Introduction: Modernist Mythopoeia – the Language of the In-Between and of Beyond

Notes

Introduction: Modernist Mythopoeia – The Language of the In-Between and of Beyond

1. Ulysses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 3. 2. Ulysses, p. 22. 3. Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and Nobody, trans. Graham Parkes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 11. 4. A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (London: Minerva, 1992), p. 266. 5. Ibid., p. 258. 6. Ulysses, p. 37. 7. The Gay Science, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), p. 167. 8. The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann & R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), p. 54. 9. Shadow of Spirit: Postmodernism and Religion, eds. Philippa Berry & Andrew Wernick (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 1. 10. Phillip Blond (ed.), Post-Secular Philosophy: Between Philosophy and Theology (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 1. 11. Shadow of Spirit, p. 1. 12. Jürgen Habermas, An Awareness of What is Missing: Faith and Reason in a Post- Secular Age, trans. Ciaran Cronin (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010), p. 19. 13. Suzanne Hobson, Angels of Modernism: Religion, Culture and Aesthetics 1910–60 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), p. 5. 14. Erik Tonning, Modernism and Christianity (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), p. 1. 15. Michael Bell, Literature, Modernism and Myth: Belief and Responsibility in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 2. 16. Ibid., p. 1. 17. Hans Blumenberg, Work on Myth, trans. Robert M. Wallace (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1985), p. 27. ‘The historical power of myth is not founded in the origins of its contents, in the zone which draws its materials and its stories, but rather in the fact that, in its procedure and its “form,” it is no longer something else’ (p. 16). 18. Twilight of Idols/The Anti-Christ, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (London: Penguin Books, 1990), p. 81. 19. Don Cupitt, Taking Leave of God (London: SCM Press LTD., 1980), pp. 163–7. 20. See Paul Holmer, The Grammar of Faith (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1978). Holmer takes his lead from Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations, i.e. the language of faith belongs to a ‘single grammar’ (p. ix).

190 Notes 191

21. Will to Power, pp. 85–7. 22. Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans, trans. Edwyn C. Hoskyns (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 30. 23. See for example: Karl Jaspers, Philosophy: Metaphysics, trans. E. B. Ashton (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971). ‘Godforsakenness is not defiance. It involves a sense of distance, a lack of faith that makes me unable to be either defiant or yielding’ (p. 72). 24. The Gay Science, p. 181. 25. An Awareness of What is Missing, p. 15. 26. The Gay Science, p. 182. 27. Don Cupitt, ‘Post-Christianity’, from Religion, Modernity and Postmodernity, ed. Paul Heelas (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1998), p. 228. 28. Matthew Arnold, Literature and Dogma: An Essay Towards a Better Apprehension of the Bible, 2nd edn (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1873), pp. 12–13. 29. Sallie McFague, Metaphorical Theology: Models of God in Religious Language (London: SCM Press LTD, 1983), pp. 5–6. See also J. Hillis Miller, The Disappearance of God: Five Nineteenth-Century Writers (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000). ‘The idea of Incarnation was the ulti- mate basis for this harmony [man, society, nature, and language]’ p. 5. 30. ‘God’s Grandeur’, The Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins, eds. W. H. Gardner & N. H. Mackenzie (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 66. 31. Brideshead Revisited: The Sacred and Profane Memories of Captain Charles Ryder (London: Chapman & Hall, 1949), p. 274. 32. Helena (London: Penguin Books, 1963). 33. See K. K. Ruthken, Myth: The Critical Idiom (London: Methuen, 1976), pp. 60–1. 34. Karen Armstrong, The Case for God (London: Vintage, 2010), p. 3. 35. Karl Jaspers & Rudolf Bultmann, Myth and Christianity: An Inquiry into the Possibility of Religion without Myth (New York: Prometheus Books, 2005). ‘[A] cipher becomes the symbol of a reality that be expressed in any other way’ p. 87. See also Leonard Ehrlich, Karl Jaspers: Philosophy and Faith (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1975). 36. Work on Myth, p. 12. 37. The Will to Power, p. 9. 38. Work on Myth, pp. 34–5. 39. Ibid., p. 35. 40. Introductory books to theories of myth, such as Robert A. Segal’s Myth: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) and Laurence Coupe’s Myth (London: Routledge, 2008), by excluding the philosophical views of Karl Jaspers, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Martin Heidegger tend to give the general impression that myth only equates to a foundational narrative or a discourse of recurring patterns. 41. Titus Andronicus, ed. Jonathan Bate (London: Thomson Learning, 2006), pp. 213–14. 42. Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women (London: Vintage, 1991). 192 Notes

43. Literature, Modernsium and Myth, p. 120 44. Ibid., pp. 1–2. 45. Ibid., p. 122. 46. See Ludwig Wittgenstein, Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough, ed. Rush Rees, trans. A. C. Miles & Rush Rees (Bishopstone, Herefordshire: The Brynmill Press Ltd., 2010). See also Fergus Kerr, Theology after Wittgenstein (London: SPCK, 1997), & Ronald T. Michener, Postliberal Theology: A Guide for the Perplexed (London: Bloomsbury T. & T. Clark, 2013). 47. Work on Myth, p. 25. 48. Critics have identified in Harmonium a humanist or ironic style that stands in opposition to the religious commitment or ‘seriousness’ of Eliot. See Joseph N. Riddel, The Clairvoyant Eye: The Poetry and Poetics of Wallace Stevens (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991): ‘[ . . . ] Stevens never created a dramatic metaphor for his age, like The Waste Land [ . . . ]’ (p. 56). 49. The Gay Science, p. 167. 50. Waiting for Godot: A Tragicomedy in Two Acts (London: Faber & Faber, 1965), Act I, p. 9. 51. ‘Western atheism now finds itself in something of a twilight zone.’ Alister McGrath, The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World (London: Rider Books, 2004), p. 279. 52. See David A. White, Heidegger and the Language of Poetry (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), p. 108. 53. Gianni Vattimo, Belief, trans. Luca D’Isanto & David Webb (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), p. 47. 54. Ibid., p. 35.

1 Zarathustra: Nietzsche’s New Redeemer

1. Bertrand Russell, What I Believe (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 1. 2. Hans Blumenberg, Work on Myth, trans. Robert M. Wallace (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1985), pp. 34–5. 3. W. H. Auden, ‘D. H. Lawrence’, from The Dyer’s Hand and Other Essays (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), p. 277. 4. Ibid. 5. See M. H. Abrams, ‘Belief and the Suspension of Disbelief’, from Literature and Belief: English Institute Essays, ed. M. H. Abrams (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958), pp. 1–30. 6. Robert Gooding-Williams argues that Nietzsche was a modernist who required a creative break with the past to produce an unprecedented piece of work. Zarathustra’s Dionysian Modernism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), pp. 3–6. Kathyrne V. Lindberg argues: ‘Nietzsche rejects philosophical abstractions for the ideal of a poetic language (both poetry and music) that might recapture the passion and expressiveness of primitive speech.’ Reading Pound Reading: Modernism after Nietzsche (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 23. Notes 193

7. The Birth of Tragedy: Out of the Spirit of Music, trans. Shaun Whiteside (London: Penguin Books, 1993), p. 22. 8. Ibid., p. 40. 9. John Macquarrie, Existentialism (New York: Penguin Books, 1973), p. 20. 10. The Birth of Tragedy, p. 47. 11. Aaron Ridley, Nietzsche on Art (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 33. 12. The Birth of Tragedy, p. 114. 13. Ibid., p. 14. 14. Ibid., p. 16. 15. Terry Eagleton, Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), pp. 52–6. 16. Walter Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 128. 17. The Birth of Tragedy, p. 16. 18. Ibid., p. 46. 19. Ibid., p. 83. 20. Ibid., p. 53. 21. Ibid., p. 50. 22. See Peter Berkowitz: ‘Nietzsche glorifies tragedy as the highest form of art because it makes men wise’. Nietzsche: The Ethics of an Immoralist (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 65. 23. Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 39. 24. Karl Jaspers, Nietzsche: An Introduction to the Understanding of His Philosophical Activity, trans. Charles F. Wallraff & Frederick J. Schmitz (London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), p. 371. 25. David Punter, Metaphor (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 87–94. 26. George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (London: University of Chicago Press, 2003), pp. 25–9. 27. The Birth of Tragedy, p. 79. 28. Ibid., pp. 80–1. 29. Martin Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought, trans. Albert Hofstadter (New York: Harper & Row Publications, 1971), p. 191. 30. Ibid., pp. 191–2. 31. Ibid., p. 215. 32. See Laszlo Versényi, Heidegger, Being, and Truth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 81. 33. See Ernst Cassirer, Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer 1935–1945, ed. Donald Phillip Verne (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), pp. 38–40. Cassirer too, when discussing the mythic power of romantic poets, singles out Hölderlin for praise: ‘The greatest lyric poets, for instance Hölderlin or Keats, are men whom the mythic power of insight breaks forth again in its full intensity and objectifying power,’ Language and Myth, trans. Susanne K. Langer (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1953), p. 99. 34. David A. White, Heidegger and the Language of Poetry (University of Nebraska Press, 1978), p. 166. 194 Notes

35. Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought, p. x. 36. Ibid., p. 218. 37. John Macquarrie, Jesus Christ in Modern Thought (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1993), p. 218 38. Paul Ricoeur, The Rules of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language, trans. Robert Czerny with Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 368. 39. Ibid., p. 370. 40. Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought, p. 225. See ‘[What is God . . . ]’, Friedrich Hölderlin, Hymns and Fragments, trans. Richard Sieburth (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 215. 41. ‘Man is not God’s worthy image’, The Peacock and the Buffalo: The Poetry of Nietzsche, trans. James Luchte & Eva Leadon (Llanybydder: Fire and Ice Publishing, 2003), pp. 15–16. 42. Martin Heidegger, Who is Nietzsche’s Zarathustra? (Chicago: Aristeus Books, 2012), p. 11. 43. Thus Spake Zarathustra, trans. Graham Parkes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 13. 44. Ibid., p. 3. 45. Ibid., p. 23. 46. Cited from Julie Rivkin & Michael Ryan (eds.), Literary Theory: An Anthology (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 263. 47. Tim Murphy, Nietzsche, Metaphor, Religion (New York: State University of New York Press, 2001), p. 2. 48. Litetary Theory, p. 263. 49. Ibid., pp. 264–5. 50. Ibid. 51. Gianni Vattimo, Nietzsche: An Introduction, trans. Nicholas Martin (London: Continuum, 2002), p. 71. 52. See Craig Hovey, Nietzsche and Theology (London: T. & T. Clark, 2008), p. 13. 53. ‘To Elisabeth Nietzsche’, Bonn, June 11, 1865, Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche, trans. & ed. Christopher Middleton (Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1996), p. 7. 54. It was expected that Nietzsche, like his father, Carl Ludwig, a Lutheran pastor, would enter the clergy. Nietzsche’s letter reveals a growing intoler- ance towards his Lutheran upbringing, the reaffirming of the ‘language of justification’ which Martin Luther stipulated in the ‘Smaleald Articles’ in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions: Jesus Christ ‘was put to death for our trespasses and raised again for justification’ (Rom. 4:25). Around 1830, the Lutheran revival, ‘Erweckung’ or ‘Awakening’, countered Rationalism and restored traditional liturgy, doctrines and confessions of Lutheran church. See Eric W. Gritsch & Robert W. Jenson (eds.), Lutheranism: The Theological Movement and its Confessional Writings (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976), p. 48. 55. Selected Letters, ‘To Carl von Gersdoff’, Naumburg, April 7, 1866, pp. 12–13. Notes 195

