A Comparative Study of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan

Home , Fanjingshan, Mount Tai, Mount Wutai

The cultural and spiritual values of nature in Chinese World Heritage Sites: A comparative study of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan

By Xindan Hu Registration No. 941113370080 MSc Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Wageningen University August 2019

Supervised by: Dr. B (Bas) Verschuuren, Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group

Abstract

With the increasing awareness of the inseparable relationship between nature and culture in the World Heritage Convention, the cultural and spiritual values of nature start to be taken into account in the protection of World Heritage sites. According to the guidebook “Cultural and Spiritual Significance of Nature: Guidance for its role in Protected and Conserved Area Governance”, the cultural and spiritual values of nature can be classified into 7 types: Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value; Recreational and therapeutic value; Artistic, traditional and contemporary value; Information, knowledge and educational value; Historical, ethnological value; Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value; Religious and spiritual value. To better understand the culture and spiritual values of nature of indigenous or local people in Chinese World Heritage sites, I analysed the official UNESCO World Heritage site documents to assess and compare their value types and the related management activities of three Chinese World Heritage sites: Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan. I analyzed the management of three sites using the biocultural approach. The results show that the management of Fanjingshan is most concerned about CSV through biocultural approach. While for Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, the involvement of indigenous or local people in the management insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. There are two common problems among the three sites. First, all management committees pay much attention to the cultural and spiritual values of all people in order to attract visitors. The cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people appear not to be given much importance in site management. Second, the notion of cultural and spiritual values included in the management plans is quite general without the use of classification and according management planning. In order to better protect the full spectrum of cultural and spiritual values of three sites, the role of indigenous or local people has to be further emphasized.This study recommends the integration of a value typology for cultural and spiritual values in site management as well as the application of the biocultural approach in their implementation.

Table of Content

1. Introduction ...... 5

Problem definition ...... 5

Objective and Research question ...... 7

Introductions of the research sites ...... 8

2. Theoretical Framework ...... 9 Cultural and spiritual values ...... 9 Biocultural diversity and Biocultural approach ...... 11 Conceptual framework ...... 12

3. Research methodology ...... 13

4. Data collection ...... 13

5. Results ...... 15 General situation and management of three WHSs ...... 15 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value ...... 16 The Recreational and therapeutic value ...... 18 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value ...... 19 The Information, knowledge and educational value ...... 21 The Historical, ethnological value ...... 23 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value ...... 26 The Religious and spiritual value ...... 27 The role of cultural and spiritual values ...... 32 Analysis based on eight principles of biocultural approach ...... 33

6. Conclusion ...... 36

7. Discussion ...... 37 The relations to other research ...... 37 Discussion of the theoretical framework and research methodology ...... 39

References ...... 40

Appendix 1 ...... 44 4

Outline of tables and figures

Figure 1 Locations of the research sites ...... 7

Figure 2 Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey ...... 8

Table 1. One possible classification of values that make up the cultural and spiritual significance of nature in protected and conserved areas...... 10

Table 2. The coded values based on Table 1 (Verschuuren et al. in press)...... 14

Table 3.1 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 18

Table 3.2 The Recreational and therapeutic value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 19

Table 3.3 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 21

Table 3.4 The Information, knowledge and educational value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 23

Table 3.5 The Historical, ethnological value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 25

Table 3.6 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 27

Figure 3 Pilgrim Trackway of North Terrace, Mount Wutai ...... 28

Figure 4 Pilgrim Trackway of South Terrace, Mount Wutai ...... 28

Figure 5 Stone steps of Mount Taishan ...... 29

Table 3.7 The Religious and spiritual value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management ...... 31

Table 4 The certain groups that influence the management plan of three sites ...... 33

1. Introduction Problem definition After World War I, the idea of creating an international movement for protecting heritage emerged. In 1972, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) developed the World Heritage Convention to bring such concept into official existence. The Convention aims to protect the World Heritage sites (WHSs) that have outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria. Criteria (i) – (vi) are cultural criteria and criteria (vii) – (x) are natural criteria (see Appendix 1). According to the criteria they meet, WHSs are divided into three types: cultural, natural and mixed properties (WHC, 2019a). Though the Convention claims that it “recognizes the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two and introduce the cultural landscapes” (WHC, 2019b), This framing has been influenced by the culture-nature dichotomy which developed in the Western countries from the 17th century (Byrne et.al, 2013). Based on this ontological model, culture is radically separate from nature, arising partly because of the human desire to dominate nature (Pretty et.al, 2009). So, the sites are nominated for isolated cultural or natural criteria without considering the interactions between culture and nature. Even for the mixed properties, their cultural and natural aspects are assessed completely separately (Lilley, 2013). Such dichotomy brings various conflicts to heritage protection. For example, to build the protected area for Borobudur (inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1991), at least 381 households who had lived there for centuries were forced to resettled with minimal compensation and work opportunities. They also lost access to the monuments of Borobodur, which they perceive as their heritage. Facing financial and cultural abuse, it was no surprise that local people protest the governance of Borobudur (Tanudirjo, 2013).

