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African Languages in a Digital AfAr AfrikAAns AkAn AmhAric ArAbic AtsAm blin chewA/nyAnjA ewe GA Ge'ez hAusA iGboAL_titlepages2:Layout 110/19/092:43PMPage mojju sidAmo AfAr somAli sotho, kAmbA kinyArwAndA koro? kpelle linGAlA ndebele, south oro northernsotho, southern swAhili swAzi tiGre tiGrinyA tsonGA tswAnA tyAp VendA wolAyttA, wAlAmo wolof AfAr AfrikAAns AkAn AmhAric ArAbic AtsAm blin chewA/nyAnjA ewe GA Ge'ez hAusA iGbo AfAr AfrikAAns AkAn AmhAric ArAbic AtsAm blin chewA/nyAnjA ewe GA Ge'ez hAusA iGbo jju kAmbA kinyArwAndA koro? kpelle linGAlA ndebele, south oromo sidAmo somAli sotho, northern sotho, southern swAhili swAzi tiGre tiGrinyA tsonGA tswAnA tyAp VendA wolAyttA, wAlAmo wolof XhosA yorubA zulu Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download nyA tsonGA tswAnA tyAp VendA tyAp tswAnA tsonGA nyA wolAyttA, wAlAmo wolof XhosA yorubA zulu zulu yorubA XhosA wolof wAlAmo wolAyttA, Ge'ez hAusA iGbo jju kAmbA kinswAhili swAzi tiGre tiGri tiGre swAzi kinswAhili kAmbA jju iGbo hAusA Ge'ez koro? kpelle linGAlA ndebele, south oromo sidAmo somAli This page intentionally left blank DON OSBORN AFRICANLANGUAGES INADIGITALAGE Challenges and opportunities for indigenous language computing Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download International Development Research Centre Ottawa • Cairo • Dakar • Montevideo • Nairobi • New Delhi • Singapore This book is an output of the IDRC-funded African Network for Localization, www.africanlocalization.net This book is an output of the IDRC-funded African Network for Localization, www.africanlocalization.net Published by HSRC Press Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa www.hsrcpress.ac.za and International Development Research Centre (IDRC) PO Box 8500, Ottawa, ON, Canada K19 3H9 First published 2010 ISBN (soft cover) 978-0-7969-2249-6 ISBN (pdf) 978-0-7969-2300-4 ISBN (epub) 978-0-7969-2301-1 eISBN (IDRC) 978-1-55250-473-4 © 2010 Human Sciences Research Council The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Human Sciences Research Council (‘the Council’) or indicate that the Council endorses the views of the authors. In quoting from this publication, readers are advised to attribute the source of the information to the individual author concerned Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download and not to the Council. Copyedited by Robyn Arnold Typeset by Simon van Gend Cover design by Hothouse South Africa Printed by Logo Print, Cape Town Distributed in Africa by Blue Weaver Tel: +27 (0) 21 701 4477; Fax: +27 (0) 21 701 7302 www.oneworldbooks.com Distributed in Europe and the United Kingdom by Eurospan Distribution Services (EDS) Tel: +44 (0) 20 7240 0856; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7379 0609 www.eurospanbookstore.com Distributed in North America by Independent Publishers Group (IPG) Call toll-free: (800) 888 4741; Fax: +1 (312) 337 5985 www.ipgbook.com Contents List of tables and figures viii Foreword ix Preface xii Acronyms and abbreviations xv 1 Introduction 1 2 Background 5 Importance of African languages and implications for ICT 5 What is localisation? 7 Overlapping regional contexts: localisation where? 12 Who localises? 14 What is the current state of localisation across the African region? 15 3 Introducing ‘localisation ecology’ 17 An ecological perspective on the environment for localisation 17 The pLETES model 20 Dynamic complexes within localisation ecology 25 Relevance to questions of ICT and localisation 29 4 Linguistic context 31 Languages, dialects and linguistic geography 31 Sociolinguistics and language change 34 Oral and literate traditions 35 Language and language in education policies 38 Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download Basic literacy, pluriliteracy and user skills 40 Terminology and accommodation of ICT concepts 41 5 Technical context I: physical access 43 Physical and soft access 44 Basic infrastructure 45 Computer hardware and operating systems 46 Connectivity and ICT policy 47 6 Technical context II: internationalisation 49 The facilitating technical environment 49 Handling complex scripts: from ASCII to Unicode 50 The ‘last mile’ of internationalisation 54 Internationalisation and localisation 55 7 African-language text, encoding and fonts 57 Non-Latin scripts and ICT 57 Typology of Latin-based African orthographies 58 Evolution of African-language text use in ICT 59 Fonts 61 Languages without writing systems 63 8 Keyboards and input systems 65 Keyboards 65 Keyboards for Africa 68 Alternative input methods 70 9 Defining languages in ICT: tags and locales 73 Languages and the ISo 639 standards 73 Locale data 75 10 Internet 79 E-mail 79 Internationalisation and the web 80 Web content in and about African languages 80 Internationalised domain names 83 11 Software localisation 85 Applications and operating systems 85 Trends in proprietary software 85 Trends in free and open-source software 86 Software localisation in Africa 87 Web interfaces 88 12 Mobile technology and other specialised applications 91 Mobile technology 91 Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download Audio dimensions: voice, text-to-speech