 1025 dyne.cm (Alptekin et al., 1985). Although it was a medium-sized earthquake, 24 persons were killed, hundreds of people were injured, 2166 houses were totally destroyed and 2498 houses were partly destroyed. It was felt at Istanbul, Ankara, and Samsun. The isoseismal map of the Bartın Earthquake is shown in Figure 8. McKenzie (1972), Kudo (1983),Sengör ¸ et al., (1983) and Jackson and McKenzie (1984) gave explanations of the focal mechanism of this earthquake. According toSengör ¸ et al. (1983) the solution was a pure strike slip faulting, and the others’ solution was a strike slip faulting with a thrust component. Alptekin et al. (1985) with the help of the modelling of P and SH wave seismograms, con- cluded that the event was caused by thrust faulting and they estimated the average focal depth as 4 km. They also suggested that the Bartın Earthquake provided the first seismological evidence for active thrust faulting at the southern margin of the Black Sea. Pınar (1995), examined the teleseismic body wave form inversion of the earthquake in order to understand the rupture process of this event. The result of inversion showed that two subevents had a strike slip mechanism. The stress-drops for the first and second subevents were estimated as 3.8 and 2.5 mPa, respectively. 194 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

Figure 6. The bathymetric map of the Izmit Gulf. Focal mechanism solution of the Izmit Earthquake, 17 August 1999, indicates strike slip faulting (according to HARVARD).

Figure 7. Isoseismal map of Erzincan earthquake, 26–27 December, 1939 (Pamir and Ketin, 1941). The authors have used the MS Scale. Focal mechanism solution indicates strike slip faulting (McKenzie, 1972).

During this earthquake, the precipitous coastline between Amasra and Çakraz uplifted. This uplifting estimated by Ketin and Abdüsselamoglu˘ (1970) to be 35–40 cm, lowered the sea level on the coastal rock, resulting in the appearance of mussels and moss. Lander (1969) reported that the sea receded 12 to 15 m in Çakraz at the onset of the earthquake and never returned entirely to its original level. Wedding (1968) stated that the sea inundated 100 m in Amasra and after 14 minutes the second wave inundated the shore about 50-60 m. This wave dragged many objects and caused many boats to be stranded. The silent and unstopped progression of the sea frightened the population. The reason for this progression was most probably TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 195

Figure 8. Isoseismal map of Bartın Earthquake, 3 September 1968. Focal mechanism solution indicates thrust faulting. Intensity evaluations are according to the MM Scale. Small black dots represent the location of the aftershocks as estimated by ISC. The shaded zone is the uplifting area (Alptekin et al., 1985). the uplifting around Çakraz. Ranguelov (1996) states the rise of the sea to be about 3 m in the local port.

4. Conclusion

In this study, it has been observed that over 90 tsunamis occurred on and around the Turkish coasts during the period between 1410  100 B.C and 1999 A.D. These data reveal that the tsunamis primarily occurred in the Marmara Sea, Istanbul and the Gulf of Izmit, the Gulf of Izmir and its surroundings, the vicinity of Fethiye Gulf and also Iskenderun Gulf. When the historical documents are examined, the data about tsunamis are insufficient. From these data, the tsunamis about which we have most information are those associated with the Istanbul Earthquakes in the Marmara Sea in 1509 , 1894, 1963, 1999. Izmit Gulf and the Amasya Earthquake Tsunami which appeared in the Black Sea in 1598, the Erzincan Earthquake (Fatsa Tsunami) in 1939 and the Bartın Earthquake (Amasra Tsunami) in 1968. The tsunamis discussed in this paper should be investigated in more detail. Fur- thermore, since tsunamis in Turkey and vicinity pose a real threat, more extensive 196 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY historical studies should be undertaken to document tsunamis in these regions, organizing the information in a catalogue or an earthquake-tsunami data base.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the reviewers for their comments and for helpful suggestions, and Prof Dr. S. R. C. Malin for help with the English.

