To What Extent Does a Social Compact Exist Between Higher Education and Society: A Study of Two Minnesota Universities by Laurie Woodward A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Adult, Career and Higher Education College of Education University of South Florida Co-Major Professor: William Young, Ed.D. Co-Major Professor: Michael Mills, Ph.D. Arthur Shapiro, Ph.D. David Campaign, Ph.D. Date of Approval: May 25, 2010 Keywords: Higher Education; University, Social Compact, University of Minnesota, Minnesota State University, Mankato ©Copyright 2010, Laurie Woodward Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my husband Randy Wissink, without whose support, prodding, persistence and love, I would not have completed it. Holly D. Cat my study companion deserves special recognition and an honorary degree. I would like to thank my parents, Don and June Woodward who taught me the importance of education, supported me and believed that I could do it all along! Thank you all.. Acknowledgments I owe a world of thanks to all of those who believed in me! My wonderful committee (a group of men with the patience of saints) who worked with me over the years to complete this paper: David Campaigne convinced me that it was ok (actually a great idea) to do historical research, even though it might take longer than a qualitative study; Michael Mills, co-chaired my committee and stayed on to help me finish this paper.. even after he’d left USF for other opportunities (his red pen taught me to write!); Art Shapiro kept a commitment he made to work with me throughout the dissertation process, he provided valuable advice and guidance over a number of years; and Bill Young who knew just when to push and prod... And when to tell me that it was done! Thank you Profs!! Historical research requires support from really great librarians, and I had the opportunity to work with the best. Thank you to Beth Kaplan who directs the University of Minnesota Archives, and Daardi Sizemore and Anne Stenzel from the Minnesota State University, Mankato Archives. And finally... thank you to Heidi Burns, the world’s best editor!!! Table of Contents List of Tables iii Abstract iv Chapter One Introduction 1 Statement of the Problem 1 Purpose of the Study 6 Assumptions 7 Research Questions 8 Theoretical Framework 8 Significance of the Study 10 Limitations 12 Delimitations 13 Definitions 13 Organization of the Study 15 Chapter Two In the Beginning 17 Introduction 17 Social Contract Theory 18 Social Contract Theory and the founding of the United States 27 Higher Education in the Colonial Period 29 The First Revolution 32 To Sustain the Nation 34 Argument for the Existence of a Social Compact 38 Social Compact and the Public Good 40 Summary 44 Chapter Three Method 46 Introduction 46 Research Questions 49 Research Design 50 Sample selection 50 Time periods 51 Information rich samples 52 Variety 54 Convenience 54 Two cases 54 Data Collection 56 Inquiry Audit 59 Analysis and Interpretation 60 Summary 63 Chapter Four The Founding Era, 1859-1879 65 Introduction 65 i Higher Education in the United States 65 Minnesota 76 University of Minnesota 79 Mankato Normal School 90 Summary 104 Chapter Five The Early Years, 1900-1910 109 Introduction 109 Higher Education in the United States 110 Minnesota 120 University of Minnesota 122 Standards 124 Organization 125 Presidential presence 126 Professional experts 127 Pedagogy 132 Professional schools 133 State funding and philanthropy 135 Problems 138 Service to the public 141 Mankato Normal School 142 Standards 143 Importance of education 144 Value and support 147 Wrapping it up 153 Chapter Six Modern Education, 1960-1970 157 Introduction 157 Higher Education in the United States 159 Minnesota 166 Higher Education in Minnesota 167 University of Minnesota 169 Growth 172 Organization 173 Curriculum, pedagogy and student learning 175 Research agenda 175 Community engagement 176 State support 178 Mankato Teachers College to Mankato State University 180 Growth 181 Curriculum, pedagogy and student learning 183 Research agenda 184 Community engagement 185 State support 186 Wrapping it up 187 ii Chapter Seven A New Century, 2000-2010 191 Introduction 191 Higher Education in the United States 193 Minnesota 203 University of Minnesota 205 Changing demographics 207 Competition and ranking 208 Diverse needs 210 Organization 212 Research agenda 212 Academic capitalism 214 Services provided 214 Summary 217 Minnesota State University at Mankato 219 Changing demographics 220 Competition and ranking 221 Diverse needs 222 Organization 223 Academic capitalism 224 Services provided 225 Summary 225 Wrapping it up 227 Chapter Eight Concluding Thoughts and Recommendations 228 Evidence 230 Change 232 Support 233 Curriculum 234 Cost 235 Social Role 236 Intellectual leadership 237 Finally 238 References 239 Bibliography 256 About the Author End Page iii List of Tables Table 1 Reaping the Benefits: Defining the Public and Private View 43 Table 2 Statement of Indebtedness of the University in amounts due 81 Table 3 Sources and