Thomson of Arnhem Land

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A Study Guide Thomson of Arnhem Land

INTRODUCTION LIBBY TUDBALL

Thomson of Arnhem Land tells the story of Australian anthropologist, photographer and journalist, Donald Thomson and his lifelong struggle for Aboriginal rights. Beginning in the 1930s, the ﬁ lm documents Thomson’s passionate interest in Indigenous culture. It follows his journeys through Arnhem Land and explores his relationships with the great clan leader, Wonggu, and his friend and guide, Raiwalla. The story reveals his professional battles and traces his ﬁ ght to preserve Indigenous culture under threat from assimilation policies that demanded Aboriginal people must become like white Europeans. Thomson of Arnhem Land also gives us an insight into the personality clashes and politics behind the assimilationist policies that aimed to deny Indigenous Australians their culture. s family, 1935 (Thomson 1935 (Thomson s family, ’ Donald Thomson Thomson Donald with Wonggu Victoria) Museum Collection

CURRICULUM LINKS course in Anthropology at Sydney Between 1941 and 1943 Thomson The fi lm will have interest and University, and then accepted a was Squadron Leader in the Royal relevance for senior students of Studies cadetship as a journalist at the Australian Air Force. In this role of Society and Environment, History, Melbourne Herald. he worked again with Wonggu and Anthropology, Indigenous Studies, his sons. He organized Arnhem Land English, Drama, Photography and In 1928 Thomson obtained a grant Aborigines into a Special Media Studies. of 6000 pounds to work among the Reconnaissance Unit to protect people of Cape York. He made three Australia’s north coast against invasion BEFORE WATCHING THE FILM expeditions to this area, in 1928, 1929 from the Japanese. • Work through the following and 1932-‘33. He worked in Arnhem background reading, activities and Land, living with the local people in Thomson received an OBE in 1945 questions to develop your understanding 1935 and in 1936-‘37. He delivered a for his military service in New Guinea. of Thomson and key facets of the report to the Federal Government in He continued to lobby the then leader historical period in which he lived and 1937 recommending that the unique of the Opposition, Robert Menzies, worked. culture of the Arnhem Land peoples to ensure the survival of the Yolngu should be preserved. Thomson focused peoples’ cultures. Thomson was greatly THOMSON’S BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS on their special relationships with saddened when Menzies sided with the Donald Thomson was born in Melbourne the land and their complex social, assimilationists. In 1950, he received and studied natural science at the cultural and economic structures. But a Doctorate in Anthropology from the University of Melbourne. While there, he the assimilationists, led by Professor University of Cambridge. In 1957, developed a profi ciency in photography, A.P. Elkin, had more infl uence over 1963 and 1965, he led expeditions to particularly of scientifi c and natural government ministers and policies, so the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts. history subjects. After graduating in Thomson’s views were ignored. 1925, he took a one-year diploma