Appendix Tsunamis on the Turkish coasts and vicinity are given in the “List of Tsunamis” i: Tsunami intensity (according to the Modified Sieberg Scale, after Ambraseys, 1962); H : Maximum wave height (m); D: The distance that the water penetrated inland (m); NTI: No tsunami information; (No): Reference number in the reference section; /: Separates two alternative dates or periods; –: Joins the beginning and end of a chronological period; Rel: Reliability (according to Modified Iida, 1984 Scale, after Soloviev, 1990; Tinti and Maramai, 1996).

List of Tsunamis No. Date Place References Remarks Rel 1 1410  100 B.C. North east of 6, 8, 35, 43, 45 1600–1500 B.C. (46), 3 Crete i = 6? (6), The tsunami was generated by the of the Santorini (35) 2 1300 Çanakkale Region 5, 6, 8, 35, 46 i = 6? (6, 35) 2 (), 3 330 North east of 6, 8, 35, 43, 45 1 Limnos Isl. 4 222 , , 5, 6, 8, 10, 43, 45 227 (35) 1 Corinth 5 140 Acre, Tyr-Syria 10, 45 138 B.C., i = 4 (6). Silifke 3 Region was affected by tsunami (45) 6 26 Paphos-Cyprus 6, 8, 45 i = 3 (6), NTI (45) 2 TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 197

No. Date Place References Remarks Rel 7 46 A.D. North east of 6, 8, 35, 43, 45 South coasts of Crete 1 Crete, Santorini (6). Eruption of Isl. Santorini Volcano (35) 8 53/62/66 Cnossos-Crete, 6, 8, 14, 35, 43, 62, South coasts of 4 Leben 45 Crete (6, 8), 62, midday (45), 66 (35, 43), i = 3 (6, 35) 968Demre, 14 2 - 10 76–78 Larnaca, Paphos, 5, 6, 8, 10, 45, 46 77–78 (10) 2 Salamis-Cyprus 11 120/128 Kapıdag˘ 14, 45 120, NTI (45) 2 Peninsula (), Iznik, Izmit 12 142 Fethiye Gulf, 6, 8, 46 148 (35, 37), Rhodes, 2 Rhodes, , i = 4, Kos, Seriphos, Seriphos, Syme Syme, i = 3 (6, 35, 37) Isls. 13 261–262 South coasts of 6, 8, 14, 45, 46 262 (6, 8, 14, 45), West 3 Anatolia Anatolia (45), i =4?(6) 14 293–306 Salamis-Cyprus 14 1 15 325 Izmit Gulf 46 1 16 342 Paphos 6, 8, 45, 46 2 Famagusta-Cyprus 17 344 Çanakkale Region, 6, 8, 46 Dardanelles, i =4, 3 Thracian coasts Thracian coasts, i =3(6) 18 358.08.24 Izmit Gulf, Iznik, 9, 10, 45, 46 NTI (9) 3 Istanbul 19 365.07.21 East 5, 6, 8, 14, 16, Methone, , 4 Mediterranean, 35, 37, 43, 45 Crete, i = 4, Adriatic Crete, Greece, coasts, , Adriatic coasts, Sicily, i =3+(6), Alexandria, West Methone, D = 2000 m, Anatolia Epidaurus, Crete, i =4, Alexandria, , Sicily, i = 4 (35), Crete, i = 6, Epidaurus, i =4+, Methone, i =4, Alexandria, i =3+(37) 20 368.10.11 Iznik and its 14, 45 NTI (45) 2 surrounding 21 407.04.01 Istanbul 14 408.07.05, NTI (45) 0 22 447.11.08 Marmara Sea, 6, 8, 14, 35, 37, 45, 447.11. (6, 8, 46), 3 Istanbul, Izmit 46 447.01.26 night (14), Gulf, Marmara 447.12.08, NTI (45), Isls., Marmara Marmara coasts, i = 4− and Çanakkale (6), i = 4 (35), Istanbul, coasts i = 3 (6, 35, 37), Erdek 198 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