amounts of income for higher education 120 Table 4 Distribution of Students in the University of Minnesota, 1908 135 Table 5 Fall Quarter Enrollment 173 Table 6 Teachers College Enrollments 1940, 1950, 1960 and 1971 182 Table 7 Minnesota Measures Up 205 Table 8 Fall Enrollment for Selected Years 208 iv To What Extent does a Social Compact Exist between Higher Education and Society: A study of two Minnesota Universities Laurie Woodward ABSTRACT This dissertation explores the nature, applicability and usefulness of social contract theory, and the resulting compact between higher education and society as a way to understand the growth and development of higher education in the United States. The goal is accomplished with an in-depth look at two different universities in the state of Minnesota at four different periods or pivotal points in the history of higher education in the United States. The underlying assumption was that if there is a social compact between higher education and society, traces of its existence would be found in the historical evidence concerning the relationship of these two institutions to society at distinct points in time. The study reaffirms the idea that the social compact between higher education and society is a shared reality, constructed and reconstructed each time that expectations of either party change – it is a social construct. As such, it is always changing and reforming as colleges and universities balance demands from the public and services they provide. The nature of the compact has changed as the nature of Higher Education has changed. v Chapter 1: Introduction Statement of the Problem Newman and Couturier (2002) contend that higher education has always occupied a special place in society, that it is “the creator of knowledge, a producer of leaders and the engine of the economy and in return has received public support, reduced public scrutiny, and exemption from taxes” (p. 6). In their book, The Future of Higher Education, the authors go further saying that institutions of higher education were intended to serve as social critics, providing the basic societal need of truth, rationality, objectivity, and integrity (Newman, Couturier, & Scurry, 2004). In a recent article in the Chronicle of Higher Education, Harry Lewis (2007) says that higher education has a moral responsibility to prepare students for civic engagement and that “the spiritual ideal of American democracy will not survive if universities fail to preserve it” (p. B20). Colleges and universities have also been seen as avenues for social mobility and levelers of society in the United States (Tocqueville, 1835/1966). This role that higher education has played in the history and development of American society is often described as the compact, charter, or contract between higher education and society (Kezar, 2004). Although the compact is viewed as largely symbolic by some authors, it has been used by scholars and civic leaders in various stages of the development of higher education to invoke themes of democracy, access, citizenship, and other public benefits of higher education. Modern scholars seem to be using the concept of the compact to influence and perhaps to change the culture of higher education and to rebuild 1 public support for it in our contemporary world (Mills, 1988). By reminding educators about the social compact between higher education and society these authors are attempting to: a) underpin and emphasize historic roles of higher education, perhaps even harkening back to a more traditional approach to curricular development where leadership and civic responsibility are taught along with vocational skills, b) redefine colleges and universities as instruments of social mobility and access for all, c) place a higher emphasis on teaching, learning and research for public good, d) demonstrate the link between higher education and democracy, e) rejuvenate public interest in and funding of higher education, and f) reinforce the value of higher education. Many contemporary authors contend that the social compact between the nation and higher education has been weakened if not broken (Kezar, Chambers & Burkhardt, 2005). The idea that the role of higher education in developing citizenry and enhancing society has been replaced by financial and marketplace concerns is prevalent in contemporary scholarly writings (Kezar et al., 2005; Newman & Couturier, 2002; Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). So, too, is the idea that the basis of support for higher education is shifting. Lower levels of public funding, calls for accountability and standardized testing, and the emergence of a plethora of for profit institutions are all indicators of this downward shift in support for higher education (Kezar et al., 2005). Respect for the institution of higher education has also waned (Bok, 2003). Some scholars claim that society simply has less respect for all public institutions and that higher education still maintains its place as number two 2 behind the military (“American Council,” 1997).