56. Ronald Hayman argues that Strauss’ Das Leben Jesu led Nietzsche to believe that if you give up Christ ‘you will have to give up God too’. Nietzsche: A Critical Life (London: Phoenix Giants, 1995), p. 67. 57. The Anti-Christ/ Twilight of the God, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (London: Penguin Books, 1990), p. 158. 58. The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), p. 9. 59. The Rules of Metaphor, p. 5. 60. Ibid., p. 6. 61. Beyond Good and Evil, pp. 85–6. 62. The Will to Power, pp. 107–8. 63. The Anti-Christ, p. 161. 64. Work on Myth, pp. 629–33. 65. The Anti-Christ, pp. 158–9. 66. The Will to Power, p. 521. 67. Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (London: Phoenix, 2006), p. 153. 68. Ibid., pp. 153–5. 69. On the Genealogy of Morality, trans. Carol Diethe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 3. 70. Geza Vermes, The Authentic Gospel of Jesus (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 171. 71. For Sallie McFague, parables function as metaphor in order to challenge preconceptions of God: ‘Metaphor [ . . . ] is the way of knowing.’ Speaking in Parables: A Study in Metaphor and Theology (Norristown, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975), p. 62. 72. The Hymns of Zoroaster, trans. M. L. West (London: I. B. Tauris, 2010), p. 51. 73. Stevan Davies (ed.), The Gospel of Thomas (London: Darton, Longman & Todd Ltd, 2003), p. 3. 74. See Stevan Davies, pp. 2–4. See also Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make it into The New Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005): ‘What ultimately mattered for the author of Thomas was not Jesus’ death and resurrection [ . . . ] but the mysterious teachings that he delivered’ p. 19. See also Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). In Christian Gnostic circles, there is the belief that within some humans there resides a ‘spark of the divine’ (p. 124). 75. Zarathustra’s Dionysian Modernisim, p. 5. 76. On the Genealogy of Morality, p.71. 77. Ibid. 78. The Birth of Tragedy, p. 115. 79. The Will to Power, p. 463. 80. On the Genealogy of Morality, p. 71. 81. Zarathustra, p. 9. 82. Ibid., p. 10. 83. Ibid. 84. Plato, Republic, trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford World Classics), pp. 240–5. 196 Notes

85. Ibid., xxx. 86. Ibid., p. 362. 87. Zarathustra, p. 9. 88. Bees collecting nectar from the flowers of wisdom is a Classical and medieval trope. 89. Zarathustra, p. 9. 90. Laurence Lambert, Nietzsche’s Teaching: An Interpretation of Thus Spoke Zarathustra (London: Yale University Press, 1986), p. 16. 91. Matthew Henry, Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible (Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2012), p. 1293. 92. Ibid., p. 1293. 93. Zarathustra, p. 9. 94. James C. O’Flaherty, ‘The Intuitive Mode of Reason in Zarathustra’, from Studies in Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian Tradition, eds. James C. O’Flaherty, Timothy Sellner F., & Robert M. Helm (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), p. 283. 95. Gustav Jung, Psychology and Religion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946), pp. 103–4. 96. The Gospel of Thomas, p. 15. 97. Ibid., p. 14. 98. Ibid. 99. Marvin Meyer, The Secret Gospels of Jesus (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2005), p. 4. 100. Tony Davies, Humanism (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 132. 101. Bernard Magnus, Stanley Stewart & Jean-Pierre Mileur (eds.), Nietzsche’s Case: Philosophy as/and Literature (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 158. 102. Gianni Vattimo, Dialogue with Nietzsche, trans. William McCuaig (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 173.

2 ‘Hieronymo’s mad againe’: The Waste Land as Tragic Mythopoeia

1. See Nick Selby on ‘Deconstructive Readings: Freud, Feminism and Ideology’, and in particular the essay, ‘The Waste Land: Ur-Text of Deconstruction’, by Ruth Nevo, who sees the seminal poem of modernity as ‘a manifesto of postmodernity’. T. S. Eliot The Waste Land: A Reader’s Guide to Essential Criticism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999), p. 117. 2. The Waste Land (London: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2013), p. 77. All subsequent lines are cited from this edition. 3. Ibid. 4. ‘Ulysses, Order, and Myth’, Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, ed. Frank Kermode (London: A Harvest Book, 1975), p. 177. 5. Sophocles, The Theban Plays, trans. E. F. Watling (London: Penguin, 1974), p. 34. 6. ‘Notes on the Blank Verse of Christopher Marlowe’, The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism (London: Faber & Faber, 1997), p. 72. Notes 197

7. ‘Hamlet and his Problems’, The Sacred Wood, pp. 82–3. 8. Ibid., p. 84. 9. Jewel Spears Brooker notes that the frame in ‘A Game of Chess’ features two Shakespearean women, two tragic figures. The focus is primarily on doomed female characters. Reading The Waste Land: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts, 1990), pp. 95–6. 10. Sir James George Frazer, The Golden Bough (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 9. 11. Ibid., pp. 666–76. 12. For Lancelot Andrewes: Essays on Style and Order (London: Faber & Faber, 1970), p. 7. 13. Hannah Sullivan, ‘Classics’, from T. S. Eliot in Context, ed. Jason Harding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 169–79. 14. Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (London: Faber & Faber, 1948). 15. William Cowper, ‘The Conversation’, from The Complete Poetical Works (Oxford: Oxford Reprints, 2009), p. 121. See also William Cowper, The Task and Selected Other Poems, ed. James Sambrook (London: Longman, 1994). The poem dramatizes a scene when two disciples converse on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24). Unlike Eliot’s poetic adaptation in ‘What the Thunder Said’, Cowper focuses on the point of divine recognition: ‘He blessed the bread, but vanish’d at the word, / And left them both exclaiming, ’twas the Lord!’ (lines: 533–4), p. 266. 16. Discussing The Task, Sambrook states: ‘Nature is not sufficient in itself to reveal God. [ . . . ] Cowper’s God is God incarnate. [ . . . ] Nature is the means of grace only if experienced in the light of Christian truths’ (lines: 35–6). ‘Nature is but a name for an effect, / Whose cause is God’ (VI, 221–4), p. 203. 17. ‘Euripides and Professor Murray’, The Sacred Wood, p. 63. 18. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. James Strachey (London: Penguin, 1991), p. 364. 19. Ibid., p. 366. 20. T. R. Henn argues that modern views on tragedy were irreversibly changed by anthropology. The Harvest of Tragedy (New York: University Paperbacks, 1966). 21. The Sacred Wood, p. 64. Commenting on her work in a 1921 letter, Eliot remarked: ‘morally, I find a neurotic carnality which I dislike’. The Letters of T. S. Eliot, Volume I: 1898–1922, ed. Valerie Eliot (London: Faber & Faber, 2009), p. 606. He would later though express admiration for her translation of Euripides. In Tribute to The Angels (1944), H.D. refers to Sibyl of Cumae, which also forms the parable of Eliot’s epigraph: ‘but she is not shut up in a cave / like a Sibyl [ . . . ] she is Psyche, the butterfly, / out of the cocoon [ . . . ] she is the counter-coin-side / of primitive terror’ (New York: A New Directions Book, 1998), pp. 103–4. Myth is the source of spiritual resurrection and a sign that we can find grace within the natural world. 22. The Sacred Wood, p. 64. 23. Michael Bell, Primitivism (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1972), p. 61. 198 Notes

24. ‘Thomas Middleton’ (1927), Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, ed. Frank Kermode (London: A Harvest Book, 1975), p. 191. 25. ‘Thomas Middleton’, Selected Prose, p. 195. See also ‘Arnold and Pater’ & ‘Matthew Arnold’ essays, from Matthew Arnold: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. David J. DeLaura (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973), pp. 10–23 & pp. 24–45. 26. The Sacred Wood, p. 141. 27. Ibid., pp. 139–45. 28. Helen Gardner, The Art of T. S. Eliot (London: Faber & Faber, 1991), p. 97. 29. Cleanth Brooks states: ‘One of the primary symbols that Eliot uses by which to depict a pointless and meaningless activity is that of the wheel.’ He argues the ‘crowds of people, walking in a ring’ is a variant of that symbol. Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats, Eliot, and Warren (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), pp. 83–4. 30. ‘Whispers of Immortality’, from Collected Poems 1909–1962, p. 45. ‘Dante’, The Sacred Wood, p. 140. 31. For I myself once saw with my own eyes the Sibyl hanging in a jar, and when the boys asked her, ‘Sibyl, what do you want?’ she answered, ‘I want to die’ The Waste Land (p. 27). 32. Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. David Raeburn (London: Penguin, 2004), p. 555. 33. Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return or Cosmos and History, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 21. 34. Titus Andronicus, ed. Jonathan Bate (London: The Arden Shakespeare, 2006), p. 212. 35. Terry Eagleton argues that ‘horrific jouissance’ (the affinity between the sacred and terror) derives to some extent from the dogmatic worship of pagan gods, such as Dionysus. ‘If he is the god of wine, milk, and honey, he is also the god of blood’ Holy Terror (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 2–3. 36. Roland Barthes, Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (London: Vintage, 2000), p. 109. 37. Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 39. 38. Vladimir Propp, ‘Morphology of the Folk Tale’, from Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. Julie Rivkin & Michael Ryan (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 28. 39. Jonathan Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 107. 40. Maud Ellmann argues that Lil’s physical decay connotes class cultural decay. ‘The Waste Land: A Sphinx without a Secret’, pp. 131–8. For David Trotter, class and gender are schematized according to contemporary anxieties. The Making of the Reader, pp. 119–30, (from Nick Selby). 41. John Milton, Paradise Lost (London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993), pp. 88–9. 42. Brandon Kershner, ‘Dialogical and Intertextual Joyce’, from James Joyce Studies, ed. Jean-Michel Rabaté (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. 187. Notes 199

43. James Joyce, Ulysses, ed. Jeri Johnson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 319. 44. See Hugh Kenner, Ulysses (London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 169. 45. Stuart Gilbert, James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Study (New York: Vintage Books, 1955), pp. 258–77. 46. ‘Thomas Middleton’, Selected Prose, p. 189. 47. Ibid., p. 192. 48. Anthony and Cleopatra, ed. Emrys Jones (London: Penguin, 1977), p. 90. 49. Peter A. Martin discusses at length why the reference to the Book of Ezekiel is important, because of the poem’s ‘close concurrence with the biblical form of Ezekiel’s prophecies in both subject matter and imagery’ (p. 201). However, he insists that the imagery and attitudes shared by Eliot and Ezekiel are extended by the use of vegetation myths: ‘Ezekiel is cataloguing forms of pagan worship which offend the Lord while Eliot is accumulating examples of death and rebirth myths in support of his major thesis for The Waste Land’ (pp. 213–14). I argue, though, that Eliot is distinguishing the way of comparative religion from the redemptive message offered via Ezekiel. ‘“Son of Man” in The Book of Ezekiel and T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land’, Arizona Quarterly 33 (1977), pp. 197–215. 50. Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008), p. 1061. 51. Christopher J. H. Wright, The Message of Ezekiel: A New Heart and a New Spirit (Inter-Varsity Press, 2001), p. 66. 52. Matthew Henry, p. 1116. 53. The Book of Common Prayer 1559: The Elizabethan Prayer Book, ed. John E. Booty (London: Folger Books, 1982), p. 309. 54. ‘Fresh blows the wind / Towards home, / My Irish child, / Where are you now?’ 55. ‘Desolate and void the sea.’ 56. The Birth of Tragedy, p. 102. 57. Joroen Vanheste, Guardians of the Humanist Legacy: The Classicism of T. S. Eliot’s Criterion Network and Its Relevance to Our Postmodern World (Leiden: Brill, 2007), p. 136. Eliot was certainly at the time familiar with the philosophical works of Nietzsche. In 1916, he had written a review of A. Wolf’s The Philosophy of Nietzsche (1915) for the International Journal of Ethics (pp. 426–7), in which he comments: ‘Correctly, we think, he holds Nietzsche’s view of nature to be essentially Schopenhauerian’ p. 427. The essay, ‘Blake’ in The Sacred Wood (1920), expresses a muted response to Nietzsche’s masterpiece, Thus Spoke Zarathustra: ‘Confusion of thought, emotion, and vision is what we find in such work as Also Sprach Zarathustra; it is eminently not a Latin virtue’ p. 134. Nietzsche shared with Wagner a fascination for Arthur Schopenhauer’s central work, The World as Will and Representation (1818), in which he considers music as the embodiment of the ‘human will’ that causes suffering. In Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Freud, Thomas Mann demonstrates that Freud 200 Notes

