National Identity, Political Power, and the Commemoration of World War
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DISS T E RIES: L IDE TI p LITIC ER, A DTHE C E JI F RLD R S ITZER D by Christof Dejung Jh~..• ·1990~~eJjat~.s.urr()t!rdihgthe.··S.WiSSfJankaCbounts·.. of.·!-I~loGaust ABSTRACT I ·ViGtiros •. h.a~ •. ·li:ltJto.areVi~ionpftlle.l1i~torlca.l.Nie\tV9f§v,vitz~r/flrd'STole .. in world War T\No,whichuntilthen was. dorn.[rateclbythe il'!'lageofaninno Kir'f WORDS: Gert~rclr~~l$ting .nation.Tf1.e·thepfypf .. Gob1m~f)1(JrJ3tio.rrOfGerrnan C©mmul'l;cative Mem©ry; ··reseCif?f}erS.Jar .• aXlg.AleidaAssll1ann·.canf}elp.ustoqnderstand.·j:f}e·osten~ Cui",..,l §ible.C/.CishOf.hi~tPry~l1d.Il1.~rn()rY~hat·()pg\1riedcllJriQgthi§(JeQate, •.. f3aSed . Mem©ry; ••. on. the.·.resllltsof me orCi.!history projectArchirnpb.Jhe~rticlesh9ws·that H©I©caust; •. despitetf1e ..•. lpl1g-til'l1e .. d0l'l1inant.Nie\N.ofthepount[y's ... past;·.seyeri31..•·partial W©rldWar •.. rnel'l1()ri~$f1avee)(i~ted .Which.f1ayethrea~enedf9·oj}P()?E)tf}is!bul·whiCh . Tw©; ·.. ·•. haq·.n9.phi3nfe9(QeiQg.i3rticLi'?teqin .•.·pubHc'IhJsJeCidsi9thepoQgjusiph .. Swil'l<erlal'ld that .theQ9Il1tn(jnceof.Cicertiilinrnetf199:.gf •. C()ll1rnefTlorati()nin·· p\1bliC ·js alwaY§<-lll1ei3nsf9CgCiiningsocialpoWer;··· . The commemoration of wars is central for for binding its citizens into the national commu national identity in many countries. War memo nity. It is a powerful narrative which legitimates ries not only have the function of translating authority and socialises populations into a individual grief into public mourning, grief common culture but supersedes at the same being a human response to the death and suffer time memories of minorities or marginalised ing that war engenders on a vast scale. Since social groups that have no chance to articulate they commemorate the willingness of members their memories in public.' Interestingly, war of a nation to kill and die in its defence, they memories not only seem to be important in also have a fundamental political significance.' countries which actually did wage war but also Commemorating war is a key element in the in non-belligerent countries. In Switzerland for symbolic repertoire available to the nation-state instance, the commemoration of World War Autumn 2007 ©Mi!. ~ff$'li"©fl"l 57 Photo 01 an Two has always played a crucial role for national their personal experience of the war. Second, interviewed man. identity, even if Switzerland was one of the very however, I will argue that the notion of a clash All the interviews few countries in Europe that did not get of history and memory appears inadequate to conducted by involved directly in this conflict.; The threat of understand this evolution and I will explain why Archimob were filmed on video. a German invasion, however, dangled like a I think that the theory of commemoration of sword of Damocles over Swiss society during German researchers Jan and Aleida Assmann the wartime years. After 1945, it was precisely can provide deeper insight as a means to under the fact that the countly did escape unharmed stand this. Third, I will present some of the from the war which was considered to be proof results of Archimob, the largest oral history of the validity of the patriotic wartime project in Switzerland ever, and I will show that discourses. The dominant attitude was that the several social groups cultivated distinct war period of World War Two had been a hard but memories which were dissonant to the long-time beautiful time which should serve to set an dominant view of the nation's past but which example for the 'coherence of our Swiss people', could not find expression in the public sphere. as a veteran put it as late as in 1983.' Fourth, I will show how this relates to the disui This paper seeks to investigate the relations bution of social power and I will argue why I between public representations of World War think a social historical analysis of remembrance Two in Switzerland after 1945 and private is a research path that should be more strongly memories of men and women who had lived in pursued than is the case in a considerable part of Switzerland during the wattime peliod. First, I memory studies to date. will show how the discussions in the 1990s regarding the accounts of Holocaust victims in A UNITED AND RESISTING NATION Swiss banks shattered the dominant view of the The official Swiss war memory was for many past and led to a revision of the perception of decades dominated by the image of a united and the historical role of Switzerland in World War resisting nation that had always been true to its Two. This revision, founded on new historical traditional humanitarian mission.; At the core of research, was a shock for many members of the the official commemoration