Nowadays, culture and nature increasingly come to be viewed as interconnected and indivisible. Human societies have already interplayed with nature for thousands of generations (Pretty, 2009). Nature is more than a series of physical attributes, it is actually subjected to and impacted by culture. So, “bridging the divide” is required to create a holistic way to global heritage protection (Verschuuren & Brown, 2018). Since 1992, significant interactions between people and the natural environment have been recognized as cultural landscapes (WHC, 2019). This new category of heritage under the World Heritage Convention stemmed from the discussion of how to protect heritage with various environments and cultures. The new category was intended to overcome evident conceptual and practical difficulties with the culture-nature dichotomy recognized in the original World Heritage Convention (Fowler, 2013). This new category was thought to improve consideration of the non-material and indigenous cultures (Inaba, 1998, cited in Jimura, 2007). Indigenous knowledge systems often contain detailed information about diversity and environments (Gadgil et al., 1993; Drew & Henne, 2006). There is no doubt that indigenous cultures can contribute to contemporary World Heritage protection. “Cultural and spiritual values (CSV)” is an important part of indigenous culture which require to be recognized and taken into consideration. With the development of this topic, 6

CSV takes on broader meanings from mostly applied to indigenous people to including local people. In some cases, CSV of certain sites or species is important enough for indigenous or local people to give up economic benefits to conserve the ecosystems containing them (Verschuuren, 2012). So, it is also a matter of social justice and human rights to understand CSV of indigenous or local people and give them equal weight to make decisions for the heritage that is meaningful for them. If their voices are ignored, indigenous and local people, as well as WHSs, would suffer by the dominant Western cultures while the conflicts would continue to emerge. The participation of indigenous or local people has been emphasized and discussed by the World Heritage Convention recently. In 2007, the World Heritage Committee recognized “the critical importance of involving indigenous, traditional and local communities in the implementation of the Convention” (Decisions 31 COM 13A, 2007). So, the committee adopted a “Strategic Objective” to enhance the role of communities in the implementation of the World Heritage Convention. In a 2011 Decision, the Committee also encouraged States Parties to involve indigenous and local people in decision making, monitoring and evaluation of the conservation of WHSs while respecting the rights of indigenous and local people. The theme of the Convention’s 40th anniversary in 2012 is “World Heritage and Sustainable Development: The Role of Local Communities”. However, the Convention’s Operational Guidelines were entirely inadequate for the implement of participation of indigenous and local people (Disko & Tugendhat, 2014). The World Heritage Convention still lacks a framework to preserve the WHSs for the benefit of the world and its people (Verschuuren, 2016). In 2017, another step was made by indigenous delegates of the 41st session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. They created The International Indigenous Peoples’ Forum on World Heritage (IIPFWH) as a standing global body aiming to engage with the World Heritage Committee during its meetings.

Objective and Research question Though the protection of indigenous and local people’s rights is increasingly talked about, only if we understand CSV of indigenous or local people who are most familiar with the sites can we make the most appropriate plan to protect heritage.

This thesis intends to explore the role of cultural and spiritual values of nature in three WHSs inscribed respectively for natural, cultural and mixed properties. The aim is to help understand the indivisible connection between culture and nature and their implications for the management and governance of these sites. Fanjingshan (Natural property), Mount Wutai (Cultural property) and Mount Taishan (Mixed property) are chosen as examples. These three sites are all sacred mountain sites located in China (Figure 1), enabling a comparison of the effects of the nomination under the different criteria.

Figure 1. Locations of the research sites (Map data: 2019 Google, INEGI, ORION-ME)

It should be noted that because of the division between nature and culture, most governments around the world make different policies for natural and cultural heritage protection and implement them through various departments, administrative systems and methods (Mallarach et.al, 2018), so is China. Based on the study of these three sites, we can have some understanding of CSV in three sites. After the comparison, we can see whether and how they play a role in governance and management. I conjecture that CSV in cultural and mixed WHSs will be better integrated into governance and management than in natural WHSs. So, the results might be used for the further governance and management plan that natural WHSs should consider more about CSV and learn from cultural and mixed WHSs. The research question and sub-questions are listed in the following: Research question: 1. What is the role of cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people in three World Heritage sites inscribed respectively for natural, cultural and mixed properties? Sub-questions: a) What are the cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people in three sites? b) How do cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people influence the governance and management in three sites? c) In respect of the role of cultural and spiritual values, what are the similarities and differences between three sites? 8