and Nietzsche are twinned by a common parentage. See Paul-Laurent Assoun, Freud and Nietzsche, trans. Richard L. Collier, Jr. (London: Continuum, 2006), pp. 30–1. 58. Georg Simmel, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, trans. Helmut Loiskandl, Deena Weinstein & Michael Weinstein (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991), p. 132. See also Bryan Magee, Wagner and Philosophy (London: Penguin, 2000), who argues that their desire to die together is based on ‘Schopenhauerian assumptions’ (pp. 221–2). 59. Eliot told Bertrand Russell that this section ‘is not the best part, but the only part that justifies the whole, at all’. (Eliot to Bertrand Russell, 15 October, 1923) quoted from The Waste Land: A Facsimile & Transcript, ed. Valeria Eliot (London: Faber & Faber, 1988), p. 129. 60. Eliot in his notes explains as having been ‘stimulated by the account of one of the Antarctic expeditions’ p. 81. This in fact was Shackleton’s Heart of the Antarctic. In his notes, Eliot places emphasis on ‘the constant delusion’ to imply that to equate the witnessing of Christ’s resurrection to another secular quest narrative (or to invest New Testament significa- tion into an Antarctic narrative) is delusory. See Scott Freer, ‘The Lives and Modernist Death of Captain Scott’, Life Writing 8:3 (September 2011), pp. 301–15. 61. Caroline Patey states: ‘The ritual of The Waste Land is [ . . . ] favoured by the dripping of rain.’ For Patey then, Eliot is inviting the reader to ‘partake and commune’ in the ritual of rain making, because it belongs to ‘the same tradition’ of the classical past. ‘T. S. Eliot and the Text of Anthropology’, in T. S. Eliot: and the Concept of Tradition, eds. Giovanni Cianci & Jason Harding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 171. 62. The Waste Land, p. 83. 63. ‘See how the bullocks rub their flanks with broom! / See the ram pursue through the shade the bleating ewe, / For lovers’ union is Venus in kind pursuit; / And she tells the birds to forget their winter woe.’ Perivigilium Veneris, trans. Allen Tate (Cummington, Massachusetts: Cummington Press, 1943). 64. ‘I am not Russian at all, I come from Lithuania, I am a real German’. 65. Other critics, such as Eloise Knapp Hay, have argued that Upanishads offers resolution in some form of peace: ‘In the face of such interior horror, the voice of The Waste Land asks relief from consciousness itself, and this is the peace promised by Upanishads.’ T. S. Eliot’s Negative Way (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 67. 66. Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy, ed. Michael Neill (London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014), p. xix. 67. Ibid., p. xxiii. 68. Robert L. Schwarz notes that: ‘Eliot, in fact, uses all the mentioned lan- guages, except Greek, in these closing lines. Insofar as he followed the promptings from the play, he was aware that the polyglot presentation was a deception. Therefore, for him at this point there could be no hard Notes 201

and fast distinction made between genuine conversion by glossolalia and a deception of conversion.’ Broken Images: A Study of The Waste Land (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1988), p. 236. 69. Michael Neill (ed.), The Spanish Tragedy, p. xxxiv. 70. For Joseph Campbell, the standard mythological path of the adventuring hero is to return home revived by spiritual energy having set forth into the region of supernatural wonder. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (London: Fontana Press, 1993), p. 30. 71. ‘Dante’, The Sacred Wood, p. 139.

3 Kafka’s Sick Ovidian Animals

1. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), p. 181. 2. See Walter Sokel, ‘Freud and the Magic of Kafka’s Writing’, from The World of Franz Kafka, ed. J. P. Stern (London: Widenfield & Nicolson, 1980), p. 145. 3. Quoted from Nicholas Murray, Kafka (London: A Little Brown Book, 2004), p. 274. 4. Livia Rothkirchen refers to Kafka as a ‘symbolic figure of his era’ for he was part of a broad cosmopolitan outlook that was sensitive to German, Czech, Austrian and Jewish culture. The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia: Facing the Holocaust (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006). 5. Stanley Corngold, Lambent Traces: Franz Kafka (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), pp. 108–10. 6. Ronald Gray, ‘Introduction’, in Ronald Gray (ed.), Kafka: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 7. 7. The Anti-Christ, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (London: Penguin, 1990), p. 139. 8. Ibid., p. 136. 9. Quoted from Max Brod, Franz Kafka: A Biography, trans. G. Humphreys Roberts & Richard Winston (London: Da Capo Press, 1995), p. 172. 10. Roberto Calasso, K., trans. Geoffrey Brock (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005), p. 153. 11. Franz Kafka, p. 175. 12. Gustav Janouch, Conversations with Kafka, trans. Goronwy Rees (London: André Deutsch, 1971), p. 51. 13. Erich Heller, The Disinherited Mind: Essays in Modern German Literature and Thought (London: Bowes & Bowes, 1975), p. 210. 14. ‘The Hunter Gracchus’, The Great Wall of China and Other Short Works, trans. Malcolm Pasley (London: Penguin, 2002), pp. 49–50. 15. ‘Freud and the Magic’, p. 150. 16. ‘Poseidon’, The Great Wall of China, p. 116. 17. The Diaries of Franz Kafka: 1910–23, ed. Max Brod & trans. Martin Greenberg (London: Vintage, 1999), pp. 291–2. 202 Notes

18. Matthew T. Powell, ‘Kafka’s Angel: The Distance of God in a Post- Traditional World’, Janus Head 11:1, pp. 7–23. 19. Donald Kuspit, Signs of Psyche in Modern and Post-Modern Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 168. 20. Stanley Romaine Hopper (ed.), Spiritual Problems in Contemporary Literature (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957), p. 159. 21. ‘The City Coat of Arms’, The Great Wall of China, p. 114. 22. ‘A Message from the Emperor’, Metamorphosis and Other Stories, trans. Malcolm Pasley (London: Penguin, 2000), p. 175. 23. Søren Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling, trans. Alastair Hannay (London: Penguin, 1985), p. 64. 24. The Blue Octavo Notebooks, ed. Max Brod & trans. Ernst Kaiser & Eithne Wilkins (Cambridge: Exact Change, 1991), p. 29. 25. David Constantine, ‘Kafka’s Writing and Our Reading’, from Julian Preece (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Kafka (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 23. 26. The Collected Aphorisms, trans. Malcolm Pasley (London: Syrens, 1994), p. 7. 27. Roberto Calasso, The Forty-Nine Steps, trans. John Shepley (London: Pimlico, 2002), p. 266. 28. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, trans. Harry Zorn; ed. Hannah Arendt (London: Pimlico, 1999), pp. 118–19. 29. See Patrick Bridgwater, who argues the ‘separateness’ of a metaphor’s ‘inner world’ continually forces the reader into the work’s inner problems and logic. Kafka and Nietzsche (Bonn: Bouvier Verlag Herbery Grundmann, 1974), p. 21. 30. Michael Bell, Literature, Modernism and Myth: Belief and Responsibility in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 1–5. 31. ‘On Parables’, The Great Wall of China, p. 184. 32. ‘Prometheus’, The Great Wall of China, p. 103. 33. Hans Blumenberg, Work on Myth, trans. Robert M. Wallace (Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1985), p. 634. 34. Manfred Beller, ‘The Fire of Prometheus and the Theme of Progress in Goethe, Nietzsche, Kafka, and Canetti’, Colloquia Germanica: Internationale Zeitschrift Fur Germanistik 17:1–2 (1984), pp. 1–13. 35. Piotr Parlej, The Romantic Theory of the Novel: Genre and Reflection in Cervantes, Melville, Flaubert, Joyce and Kafka (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), pp. 248–89. 36. The Blue Octavo Notebooks, p. 39. 37. Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages (London: Papermac, 1996), p. 448. 38. Conversations with Kafka, p. 121. 39. ‘The Burrow’, The Great Wall of China, p. 185. 40. Kenneth Grahame, The Wind in the Willows (London: Egmont Books, 2000), p. 7. 41. See Jack Zipes, Breaking the Magic Spell: Radical Theories of Folk and Fairy Tales (New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 39. Notes 203

42. Friedrich Nietzsche, Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 27. 43. ‘The Burrow’, The Great Wall of China, p. 186. 44. Ibid., p. 193. 45. Ibid., p. 187. 46. Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, trans. James Strachey (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1960). 47. ‘The Giant Mole’, Metamorphosis and Other Stories, trans. Willa & Edwin Muir (London: Minerva, 1992), p. 214. 48. ‘Josefine, the Songstress’, Metamorphosis and Other Stories, trans. Malcolm Pasley, p. 227. 49. Ibid., p. 226. 50. Ibid., p. 236. 51. Ruth V. Gross, ‘Kafka’s Short Fiction’, from The Cambridge Companion to Kafka, p. 91. 52. ‘Josefine, the Songstress’, p. 228. 53. Søren Kierkegaard, trans. & ed. Thomas C. Oden, The Parables of Kierkegaard (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978), p. 94. 54. Margot Norris, ‘Kafka’s Josefine: The Animal as the Negative Site of Narration’, Modern Language Notes 98–3 (April 1983), p. 368. 55. Slavoj Žižek, Living in the End Times (London: Verso, 2011), p. 370. 56. Ibid., pp. 370–1. 57. Marian Scholtmeijer, ‘What is “Human”? Metaphysics and Zoontology in Flaubert and Kafka’, Animal Acts: Configuring the Human in Western History, eds. Jennifer Ham & Matthew Senior (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 127–39. 58. Living in the End Times, p. 366. 59. Akira Mizuta Lippit, ‘Afterthoughts on the Animal World’, MLN 109–5 (Dec., 1994), p. 795. 60. T. J. Reed, ‘Nietzsche’s Animals: Idea, Image and Influence’, Nietzsche: Imagery and Thought: A Collection of Essays, ed. Malcolm Pasley (London: Methuen, 1978), pp. 159–60. 61. See A Nietzschean Bestiary: Becoming Animal Beyond Docile and Brutal, eds. Christa Davis Acampora & Ralph R. Acampora (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2004). 62. The Blue Octavo Notebooks, p. 28. 63. Friedrich Nietzsche, ‘On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life’, Untimely Meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 60–1. 64. Friedrich Nietzsche, Unpublished Writings from the Period of Unfashionable Observations, trans. Richard T. Gray (Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 373. 65. Margot Norris, Beasts of the Modern Imagination: Darwin, Nietzsche, Kafka, Ernst, and Lawrence (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), p. 54. 66. Ibid., p. 819. 204 Notes