and speech recognition 92 Geographic information systems 93 Computer-assisted translation 94 13 Achieving sustainable localisation 97 Needs by kind of localisation and localiser 97 Understanding the needs of localisers 99 Analysis of needs from a pan-African perspective 102 Facilitating communication about localisation 103 14 Summary, recommendations and conclusion 107 Major themes 107 Strategic perspectives 109 Conferences and workshops 111 Training and public education on localisation 113 Information resources and networking 115 Languages, policy and planning 116 Basic localisation, and ICT policies and programmes 118 Africa and ICT standards for localisation 120 Advanced applications, tools and research 123 Conclusion 127 Notes 130 References 139 Index 146 Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download Tables TAble 2.1: Dimensions of localisation 8 TAble 7.1: Approaches to using Latin-based orthographies with extended charac- ters and/or diacritics (category 3 and 4 orthographies) in ICT 61 TAble 7.2: Some legacy 8-bit fonts for extended Latin scripts in Africa 62 TAble 9.1: ISo 639 categories for identifying language (current and planned) 74 TAble 9.2: African languages filed in CLdR 1.6.1 76 TAble 11.1: OpenOffice localisation projects 89 TAble 13.1: E-mail forums on African languages and ICT 103 Figures Figure 3.1: Model of language management 21 Figure 3.2: Three basic factors in localisation ecology 22 Figure 3.3: The pLETES model 23 Figure 3.4: The three key factors of localisation in the pLETES model 26 Figure 3.5: Applied linguistics, translation in localisation, and social uses of ICT 26 Figure 3.6: Comparison of the main concerns of language policy and Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download ICT policy 27 Figure 3.7: Digital divide projects: from basic to more complex dynamics, without language 28 Figure 3.8: Localisation, localisation follow-through and localisation follow-up 29 viii Foreword: Language, money and the information society At the beginning of the 21st century, national languages and cultures play a much more important role in international affairs and relations among peoples and governments than some 20th-century analysts and researchers had predicted. Among the potentially devastating effects of globalisation, linguistic unification – not to mention Anglicisation – of societies and cultures has very often been referred to as its most dangerous negative impact. So dangerous, in fact, that global summits have been held on cultural and linguistic diversity, and monumental efforts have been made to prevent cultural homogenisation. However, global tensions since September 2001 have reawakened decision- makers and global institutions to the need to understand and to master the language of others so as to better understand them and better protect ourselves. Information and communication technologies (icts) facilitate this interac- tion as tools that use languages or as language processing and representation tools. While humanity’s main languages are now well served by icts, there are still thousands of languages in the world in which one cannot send an email or read a website. Some languages do not yet have standardised characters, while others have two or three groups of characters: one group uses the local alphabet; another group uses the alphabet of a formerly dominant foreign language; and the third group often uses the Latin alphabet. When icts are not available in a given local language, the opportunity to produce and disseminate local content (educational, administrative or tourism content) on the Internet is reduced. As a result, the chances that the culture Free from www.hsrcpress.ac.za download conveyed by this language will be shared and made accessible to its speakers, researchers and linguists who would like to study it are also decreased. Worse yet, given the widespread use of icts (mobile phones, computers, multimedia and digital audio-visual aids, etc.), the de facto language imposed on users (be it English, French, Spanish, Arabic or other) ends up gaining the upper hand and replacing the local language for ict and other purposes. This phenomenon is not unique to icts. In a recent conference on transla- tion, one of the speakers attributed the predominance of a particular foreign language in his government’s correspondence and invitations to tender to the language preference of administrative representatives. This resulted in favouring Anglophone companies when invitations to tender were drafted in English and Francophone companies when they were drafted in French. The impact of a particular trend therefore extends beyond its own linguistic dimension to become political, economic and social in nature. ix In the Information Society, in addition to being a means of communica- tion, language has a socio-economic role similar to that of money in industrial society. While money is used to acquire material goods, language is used to acquire knowledge and intangible goods.* This book is the result of several years of observation, analysis, consulta- tion and synthesis of the adaptation of icts to local languages in Africa.
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