Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Environment and Food This timely book provides a thorough introduction to the interrelationship of food and the environment. Its primary purpose is to bring to our attention the multiplicity of links and interconnections between what we eat and how this affects the Earth’s resources. Having a better idea of the consequences of our food choices might encourage us to develop more sustainable practices of production and consumption in the decades ahead. Although human societies have, over time, brought under control a large proportion of the Earth’s resources for the purpose of food production, we remain subject to the effective functioning of global ecosystem services. The author highlights the vital importance of these services, and explains why we should be concerned about the depletion of freshwater resources, soil fertility decline and loss of biological diversity. The book also tackles some of the enormous challenges of our era: climate change, to which the agri-food system is both a major contributor and a vulnerable sector; and the prospect of significantly higher energy prices, arising from the peaking of oil and gas supplies, which will reveal how dependent the food system has become upon cheap fossil fuels. Such challenges are likely to have significant implications for the long-term functioning of global supply chains, and raise profound questions regarding the nutritional security of the world’s population. This book argues that a re-examination of the assumptions and practices underpinning the Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 contemporary food system is urgently required. Environment and Food is a highly original, interdisciplinary and accessible text that will be of interest to students and the wider public genuinely interested in, and concerned by, the state of the world’s food provisioning system. It is richly illustrated with figures and makes extensive use of boxes to highlight relevant examples. Colin Sage is Senior Lecturer in Geography at University College Cork, Republic of Ireland. Routledge Introductions to Environment Series Published and forthcoming titles Environmental Science texts Titles under Series Editor: Atmospheric Processes and Systems David Pepper Natural Environmental Change Environmental Biology Environment and Society texts Using Statistics to Understand the Environment and Philosophy Environment Energy, Society and Environment, Environmental Physics 2nd Edition Environmental Chemistry Gender and Environment Biodiversity and Conservation, Environment and Business 2nd Edition Environment and Law Ecosystems, 2nd Edition Environment and Society Coastal Systems, 2nd Edition Environmental Policy Representing the Environment Sustainable Development Environment and Social Theory, 2nd Edition Environmental Values Environment and Politics, 3rd Edition Environment and Tourism, 2nd Edition Environment and the City Environment, Media and Communication Environmental Policy, 2nd Edition Environment and Economy Environment and Food Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Forthcoming Environmental Governance Environment and Food Colin Sage Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 First published 2012 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2012 Colin Sage The right of Colin Sage to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Sage, Colin. Environment and food/Colin Sage. p. cm. 1. Food habits – Environmental aspects. 2. Food preferences – Environmental aspects. 3. Food supply – Environmental aspects. I. Title. GT2850.S24 2011 363.8Ј72 – dc22 2010052901 ISBN: 978–0-415–36311–2 (hbk) ISBN: 978–0-415–36312–9 (pbk) ISBN: 978–0-203–01346–5 (ebk) Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Typeset in Times New Roman by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon Contents List of plates ix List of figures x List of tables xi List of boxes xii Acknowledgements xiv Chapter 1 Introduction: why environment and food? 1 Food and the environment 3 l Sustainability and food 4 l Focus and structure of the book 7 l Further reading 12 Chapter 2 The global agri-food system 14 Development 16 l Scale and structure 27 l Primary food production 32 l Agri-technologies 41 l Food manufacturing 49 l Food retail 54 l Summary 64 l Further reading 65 Chapter 3 The agro-ecology of primary food production 67 Ecosystem services 69 l Typology of agricultural systems 74 l Resources 90 l Summary 108 l Further reading 109 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Chapter 4 Global challenges for food production 111 Climate change 112 l Freshwater 120 l Peak oil 132 l Livestock 141 l Summary 153 l Further reading 154 Chapter 5 Final foods and their consequences 156 Transforming foods 158 l Environmental dimensions 167 l Transporting food 187 l Food waste 199 l Summary 207 l Further reading 208 vi • Contents Chapter 6 Rethinking food security 209 Evolution 211 l Population 218 l Food and energy security 222 l Climate change 226 l Globalisation 233 l Food sovereignty 241 l Summary 246 l Further reading 247 Chapter 7 Towards a sustainable agri-food system 249 Reconsidering sustainability 251 l Sustainable agriculture 255 l Sustainable consumption 262 l Reconnecting production and consumption 271 l Planning food systems 277 l Summary 290 l Further reading 291 Chapter 8 Conclusion 293 Glossary 297 Bibliography 300 Index 317 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Note: Words highlighted on their first occurrence in the text can be found in the glossary after chapter eight. Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Plates 3.1 Aspects of wet rice cultivation, West Sumatra, Indonesia 81 3.2 Pre-Hispanic terracing, Colca Valley, Peru 85 3.3 Agro-forestry: harvesting fruits, Lampung, Indonesia 87 3.4 Ducks as part of integrated pest management, West Sumatra 89 3.5 Aquaculture: cultivating fish in irrigation canals, West Sumatra 91 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Figures 2.1 The global agri-food system: a schematic representation 31 2.2 The farm as hub of the agri-food system 38 2.3 Stages in the process of motomechanisation in grain cultivation 43 2.4 The hourglass model of the agri-food system: retailer power 58 3.1 A framework for evaluating primary food production options 78 3.2 A conceptual water-accounting framework 99 4.1 Greenhouse gas emissions from the UK food chain, 2006 114 4.2 Sources of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions 118 4.3 Share of global field-level water use by different crops 128 4.4 Virtual water flows: leading exporters and importers 130 4.5 Discovery and production of regular oil 136 4.6 The depletion curve for oil and gas 138 4.7 World annual fuel ethanol production, 1975–2009 139 5.1 The “co-evolutionary” development of social, economic and technological change 162 5.2 Flowchart of life-cycle phases for a cottage pie ready-meal 186 5.3 Flowchart for Swedish tomato ketchup 188 5.4 CO2 emissions by mode of transport, UK 2006 192 5.5 Changes in control over the food distribution system, UK 193 6.1 World grain production per person, 1950–2007 219 6.2 World grain stocks as days of consumption, 1960–2007 223 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Tables 2.1 Global food sales, 2002 28 2.2 IGD grocery turnover league, 2007 59 3.1 Production statistics for five food and feed commodities, 2007 75 3.2 A global typology of primary food production systems 80 3.3 Energy inputs in US maize (corn) production 107 4.1 Global average virtual water content of selected primary foods 127 4.2 Meat consumption per capita by region 143 4.3 Population of the principal commercial livestock categories by world region 146 5.1 Environmental impacts related to the final consumption of products 184 5.2 Food transport indicators, UK 1992–2006 191 5.3 Illustrations of waste in the food chain 200 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 02:12 24 May 2016 Boxes 2.1 Sweetness and sugar 17 2.2 King Sugar and other agricultural monarchs 18 2.3 Observations on the global dynamics of the agri-food system 26 2.4 The European agricultural revolution 33 2.5 Traditional low-input farming, pre-war UK 36 2.6 Features of the agricultural treadmill 39 2.7 The Green Revolution imperative 40 2.8 Stages in the process of motomechanisation 42 2.9 Concentration ratios for selected US food sectors 52 2.10 Some key features of the leading retailers 61 3.1 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: main findings 70 3.2 Deforestation in Amazonia and soybean production 73 3.3 Total land requirements 74 3.4 Bolivia: