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The Birth of Twentieth-Century Chinese Yu Gao The Birth of Twentieth-Century

Revolutions in Language, History, and Culture Yu Gao Normal University Jinhua,

Translated by Guicang Li Wenzhou University Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China

ISBN 978-1-137-56529-7 ISBN 978-1-137-55936-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-55936-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947824

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Nature America Inc. The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A. Foreword

Lu Xun, in his “Essay Fifty-Four,” writes thus about the state of Chinese society:

It is other than a peculiar scene of many centuries squeezed together: there co-exist oil lamps and electrical bulbs, wheelbarrows and airplanes, darts and machineguns, ‘no talking of legal principles’ and the Movement of Defending the Constitution, the cannibalistic doctrines and humanitarian- ism, ceremonies for the arrival of a corpse from afar, snake worship, and the advocacy of aesthetic education to replace religions. All these stand side by side in current China. (344)

Realistic and predictive for his times, Xun presents an epitome of Chinese society during the period of the , and a general picture of twentieth-century Chinese society. The co-existence of things incompatible, as he observes, is analogous to the field of Chinese literature. Comparatively speaking, twentieth-century Chinese literature, from the writings in modern baihua () to the modernist literary movement at the end of the century, has spanned the Western literary developmental period of about eight centuries, a period when broke away from its origins and branched off with national language revolutions up to the postmodern age. All literary schools, move- ments, conceptions and methods that were formulated over this lengthy period in the West simultaneously appeared in the Chinese literary arena. Historically, besides the strong presence of the legacy of the Dynasty

v vi FOREWORD literary tradition, there co-exist the modern Neo-Confucian School, the School of Modern Urban Romance or the “School of Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies,” the New Marshal Arts School, the Pre-liberation School, Revolutionary Literature, and all the modernist schools and styles conceivable. For a time, every ancient and modern type of literature could be found in this Chinese literary “salad bowl.” What we can generalize about twentieth-century Chinese literature is that it remained committed in trying and experimenting with all ancient, modern, Chinese and foreign literary forms, analogous to the manner the legendary Emperor , who tasted all manner of plants in order to find herbal cures for diseases. Literary experiments on the one hand release creativity, encourage endeavor to make things new, and occasion much reflection. On the other hand, the experiments can hardly be viewed as successful, as likens them to cooking with flint fire: “This looks like we invite the primitives who were unknown to the use of fire to open a joint restaurant. No matter how long and hard we try, we fail to cook anything well-done” (344). It would be an impossible mission to summarize the diverse Chinese litera- ture of that time, although twentieth-century Chinese literature has wit- nessed enormous transformations. Early modern times have called for the birth of giant figures, and accordingly charismatic figures emerged and had an influence in reshaping social systems, conceptions, modes of pro- duction, use of literary languages, literary portrayal delineation and recon- ceptualization of literature itself. That is generally true, but China is particular and exceptional in the sense that the historical and social changes were nothing but tortuous, replete with unexpected twists and undula- tions. The Reform Movement of 1898, the Revolution of 1911, the May Fourth Movement, the Movements of Workers, Peasants and Soldiers, the founding of New China, the separation of , Kong and Macau, and the modernist wave at the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s—none of these massive social changes have significantly impacted the development and direction of Chinese literature, for every major social and cultural change achieves a sublation (Aufhebung). Metaphorically, twentieth-century Chinese literature moves on like the Yellow River, which, despite its countless turns, flows eastward in an almost straight line. Where is the axis of this literature? The axis cannot be so-called tradition, or so-called modernity, but must, rather, be the source of a new tradition and modernity, which cannot change easily with the times or there would be splits and gaps here and there, from time to time. The source should remain ontologically present, offering inexhaustible FOREWORD vii nutrients for twentieth-century Chinese literature. As a result of such a source, Chinese literature has completed its modern transformation, opening up a new vista that is poles apart from the classical one. The source should remain intact amid rapid social change as it anchors itself in its internal integrity. Only by tracing and finding such a source can we completely understand what happens in future in the flux in the field of literature. The Birth of Twentieth-Century Chinese Literature explores such a his- torical source and locates it in the birth of the modern baihua (the seed form of modern ), articulates the ontological signifi- cance that baihua has for the formation of modern Chinese literature, and convincingly makes a case that the modern Chinese language essentially determines the general qualities of this literature. The baihua literature during the period of the May Fourth Movement fundamentally changed Chinese literature as a result of the introduction of Western culture, litera- ture, concepts and ideas. However, the realization of this transformation is the result not of the influence of any particular Western literary school but of the general spirit of the era characteristic of pluralism in ideas, thoughts and concepts, which interact and complement each other. The zeitgeist certainly differs from the general character of literature, culture and thought, but what do modern Chinese literature and culture have in common? It is the baihua. Moreover, the frequent social and ideological reforms in the wake of the May Fourth Movement have reshaped modern Chinese literature accordingly. For instance, in mainland China, literature from 1949 up to the 1980s was dominated by the politicizing movements which were marked by ostensible ideological agendas and the advocacy of revolutionary realism, which was intended to streamline and regulate the creation of literary works, whereas Chinese literature in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau progressed with a focus on experimentalism and regionalism. Since the late 1980s, the overwhelming revolutionary realism and socialist realism, and the unification of revolu- tionary realism and revolutionary romanticism on the mainland, have faded as a result of the onslaught of all sorts of modernist and postmod- ernist writing, later known as “” or “the literature of the wounded,” “Roots-seeking Literature,” and the avant-garde. Despite this unwieldy and constant shifting in the field of literature, we still call it modern Chinese literature or new Chinese literature, instead of Western literature or classical Chinese literature. What holds together such a scope and variety of writing? It is again the modern Chinese language. viii FOREWORD

As it is inspirationally stated and argued in this monograph, modern Chinese is never a mere medium of expression or a system of signs, but implies worldviews, thought, and modes of thought proper. Cultural questions are all in all language questions. Classical Chinese (wenyan) fails in nature to express new ideas. Gao categorizes Lu Xun’s wenyan works into classical Chinese literature or the literature of the tran- sitional period, which is unique and significant. For instance, such an inspirational essay as Lu Xun’s “The Power of Māra Poetry,” which evokes a change of concepts of literature, if reviewed in the context of wenyan, would likely be considered mediocre in regard to the vigor of style, hence draining it of its real message for change in the traditional system of cul- ture. Otherwise, should we change Lu Xun’s wenyan critical terms into modern Chinese, its power and impact would be felt immediately because modern Chinese is not merely a medium of expression. Language does have such power. Different discourses inherent in different systems of written signs assume different levels of power. In the context of such power, there is a “speaking voice,” not merely a “person who speaks.” To really have a person who speaks in his or her own name, we need to break the confines of the classical wenyan, in the same way as we break the rock to uncover the gem. It is the birth of modern Chinese language that serves as the source capable of continuously pumping fresh water to the river of modern Chinese literature that is enlarged by countless tributaries, and is full of currents and cross-currents. This view of modern Chinese language as the source of this literature not only makes it possible to review the literature generally and totally, but also renders it significant to identify an intrinsic homogeneity for an enormous range of variations in the literature. In other words, modern Chinese language is what the multiplicity of the lit- erature has in common, and, in a sense, it is a spacious “home” for the development of this literature in its variety. Modern Chinese language and literature have a complementary relationship, mutually enhanced by the other’s development. Twentieth-century Chinese literature enhances the formation and establishment of modern Chinese language, playing a role similar to that of canonical texts in the development of classical literature. Anyhow, challenges, and even dismisses of the validity of the symbiotic relations between modern Chinese language and its literature are quite popular in the critical circle. The challenging evidence is the so-called “linguistic disruptions” and “cultural gaps.” Admittedly, wenyan, terse in expression, connotative and suggestive in meaning, retains the aesthetics of FOREWORD ix naturalness and gracefulness that can hardly be denied, but of imminent importance is how to enrich modern Chinese with this invaluable linguistic legacy. Furthermore, if reviewed maximally and taking into account the fact that language is a system of signs that express ideas and thoughts, Gao’s argument is valid and overwhelmingly convincing. His insightful differentiation between the baihua literary movement in the late and that during the period of the May Fourth Movement, and his analytical elucidation that the awkward translating strategy of assimilating foreign ideas into wenyan was an inevitable choice owing to the problems in the old system of signs, are well-­reasoned arguments for the idea that linguistic revolution is fundamental for all the reforms in the field of cul- ture, literature and ideology. His superb textual analysis of ’s “Unable to Close Up” and Lu Xun’s “Diary of a Madman,” two precur- sors that usher in modern Chinese literature, cogently proves the vital impact and power of expression of modern baihua as a new linguistic system. Notwithstanding more cautious reflections, this monograph provides a genuine sense of value for the study of new literature, not only because it closes the “loophole” in this field by advancing a new approach to the topic, and a new way of treating the history of this new literature, but also because it safeguards the great significance and value of modern Chinese literature, rationally and even academically. Plain but elegant in style, rich and accurate in using historical materials, reasonable and logical in argu- ment, pioneering in methodology, and new in ideas—concomitant with all these—this monograph’s critical method of returning to the historical source is inspiring. In this age of vanity and ostentation, we need more books of similar magnitude: solid in reasoning, convincing in analysis, and inspiring in new discoveries.

