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A Social History of Okinawan Musical Drama A UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Between Two Worlds: A Social History of Okinawan Musical Drama A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnomusicology by James Rhys Edwards 2015 © Copyright by James Rhys Edwards January 2015 Revised July 2015 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Between Two Worlds: A Social History of Okinawan Musical Drama by James Rhys Edwards Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnomusicology University of California, Los Angeles, 2015 Professor Roger Savage, Chair In 1879, Japan annexed the Ryūkyū Islands, dissolving the nominally independent Ryūkyū Kingdom and establishing Okinawa Prefecture. This helped inaugurate Imperial Japan’s expansion beyond the historical naichi or “inner lands.” It also set in motion a structural transformation of Okinawan society, marked by the end of tribute trade with China, the abolition of a centuries-old status system, and the gradual modernization of the economy. This process was painful, pitting the interests of the traditional Okinawan elite against those of Japanese administrators, with Okinawan peasants and laborers caught in the middle. The epicenter of this process was the prefectural capital of Naha – and for many Okinawans, particularly working class women, the soul of Naha was its commercial theater. This dissertation approaches prewar Okinawan commercial theater both as an institution and as a space of experience and expression. Its main focus is vernacular musical drama or kageki, which was created by classical performing artists disenfranchised by the dissolution of ii the court. Musical dramas such as A Peony of the Deep Mountains (Okuyama no botan) and Iejima Romance (Iejima Handō-gwa) draw selectively on both courtly and popular traditions, fusing the poetic sophistication of kumiodori dance-drama with the mass appeal of folk song and dance. After introducing early modern courtly and popular performing arts, I trace the emergence of commercial theater as an effect of contradictory social forces set in motion by annexation. Cross-reading actors’ memoirs and newspaper reviews with writings by period scholars such as Okinawan cultural historian Iha Fuyū and Japanese critical theorist Tosaka Jun, I situate commercial performance in its socioeconomic and ideological context. I then turn from a social scientific to a hermeneutic mode of critique, offering close readings of four influential musical dramas. Unlike coeval Okinawan elite literature, these dramas do not explicitly challenge the dominant order. I will argue, however, that by representing low-status female protagonists as self-constant and morally competent agents, they invite working class female spectators to reimagine the horizons of their social experience. iii The dissertation of James Rhys Edwards is approved. Helen Rees Carol Sorgenfrei Timothy Taylor Roger Savage, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2015 iv For my mother and father v Table of Contents Acknowledgment ix Vita x Introduction 1 The political ontology of art and aesthetic experience 5 Performance and the politics of recognition 9 Dissertation structure and chapter summaries 26 Chapter 1: History, historiography, and theory Okinawa and the historiography of development in Japan 35 The emergence of “the Okinawan” in prewar discourse 41 Postwar reconstructions of Okinawan identity 50 Method I: The normative Japanese research model 56 Method II: The normative Western research model 60 Theory I: Aesthetic conciliation and sociologistic positivism 65 Theory II: From sociologism to critical hermeneutics 74 Chapter 2. Performing arts in the Ryūkyū Kingdom The origin and political trajectory of the Ryūkyū Kingdom 90 Social structure in the Ryūkyū Kingdom 94 Popular performing arts in early modern Ryūkyū 97 Ryūkyūan cultural policy and the birth of kumiodori 104 Courtly performing arts as Confucian political practice 110 vi Dialectics of obligation and desire in kumiodori 114 Aesthetics, ideology, and the early modern Ryūkyūan state 128 Chapter 3. Annexation and the emergence of commercial performing arts Nineteenth century crisis and decline 137 Abolishing a kingdom and establishing a prefecture 144 Social mobility and the commodification of artistic competence 149 From narrative dance to comic musical drama 158 The genesis of tragic musical drama: Uyanma (The Kept Woman) 164 Dynamics of representation during the Preservation of Old Customs period 173 Chapter 4. The Meiji theater as a space of social practice Uneven development and the “agrarian problem” 179 Commercial theater as a social and economic institution 186 The expansion of the repertory and formation of genres 195 The birth of long-form tragic musical drama: Tomari Aka (Aka of Tomari) 205 Theater as an institution, a