72 Caledon Bay, 1935 (Thomson Collection, Museum Victoria)

Thomson retired from the University of area was held or ‘owned’ by a ‘clan’ (a we Europeans … They are unaware Melbourne in 1968 as the Professor of cluster of families with special kinship of the Conveniences that are so much Anthropology. He was involved in setting traditions). While some customs were sought after in Europe. They live in a up the Australian Institute of Aboriginal shared across Australia, there were tranquillity which is not disturbed by Studies, and served on its council. He many individual differences depending the inequality [between the rich and wrote numerous books and articles. on the region and the local environment. the poor] … The earth and the sea Over thousands of years, the people of their own accord furnish them with Throughout his life, Thomson fought had adapted their way of life to be in all the necessary things in life … They for Aboriginal rights. The thousands of harmony with the land and resources do not desire Magnifi cent houses and artifacts he collected, the detailed fi eld around them. A key element of life live in a warm and fi ne climate, so notes he wrote, and the more than was sharing. Food, skills in hunting that they have little need for clothing 10,000 exquisite photographs he took, and gathering, social relationships, … [M]any to whom we gave cloth, provide a cultural record of traditional spiritual links with the land and special etc., left it carelessly upon the sea Aboriginal life beyond value. The knowledge of laws and sacred places beach and in the woods as a thing Thomson collection in Museum Victoria were shared and passed on by each they had no manner of use for; in is considered one of the most signifi cant generation. short they seemed to set no value ethnographic collections in the world. upon anything we gave them … Thomson continued his fi ght for FIND OUT MORE ABOUT This, in my opinion, argues that they Aboriginal rights until his death in • scientists’ beliefs about the origins of think themselves provided with all the 1970. His ashes were scattered over the Aboriginal Australians; necessaries of life …1 waters of Arnhem Land by Wonggu’s sons. • archaeological evidence of early Cook claimed ownership of the land Aboriginal life; for the British and observed that the Family Collection) • Using these facts and further Donald Thomson (Photograph by Dr Julian Smith information you gather when you • the elaborate kinship systems of watch the fi lm, prepare a timeline of Aboriginal Australians; and Thomson’s life. You could do this as individual or group work. Present the • the spiritual traditions of the Dreaming. timeline as a poster or wall chart. Captain James Cook fi rst sighted the HISTORICAL BACKGROUND east coast of Australia in 1770. Historians now believe Indigenous He sailed into Botany Bay and Australians have lived here for more selected it as a suitable place for than 60,000 years. Estimates of the British settlement. His impressions of Aboriginal population in 1788 vary Aboriginal society were recorded in his – from around 300,000 to one million. journal: Thomson The people lived in hundreds of groups, each having their own language. All [T]hey appear to be some of the land within a recognized traditional most wretched People on earth; but in reality they are far happier than

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the Indigenous population realized that Until the 1960s Australian governments the Europeans were invaders. They tried had little respect for and knowledge of to defend their rights and beliefs the rich cultural traditions of Aboriginal but had no hope of defeating the and Torres Strait Islander peoples. They well-armed Europeans. Many thousands tried to ‘assimilate’ Aboriginal people of Indigenous people lost their lives. into white society and make them adopt Colonial governments established white culture and lifestyles. However, reserves where Aborigines would be they underestimated the powerful links ‘protected’ and ‘segregated’ from of the Aboriginal people with their land Europeans. Many of these were and culture and the strength of the Wonggu, a Yolngu elder, 1935 (Photograph by Donald Thomson Thomson by Donald 1935 (Photograph elder, Yolngu a Wonggu, Thomson Collection Museum Victoria) Victoria) Museum Collection Thomson missions controlled by churches. traditions that are still being passed through the generations in oral stories, Aborigines did not farm the land or • There are now many written sources music, dance and art. place fences around it. The British which document the confl ict between government declared the land terra Aboriginal groups and Europeans in • What is assimilation? nullius – land owned by no-one – and the 19th Century and 20th Century. Do believed this gave them the right, as some further research to fi nd out what • Why might the process of assimilation the fi rst Europeans to occupy the land, happened in various parts of Australia. be devastating to people of any culture to claim ownership. This meant that whose way of life is being denied? all land became Crown land and all • Why do you think the government Aboriginal property rights were ignored. decided to segregate the Aborigines? • What evidence can you fi nd today of renewed respect and celebration of • What impressions does Cook’s journal The breakdown by Europeans of Indigenous peoples’ cultures? give of Aboriginal Australians’ values? traditional Aboriginal culture continued in the 20th Century. Most Aborigines In the 1960s Aboriginal people began • On what basis did Cook believe it were separated from their land and to speak out, demanding land rights, was right for him to claim possession of forced to live on missions or government respect for sacred sites and greater Australia? reserves, under the authority of a self-determination. In 1967, a national ‘protector’. Many thousands of referendum was held which resulted • After you have watched the fi lm, Indigenous children were taken away in all Indigenous Australians being decide if Thomson would have agreed or from their parents, made government counted in the census for the fi rst disagreed with Cook’s views. wards, and trained as domestic servants time and having the right to vote. or farm workers. They were paid poor Since then, pride in being Aboriginal • Why didn’t Aborigines fence or farm wages and had very few rights. has been reasserted, and nationwide the land? organizations are calling for • Locate and read stories of children of reconciliation. • Find out what happened to the the ‘Stolen Generations’. concept of terra nullius after the Mabo • What is self-determination? judgement. • How did the government justify the taking of the children? • Why is this such an important concept Across Australia, the arrival of the for Indigenous Australians? Europeans in the 19th Century had a • What impact do we now know this disastrous impact on Aboriginal people. period had on many of those who were • Create a timeline of key stages Traditional food hunting and gathering taken? in Aboriginal peoples’ land rights sites were taken over, European diseases movement. You should include such caused thousands of deaths and, in events as the presentation of the bark many areas, violence broke out when petition by the Yirrkala community to