No. Date Place References Remarks Rel Gulf, i = 4, Marmara Isls., i = 4− (37) 23 450.01.26 Marmara Sea, 6, 8, 45, 46 450.01. (6, 8), NTI (45), 2 Istanbul i =3(6) 24 477/480.09 Gelibolu, 14 2 24/25/26 Çanakkale, Istanbul, Izmit, Bozcaada 25 488.09.26 Izmit Gulf 45, 46 NTI (45) 2 26 524/525 South coasts of 45, 46 524 (45) 3 Anatolia, Anazarba-Adana 27 529 winter Thracian coasts 46 1 of Marmara 28 542 winter West coasts of 6, 8, 46 (6, 8), i =4 2 Thracia, (6) Bandırma Gulf 29 543.09.06 Kapıdag˘ 5, 10, 14, 35, Edremit Gulf (46) 3 Peninsula, Erdek, 43, 45, 46 Bandırma 30 553.08.15 Istanbul, Izmit 45, 46 NTI (45), D = 3000 m 2 Gulf (46) 31 554.08.15 South west coasts 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 35, 554–558 (14), 554 4 of Anatolia, Kos 37, 43, 45, 46 (10, 43, 45), i = 4− (6), i =4 Isl., Mandalya (35), Mandalya Gulf, Gulf i =4+,Kos,i = 4− (35) 32 555.08.15/16 Istanbul, Izmit 9, 10, 43, 46 4 Gulf 33 557.12.14 Istanbul, Izmit 10, 45, 46 558.12.14 (5), night, 2 Gulf NTI (45), D = 5000 m (46) 34 715 Istanbul, Izmit 45, 46 NTI (45) 1 Gulf 35 740.10.26 Marmara Sea, 5, 6, 8, 14, 16, 35, Early afternoon (14), 3 Istanbul, Izmit, 37, 45, 46 08.00 a.m., NTI (45), Iznik Lake i = 3 (6, 35), i = 4− (37) 36 803.12.19 Iskenderun Gulf 6, 8, 41, 46 803, NTI (41), i =3(6) 2 37 859.11. Syrian coasts, 6, 8, 41, 45 859.04.08, NTI 2 Near Samandag˘ (45), 859, NTI (41), i =3 (6) 38 975.10.26 Istanbul, Thracian 6, 8, 46 986.10.26 (45), i =3(6) 3 coasts of Marmara 39 989 Istanbul, 9, 10, 46 3 Marmara coasts 40 990 Istanbul, 46 1 Marmara coasts 41 1039.02.02 Istanbul, 6, 8, 35, 46 1039.01. (6, 8, 46) 0 Marmara coasts 42 1064.09.23 Iznik, Bandırma, 10, 45, 46 3 Mürefte, Istanbul TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 199