67. ‘A Report to an Academy’, Metamorphosis and Other Stories, p. 190. 68. Ibid., pp. 194–5. 69. Ibid., p. 192. 70. Ibid., pp. 189–90. 71. The Blue Octavo Notebooks, p. 32. 72. Jacques Leon Salvan, The Scandalous Ghost: Sartre’s Existentialism as Related to Vitalism, Humanism, Mysticism, Marxism (Detroit: Wayne State University, 1967), p. 76. 73. Gilles Deleuze & Felix Guattari, Toward a Minor Literature, trans. Dana Polan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), p. 35. 74. David Punter, Metaphor (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 87. 75. Kai Mikkonen, ‘Theories of Metamorphosis: From Metatrope to Textual Revision’, Style 30–2 (Summer 1996), pp. 1–2. 76. J. M. Coetzee, Elizabeth Costello (London: Vintage, 2004), p. 65. 77. The Trial, trans. Willa & Edwin Muir (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 251. 78. Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. David Raeburn (London: Penguin, 2004), pp. 103–13. 79. Raimond Gaita, The Philosopher’s Dog (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 69. 80. ‘Freud and the Magic’, p. 145. 81. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. & ed. James Strachey (London: Penguin, 1991), p. 474. 82. Sigmund Freud, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, trans. Alan Tyson; ed. Angela Richards (London: Penguin, 1975), p. 37. 83. Neil Hertz, The End of the Line: Essays on Psychoanalysis and the Sublime (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 101. 84. The Blue Octavo Notebooks, p. 16. 85. Anthony Storr, The Dynamics of Creation (London: Penguin, 1972), p. 82. 86. ‘Letter to his Father’, trans. Ernst Kaiser & Eithne Wilkins, from Wedding Preparations in the Country and Other Stories (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979), pp. 30–1. 87. Ernst Pawel, The Nightmare of Reason, A Life of Reason (London: Harvill Press, 1984), p. 273. 88. Metaphor, pp. 87–101. 89. ‘Freud and the Magic’, p. 145. See also: Günther Anders, ‘The Literal Metaphor’, from Franz Kafka, trans. A. Steer & A. K. Thornby (London: Bowes & Bowes, 1960), pp. 42–54. Stanley Corngold ‘Kafka’s The Metamorphosis: Metamorphosis of the Metaphor’, from Kafka’s The Metamorphosis: Translation, Backgrounds and Contexts, Criticism, trans. & ed. Stanley Corngold (London: W. W. Norton, 1996), pp. 79–107. 90. The Metamorphosis, p. 3. 91. Ibid., p. 3. 92. Corngold, ‘Metamorphosis of the Metaphor’, pp. 86–7. 93. The Metamorphosis, p. 3. 94. Towards a Minor Literature, p. 36. 95. Walter Sokel, The Writer in Extremis: Expressionism in Twentieth-Century Literature (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1959), pp. 46–7. Notes 205

96. The Metamorphosis, p. 4. 97. See Corngold, ‘Metamorphosis of the Metaphor’, p. 87. 98. The Metamorphosis, p. 42. 99. Ibid., p. 5. 100. Ibid., p. 10. 101. Ibid. 102. Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays, trans. Justin O’Brien (New York: Vintage Books, 1955), p. 94. 103. Georges Bataille, Literature and Evil, trans. Alastair Hamilton (London: Marion Boyars, 1997), p. 154.

4 Hilda Doolittle and D. H. Lawrence: Polytheistic and Pagan Revisionary Mythopoeia

1. Elaine Pagels argues that the thread of Gnosticism is be found in the works of various authors who were at the ‘edges of orthodoxy’ – they were fascinated by the figure of Christ, and constantly returned to Christian symbols in order to debate the symbolic notion of resurrection, The Gnostic Gospels (London: Phoenix, 2006), p. 154. The emphasis in Gnosticism is on gnosis (knowledge/insight) and on the ‘living Jesus’ as a spiritual guide. pp. 18–19. 2. T. S. Eliot, ‘The Interpretation of Primitive Ritual’ (1913), quoted from Piers Gray, T. S. Eliot’s Intellectual and Poetic Development 1909–1922 (Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1982), p. 130. 3. Jane Augustine, ‘Teaching H.D. and Spirituality’, from Approaches to H.D.’s Poetry and Prose, eds. Annette Debo & Lara Vetter (New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2011), p. 64. 4. Certain critics have identified underlying parallels between the myth thinking of Nietzsche and Lawrence’s interest in the genesis of religion. See Colin Milton, Lawrence and Nietzsche: A Study in Influence (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987). Other critics have noted correlations between Nietzsche and Lawrence’s Apocalypse. T. R. Wright argues that there are suspicions that ‘Nietzsche lies behind Lawrence’s argument’ in Apocalypse with his reading of the book of Revelation anticipating deconstructive readings. D. H. Lawrence and the Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 234–5. For Michael Bell, ‘Lawrence’s pal- impsestic sense of the evolutionary past living on within the psyche was made explicit in his late study of the Apocalypse.’ D. H. Lawrence, Language and Being (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 69. 5. ‘Then I saw a Lamb, looking as if it had been slain, standing in the centre of the throne, [ . . . ] Then I looked and heard the voice of many angels [ . . . ] In a loud voice they sang: “Worthy is the Lamb, who was slain, to receive power and strength and honour and glory and praise!”’ (5. 6–12). 6. D. H. Lawrence, Apocalypse and Other Writings on Revelation (London: Penguin Books, 1995), p. 99. Various essays reveal a Nietzschean mode of inversion, such as ‘Blessed are the Powerful’ which through its inversion 206 Notes

of the Beatitudes echoes Zarathustra: ‘The reign of love is passing, and the reign of power is coming again’ from Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine, ed. Michael Herbert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 321. 7. Tom Wright, Revelation for Everyone (London: SPCK publishing, 2009), pp. 53–4. Matthew Henry too argues that the Lamb is not of ‘another nature, an inferior worship’. Commentary on the Whole Book (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008), p. 1988. 8. Apocalypse, p. 100. 9. On the Genealogy of Morality, trans. Carol Diethe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 28. 10. Revelation for Everyone, p. 241. 11. Jonathan Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 88. 12. ‘On Being Religious’, from Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine and other Essays, p. 187. 13. Ibid. 14. ‘Hymns in a Man’s Life’, Complete Essays (Pickering: Blackthorn Press, 2009), pp. 417–21. 15. ‘On Being Religious’, pp. 192–3. 16. Letter to Rolf Gardiner, 4 July 1924, The Letters of D. H. Lawrence: Volume V March 1924–March 1927, eds. James T. Boulton & Lindeth Vasey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 67–8. Lawrence’s religious pluralism is also evidenced in his history textbook for schools, Movements in European History (1918), where he aligns pre-Christian paganism of the Greeks and the Romans with liberal polytheism: ‘The Romans did not hate the Ephesian Diana, the Asiatic many-breasted mother, or the bull-slaying Persian sun god. They even welcomed them to Rome, these strange deities, and built them temples.’ Ed. Philip Crumpton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 26. 17. John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1908), p. 12. ‘Anaximander was struck [ . . . ] by the opposition and strife between the things which go to make up the world’ (p. 56). John B. Vickery notes that Bertrand Russell’s gift of John Burnet’s Early Greek Philosophy led Lawrence to write: ‘These early Greeks have clarified my soul. [ . . . ] “I am rid of all my Christian religiosity.”’ The Literary Impact of The Golden Bough (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1973), p. 281. 18. The Literary Impact, p. 294. 19. ‘Just Back From the Snake Dance – Tired Out’ (1924), D. H. Lawrence: Selected Essays (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1981), pp. 201–2. 20. Mornings in Mexico and Etruscan Places (London: Penguin Books, 1960), p. 61. 21. See ‘Chaos in Poetry’ (1928): ‘There is an acceptance of the limitations of consciousness, and a leaning-up against the sun-imbued world of chaos.’ Selected Critical Writings (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 238–9. 22. ‘Leaves of Grass, Flowers of Grass’, Nettles (London: Faber & Faber, 1930), pp. 27–8. Notes 207

23. ‘Democracy’, Phoenix: The Posthumous Papers of D. H. Lawrence, p. 709. See too ‘Whitman’ (1920): Selected Critical Writings, p. 84. 24. ‘Democracy’, p. 708. John Gould Fletcher argues that: ‘Unlike Whitman, [Lawrence] has a horror of the infinite, and I am sure that he could never bring himself to “utter the word Democracy, the word en-masse”. He is an aristocrat, and individualist, and indeed, he has only a horror of the col- lective mass of mankind [ . . . ].’ ‘A Modern Evangelist’, D. H. Lawrence’s Poetry: Demon Liberated, ed. A. Banerjee (London: the Macmillan Press Ltd., 1990), p. 83. 25. Rachel Potter, Modernism and Democracy: Literary Culture 1900–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 52–3. 26. ‘Mountain Lion’, Birds, Beasts and Flowers! (Boston: Black Sparrow Book, 2008), p. 143. Hereafter Birds, Beasts and Flower! is abbreviated to BBF!. 27. ‘Bibbles’, BBF!, p. 134. 28. ‘Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine’, p. 357. 29. ‘Aristocracy’, Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine, p. 367. 30. Ibid., p. 359. 31. Ibid., p. 361. 32. ‘And I will pray the Father, and He will give you another Helper, that He may abide with you forever – the Spirit of truth, whom the world cannot receive, because it neither sees Him nor knows Him; but you know Him, for He dwells with you and will be in you’ ( John 14: 16–17). 33. ‘Man and Bat’, BBF!, pp. 89–91. 34. For example, see Earth Shattering, ed. Neil Astley (Tarset: Bloodaxe Books, 2002). 35. ‘Mosquito’, BBF!, p. 75. 36. John Donne, ‘The Flea’, from John Donne, ed. John Carey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 89. 37. ‘Turkey-Cock’, BBF!, p. 101. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid., p. 102. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid., p. 104. 42. ‘Introduction to New Poems’, D. H. Lawrence: Selected Critical Criticism, ed. Anthony Beal (London: Heinemann, 1964), p. 87. 43. ‘Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine’, p. 361. 44. ‘The Body of God’, Last Poems (London: Martin Secker, 1933), pp. 30–1. 45. Commentary on the Whole Bible, p. 1528. 46. ‘The Body of God’. pp. 30–1. 47. See ‘Demiurge’, ‘The Work of Creation’, and ‘Bodiless God’. 48. ‘St. Mark’, BBF!, p. 55. 49. Ibid., p. 61. 50. See Anne Baring & Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess: Evolution of an Image (London: Viking Arkana, 1991). The mother goddess ‘is an image that inspires and focuses a perception of the universe as an organic, alive and sacred whole [ . . . ] Earth was her divinity: the divine was immanent as creation’ (pp. xi–xv). 208 Notes

51. ‘St. Mark’, p. 62. 52. ‘St. Matthew’, BBF!, p. 57. 53. Thus Spoke Zarathustra, trans. Graham Parkes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 13. 54. ‘St. Matthew’, p. 57. 55. Ibid., pp. 57–8. 56. Ibid., pp. 58–9. 57. Ibid., p. 58. M. J. Lockwood argues that: ‘Christianity has excluded all this darkness-seeing, downwards-tending life [ . . . ] The way to purity actually lies through embracing the creatures of the night [e.g. the stigmatized snake], along with those of day, within our natures[ . . . ]’. A Study of the Poems of D. H. Lawrence: Thinking in Poetry (London: Macmillan Press, 1987), p. 118. The notion of spiritual ‘purity’ has to be qualified, for ‘St. Matthew’ dramatizes a tension between transcendent Christianity and earthed paganism that is resolved in The Escaped Cock and Last Poems. 58. ‘Bavarian Gentians’, Last Poems, p. 181. 59. See ‘Glory of Darkness’, ‘The Ship of Death’, ‘Ship of Death’, Last Poems, pp. 173–80. Gail Porter Mandell argues that in Birds, Beasts and Flowers! Lawrence explores too the ‘mythic identification of the demonic self’ which corresponds with an interest with ‘other creatures and other gods beyond human range’. The Phoenix Paradox: A Study of Renewal through Change in the Collected Poems and Last Poems of D. H. Lawrence (Carbondale & Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984), pp. 102–13. 60. ‘St. Matthew’, p. 60. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. Ernst Cassirer, ‘Language and Art II’ (1942), from Symbol, Myth and Culture: Essays and Lectures 1935–1945, ed. Donald Phillip Verene (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), pp. 171. 64. John Berger, Why Look at Animals? (London: Penguin Books, 2009), p. 13. 65. Numerous critics have discussed Lawrence’s animal poetry in terms of mystical otherness. W. H. Auden argues that most of Lawrence’s finest poems are to be found in Birds, Beasts, and Flowers!, where he marries free verse with an interest in a kind of existence ‘which is unlike and uncom- prehending of man’s’. ‘D. H. Lawrence’, Demon Liberated, pp. 236–9. 66. The Escaped Cock, ed. Gerald M. Lacy (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1973), p. 21. 67. ‘On Being Religious’, p. 187. 68. Letter to Frederick Carter, 1 October 1929, The Letters of D. H. Lawrence: Volume III November 1928–February 1930, eds. Keith Sagar & James T. Boulton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 507–8. 69. Hans Blumenberg, Work on Myth (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1985), p. 25. 70. Mornings in Mexico, p. 89. 71. Ibid., p. 78. 72. Several critics have identified a dialectical process in ‘Snake’. For example, Sandra M. Gilbert discusses ‘two modes of consciousness’ that is not Notes 209