74 Wonggu with seven of his twenty-six wives, 1935 (Photograph by Donald Thomson – Thomson Collection Museum Victoria)

Federal parliament in 1963, the 1965 with service personnel based in the Donald Thomson understood the special Freedom Ride, the 1966 Wave Hill north as a result of the Japanese relationship the Yolngu people have walkout and the establishment of the invasion of the region. with the land and their kinship tent embassy in 1971. Also try to include beliefs. All Indigenous Australian an update on recent land rights issues. • Consult an atlas to locate Arnhem groups have hereditary land rights Land. based on principles of descent, kinship • What is reconciliation? and marriage. Each land holding group • Looking at a map, describe the land has the collective responsibility to CULTURAL BACKGROUND and fi nd out more about the climate in look after the country by keeping out Who Are Australia’s Indigenous People? the area. intruders, maintaining sacred sites and ‘An Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander performing traditional ceremonies to person is a person of Aboriginal or • Yolngu people today are actively ensure the country’s continuing identity Torres Strait Islander descent who working in community groups to and fertility. Elder members of the identifi es as Aboriginal or Torres Strait develop their schools, health services, group ensure that knowledge of Islander, and is recognized as Aboriginal industries, tourism and many other traditions is passed on. Before the by members of the community with needs and services. Visit European invasion, men, women and which he or she is associated’. http://www.nt.gov.au/oad/publications/ children shared in the collection of rciadic94595/them9.html to fi nd out food and hunting. Food was distributed This Commonwealth Australia about these initiatives. according to the rules of each society, defi nition is social rather than racial, but the decline in food resources due in keeping with changes in attitude UNDERSTANDING KINSHIP AND THE to the loss of traditional lands led to towards identity. Today, Indigenous RELATIONSHIP WITH THE LAND dependence on European food. Australians identify themselves with the In Indigenous groups, kinship patterns clan region where they come from in are very complex, since the people • After watching the fi lm, who do you recognition of their close relationships regard themselves as being related think were the key elders amongst the with their traditional land area. (although not biologically) to all the Yolngu in Thomson’s time? people in the cultural or linguistic WHO ARE THE YOLNGU PEOPLE? region. The Yolngu people see the • What do you learn about Yolngu The Yolngu people are the Indigenous universe as two parts which marriage traditions, social and clans whose kinship region covers complement each other. These parts are economic structures in the fi lm? over 90,000 kilometres of north-east expressed as moities known as Dhuwa Arnhem Land. In the fi lm, the time and Yirritja. The Yolngu use the idea AFTER WATCHING THE FILM Thomson spent with the Yolngu people of moity division to allocate the land, • In a class discussion, refl ect on of north-east Arnhem Land is sacred sites, plants and animals. This and share what you have learned documented. It is only since the early also has an impact on relationships about Australian history from the fi lm 1930s that the Yolngu people have had since Yolngu always marry into the Thomson of Arnhem Land. regular contact with Europeans. This opposite moity. was mainly through missionaries and, during World War 2, through contact

75 • In small groups write an obituary peoples, living in the missions meant • Why was a knowledge of the for Donald Thomson recording his loss of their culture and sense of appropriate rituals so important to signifi cant achievements and then share identity. Thomson’s success in developing a your views. You might like to include relationship with Wonggu? this comment from the producer/ • What reports did Thomson give of the director of the fi lm, John Moore: way people were treated at the Arnhem For two years Thomson lived with the Land mission? Yolngu people, learning their languages I was struck by the quality of the and way of life. He developed a relationship that Thomson had with • Why do you think the Presbyterian close relationship with the great Yolngu the Aboriginal people of Arnhem hierarchy in Melbourne wouldn’t leader, Wonggu, the head of the Djapu Land. His efforts to understand respond to the reports? clan. Wonggu gave Thomson a message Aboriginal culture from within, stick to take to the Commonwealth through immersing himself in their • Do some further research to fi nd out government. It said that he would keep lifestyle, had given him a unique more about both positive and negative the peace and ensure that there were no insight into their value systems and aspects of life in missions in the 1930s more killings. In return he asked for the view of the world. in various parts of Australia. release of his three sons and respect of the Yolngu cultural traditions. In • Why was it so tragic that much THOMSON’S TIME IN ARNHEM LAND 1936, after Wonggu’s sons had spent of Thomson’s archival fi lm of Arnhem In 1933 a state of panic erupted in three years in jail, Thomson sailed with Land was lost in a fi re? Darwin after fi ve Japanese fi shermen Ngarkaiya, Natjialma and Mau back and three white men were killed into Caledon Bay. • What messages of hope for the future of by Aboriginal clansmen in Caledon reconciliation does the fi lm leave us with? Bay, Northern Territory. Thomson was • What did Thomson discover were the appalled by calls for a punitive reasons why the Yolngu people had KEY EVENTS AND THEMES expedition and volunteered to go alone killed the Japanese people? Life in the Missions in the 1930s into Arnhem Land to try to prevent the Thomson and his fi rst wife Gladys spent race war that people feared. • Why was the return of Wonggu’s sons time at an Arnhem Land mission in the such a triumph for Thomson? 1930s. At the time, many missionaries The sons of clan leader Wonggu were believed that bringing Christianity to sentenced to twenty years hard labour • Why were there so many Japanese Aboriginal Australians would provide in Fanny Bay Jail, Darwin. Thomson people living in Northern Australia at them with a better future. Sadly, not wanted to fi nd out why the fi shermen the time? all missionary activities had positive had been killed. He suspected that the outcomes, and for many Indigenous Aboriginal men were resisting invasions • What impressions does the fi lm give of of their land and had acted in self- Arnhem Land peoples’ views on Thomson? defence. At the same time, he was aware that the offi cial policy of Early in 1937 Thomson was invited to go ‘protection’ of Aborigines had failed. He with Yolngu people to Gatji on the north proposed making a scientifi c study of coast where clans gathered for secret Yolngu culture as the basis for new ceremonies and trade. He was keen to policies that would fi nally bring justice fi nd out more about the economic life to Aboriginal people. of the peoples, their systems of land ownership and what induced them to • What was the signifi cance of the work so hard. While he was there, he message stick that Thomson took from extended his already large collection of Wonggu’s sons to their father? photographs of Yolngu culture.

• How would you describe the journey • What did Thomson ﬁ nd out about that Thomson took with Raiwalla to social and economic organization? Caledon Bay? • Why did Raiwalla owe equipment and commodities? Raiwalla, a Mildjingi man. Loyal friend and companion to Donald Thomson, Thomson, to Donald and companion friend Loyal man. a Mildjingi Raiwalla, Victoria) Museum Collection, 1936 (Thomson

76 Donald Thomson with Wonggu’s family, 1935 (Thomson Collection, Museum Victoria)

• What does Thomson’s visit to Gatji in 1942, Thomson sailed to Arnhem • Why was Thomson so appalled by the tell you about the attitude of Yolngu Land where he once again lived rocket testing at Maralinga in South people towards him? amongst the Yolngu people. Wonggu Australia in 1957? greeted him like a son. It was ironic that • Why was Thomson so reluctant to the government now wanted his people • What was Elkin’s view on the testing? return to Melbourne in 1937? to kill Japanese people. • Why was Thomson denied access to Thomson delivered his report to the • What does reconnaissance mean? Queensland missions in the 1950s? government in 1937, opposing the What special qualities and skills would policy of assimilation and arguing the local Indigenous population and In 1957 Thomson continued his efforts for specifi c policies to recognize and Thomson have had for a force like this? to document and increase his deep protect Aboriginal land rights. But his knowledge of the rich cultures of strongly voiced opinions won him few • Why do you think Thomson was sent Central Australian Aboriginal clans. supporters. In many ways he was a man on to New Guinea? ahead of his time. He recommended • What was he trying to fi nd out in the that: • Why would this period have been desert regions? personally troubling for Thomson? those Northern Territory Blacks not LEARNING FROM THOMSON’S yet ‘de-tribalised’ shall have the THE 1950S PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD Arnhem Land reserve set aside for In the 1950s Thomson continued The fi lm includes many of Thomson’s them and maintained strictly for their to campaign for Aboriginal Land photographs taken on his journeys use ... It may or may not be ‘practical Rights, mainly through writing feature in the 1930s. Russell White helped politics’ to maintain the whole area as newspaper articles. He attacked both catalogue his collection in 1970 and a reserve.2 pastoralists and missionaries for their commented: poor treatment of Aboriginal • In a brief role play, act out a possible Australians. He called for recognition Donald Thomson was a man of speech a supporter of Thomson’s views of Aborigines’ hereditary ownership of considerable accomplishment … may have made to support Thomson’s land. [T]he further I delved, the more recommendations. my respect grew for a man in • Suggest reasons why Thomson had many ways ahead of his time. The THE SECOND WORLD WAR little success in gaining support for his collection includes a vast number Australian forces became involved in views in the 1950s. of photographic negatives, a great WW2 as soon as war was declared in many … are glass plates. It was 1939. Thomson was a squadron leader • What was the signifi cance of the fact diffi cult enough to process these in a between 1941 and 1943 in the Royal that Thomson’s second wife delivered an photographic laboratory, but Thomson Australian Air Force. In this role, he amulet to Menzies in 1949? would build a bark shelter in the bush organized Arnhem Land Aborigines into and process them at night. Working a special Reconnaissance Unit. After • What was Menzies’ attitude to under extremely primitive conditions, the Japanese bombing raids on Darwin Thomson’s views? he produced outstanding images of very high quality. Not only did he