No. Date Place References Remarks Rel 43 1114.08.10 Ceyhan, Antakya, 24, 41, 45 1114.11.20, NTI (41) 3 Mara¸s 44 1157.07.15 Hama-Homs, 45 1 Chaizar Region 45 1202.05.22 Cyprus, Syrian 6, 8, 24, 45 1201.06.02, Cyprus 4 coasts, Egypt (41) 1202.05.20 (24, 45), NTI (45) Syrian coasts, i =5, Cyprus, i = 4, Egypt, i =3 (6) 46 1222.05 Paphos, 5, 6, 8, 10, 45, 1222.12.25 (5, 10), i =4 3 Limasol-Cyprus 46 (6) 47 1304.08.08 East 35, 37, 45 1303.08.08 (6, 8), NTI 4 Mediterranean, (45), 1304.08. (37) Rhodes, Crete, Egyptian coasts, i = 5−, Peloponnesus Syrian coasts, i = 4, Crete, i =4?(6),East Mediterranean, i =4, Rhodes, i = 3, Crete, i =4, Peloponnesus, i = 3 (35), Crete (Herakleion), i =4+ (37) 48 1332.02.12 Marmara Sea, 6, 8, 45, 46 NTI (45), i =3+(6) 2 Istanbul 49 1344.10.14 Marmara Sea, 5, 6, 8, 16, 35, 37, 45, i =4,D = 2000 m (6, 35), 3 Istanbul, Thracian 46 NTI (45), i =4+(37) coasts, Gelibolu 50 1389.03.20 Izmir, and 5, 6, 8, 35, 37, Chios, i = 3 (6, 35), Chios, 4 Lesvos Isls. 43, 45, 46 i = 4 (37) 51 1403.11.16 South coasts of 6, 8, 46 1402 (10, 16, 45), 2 Anatolia, Syrian 1408.12.30, Latakia coasts (41), i =3(6) 52 1481.05.03 Rhodes, South 5, 6, 8, 10, 35, 1481.10.03 (10, 43, 45), 3 west coasts of 37, 43, 45, 46 Rhodes, i =3,H =1.8m, Anatolia, Crete D = 60 m (6, 35), Rhodes, i = 4 (37) 53 1489 South coast of 6, 8, 46 i =3(6) 2 Anatolia, Antalya 54 1494.07.01 Herakleion-Crete 6, 8, 35, 37, 45 Evening (35, 45), NTI 3 (45), i =2+(6),i = 2 (35), i =3+(37) 55 1509.09.10 Istanbul, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 1509.09.14 4 Marmara coasts 16, 32, 35, 37, 43, (5, 6, 8, 16, 35, 37, 43, 45, 46), 45, 46 i = 3 (6, 35), i = 3+ (37), H ≥ 6.0 m (32) 56 1577.07.17 Istanbul 7 1 57 1598 Amasya, Çorum 7, 10, 12, 30, NTI (10, 12, 39, 45), On 4 39, 45 the coasts of the Black Sea, D = 1600 m (7), H =1m (30) 200 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

No. Date Place References Remarks Rel 58 1609.04. Rhodes, East 7 Over 10 000 people 4 Mediterranean drowned by a sea wave 59 1612.12.08 North of Crete 5, 6, 8, 35, i = 5− (6), i = 5 (35), 2 37, 45 i = 4+ (37), NTI (45) 60 1646.04.05 Istanbul 5, 6, 8, 16, 1641.04.05 (46), i = 3 (6), 3 37, 45 i = 4− (37), NTI (45) 61 1650.09.29 Santorini 5, 6, 8, 35, 37 1650.10.09 (6, 8), 4 Patmos, Sikinos 1650.10.29 (35, 37), Isls., Northern Santorini, i =6,West Crete Patmos, H =30m,East Patmos, H =27m,Ios, H = 18 m, Sikinos, i =5, Kos, Crete, i = 4− (6), East Santorini, i =4,H =19m, D = 200 m, Patmos, i =6, H =30m,Ios,i =6. H = 18 m, Sikinos, i =5 D = 100 m, Herakleion, i = 4 (35), Santorini, i =5+, Ios, i = 5, Sikinos, i =4+, Herakleion, i = 4, Patmos, i = 4+, Kea, i = 4 (37) 62 1667.11.30 Izmir Gulf 6, 7, 8, 45, 46 1667.11., NTI (7, 45) 2 1668.07.10 (9, 10, 35, 46), i =2 (6, 35) 63 1672.02.14 Bozcaada, 7, 8, 35, 43, 45 1672.04. (43, 45), 1672 2 Kos Isl. , Santorini (8), Kos (35) 64 1688.07.10 Izmir Gulf 6, 7, 8, 37, 45 11.00 a.m. (45), 11.45 a.m. 3 (7), i = 3 (37) 65 1741.01.31 Rhodes 7 The sea retreated and 4 then flooded the coast 12 times 66 1751.08.15 Istanbul 7 0 67 1752.07.21 Syrian coasts 6, 8, 10, 45 i =3?(6) 4 68 1754.09.02 Izmit Gulf, 7, 45 09.45 p.m., NTI (45) 1 Istanbul 69 1766.05.22 Istanbul, 6, 7, 8, 35, 43, 05.30 a.m. (35, 45), i =2 4 Marmara Sea 45, 46 (6, 35) 70 1772.11.24 Chios Isl., Foça 7 07.45 a.m. 2 71 1822.08.13 Antakya, 21, 45 Evening 4 Iskenderun, Kilis 72 1829.05.23 Istanbul, Gelibolu 6, 8, 21, 45, 46 i =2(6) 4 73 1851.02.28 Fethiye, Kaya- 6, 8, 21, 35, i =3,H = 0.6 m (6, 35), 4 Mugla,˘ Rhodes 37, 43, 45 i = 3 (37) 74 1851.04.03 Fethiye Gulf 6, 8, 35, 46 i =3,H = 1.8 m (6, 35) 3 TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 201