Professor of Chinese Literature Manjun Huang Normal University , China

Works Cited Lu Xun. (1981). Essay Fifty-Four. In The Complete Works of Lu Xun (The Memorial Board of Lu Xun, Eds., Vol. I). Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House. Foreword

Many people outside China are aware of the importance of the May Fourth Movement in modern Chinese history. Although named after the student protests of 1919, this actually began sev- eral years before and can be said to have served as the starting point for the transformation of China that would lead in 1949, some thirty years later, to the end of the with the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Many people are also aware that in conjunction with the political movement there was also a New Literature Movement led by such luminaries as Hu Shi and Lu Xun. Yet few of us who are monolingual, and can do little more than say please and thank you in Chinese, are aware of the role of the fundamental change in the Chinese language system that functioned as a crucial dimen- sion to this transformation, the establishment of the baihua system. It has shaped not only literature but also culture, , politics and eco- nomics. But here, in Modern Chinese Literature: Language, History and Culture, Yu Gao has provided a systematic and thoroughgoing linguistic examination of this phenomenon. The transformation of traditional Chinese into the modern Chinese language formed a necessary and indis- pensable part in the development of the culture and mindset of contem- porary China. To help with understanding the significance of this achievement in transforming one of the oldest continuously spoken and written languages on the planet, Yu Gao reviews the history of Chinese language change and the crucial role of Western influence at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century in the process of introducing Western

xi xii Foreword technology, science and literature. As with so much else, mere adoption would not work in assimilating new concepts across disciplines, nor would a formal language based on the Classics enable adequate translation of information from such a radically different worldview. took one approach to this problem of modernizing discourse and vocabulary by adopting the katakana syllabary for this purpose. The Chinese, in contrast, found a way to transform ideographic representation. Thus, as the author points out, the work of translation has had a vital function not only in general discourse but also, as a result of various campaigns to “learn from the West,” allowing Chinese authors to be exposed to myriad Western , poetry and drama. Of course, as anyone can imagine, the transformation of a language, along with an effort to adopt and adapt foreign concepts, literary styles and , will be met with fierce and varied resistance. Here, read- ers will learn about some of the forms such resistance took and why these rearguard actions failed to stem the tide of the development of a new Chinese. I found the nuanced discussion of the debate between the Radical School and the Conservative Xueheng School particularly fascinating, with the revelation of the conservatives having progressive philosophical ideas in some areas while fighting a rearguard action to prevent the adoption of baihua in literary production. Millions of readers around the world have read, enjoyed and been impressed by the achievements of China’s literary giant, Lu Xun. This study provides an analysis of those achievements in the context of the transformation of the Chinese language system that I have not seen before, and it includes valuable excerpts from some of Lu Xun’s comments about literature and the new writing. The synthesis achieved here will help scholars across various disciplines to better understand the synergy achieved in the May Fourth Movement among its political ambitions, cultural changes, language transformation and literary revolution with new depth and complexity.

Professor of English Patrick D. Murphy The University of Central Florida Orlando, FL, USA Contents

1 Division of Literary Periods, Theory, and Awareness of Problems 1 1 Research Perspectives 1 2 Periods of Time Division 5 3 Theoretical Framework and Awareness of Problems 10 Works Cited 15

2 and the Transformation of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature 17 1 Modern Chinese Language and Modern Chinese Literature 17 2 Language Reform and the Modern Transformation of Chinese Literature 27 3 A Linguistic Inquiry of the Literary Turn at the End of the 19th Century 38 Works Cited 45

3 Critique of Baihua Writing Theory 49 1 The May Fourth Baihua Movement and Its Literature 49 2 Fundamental Differences Between the May Fourth and the Late Qing Baihua Movements 57 3 Fundamental Differences Between the May Fourth Baihua Movement and the Popular Language Movement in the 1930s and 1940s 64 Works Cited 69

xiii xiv Contents

4 The Baihua Movement and Ideological Revolution 73 1 Theory of May Fourth New Literature 73 2 Reality of the May Fourth New Literature 82 Works Cited 89

5 Foreignization and Assimilation: Translated and Modern Chinese Literature 91 1 Re-writing: The Nature of Translation 91 2 On the Antiquity of Translated Literature in Modern Times 99 3 “Foreignization” of Modern Chinese Literature 110 4 The Assimilation of Western Literature 119 Works Cited 122

6 Nothing but Culture: The Pen War Between Hu Shi and the Conservative Xueheng School 127 1 A Critique of Hu Shi’s Theory of Baihua Writing 127 2 The Modernist Quality of the Rational Conservative Xueheng School 133 3 Hu Shi and the Xueheng School on the Concept of Language 141 4 Hu Shi and the Xueheng School on the Concept of Cultural Construction 147 Works Cited 153

7 Lu Xun’s View of Language, His Writing, and Its Relation to Modern Chinese Literature 157 1 Lu Xun’s View of Language 158 2 Lu Xun’s View of Language and His Writing 166 3 The Transitional Significance of Lu Xun’sWenyan Writing 172 Works Cited 178

8 Hu Shi and Lu Xun: Pioneers of Modern Chinese Literature 181 1 Hu Shi’s “Unable to Close Up”: Precursor to New Poetry 181 2 Lu Xun’s “Diary of a Madman”: Precursor to Modern Chinese Fiction 185 Works Cited 194

Index 195