examined in ‘Fish’. Acts of Attention: The Poems of D. H. Lawrence (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1972), p. 174. Ross C. Murfin sees a conflict between female deity and a ‘learned epistemology’. The Poetry of D. H. Lawrence: Texts and Contexts (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), p. 108. 73. ‘Snake’, BBF!, p. 95. 74. Ibid., p. 96. 75. Ibid. p. 95. Ross C. Murfin argues that part of the ‘discourse’ or the educa- tion Lawrence has to overcome is the snake of John Milton’s Paradise Lost (pp. 108–9). 76. ‘Snake’, p. 97. 77. ‘The Hands of God’, Last Poems, p. 40. See also ‘Only Man’ and ‘Abysmal Immortality’. 78. Commentary on the Whole Bilble, p. 1528. 79. See ‘Silence’, Last Poems: ‘Come, holy Silence, / great bride of all creation’ (p. 39). 80. ‘Lucifer’, Last Poems, p. 38. 81. ‘Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine’, p. 361. 82. Mornings in Mexico and Etruscan Places, p. 151. 83. John Schad, Queer Fish: Christian Unreason from Darwin to Derrida (Brighton: Sussex University Press, 2004), p. 4. 84. ‘The Proper Study’, Reflections on the Porcupine. p. 172. 85. Ibid., 170. 86. Revelation for Everyone, p. 195 & p. 204. 87. Commentary on the Whole Bible, p. 1998. 88. Margot Norris, Beasts of the Modern Imagination: Darwin, Nietzsche, Kafka, Ernst, and Lawrence (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), p. 171. 89. ‘Fish’, BBF!, p. 82. 90. ‘Fish’, p. 81. 91. ‘On Being Religious’, p. 191. 92. Ibid., pp. 191–2. 93. Dallas Kenmare argues that ‘Fish’ is where Lawrence’s expresses ‘a depth of humility in the face of wonder’. Fire-Bird: A Study of D. H. Lawrence (London: James Barrie, 1951), p. 26. Graham Hough argues that the ‘revelation [ . . . ] of absolute otherness’ is to be found in ‘Fish’. The Dark Sun: A Study of D. H. Lawrence (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1956), p. 203. 94. Ibid., 95. ‘Tortoise-Shell’, Tortoises (New York: Thomas Seltzer, 1921), p. 17. 96. Queer Fish, p. 4. 97. ‘Fish’, p. 77. 98. Baring and Cashford argue that all mother goddesses were born from the sea, implying that Lawrence desires to return to the ‘female principle’ of ‘spontaneity, feeling, instinct and intuition [that] had been lost as a valid expression of the sanctity and unity of life’ (pp. xii–xiv). 99. ‘Fish’, p. 77. 210 Notes

100. Commentary on the Whole Bilbe, p. 834. 101. Sallie McFague, Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1988), p. 111. 102. Michael Bell, D. H. Lawrence: Language and Being (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 3. 103. ‘The Proper Study’, p. 723. 104. ‘Fish’, p. 77. 105. Ibid., p. 76. 106. Apocalypse, p. 147. 107. ‘Fish’, pp. 78–9. See also ‘They Say the Sea is Loveless’, Last Poems: ‘and the sea is making live Dionysos’, p. 33. 108. ‘The Ass’, BBF!, pp. 114–15. 109. Ibid., p. 116. 110. Ibid. 111. Tribute to Freud (London: Carcanet, 1985), pp. 149–50. 112. ‘Stephen Guest brought me a copy of The Man Who Died. He said, “Did you know that you are the priestess of Isis in this book?” [ . . . ] I was certain that my friends had told Lawrence that I was at work on this theme [the wounded but living Christ]’. Ibid., pp. 141–2. See also Janice S. Robinson, The Life and Work of an American Poet (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1982). Janice argues that the two developed a strong spiritual bond partly because of their interest in comparative mythology, which linked the Christ story to Osiris. p. 203. 113. Tribute, p. 149. 114. Ibid., p. 139. 115. It is curious how many times H.D. fuses Lawrence with Freud and her father in Tribute. 116. The Escaped Cock, p. 61. 117. H.D.’s poetry has often been seen as ‘revisionary poesis’, though the concept does need to be qualified in the context of modernist mythopoeia. For example, Rachel Blau DuPlessis in ‘H.D. and revisionary myth-making’, argues that ‘H.D. was invested in alternative mythopoesis from the beginning of her poetic career.’ She goes on to state also that H.D.’s ‘mythical method’ is ‘female/feminine’. The Cambridge Companion to Modernist Poetry, ed. Alex Davis and Lee M. Jenkins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 117 & p. 124. Nanette Norris explores Moravian and Gnostic belief systems in H.D.’s Helen in Egypt with reference to a notion of ‘mythopoesis’: ‘The mythopoeic reinterprets the myth, creating a new whole.’ Modernist Myth: Studies in H.D., D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf (Fergus, Ontario: Dreamridge Publishing, 2010), p. 10. 118. The Escaped Cock, p. 22. 119. Ibid., p. 26. 120. Ibid., p. 58. 121. Ibid., p. 124. 122. James George Frazer, The Golden Bough (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 372. Notes 211

123. The Escaped Cock, p. 24. 124. The Golden Bough, pp. 369–70. 125. Apocalypse, p. 149. 126. Keith Sagar argues that the essay, ‘The Risen Lord’ (July 1929) is the ‘third part’ of The Escaped Cock. When responding to the gospel of the crucified Christ, Lawrence states: ‘We must accept the image complete [ . . . ] He rises with hands and feet [ . . . ] then with lips and genitals of a man.’ In learning to become part of a living cosmos, Lawrence’s Jesus, according to Keith Sagar, becomes an Etruscan. The Complete Stories: D. H. Lawrence, eds. Keith Sagar & Melissa Partridge (London: Penguin Books, 1982), p. 42. 127. ‘Resurrection’, The Complete Essays, (Pickering: Blackthorn Press, 2009), p. 290. 128. The Escaped Cock, p. 22 & 26. 129. Ibid., p. 28. 130. The Escaped Cock, p. 55. 131. Apocalypse, p. 69. 132. ‘The vast are these middling souls. They have no aristocratic individual- ity, such as is demanded by Christ [ . . . ]’ (p. 68). 133. The Escaped Cock, p. 61. 134. Ibid., p. 24. 135. Charlotte Brontë, ‘Pilate’s Wife’s Dream’, from Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell, ed. Hannah Wilson (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014), p. 13. 136. Pilate’s Wife (New York: New Directions, 2000), pp. 100–1. 137. Ibid., pp. 134–5. 138. Ibid., p. 135. 139. ‘Reflections on the Death of a Porcupine’, p. 359. 140. Pilate’s Wife, p. 134. 141. Ibid., p. 134. 142. Ibid. 143. Letter to H.D., 10 July 1918, Richard Aldington and H.D.: Their Lives in Letters 1918–61, ed. Caroline Zilboorg (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p. 92. 144. Ibid., p. 77. Susan Stanford Friedman notes that H.D.’s therapy with Freud in 1933 coincided with her reading The Letters of D. H. Lawrence edited by Aldous Huxley. This stirred up intense feelings for H.D. thus taking her mind back to a stay at Zennor (where Lawrence had lived from 1916–17) in 1918. At the same time, Richard Aldington was serv- ing in the trenches in France. The ‘entangled knot of companions and lovers’ that H.D. writes about is often framed by the context of war. Analyzing Freud: Letters of H.D., Bryher, and their Circle (New York: New Directions, 2002), pp. 254–5. 145. Eileen Gregory argues that Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy, translated into English in 1908, ‘had a powerful but largely unacknowledged effect upon H.D.’s generation. H.D. and Hellenism: Classic Lines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 110. 212 Notes

146. Hippolytus Temporizes and Ion: Adaptations of Two Plays by Euripides (New York: A New Directions Book, 2003), pp. 260–1. 147. Ibid., p. xvii. 148. Brenda S. Helt, ‘Reading History in The Gift and Tribute to Freud’, from The Cambridge Companion to H.D., ed. Nephie J. Christodoulides and Polina Mackay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 160. Aldaliade Morris argues that the images and signs from her unconscious were read by H.D. as ‘signs and wonders from another world’. ‘The Concept of Projection’, from Signets Readings H.D., eds. Susan Stanford Friedman & Rachel Blau DuPlessis (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), p. 274. Nanette Norris states: ‘In Freud’s psychology, the boundlessness of the infinite-as-deity became the boundlessness of the personal unconscious: what had been outside the person was now inside, and infinitely “deep”.’ 68. See also Vincent Quinn, Hilda Doolittle: ‘[ . . . ] H.D.’s book is both a tribute to Freud and a disavowal of his naturalistic viewpoint’ (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1967), p. 115. 149. The Gift (New York: A New Directions Book, 1982), p. 135. 150. Craig D. Atwood argues that the colonial town of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, the first permanent outpost of Moravians in North America was founded on ‘the congregation of the cross’. ‘The adoration of the crucified Jesus, especially his wounds, was the focus of intense devotion.’ Community of the Cross: Moravian Piety in Colonial Bethlehem (University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004), p. 5. 151. The Gift, pp. 134–5. 152. Ibid., p. 140. 153. See Jane Augustine, ‘Teaching H.D. and Spirituality’, p. 67. 154. The Gift, p. 141. 155. The Flowering of the Rod, p. 111. 156. Ibid., p. 114. 157. William Blake, ‘The Human Abstract’, Songs of Innocence and of Experience (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970), plate 47. 158. The Flowering of the Rod, p. 123. 159. Ibid., pp. 126–7. 160. Ibid. 161. Ibid., p. 115. 162. Ibid., p. 116. 163. Ibid., p. 161. 164. Ibid., pp. 118–20. 165. Ibid., p. 125. 166. Ibid., p. 128. 167. Ibid., p. 117. 168. Claire Buck, H.D. and Freud: Bisexuality and a Feminine Discourse (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), p. 134. 169. Ibid., p. 129. 170. Ibid., p. 142. 171. Ibid., p. 143. 172. Ibid., p. 145. Notes 213

173. Ibid., p. 141. 174. Ibid., p. 138. 175. Sarah Graham, ‘Hymen and Trilogy’, from The Cambridge Companion to H.D., p. 122. 176. The Flowering of the Rod, p. 130. 177. Ibid., pp. 132–3. 178. Ibid., p. 134. 179. Ibid., p. 142. 180. Ibid., p. 148. 181. Ibid., p. 148. 182. Susan Gubar, ‘The Echoing Spell of H.D.’s Trilogy’, from Susan Stanford Friedman & Rachel Blau DuPlessis (eds.), Signets Reading H.D. (Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin, 1990), p. 311. 183. The Flowering of the Rod, p. 151. 184. Ibid., pp. 153–4. 185. Ibid., p. 145. 186. Ibid., p. 162. 187. Ibid., pp. 158–9. 188. Ibid., pp. 156–7. 189. Ibid., p. 162. 190. Ibid., p. 163. 191. Pilate’s Wife, p. 135. 192. Bid Me to Live (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1960), p. 162. In Mira-Mare, H.D. associates the fragrance of a flower with the budding opening of redemptive remembering (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1996), pp. 100–2. 193. The Flowering of the Rod, p. 130. 194. Ibid., p. 139. 195. Ibid., p. 168. 196. Ibid., p. 170. 197. Ibid., p. 172. 198. Rebecca Styler, Literary Theology by Women Writers of the Nineteenth Century (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), p. 82. 199. Elaine Pagels, Gnostic Gospels (London: Phoenix Books, 2009), pp. 153–4. 200. Ibid., pp. 50–1. 201. ‘The Gospel of Mary’, from The Secret Gospels of Jesus, ed. Marvin Meyer (London: Darton, Longman & Todd Ltd., 2005), pp. 38–9. 202. Gnostic Gospels, p. 50. 203. ‘The Gospel of Mary’, pp. xx–xxi.

5 ‘Death is the mother of beauty’: Wallace Stevens’ Harmonium

1. ‘Sunday Morning’, Harmonium (London: Faber & Faber, 2001), p. 82. 2. Various critics have attempted to define Stevens’ perspectivism, which appears to be an extension of the initial negative response to Harmonium 214 Notes

that characterized Stevens as a ‘fanciful’ aesthete. See Steven Gould Axelrod & Helen Deese (eds.), Critical Essays on Wallace Stevens (Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1988), p. 4. (I am grateful for Professor Steven Gould Axelrod for supplying me with a copy of the collection.) For Donald Sheehan, it means reality is not known by a fixed view: ‘Metaphor is both the prelude to knowledge and the evasion of reality’. ‘Stevens’ Theory of Metaphor’, from Critics on Wallace Stevens, ed. Peter L. McNamara (Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami Press, 1972), p. 39. B. J. Leggett argues that Stevens’ ‘perspectivist texts’ test naïve realism and other order-creating effects of artifice. Early Stevens: The Nietzschean Intertext (Durham & London: Duke University Press, 1992). David R. Jarraway argues that: ‘Harmonium tends to foreground the elimination of God for the purposes of originating metaphorical play.’ ‘Stevens and Belief’, from The Cambridge Companion to Wallace Stevens, ed. John N. Serio (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 194–5. 3. William W. Bevis, ‘The Arrangement of Harmonium’, from Critics on Wallace Stevens, p. 57. 4. With reference to Harmonium, Samuel French Morse states: ‘Stevens confined his theorizing to demonstrations’. ‘Some Ideas about the Thing itself’, from Critics on Wallace Stevens, p. 23. 5. J. Hillis Miller, ‘Wallace Stevens’ Poetry of Being’, The Act of the Mind: Essays on the Poetry of Wallace Stevens, eds. Roy Harvey Pearce & J. Hillis Miller (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), p. 143. In Greek mythology, Harmonia is the goddess of concord. 6. Charles M. Murphy argues that various poems by Stevens express a ‘Zen-like experience of the void’ suggesting he is ‘following the path of Christian mysticism’ or the ‘purgation of self’. Wallace Stevens: A Spiritual Poet in a Secular Age (New York: Paulist Press, 1997), pp. 73–4. Nonetheless, Marjorie Perloff argues that critics who infer from The Rock (1950) that Stevens was ‘on the tipping point into mysticism’ overlook an ironic mode that recalls the playfulness of poems such as ‘Earthy Anecdote’. ‘Irony in Wallace Stevens’s The Rock’, American Literature 36:3 (Nov., 1964), pp. 327–42. 7. Edward Ragg, Wallace Stevens and the Aesthetics of Abstraction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 3. 8. Ibid., p. 38. 9. Frank Kermode, ‘Harmonium and Ideas of Order’, Wallace Stevens (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1960), p. 25. 10. ‘Of Mere Being’, Late Poems (1950–55), quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose (New York: The Library of America, 1997), pp. 476–7. 11. James Longebach, Wallace Stevens: The Plain Sense of Things (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 305. 12. D. H. Lawrence, ‘Fish’, Birds, Beasts and Flowers! (New Hampshire: Black Sparrow Book, 2008), p. 81. 13. D. H. Lawrence, ‘The Body of God’, Last Poems, ed. Richard Aldington (London: Martin Secker, 1933), p. 30. Notes 215

14. ‘The Noble Rider and the Sound of Words’, The Necessary Angel: Essays on Reality and the Imagination, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose (New York: The Library of America, 1997), p. 645. 15. See ‘Negation’, Harmonium, p. 125. 16. ‘Earthy Anecdote’, Harmonium, p. 3. 17. Letters to Wallace Stevens, ed. Holly Stevens & Richard Howard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), p. 204. 18. Robert Buttel argues Stevens underscores the shift from the aimless clat- tering of the bucks to their unified movement and also creates a mount- ing interest in the fate of the bucks. The Making of Harmonium (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 208. 19. See ‘Anecdote of Men by the Thousand’, Harmonium, p. 58 20. Milton J. Bates, A Mythology of Self (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 132. 21. ‘The Noble Rider’, Necessary Angel, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 643–4. 22. ‘The Worms at Heaven’s Gate’, Harmonium, p. 55. 23. ‘The Death of a Soldier’, Harmonium, p. 124. 24. Stevens frequently muses on the patterns of organic nature correspond- ing to human life: ‘Spring is an end of darkness and of ugliness and, much more, it is a feeling of new life or of the old activity of life returned, immense and fecund.’ Letters of Wallace Stevens, p. 261. 25. ‘The Death of a Soldier’, Harmonium, p. 124. 26. ‘Negation’, Harmonium, p. 125. 27. Ibid. 28. ‘A High-Toned Old Christian Woman’, Harmonium, p. 69. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. Glen MacLeod also argues that ‘Anecdote of the Jar’ bears a close fam- ily resemblance to Duchamp’s readymades. He also states that the readymade becomes the ‘focus of a meditation on the relation between external things and our perception of them’. Wallace Stevens and Modern Art: From the Armory Show to Abstract Expressionism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 21. 32. ‘Anecdote of the Jar’, Harmonium, p. 92. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. Terry Eagleton, The Event of Literature (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), p. 198. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (The University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 26. 36. The Event of Literature, p. 198. 37. Stevens was familiar with Cassirer’s myth thinking and cites An Essay on Man in The Necessary Angel when discussing the imagination as metaphysics – ‘the power of the mind over external objects’ – as opposed to a ‘reality which transcends the world of sense-experience’. ‘The Imagination as Value’, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 726–7. 216 Notes

38. See K. K. Ruthven, Myth (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1976), p. 74. 39. Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophical of Symbolic Forms (Volume 2: Mythical Thought), trans. Ralph Manheim (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 38. 40. Ernst Cassirer, Language and Myth, trans. Susanne K. Langer (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1953), p. 99. 41. Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on Man: An Introduction to a Philosophy of Human Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), p. 79. 42. ‘Anatomy of Monotony’, Harmonium, p. 136. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. ‘Sunday Morning’, Harmonium, p. 80. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid. 49. ‘Sunday Morning’, pp. 80–1. 50. Ibid., p. 81. 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid., p. 82. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., p. 83. 55. Ibid., pp. 83–4. 56. J. Hillis Miller, ‘Wallace Stevens’, from Critical Essays on Wallace Stevens, p. 81. 57. ‘Sunday Morning’, p. 84. 58. See ‘Imagination as Value’, Necessary Angel, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 728–9. Donald Sheehan argues that Stevens’ theory of metaphor is ‘rooted in the epistemological dualism between mind and matter’. ‘Stevens’s Theory of Metaphor’, Critics on Wallace Stevens, p. 39. 59. Michael Bell, ‘The Metaphysics of Modernism’, from The Cambridge Companion to Modernism, ed. Michael Levenson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 9. 60. Phil Shaw, The Sublime (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 2–7. 61. ‘I shall explain The Snow Man as an example of the necessity of identify- ing oneself with reality in order to understand it and enjoy it.’ The Letters of Wallace Stevens, p. 464. 62. Ernst Cassirer argues that ‘mythical metamorphoses’ is a realization of the ‘myth man’ objectifying ‘his own deepest emotions’. ‘Language and Art II’, from Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer 1935–45, ed. Donald Phillip Verene (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), pp. 173–4. 63. ‘The Snow Man’, Harmonium, p. 11. 64. See Sister M. Bernetta Quinn, ‘Metamorphosis in Wallace Stevens’, from Wallace Stevens: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Marie Borroff, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963), pp. 54–70. Metamorphosis links the subjective and the physical world. Stevens also uses the term Notes 217

‘metamorphosis’ when discussing the creation of resemblance between something real and something imagined. ‘Three Academic Pieces’, The Necessary Angel, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 686–7. 65. ‘The Snow Man’, p. 11. 66. Ibid. 67. Jahan Ramazani, Poetry of Mourning: The Modern Elegy From Hardy to Heaney, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 102–3. 68. Harold Bloom, Wallace Stevens: The Poems of Our Climate (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press), p. 63. 69. Ibid. 70. See Frederic Jameson, ‘Wallace Stevens’, from Critical Essays on Wallace Stevens, pp. 176–90. See also Justin Quinn, Gathered Beneath the Storm: Wallace Stevens, Nature and Community (Dublin: University Dublin Press, 2002), pp. 37–9. 71. I am grateful for Professor Phil Shaw for pointing me towards this source. ‘So little do we know what we’re about in / This world, I doubt if itself be doubting.’ Lord Byron, Don Juan, ed. Leslie A. Marchand (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1958), Canto IX, 17, p. 281. 72. Bernard G. Beatty, Byron’s Don Juan (London: Croom Helm, 1985), p. 25. Canto XV, 88, p. 423. 73. The Sublime, p. 118. 74. ‘Of the Surface of Things’, Harmonium, p. 66. 75. ‘Metaphors of a Magnifico’, Harmonium, p. 22. 76. See Glen MacLeod, Wallace Stevens and Modern Art: From the Armory Show to Abstract Expressionism, & Michael Benamou, in Wallace Stevens and the Symbolist Imagination (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1972). Benamou explores Stevens’ indebtedness to the aesthetics of modern painting, and argues that Stevens was conscious of the surrealist movement and the implications of Freud’s exploration of the unconscious (p. 57). 77. ‘The Relation between Poetry and Painting’, The Necessary Angel, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 749–50. 78. Marcel Raymond, From Baudelaire to Surrealism (London: Methuen, 1970), p. 31. 79. ‘Materia Poetica’, From The Notebooks, quoted from Collected Prose and Poetry, p. 919. 80. The surrealistic nightmare is when reality is totally transformed. See Donald Sheehan, ‘Steven’s Theory of Metaphor’, from Critics on Wallace Stevens, p. 32. 81. Michael Saler, ‘Profane Illuminations, Delicate and Mysterious Flames: Mass Culture and Uncanny Gnosis’, from Jo Collins & John Jervis (eds.), Uncanny Modernity: Cultural Theories, Modern Anxieties (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. 184. 82. André Breton, ‘Surrealist Situation of the Object’ (1935), from Manifestoes of Surrealism, trans. Richard Seaver & Helen R. Lane (Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1972), p. 273. 218 Notes

83. René Magritte & Harry Torczyner, Letters between Friends. trans. Richard Miller (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994), p. 27. 84. From a radio interview with Jean Neyens (1965), cited in Harry Torczyner, Magritte: Ideas and Images, trans. Richard Millen (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1977), p. 172. 85. Michel Foucault, This is not a Pipe, trans. James Harkness (Berkeley: Quantum Books, 1983), p. 49. 86. The Anti-Christ (London: Penguin, 1990), p. 139. 87. For a fuller discussion of Magritte’s ‘uncanny sublime’ as a modernist aesthetic, see Scott Freer ‘Magritte: The Uncanny Sublime’, Literature and Theology 27:3 (September 2013), pp. 330–44. 88. ‘Study of Two Pears’, Parts of a World (1942), quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, p. 180. 89. David Punter, Metaphor (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 87. 90. Ibid., p. 94. 91. ‘Study of Two Pears’, p. 180. 92. Ibid. 93. Ibid., p. 181. 94. Ibid. 95. Ibid. 96. Ibid. 97. Wallace Stevens, p. 38. 98. John Henry Newman, The Grammar of Assent (New York: Image Books, 1955), pp. 95–6. 99. ‘Less and Less Human, O Savage Spirit’, Transport to Summer (1947), quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, p. 288. 100. Marjorie Perloff, in ‘Irony in The Rock’, argues that the chapel is symbolic of Stevens’ private religious faith. For Ralph J. Mills, Stevens con- tinues to maintain ‘his deity’ as an indwelling. ‘Wallace Stevens: The Image of the Rock’, Wallace Stevens: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Marie Borroff (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), pp. 96–110. 101. T. S. Eliot, The Rock (London: Faber & Faber, 1934), pp. 83–6. 102. ‘The Rock’, The Rock, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 446–7. 103. Charles Berger, Forms of Farewell: The Late Poetry of Wallace Stevens (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin, 1985), pp. 152–3. 104. Notes Towards a Supreme Fiction, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, p. 329. 105. See ‘A Mythology Reflects its Region, from Late Poems (1950–5): ‘The image must be of the nature of its creator. / It is the nature of its creator increased, / Heightened.’ Quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, p. 476. 106. ‘Effects of Analogy’, The Necessary Angel, quoted from Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 722–3. 107. The Waste Land (New York: Liveright Publishing, 2013), p. 60. Bibliography