No. Date Place References Remarks Rel 75 1851.05.23 Rhodes, 6, 8, 35, 46 i = 2 (6, 35) 3 , Chalki 76 1852.05.12 Izmir 6, 8, 21, 35, 46 i = 3 (6, 35) 3 77 1852.09.08 Izmir 6, 8, 21, 35, 46 i = 3 (6, 35) 3 78 1855.02.13 Fethiye Gulf 6, 8, 10, 24, 35, 1855.02.09/10/13 4 46 (10, 24), 1855.03.02 NTI (45), Chios (46), i = 3 (6, 35) 79 1856.11.13 Chios Isl. 6, 8, 21, 35, 37, Rhodes (45), 3 43, 46 1856.12.13 (46), i =3+(6),i = 3 (35) 80 1866.01.31 Santorini Isl. 37, 45 NTI (45), Santorini, i =4, 2 Kythera, i = 3, Chios, i = 3− (37) 81 1866.02.02 Chios Isl. 6, 8, 10, 21, 45, NTI (45), i =3(6) 3 46 82 1878.04.19 Izmit. Istanbul, 5, 6, 8, 21, 45, 09.00 a.m., NTI (45), 3 Marmara Sea 46 i =3(6) 83 1878.05.10 Izmit, Istanbul, 9, 10, 45, 46 08.00 a.m., most 2 Bursa probably aftershock of 1878.04.19 Earthquake, NTI (45), South coasts of Anatolia (46), 40 people killed by tsunami (9, 10) 84 1886.08.27 Southern 6, 8, 21, 35, 37, 1886.11.27, 08.05 a.m., 4 Peloponnesus, 45 NTI (45), 21.32 p.m., Pylos, Izmir i = 2 (35), Pylos, i =3, Izmir, i =2(6) 85 1893.02.09 Northern Aegean 5, 6, 8, 10, 21, 1893.01.29 4 Sea, Samothrace 35, 37, 45 (5, 45), 1893.01.28 (10) Isl., Thracian 18.00 p.m. (35, 45), coasts, Samothrace, i = 3+ (6, 37), Alexandroupolis i = 3 (35), H = 0.9 m (6, 35), D = 30 m (35), Alexandroupolis, i =3 (6, 35, 37), H = 0.9 m (35), D = 40 m (6, 35), Thracian coasts, i =3(6) 86 1894.07.10 Istanbul 6, 8, 21, 24, 32, NTI (45), i = 3 (6, 35, 37), 4 33, 35, 37, 45 H ≤ 6.0 m (32) 87 1926.06.26 Rhodes, South 50 The epicenter is located 2 west of Turkey, east of Rhodes and near Archangelo, the Turkish coast. Felt Fethiye, in Sicily, , Switz, Karpathos, Syria, Palestine, Egypt Herakleion 202 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

No. Date Place References Remarks Rel 88 1928.03.31 Izmir 6, 8, 21, 35 00 29 47 (35), i =2 4 (6, 35) 89 1939.12.26– Fatsa-Black Sea 13, 24, 29, 38, 25 57 16 (13), i = 4 (24) 4 27 42 90 1948.02.09 Karpathos- 6, 8, 28, 35, 36, 12 58 13 (35), i =4 4 Dodocanese 37 (6, 35, 36, 37), D = 900 m (6, 35, 36) 91 1949.07.23 East Aegean Sea, 36 15 03 30, i =2,H =0.7m 4 North Chios Isl. or H =2m 92 1953.09.10 South coasts of 28 35.00N-32.00E 1 Turkey 93 1956.07.09 Greek 6, 8, 28, 35, 36 03 11 40 (35, 36), 4 Archipelago, , i = 6 (35, 36), Amorgos, H = 30 m (6), H = 20–25 m, Astypalaea Isls. D = 80–100 m (35, 36), H = 30 m (6), Astypalaea, i = 6 (35, 36), H =20m (6, 35, 36), D = 400 m (35, 36), Pholegandros, i = 5 (35), H = 10 m (6, 35), D = 8 m (35), Patmos, H = 4 m, Kalimnos, H = 3.6 m, Crete, H =3m, Tinos, H =3m(6),i = 5 − 3, H =upto5m,D =upto 700 m (35) 94 1963.09.18 Eastern 24, 31 16 58 14.8, H =1m 4 Marmara, Yalova, Karamürsel, Kılıç, Armutlu, Mudanya, Gemlik Gulf 95 1968.02.19 North Aegean 8, 28, 35, 36 22 45 42 (35), 22 57 47 4 Sea (36), i =2,H = 1.2 m (35) 96 1968.09.03 Amasra-Black 1, 22, 24, 25, 08 19 51.6 (1), 4 Sea 42, 49 H = 3 m (42), i =3+ 97 1999.08.17 Izmit Gulf 4, 51 00 01 47.8 4 i =3

References

1. Alptekin, Ö., Nabalek, J. L., and Toksöz, N.: 3 Eylül 1968 Bartın Depreminin kaynak mekan- izması ve Karadeniz’in aktif tektonigi˘ hakkında dü¸sünceler, Deprem Ara¸stırma Bülteni 50 (1985), 5–28. 2. Altınok, Y. and Ersoy,S.: ¸ Tsunamis in the Aegean Sea and near surroundings, In: Ö. Pi¸skin et al.(eds),International Earth Sciences Colloquium on the , 9–14 October 1995, Izmir (1997), pp. 215–226. TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 203