stood the army and wartime generation, since it seemed to mock the conviction that the Gelman Wehnnacht did 58 ©Ml HIST@RY Autumn 2007 not dare attack Switzerland due to the presence liberal parties. But all the same, these liberal and of the Swiss soldiers ready to defend themselves conservative parties remained the dominant in their shelters in the Alps. General Hemi powers in the postwar period. Even with the Guisan, commander-in-chief of the Swiss anny integration of the social democrats into the during the war, emphasised in his order of the national political consensus the mental attitude day from 8 May 1945 the role of the almy: 'The of Swiss society was vilulently anticommunist almy was our shelter and our shield. It saved us during the Cold War. from halm and misery, from Wal; occupation, However, the political equality of women destruction, imprisonment and deportation." was not implemented until 1971. The patriotic Because Switzerland did not experience the confraternity of the postwar period was devastation of modern warfare, the wartime sustained by the experiences of the servicemen years were not remembered as a traumatic time in military service and these experiences were but as a time in which 'from the General to the no basis for women's lights. In several cantons least serviceman, from the Federal Council to the male citizens held a vote on the question of the old woman that cropped vegetables in a women's rights in the late 1940s. In each of flower pot everybody worked on the mainte them the institution of women's rights was nance of the independence of our country and rejected. I1 of the freedom of its citizens", as fonner Federal With regard to foreign affairs, the official Council member Friedrich Traugott Wahlen view of the wartime years with its emphasis on asserted in a memoir from 1975. In the same military defence and self-detennination led to a book, the period between 1939 and 1945 was policy of isolationism. Switzerland joined the described as a time of 'national proving', in United Nations only in 2003 as one of the last which the danger 'welded together a people with countries of the world. Accession to the Euro all its different individuals'." pean Union has been and still is fought by It was last but not least the desire for social national conservative parties with reference to stability that induced the vast majority of the the heroic self-assertion of Switzerland during population to accept this hannonious view of World War Two. their past and to push away the memories of But even if the official view of the war had a unpleasant experiences that could have called it great effect on Swiss society, it was also contra into question. The official method of commem dicted. Already in May 1945 Ma'!: Wolff, judge oration and especially the significance of the at the Obergericht (appellate court) of the canton anny in it helped to settle the political tensions of Zurich and president of the synod, asserted that had prevailed in Swiss society before the in a speech that the Swiss 'complicity with the war.' Notably General Guisan had emphasised global catastrophe' of the last twelve years was repeatedly that the communal experiences of the evident since 'certain circles, even religious ones, soldiers in military service during the war ought reacted indifferently if not sympathetically to the to establish a basis to overcome the social polar rise of hitlerism'. Furthermore the 'Federal ity. This military comradeship was meant to be Government suppressed the reports on the situ the archetype for coherence in civil society. ation and the activities in the German concen Guisan claimed in his last order of the day as tration camps until recently [ ... ] in order to commander-in-chief of the anny from the 20th preserve the interests of the state' and it had August 1945 that in the anny one could gain rejected thousands of Jewish refugees 'from the 'experiences of mutual understanding and assis redeeming frontiers of Switzerland and sent tance whose benefit should be transmitted to them to death'." Wolff did not make any friends our living together as a populace.''' Indeed the ,vith such an opinion. Military intelligence inves solidarity of the wartime years prepared the tigated his attitude towards the army and Swiss ground for social and political reforms after neutrality. The press ignored his speech or enter 1945 that would have been unthinkable during tained the suspicion that Wolff, who was from a the 1930s. One example was a bill for the insti respectable family and a member of the Demo tution of social insurance for the elderly and the cratic Party, was a communist sympathiser. l3 widowed that was supported by eighty percent This reaction was typical within debates of the votes in a referendum in 1947.