commodity, and an art 213 Chapter 5. Commercial performance as an object of discourse and policy Indigenous capitalism and the formation of class consciousness 226 The consolidation of taste categories 230 Popular custom as a threat and a promise 235 Moral panic and state intervention 242 From repression to reform 248 Reformism and the contradictions of Okinawan modernity 259 vii Chapter 6. The politics of recognition in Taishō period musical drama Developing dependency and crisis 269 Tragic historical consciousness and the premonition of violence 273 Crushed by history: Okuyama no botan (A Peony of the Deep Mountains) 276 Premonitions of doing violence: Iejima Handō-gwa (Iejima Romance) 287 Conclusion: Toward a phenomenology of the capable woman 290 Appendix I: Maps I. (1). The Ryūkyū Islands in an East Asian context 309 I. (2). Okinawa Island 310 I. (3). The Naha/Shuri area 311 I. (4). Iejima and its surroundings 312 Appendix II: Musical materials II. (1). Okinawan cipher notation: "Hama chijuyā bushi" 313 II. (2). Western notation: "Hama chijuyā bushi" 316 Appendix III: Temizu no en (The Bond of Water in Hands) 317 Appendix IV: Uyanma (The Kept Woman) 331 Appendix V: Tomari Aka (Aka of Tomari) 336 Appendix VI: Okuyama no botan (A Peony of the Deep Mountains) 349 Appendix VII: Iejima Handō-gwa (Iejima Romance) 366 Endnotes 382 Works cited 398 viii Acknowledgments I would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor, Roger Savage, and to the members of my committee: Helen Rees, Carol Sorgenfrei, and Timothy Taylor. Their advice and critique have enriched this project tremendously. I would also like to deeply thank Professor Herman Ooms for critiquing my drafts and sitting on my defense committee, and Professors Mitchell Morris, Susan McClary, and William Marotti for contributing immeasurably to my development as a scholar while at UCLA. Equally important has been the support I have received over the years from the Department of Ethnomusicology faculty and staff, in particular Chi Li, Sandra McKerroll, Donna Armstrong, and Kathleen Hood. The faculty and staff at the Terasaki Center for Japanese Studies, the UCLA International Institute, and the UCLA Center for Southeast Asian Studies have also provided me with invaluable support. In Japan, my sincerest thanks go out to Higa Yasuharu, Higa Kazue, Karimata Keiichi, Suzuki Kōta, the Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies, the National Theatre Okinawa, Shinjō Eitoku, Steven Chodoriwsky, and my dear friend and mentor Nakazato Masao. I would also like to thank Joko Bibit Santoso and Komunitas Tanggul Budaya of Surakarta. To my family, friends, and colleagues – especially Emi Foulk, Paul Chaikin, and Tomoko Akiyama – thank you for seeing me through this curious journey. Finally, I would like to pay special regards to my advisors at Grinnell College, Johanna Meehan and Roger Vetter, and to the late John Mohan. This dissertation would not have been possible without generous assistance from the Terasaki Center for Japanese Studies, the UCLA Asia Institute, the UCLA International Institute, the UCLA Graduate Division, the Department of Music at Okinawa Prefectural University of Arts, and the Herb Alpert School of Music. ix Vita 2003 Bachelor of Arts, Philosophy Grinnell College Grinnell, IA. 2008 Master of Arts, Ethnomusicology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA. 2008–2009 Foreign Language and Area Studies Grant UCLA Asia Institute Sasakawa Fellowship Terasaki Center for Japanese Studies 2009 Certificate, Advanced Japanese Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies Yokohama, Japan. 2010 Martin Hatch Award Society for Asian Music 2010–2011 Fulbright-Hays Group Project Grant Consortium for the Teaching of Indonesian Lemelson Fellowship on Indonesia UCLA Center for Southeast Asian Studies 2011 Certificate, Advanced Indonesian Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana Salatiga, Indonesia. 2011–2012 Aratani Field Experience Fellowship Terasaki Center for Japanese Studies 2012 Notehelfer Prize UCLA Asia Institute 2012–2014 Aratani Research Grant Terasaki Center for Japanese Studies x Publications 2013 “Impossible Properties: Language and Legitimacy in Ong Keng Sen and Kishida Rio’s Lear.” International Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies 10(2): 13-34. 2012 “Theory ‘Between Inside and Outside’: A Response to Zachary Wallmark’s ‘Sacred Abjection in Zen Shakuhachi.’” Ethnomusicology Review 17: http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/journal/volume/17/piece/584 2011 “Silence by my Noise: An Ecocritical Aesthetic of Noise in Japanese Traditional Sound Culture and the Noise Music of Akita Masami.” Green Letters: Studies in Ecocriticism 15: 89-102. xi Introduction This dissertation has two interlocking aims. The first is to provide a historical
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