77 photograph every aspect of Aboriginal am not sure that Thomson was aware • What special insights did Arnhem life … but he also collected specimens just how extensively Elkin undermined Land people provide? of the fl ora and fauna, each of which his credibility. was carefully annotated. Pickled The co-producer of the fi lm, Michael snakes, stuffed birds, dried fl owers, • In what ways were Elkin’s views McMahon, and Film Australia’s nuts, seeds, snail shells, every type of opposed to Thomson’s? Executive Producer, Franco Di Chiera, creeping, crawling, hopping, swimming were drawn to Thomson’s story because or fl ying creature, every form of plant • In what other ways did the two men differ? of his courage and commitment. Di life is included in this collection, along Chiera asks the question, ‘What if with their botanical and Aboriginal • How does the biographer Tigger Wise Thomson had been listened to? Perhaps names, what they were used for and describe Elkin? the story of Australia and reconciliation who collected them, where and when. may have been much different’. • Why might the fi lm producer have a • How did Thomson travel around the clearer view of Elkin’s infl uence than • In a class discussion, talk about what shores and rivers of Arnhem Land? Thomson himself? you think Di Chiera means.

• What equipment would he have THE MAKING OF THE FILM, THOMSON The crew spent time in Darwin fi lming required to process the photographs? OF ARNHEM LAND at Fanny Bay Jail, where Wonggu’s The making of Thomson of Arnhem three sons were imprisoned in 1933. • Why was the support and friendship of Land involved a great deal of careful The fi lm crew was confronted with local Aborigines so important to his work? archival research, interviewing and contemporary issues about the over fi lming so that Thomson’s story would representation of Aboriginal people in • Why does White think that Thomson’s be faithfully and accurately reproduced jail, deaths in custody and the justice records are such an achievement? and represented. system today. Suggest other reasons why Thomson’s work is so signifi cant. • Make a list of all the different sources • Do some library research to fi nd out used in scenes from the fi lm. why Aboriginals die in custody at a In the fi lm, Thomson of Arnhem greater rate than other members of the Land, you see many images derived • Who is interviewed in the fi lm and Australian community. from Thomson’s extensive photographic how do their various insights help to collection. As you watch the fi lm, jot build the story of Thomson? RECONCILIATION TODAY down images which help you to learn In April 1999 the message stick about Indigenous culture. Compare your An Indigenous camera assistant, the Thomson family had kept for list with other members of the class and Djangirrawuy Garawirrtja (Djangi), was sixty-four years was returned to discuss what you have learnt. employed. He had a key role as location Wonggu’s descendants. It was an manager, forward scout, translator and important ceremony involving the A.P. ELKIN: ANTHROPOLOGIST community liaison person. Djangi felt Governor General, Sir William Deane, Throughout the fi lm we gain the his job was made easier because Dorita Thomson and then chair of impression that Thomson had very everyone in Arnhem Land knows about ATSIC, Gatjil Djerkura, who is one of different views about Indigenous Thomson and wants to talk about him. Wonggu’s grandsons. Australians compared with the noted ‘Some of the older people remember anthropologist A.P. Elkin. The producer/ him personally and they always speak • Look again at the scene in the fi lm director John Moore says: very fondly of him. Us younger ones recording this important event. have had the story passed down to The reason for Thomson’s … loss of us many times over, til we know it • Who is involved in the presentation? political infl uence can be traced to backwards’, explained Djangi. his confl ict with his great rival and • Why do you think the return of the the architect of assimilation, A.P. • How important do you think it was message stick attracted such interest Elkin. This battle for infl uence over for the fi lm production team to build and respect? Australia’s ‘native affairs’ was to contact and trust with Arnhem Land have far-reaching and quite damaging people? • Reconciliation is an issue receiving a consequences for Aboriginal people great deal of attention today. As a class, and for the country as a whole. … I discuss what the term means. Find out