3. Altınok, Y. and Ersoy,S.: ¸ Türkiye kıyıları ve yakın çevresini etkileyen tsunamiler, I. Ü. Mühendislik Fak. Yerbilimleri Dergisi (Engineering Faculty’s Earth Sciences Review) 10(1–2) (1996–1997), 111–125. 4. Altınok, Y.: Izmit Depremi, Körfezde tsunami oldu ve can aldı, Cumhuriyet Bilim Teknik 660 (1999), 14–15. 5. Ambraseys, N. N.: 1960, The seismic sea wave on July 9, in the Greek Archipelago, J. Geophys. Res. 65(4) (1956), 1257–1265. 6. Ambraseys, N. N.: Data for the investigation of the seismic sea-waves in the Eastern Mediterranean, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 52 (1962), 895–913. 7. Ambraseys, N. N. and Finkel, C.: The seismicity of Turkey and adjacent areas. A historical review, 1500–1800, Eren Yayıncılık, Istanbul, (1995). 8. Antonopoulos, A.: Contribution to the knowledge of tsunamis in the Eastern Mediterranean from ancient times until the recent, Ann. Geol. Des. Pays. Helleniques T XXIX(2) (1987), 740–757. 9. Birand,S. ¸ A.: Depremler, Sebepleri, Korunma Yolları, Yüksek Ziraat Enstitüsü Basımevi, Ankara, (1944). 10. Calvi, V. S.: Erdbebenkatalog der Türkei und Einiger Benaehbarter Gebiete (unpublished), Report No. 276, MTA Enstitüsü, Ankara (1941). 11. Eginitis, D.: 1310 Zelzelesi Hakkında Rapor, Çev: Bogos, Istanbul, 21 Agustos˘ 1310 Ba¸sbakan- lık Ar¸sivi Gn. Md. lügü,˘ Yıldız Esas Evrakı, Kısım 14, Evrak C. Zarf 126, Karton 11. S.1-29 (manuscript) (1894). 12. Ergin, K., Güçlü, U., and Uz, Z.: Türkiye ve Civarının Deprem Katalo˘gu, ITÜ, Maden Fak. Arz Fizigi˘ Entstitüsü, Yayın No. 24, Istanbul (1967). 13. Eyidogan,˘ H., Güçlü, U., Utku, Z., and Degirmenci,˘ E.: Türkiye Büyük Depremleri Makro- Sismik Rehberi (1990–1988), ITÜ Maden Fak. Jeofizik Müh. Böl., Istanbul (1991). 14. Guidoboni, E., Comastri, A., and Traina, G.: Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes in the Mediterranean Area up to the 10th Century, Instituto Nazionale di Geofisica, Rome (1994). 15. Gusiakov, V. K., Marchuk, An. G., and Osipova, A. V.: Expert tsunami database for the Pacific: motivation, design, and proof-of-concept demonstration, In: G. Hebenstreit (ed.), Perspect- ives on Tsunami Hazard Reduction: Observations. Theory and Planning, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Holland, pp. 21–35 (1997). 16. Heck, N. H.: List of seismic sea waves, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 37 (1947), 269–286. 17. Iida, K.: Catalog of Tsunamis in and its Neighbouring Countries, Department of Civil Engineering, Aichi Institute of Technology, Japan (1984). 18. Imamura, F.: The Sissano Tsunami caused by the earthquake in PNG and the riddle of its generation, NHS Newsletter 3(4) (1998). 19. Jackson, J. and McKenzie, D.: Active of the Alpine-Himalayan Belt between Turkey and Pakistan, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 77 (1984), 185–264. 20. Jackson, J. and McKenzie, D.: The relationship between plate motion and seismic moment tensors and the rates of active deformation in the Mediterranean and Middle East, Geophys. J. 93 (1988), 45–73. 21. Karnik, V.: Seismicity of the European Area, Vol. 2, Reidel, Dordrecht, Holland (1971). 22. Ketin, I. and Abdüsselamoglu,˘ S.: ¸ Bartın Depreminin etkileri, TJK Bülteni XII(1–2) (1969), 66–77. 23. Kudo, K.: Seismic source characteristics of recent major earthquakes in Turkey, In: Y. Ohta (ed.), A Comprehensive Study on Earthquake Disasters in Turkey in View of Seismic Risk Reduction, University, , Japan (1983), pp. 150–173. 24. Kuran, U. and Yalçıner, A. C.: Crack propogations earthquakes and tsunamis in the vicinity of Anatolia, In: S. Tinti (ed.), Fifteenth International Tsunami Symposium, 1991, Tsunamis in the World, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Holland (1993), pp. 159–175. 204 Y. ALTINOK ANDS. ¸ ERSOY