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——, Nietzsche: An Introduction, trans. Nicholas Martin (London: Continuum, 2002). Vermes, Geza, The Authentic Gospel of Jesus (London: Penguin, 2003). Versényi, Laszlo, Heidegger: Being, and Truth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965). Vickery, John B., The Literary Impact of The Golden Bough (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1973). Waugh, Evelyn, Brideshead Revisited: The Sacred and Profane Memories of Captain Charles Ryder (London: Chapman & Hall, 1949). ——, Helena (London: Penguin Books, 1963). White, David A., Heidegger and the Language of Poetry (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978). Wittgenstein, Ludwig, Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough, ed. Rush Rees, trans. A. C. Miles & Rush Rees (Bishopstone, Herefordshire: The Brynmill Press, 2010). Wolf, Naomi, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women (London: Vintage, 1991). Wright, Christopher J. H., The Message of Ezekiel: A New Heart and a New Spirit (Inter-Varsity Press, 2001). Wright, T. R., D. H. Lawrence and the Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Wright, Tom, Revelation for Everyone (London: SPCK publishing, 2009). Žižek, Salvoj, Living in the End Times (London: Verso, 2011). Zoroaster, The Hymns of Zoroaster, trans. M. L. West (London: I. B. Tauris, 2010). Index

Abrams, M. H., 192 (n. 5) Brod, Max, 80, 81, 102 Anders, Günther, 204 (n. 89) Brontë, Charlotte, 140 animals, see Kafka and; Lawrence Brooker, Jewel Spears, 197 (n. 9) and; Nietzsche and Brooks, Cleanth, 198 (n. 29) Armstrong, Karen, 9 Buck, Claire, 150 Arnold, Matthew, 7, 51 Bultmann, Rudolf, see Jaspers, Karl Assoun, Paul-Laurent, 200 (n. 57) Burnet, John, 113, 206 (n. 17) Astley, Neil, 207 (n. 34) Buttel, Robert, 215 (n. 18) Atwood, Craig D., 212 (n. 150) Byron, Lord, 178, 217 (n. 71) Auden, W. H., 19, 208 (n. 65) Augustine, Jane, 110 Calasso, Roberto, 80, 84 Axelrod, Stephen Gould, 214 (n. 2) Campbell, Joseph, 76, 201 (n. 70) Camus, Albert, 107 Baring, Anne & Jules Cashford, 207 Cartesian, 175 (n. 39), 209 (n. 98) Cassirer, Ernst, 25, 124, 169, 177, Barth, Karl, 5 193 (n. 33), 216 (n. 62) Barthes, Roland, 56 Coetzee, J. M., 98 Bataille, Georges, 107 Constantine, David, 84 Bate, Jonathan, 58 Corngold, Stanley, 79, 204 (n. 89) Bates, Milton J., 165 Coupe, Laurence, 191 (n. 40) Beatty, Bernard G., 179 Cowper, William, 49–50, 63–4, 197 Beckett, Samuel, 17 (n. 15) Bell, Michael, 4, 14, 51, 85, 132, Culler, Jonathan, 112 175, 205 (n. 4) Cupitt, Don, 5, 6 Beller, Manfred, 87 Benamou, Michael, 217 (n. 76) Dali, Salvador, 179, 181 Benjamin, Walter, 85 Dante, Alighieri, 51, 53, 68 Berger, Charles, 188 Davies, Stevan, 35, 43, 195 (n. 74) Berger, John, 124 Davies, Tony, 43–4 Berkowitz, Peter, 193 (n. 22) death of God, 6–7 Berry, Phillipa, 3 Deese, Helen, 214 (n. 2) Bevis, William W., 162 Deleuze, Gilles & Félix Guattari, Blake, William, 146 104 Blond, Phillip, 3 Donne, John, 117 Bloom, Harold, 87, 178 Doolittle, Hilda, see H.D. Blumenberg, Hans, 4, 9, 10, 19, Duchamp, Marcel, 168 87, 125 DuPlessis, Rachel Blau, 210 (n. 117) Book of Common Prayer, The, 65 Breton, André, 181 Eagleton, Terry, 22, 169, 198 (n. 35) Bridgwater, Patrick, 202 (n. 29) Ehrman, Bart D., 195 (n. 74)

232 Index 233

Eliade, Mircea, 54 Freer, Scott, 200 (n. 60) Eliot, T. S., 167, 171, 173, 186–8, 189 Freud, Sigmund, 50, 67, 174, 181 literary works (other than essays): The Interpretation of Dreams, 11, 101 The Rock, 186–8; The Waste Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Land, 11–12, 13–14, 15, 16, 101 45–77, 109, 145, 147, 161; and the uncanny, 181 (see also The Waste Land: A Facsimile & Kafka and) Transcript, 200 (n. 59) Friedman, Susan Stanford, 211 literary works (essays): ‘Arnold (n. 144) and Pater’, 51, 198 (n. 25); ‘Blake’, 199 (n. 57); ‘Dante’, Gaita, Raimond, 100 76–7; ‘Euripides and Professor Gardner, Helen, 52 Murray’, 50; For Lancelot Gilbert, Sandra M., 208–9 (n. 72) Andrewes: Essays on Style Gilbert, Stuart, 61 and Order, 49; ‘Hamlet and Gnosticism, 33–4, 108–9 (see also His Problems’, 48; ‘The H.D. and; Kafka and; Lawrence Interpretation of Primitive and; The Gospel of Thomas; Ritual’, 109; ‘Matthew Arnold’, The Gospel of Mary) 51, 198 (n. 25); ‘Notes on the Gooding-Williams, Robert, 192 (n. 6) Blank Verse of Christopher Gospel of Mary, The, 161 Marlowe’, 48; Notes towards the Gospel of Thomas, The, 43 Definition of Culture, 49; Review Graham, Sarah, 154 of A. Wolf’s The Philosophy of Grahame, Kenneth, 88 Nietzsche, 199 (n. 57); ‘Thomas Gray, Ronald, 79–80 Middleton’, 51; ‘Ulysses, Order Gregory, Eileen, 211 (n. 145) and Myth’, 46, 47 Gross, Ruth V., 91 and death drive, 54–8 Gubar, Susan, 156 and Ezekiel, 46–8, 64–8, 69, 71, 72 and Frazer, 45–6, 47, 48–9, 76, 77 Habermas, Jürgen, 4, 6 and Freud, 50, 67 harmonía, 163 and H.D., 51 Hay, Eloise Knapp, 200 (n. 65) and Lawrence, 77 Hayman, Ronald, 195 (n. 56) and the mythical method, 11, H.D. 13–14, 45–6 literary works: Bid Me to Live, 159; and Nietzsche, 45, 65–7, 76 The Flowering of the Rod, 13, and Tiresias, 46–8, 62 16–17; The Gift, 144; Hippolytus Ellmann, Maud, 198 (n. 40) Temporizes, 143–4; Ion, 143; Euripidean tragedy, 20–3, 143, 167 letters, 142–3; Mira-Mare, 213 Ezekiel, 173 (see also T. S. Eliot and) (n. 192); Pilate’s Wife, 13, 16, 108, 134, 139–42, 158; Tribute to feminist theology, see H.D. and the Angels, 197 (n. 21); Tribute to Fletcher, John Gould, 207 (n. 24) Freud, 134–5, 210 (n. 112, Foucault, Michel, 182 n. 115); Trilogy, 13, 15 Frazer, James George, 108, 109–10, and Eliot, T. S., 147 136 and feminist theology, 13, 17, The Golden Bough, 11, 13, 14 108, 139–40, 150–4 234 Index

H.D. – continued The Diaries of Franz Kafka, and Freud, 134, 143–4 82; ‘Letter to his Father’, 102; and Gnosticism, 15–17 108–9, Metamorphosis, 11, 15, 16, 79, 142, 145, 150–1, 153, 154, 156, 97–107; The Trial, 99, 106 158–61 (passim) literary works (short stories): ‘The and Kaspar, 145, 150–60 (passim) Burrow’, 88–9; ‘Ceiling Angel’, and Lawrence, D. H., 108–9, 134–5, 82; ‘City Coat of Arms’, 83; ‘The 145, 149, 150, 159 Fasting Artist’, 105–6; ‘The Giant and Mary Magdalene, 13, 135, Mole’, 90; ‘Hunter Gracchus’, 81; 145, 150–61 (passim) ‘Josefine the Songstress’, 90–2; and Moravianism, 144–5 ‘Message from the Emperor’, 83; and redemption, 142–4, 146, ‘On Parables’, 86; ‘Poseidon’, 82; 156, 161 ‘Prometheus Myth’, 86–7; and the syncretic method, 13–15, ‘A Report to the Academy’, 95 109–11 and animals, 88–97 Heidegger, Martin, 6, 17, 25–8 and Darwinism, 92–3, 96, 107 Heller, Eric, 81 and Eliot’s The Waste Land, 81–2 Helt, Brenda S., 143 and Freud, 78–9, 80, 87, 89, 96, Henn, T. R., 197 (n. 20) 98, 100–3, 106, 107 Henry, Matthew, 41, 64, 129, 131, and Gnosticism, 79–80, 84 206 (n. 7) and Kierkegaard, 83, 91–2 Hertz, Neil, 101 and metaphor (see also Hobson, Suzanne, 4 Metamorphosis), 15, 97–102 Hölderlin, Friedrich, 25, 27 and Nazism, 98–100 Holmer, Paul, 190 (n.20) and Nietzsche, 16, 80, 84, 85, 88, Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 8, 119, 130 91, 93, 94 Hopper, Stanley Romaine, 83 and parables, 84–9 Hough, Graham, 209 (n. 93) and the sacred, 79–84 Hovey, Craig, 194 (n. 52) and the uncanny (Metamorphosis), Hymns of Zoroaster, The, 34 102–7 Kaufmann, Walter, 22 Jameson, Frederic, 92, 178 Kenmare, Dallas, 209 (n. 93) Janouch, Gustav, 81, 88 Kenner, Hugh, 60–1 Jarraway, David R., 214 (n. 2) Kermode, Frank, 24, 56, 163 Jaspers, Karl, 6, 9, 24 and Rudolph Kershner, Brandon, 60 Bultmann, 191 (n. 35) Kuspit, Donald, 83 Joyce, James Kyd, Thomas, 48, 74–5 Dubliners, 82 Portrait of an Artist, 2 Lacan, Jacques, 166, 178 Ulysses, 1–3, 46, 60–1 Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson, Jung, Carl Gustav, 43 24, 27 Lambert, Laurence, 41 Kafka, Franz, 11, 15, 16 Lawrence, D. H., 187 literary works (other than short literary works (other than essays stories): The Blue Octavo and poems): Apocalypse, 111, Notebooks, 83–4, 87, 93, 101; 119, 132–3, 138–9, 167; Birds, The Collected Aphorisms, 84; Beasts and Flowers!, 15, 16, 108, Index 235