78 Collection Museum Victoria) Nellie and Bambi, River,Stewart Cape York 1928 (Photograph by Donald Thomson more about the many reconciliation D.F. Thomson, Children of the activities occurring today. Why is there Dreamtime: Traditional Family Life in still a need for further reconciliation Aboriginal Australia, 1989. between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians? D.F. Thomson, Anthropologist, Explorer and Photographer at • Form small groups and choose one of the following aspects of Aboriginal http://www.dropbears.com/ culture to investigate: ceremonies, art, brough/Thomson.htm literature, music. Groups could choose to focus on historical or contemporary INDIGENOUS CULTURE AND aspects of culture. Gather resources ABORIGINAL ISSUES, PAST AND to construct a classroom display and PRESENT then invite another class group in Australian Institute for Aboriginal and for a presentation on the many ways Torres Strait Islander Studies, Bill Aboriginal culture is celebrated. Jonas, Marcia Langton and AITSIS staff, The Little Red, Yellow and Black POSTSCRIPT (and Green and Blue and White) Book, In the ﬁ nal scene of the ﬁ lm, we see Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation,

a shot from a plane fl ying over the 1994. NB: Contact the Council for – Thomson waters of Caledon Bay, Arnhem Land. further references on reconciliation. In June 1970, Donald Thomson’s ashes were scattered over Caledon Bay, a J.C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals ceremony witnessed by two of Wonggu’s of Captain Cook on his Voyages of sons. Discovery, vol.1, Cambridge University Press, 1955. Thomson of Arnhem Land 55 minutes • How different might aspects of documentary © 1999. A Film Australia Australia’s Indigenous history be if R. Craven (ed.), Teaching Aboriginal National Interest Program in association Thomson’s views had been listened to? Studies, Allen and Unwin, 1999. with John Moore Productions Pty Ltd. Produced with the assistance of Cinemedia’s Film Victoria and the Australian • In the last twenty or thirty years of Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates, Broadcasting Corporation. Producer’s Thomson’s life he was a forgotten man. Australians: A Historical Library, 1987. attachment supported by Film Victoria. Why do you think the fi lm was made? Developed with the assistance of Film Henry Reynolds, The Other Side of the Victoria and Museum Victoria. • How do you think Thomson would Frontier, Allen and Unwin, 1981. have defi ned reconciliation? What hopes do you think he may have had for Henry Reynolds, Fate of A Free People, Indigenous Australians in the future? Allen and Unwin, 1997.

REFERENCES – THOMSON Libby Tudball (ed.), Australians: Our D.F. Thomson, ‘The Story of Arnhem Lives Through Time, vols.1 & 2, Rigby Land’, Walkabout, vol.12, no.10, 1946, Heinemann, 1998. pp.4-22. ENDNOTES D.F. Thomson, Bindibu Country, Thomas 1. J.C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals of Nelson, West Melbourne, 1975. Captain Cook on his Voyages of Discovery, vol.1, This guide was produced by ATOM Cambridge University Press, 1955, p.399. (Australian Teachers of Media) © 2000. Tel. (03) 9525 5302 D.F. Thomson, Donald Thomson in 2. Argus, Melbourne, 13th June, 1938. Arnhem Land, compiled and introduced by Nicholas Peterson, Currey O’Neill, South Yarra, Victoria, 1983.