25. Lander, J. F.: Seismological notes – September and October 1968, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 59 (1969), 1023–1030. 26. McKenzie, D.: Active tectonics of the Mediterranean region, Geophys. J.R. Ast. Soc. 30 (1972), 109–185. 27. Mihailovic, J.: Memoir-Sur les Grands Tremblement de Terre de la Mer de Marmara, Beograd, (1927), pp. 215–222. 28. Moreria, V. S.: Earthquakes and tsunamis in the European area, H. Soysal’s archive, Istanbul (1971). 29. Murty, T. S.: Seismic Sea Waves Tsunamis, Department of Fisheries and the Environment Fisheries and Marine Service, Scientific Information and Publication Branch, , (1977). 30. Nikonov, A.: Tsunami – a threat from the south? Search and Development, Science in Russia 6 (1997), 13–19. 31. Özçiçek, B.: 18 Eylül 1963 Dogu˘ Marmara Depremi etüdü, Jeofizik 1(2) (1966–1967), 49–69. 32. Öztin, F. and Bayülke, N.: Historical earthquakes of Istanbul, Kayseri, Elazıg,˘ In: Proc. Work- shop on Historical Seismicity and Seismotectonics of the Mediterranean Region, 10–12 October 1990 (Istanbul), Turkish Atomic Energy Authority, Ankara (1991), pp. 150–173. 33. Öztin, F.: 10 Temmuz 1894 Istanbul Depremi Raporu, T.C. Bayindırlık ve Iskan Bakanlıgı,˘ Afet I¸sleri Gn. Md. lügü,˘ Deprem Ara¸stırma Dairesi, Ankara (1994). 34. Pamir,. H. N. and Ketin, I.: Das Anatolische Erdbeben Ende 1939, Geolog. Rundschau 32(3) (1941), 279–287. 35. Papadopoulos, G. A. and Chalkis, B. J.: Tsunamis observed in Greece and the surrounding area from antiquity to the present times, Marine Geol. 56 (1984), 309–317. 36. Papadopoulos, G. A.: Seismic faulting and nonseismic tsunami generation in Greece, In: Proc. IUGG/IOC International Tsunami Symposium, 23–27 August, Wakayama, Japan (1993) pp. 115–123. 37. Papazachos, B. C., Koutitas, Ch., Hatzidimitriou, P. M., Karacostas, B. G., and Papaioannou, Ch. A.: Tsunami hazard in Greece and the surrounding area, Annales Geophysicae 4B(1) (1986), 79–90. 38. Parejas, I., Akyol, M., and Altınlı, E.: Le tremblement de terre d’Erzincan du 27 Decembre 1939 (secteur occidental), I.Ü. Jeoloji Enstitüsü Ne¸sriyatı 10 (1942), 187–222. 39. Pınar, N. and Lahn, E.: Türkiye Depremleri Izahlı Katalo˘gu, T.C. Bayındırlık Bakanlıgı,˘ Yapı ve Imar I¸sleri Reisligi˘ Y. Seri 6, Sayı 36, Ankara (1952). 40. Pınar, A.: Rupture Process and Spectra of Some Major Turkish Earthquakes and Their Seismotectonic Implications,PhDThesis,Bogaziçi˘ Üniversitesi, Istanbul (1995). 41. Poirier, J. P. and Taher, M. A.: Historical seismicity in the near and middle east, north Africa, and Spain from Arabic documents (VII–XVIIIth century), Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 70 (1980), 2185–2201. 42. Ranguelov, B.: Earthquakes and tsunami hazards in the Black Sea, In: Abstract Book of the First Congress of the Balkan Geophysical Society, 23–27 September, (1996), pp. 44–45. 43. Shebalin, N. V., Karnik, V. and Hadzievski, D.: Catalogue of Earthquakes, UNESCO, Skopje, Yugoslavia (1974). 44. Soloviev, S. L.: Tsunamigenic zones in the Mediterranean Sea’, Natural Hazards 3 (1990), 183–202. 45. Soysal, H., Sipahioglu,˘ S., Kolçak, D., and Altınok, Y.: Türkiye ve Çevresinin Tarihsel Deprem Katalo˘gu (MÖ) 2100-MS 1900), Tubitak, TBAG Proje No. 341, Istanbul, (1981). 46. Soysal, H.: Tsunami (Deniz ta¸sması) ve Türkiye kıyılarını etkileyen tsunamiler, I.Ü. Deniz Bilimleri ve Co˘grafya Enstitüsü Bülteni 2 (1985), 59–67. 47.Sengör, ¸ A. M. C., Büyüka¸sıkoglu,˘ S., and Canıtez, N.: Neotectonics of the Pontides: Implica- tions for ‘incompatible’ structures along the North Anatolian Fault, J. Struct. Geol. 5 (1983), 211–216. TSUNAMIS OBSERVED ON AND NEAR THE TURKISH COAST 205

48. Tinti, S. and Maramai, A.: Catalogue of tsunamis generated in Italy and in Cote d’azur, France: a step towards a unified catalogue of tsunamis in Europe, Annali di Geofisica XXXIX(6) (1996), 1253–1301. 49. Wedding, H.: 3 EyIül 1968 de vukua gelen Bartın-Amasra Yersarsıntısı, MTA Dergisi, 71 (1968), 135–141. 50. Wyss, M. and Baer, M.: Earthquake hazard in the Hellenic Arc, reprinted from Earthquake Prediction – An International Review, Maurice Ewing Series 4, American Geophysical Union (1981), pp. 153–172. 51. Yalçıner, A. C.: Izmit Tsunamisi, Bilim ve Teknik 383 (1999), 34–39. View publication stats