164; The Escaped Cock; 16, 108, ‘They Say the Sea is Loveless’ 124–5, 134–9, 149, 171–2; letters, (Last Poems), 210 (n. 107); 113; Mornings in Mexico and ‘Tortoise-Shell’ (Tortoises), 130–1; Etruscan Places, 114, 125, 127; ‘Turkey-Cock’ (BBF), 117–18; Movements in European History, ‘The Work of Creation’ (Last 206 (n. 16); Women in Love, 82 Poems), 207 (n. 47) literary works (essays): and animals, 112–33 ‘Aristocracy’, 115–16; ‘Blessed and ‘blood consciousness’, 172 are the Powerful’, 205–6 (n. 6); and Frazer, 113, 136 ‘Chaos in Poetry’, 206 (n. 21); and the genealogical method, 13, ‘Democracy’, 115; ‘Hymns in a 15, 111–12 Man’s Life’, 113; ‘Introduction and Gnosticism, 108–9, 119, 121 to New Poems’, 118; ‘Just Back and Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 119, From the Snake Dance – Tired 130 Out’, 114; ‘On Being Religious’, and Kafka, 129 112–13, 125; ‘The Proper Study’, and Nietzsche, 111–12, 116 128; ‘Reflection on the Death of and paganism, 15, 113, 114, 118, a Porcupine’, 115–16, 142; ‘The 136 Risen Lord’, 211 (n. 126) and Whitman, Walt, 114–15 literary works (poems): ‘Abysmal Leggett, B. J., 214 (n. 2) Immortality’ (Last Poems), 209 Lindberg, Kathryne V., 192 (n. 6) (n. 79); ‘The Ass’ (BBF), 133–4; Lippit, Akira Mizuta, 93 ‘Bavarian Gentians’ (Last Poems), Lockwood, M. J., 208 (n. 57) 123; ‘Bibbles’ (BBF), 115, 133; logos, 119, 188 ‘Bodiless God’ (Last Poems), and mythos, 23–35, 78, 83, 87, 126 207 (n. 47); ‘The Body of God’ Longebach, James, 164 (Last Poems), 118–19, 137, 149; ‘Demiurge’ (Last Poems), 207 Macquarrie, John, 20, 26 (n. 47); ‘The Evangelistic Beasts’ Magee, Bryan, 200 (n. 58) (BBF), 119–24, 138, 173; ‘Fish’ Magnus, Bernard, 44 (BBF), 127–33, 164; ‘Glory of Magritte, René, 181–3 Darkness’ (Last Poems), 208 (n. Mandell, Gail Porter, 208 (n. 59) 59); ‘The Hands of God’ (Last Mann, Thomas, 199 (n. 57) Poems), 127; ‘Leaves of Grass, Martin, Peter A., 199 (n. 49) Flowers of Grass’ (Nettles), 114; Mary Magdalene, 13, 137, 172 ‘Lucifer’ (Last Poems), 127; (see also H.D.) ‘Man and Bat’ (BBF), 116–17; McFague, Sallie, 7, 131–2, 195 (n. 71) ‘Mosquito’ (BBF), 117; ‘Mountain McGrath, Alister, 192 (n. 51) Lion’ (BBF), 115; ‘Only Man’ McLeod, Glen, 215 (n. 31), 217 (Last Poems), 209 (n. 77); ‘The (n. 76) Ship of Death’ (Last Poems), 208 McNamara, Peter L., 214 (n.2) (n. 59); ‘Ship of Death’ (Last metaphor, 24 (see also Kafka and; Poems), 208 (n. 59); ‘Silence’ mythos and logos) (Last Poems), 209 (n. 79); ‘Snake’ Meyer, Marvin, 161 (BBF), 125–7, 157; ‘St. Mark’ Middleton, Thomas, 59, 62 (BBF), 120; ‘St. Matthew’ (BBF), Mikkonen, Kai, 98 120–4, 135–6, 149, 171, 175; Miller, J. Hillis, 163, 174 236 Index

Mills, Ralph J., 218 (n. 100) Meditations, 94; Unpublished Milton, Colin, 205 (n. 4) Writings from the Period of Milton, John, Paradise Lost, 49–50, 59 Unfashionable Observations, 94; modernist mythopoeia, 3–17, 76–7, The Will to Power, 5, 31 87 (see also Nietzsche and) and animals, 93–4 stages towards, 7–10 and the Bible, 36–42 Morris, Aldaliade, 212 (n. 148) and Gnosticism, 33–4 Morse, Samuel French, 214 (n. 4) and Eliot, T. S., 45, 65–7, 76 Murfin, Ross C., 209 (n. 72 & 75) and Freud, 22 Murphy, Charles M., 214 (n. 6) and Lacan, 22 Murphy, Tim, 194 (n. 47) and Lawrence, D. H., 15, 111–12, Murray, Nicholas, 79 116 myth and the mad man, 6 and the genealogical method, 167 and metaphor, 6–7, 24, 26–32, (see also Lawrence and) 36–7, 42–4 and misogyny, 11–13, 58–60 and modernist mythopoeia, 5–7, and the mythical method, 13–15, 9–10, 18–20, 39 109–111 (see also T. S. Eliot and) and mythos and logos, 23–35, and religion, 10–17 39, 42 and the syncretic method, 109–11 and nihilism, 9–10, 16, 21, 30, 35 (see also H.D. and) and redemption, 30–1, 35 and violence, 11–12 and Stevens, Wallace, 15, 17, mythopoeia, 169–75, 184–5 (see also 167, 169, 171, 172, 178, modernist mythopoeia) 182–3, 189 mythos (see logos and mythos) and tragedy, 20–3 and twilight, 3–7 Neill, Michael, 201 (n. 69) and Zarathustra, 135, 142, Nevo, Ruth, 196 (n. 1) 143, 189 new criticism, 19 Norris, Margot, 92, 95, 129 Newman, Cardinal John Henry, Norris, Nanette, 210 (n. 117), 212 110, 185 (n. 148) Nietzsche, Friedrich literary works: The Anti-Christ, 19, O’Flaherty, James C., 42 30, 31–3, 80, 218 (n. 86); The Ovid, 11, 49, 50, 53, 54–6, 73–4, 79, Birth of Tragedy, 10, 14, 16, 18–24, 97, 99–100, 106 27–8, 44, 112, 169, 171, 172, and Actaeon myth, 11 178, 143, 211 (n. 145); Daybreak, and Philomela myth, 12 88; The Gay Science, 3, 6, 78; and Pygmalion myth, 12–13 letters, 29–30, 194 (n. 55); ‘Man is not God’s Worthy Image’, 27; paganism, see Lawrence and On The Genealogy of Morality, 35, Pagels, Elaine, 33, 108–9, 161, 205 112; ‘On Truth and Lying in an (n. 1) Extra-Moral Sense’, 28–9, 122; pantheism, 189 Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 1, 16, Parlej, Piotr, 87 19–20, 34–44, 121, 199 (n. 57); Pater, Walter, 51 Twilight of the Idols, 5; Untimely Patey, Caroline, 200 (n. 61) Index 237

Pawel, Ernst, 102 Shaw, Philip, 176, 217 (n. 71) Pearson, Norman Holmes, 145 Sheehan, Donald, 214 (n.2), 216 Perivigilium Veneris, 200 (n. 63) (n. 58), 217 (n. 80) Perloff, Marjorie, 214 (n. 6), 218 Shelley, Mary, 13 (n. 100) Simmel, Georg, 67 Plato, 36–9, 166 Sokel, Walter, 78, 104–5 platonism, 187 Sophocles, 47 (see also T. S. Eliot Potter, Rachel, 115 and) Powell, Matthew T., 82 Stevens, Wallace Propp, Vladimir, 56 literary works (poetry): ‘Anatomy Punter, David, 24, 27, 97–8, of Monotony’, 170–1, 172; 102, 183 ‘Anecdote of the Jar’, 168, 176; ‘The Death of a Soldier’, Quinn, Justine, 217 (n. 70) 166–7; ‘Earthy Anecdote’, 165, Quinn, Sister M. Bernetta, 216 168; Harmonium, 15–16, 17; (n. 64) ‘A High-Toned Old Christian Quinn, Vincent, 212 (n. 148) Woman’, 167; ‘Less and Less Human, O Savage Spirit’, 185–6; Ragg, Edward, 163, 185 ‘Metaphors of a Magnifico’, 179; Ramazani, Jahan, 178 ‘Negation’, 167, 170; ‘Of Mere Raymond, Marcel, 180 Being’, 163–4; ‘Of the Surface of Reed, T. J., 93 Things’, 179; ‘The Rock’, 186–8; Revelation, the book of, 111, 119, ‘The Snow Man’, 176–9, 182; 205 (n. 5) ‘Study of Two Pears’, 183–4; Ricoeur, Paul, 26, 30 ‘Sunday Morning’, 162, 171–5, Riddel, Joseph N., 192 (n. 48) 189; ‘The Worms at Heaven’s Ridley, Aaron, 21 Gate’, 166 Robinson, Janice S., 210 (n. 112) literary works (essays): ‘The Rothkirchen, Livia, 201 (n. 4) Imagination as Value’, 215 Russell, Bertrand, 18 (n. 37), 216 (n. 58); ‘Materia Ruthken, K. K., 191 (n.33) Poetica’, 180–1; ‘The Noble Rider and the Sound of Words’, Sagar, Keith, 211 (n. 126) 166; ‘Notes Towards a Supreme Saler, Michael, 181 Fiction’, 189; ‘Relations between Salvan, Jacques Leon, 97 Poetry and Painting’, 180; Sambrook, James, 197 (n. 16) ‘Three Academic Pieces’, 217 Schad, John, 128, 131 (n. 64); letters, 215 (n. 24), 216 Scholtmeijer, Marian, 92 (n. 61) Schopenhauer, Arthur, 67, 199 (n. 57) and Descartes, René, 175 Schwarz, Robert L., 200 (n. 68) and Eliot, T. S., 171, 186–9 Segal, Robert A., 191 (n. 40) and Freud, 181 Selby, Nick, 196 (n. 1) and Lacan, 166, 178 Shakespeare, William and Lawrence, D. H., 164, 167, Anthony and Cleopatra, 59, 62–3 171–3, 175 Titus Andronicus,11–12, 54–8, 63, 74 and Magritte, René, 181–3 Shaw, George Bernard, 13 and mythopoeia, 15–16 238 Index

Stevens, Wallace – continued Vanheste, Joroen, 67, 199 (n. 57) and Nietzsche, 15, 17, 167, 169, Vattimo, Gianni, 17, 29, 44 171, 172, 178, 182, 189 Verene, Donald Phillip, 25 and perspectivism, 162–3, 167, Vermes, Geza, 33 176, 179, 185 Vickery, John B., 113, 206 (n. 17) and the sublime, 163, 175–9, von Zinzendorf, Count, 144–5 176–9: anti-transcendent (see also anti-sublime), 165–9; the anti- Wagner, Richard, 66–7 sublime, 163, 166, 167, 183; the Waterfield, Robert, 39 negative sublime, 175–9, 184; the Waugh, Evelyn, 8 uncanny sublime, 176, 179–84 Weston, Jessie, 76 and surrealism, 179–84 White, David A., 26 Storr, Anthony, 101 Whitman, Walt, 114–15 Strauss, David F., 80 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 14, 192 Styler, Rebecca, 161 (n. 46) sublime, see Wallace Stevens and Wolf, Naomi, 12 surrealism, see Wallace Stevens and Wright, Christopher J. H., 64 Sullivan, Hannah, 49 Wright, T. R., 205 (n. 4) Wright, Tom, 111, 128–9 Tonning, Erik, 4 Trotter, David, 198 (n. 40) Zipes, Jack, 88 twilight, 3–6, 17 (see also Nietzsche Žižek, Slavoj, 92 and) Zola, Emile, 165