Introductions of the research sites Fanjingshan located within the Wuling mountain range in southwest China. Fanjingshan is a distinguished representative of a subtropical humid mountain ecosystem. Its relatively independent living environment provides the most favorable conditions for the reproduction of animals and the evolution of plants. There are 64 plant and 38 animal species of Fanjingshan listed as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of species (requires a reference). The most notable one is the endangered Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi, see Figure 2), which only distributes in Fanjingshan. So, Fanjingshan is inscribed on the World Heritage List on the basis of Criterion (x) (Decision: 42 COM 8B.6, 2018). Meanwhile, it is a sacred mountain in Chinese Buddhism that attracts a large number of pilgrims. Local people even consider Fanjingshan as the center for Buddhist Maitreya worship (Zhang, 2006; Jiang, 2013).

Figure 2 Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey. Reprinted from Fanjingshan gallery, by Chuandong Yang, 2015, Retrieved from whc.unesco.org/en/documents/165884.

Mount Wutai, which means “the five-terrace mountain”, locates in Shanxi province. It is one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains in China that is seen as the global center for Buddhist Manjusri worship. Mount Wutai reflects how religious belief and Chinese philosophical thinking on the harmony between man and nature blend in the natural landscape. The overall natural landscape illustrates the exceptional effect of imperial patronage over one thousand years with the development of a religious temple landscape, including buildings, statuary, paintings and steles. The survived religious natural landscape and the tradition of pilgrimage to the Mount Wutai are still very much alive. However, among the Criteria (ii) (iii) (iv) (vi) (vii) Mount Wutai nominated for, Criterion (viii) is not met because Mount Wutai is of no exceptional significance for its geological values (Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS, 2009). So, Mount Wutai is inscribed on the World Heritage List under cultural Criteria (ii) (iii) (iv) and (vi) (Decision: 33 COM 8B.7, 2009). 9

Mount Taishan, located in Shandong province, is one of the most beautiful, sacred and worshipful mountains in China. Mount Taishan has experienced complicated geological and biological processes during a period of three billion years, contributing to a majestic and gigantic mountain covered with dense vegetation. Mount Taishan is an important cradle of oriental East Asian culture dating back to the Neolithic period and has been worshipped throughout the last three millennia. Thousands of artistic monuments built in different dynasties in Mount Taishan have witnessed the cultural and religious development of human. Mountain Mount Taishan is a magnificent combination of a beautiful natural landscape dominated by the cultural influences of long-time human use (WHC, 2019c). It is the first mixed property worldwide under Criteria (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) and (vii) (Decision: CONF 005 VII.A, 1987).

2. Theoretical framework

Cultural and spiritual values The phrase “cultural and spiritual values” can be seen as an output of the IUCN 2003 World Parks Congress. It is coined with specific reference to the values held by indigenous and traditional people. So, “cultural and spiritual values” was the central part of the IUCN’s work in recognizing “the role of, and engaging with, people in the governance and management of protected and conserved areas”. Besides the emphasis on material culture attributes of indigenous heritage like objectives or modified landscapes, CSV tries to incorporate both material and non-material dimensions (Brown& Verschuuren, 2018).

CSV attributed to nature was highly context and culture-dependent and can change over time. It was necessary to classify values clearly for further comparison and study. For this purpose, this study made use of a CSV typology in protected and conserved areas, see Table 1. The table came from the guidebook “Cultural and Spiritual Significance of Nature: Guidance for its role in Protected and Conserved Area Governance”. It elaborated the categories of CSV, which can be used to classify the values of different stakeholders. In my thesis, I would identify the values as well as the relevant governance and management of different stakeholders. According to the results, it was easy to recognize which kinds of values were well understood and protected. Then, I would focus on the CSV of indigenous or local people to see their role in the WHSs.

Table 1. One possible classification of values that make up the cultural and spiritual significance of nature in protected and conserved areas. (Verschuuren et al. in press).

Values Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities that convey those values

Aesthetic-Perceptual - Beauty, silence, tranquility, harmony or Scenic

Recreational and - Mental and physical well-being therapeutic

Artistic, traditional - Performing arts; music and dance and contemporary - Literature, poetry and prose - Decorative arts - Visual arts; landscape painting, installation and landscape art, nature photography, movies and television show etc.

Information, - Scientific knowledge knowledge and - Educational value educational

Historical, - Traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance ethnological - Traditional practices and trades - Festivals, fairs and historical events - Gastronomy and food-cultures

Linguistic traditions, - Languages or dialects both written and oral - Vocabulary related to nature; place names and their etymologies - Traditional folk-tales, legends, proverbs, epics and songs

Religious and spiritual - Natural elements considered holy, sacred, magical or mythical (sacred natural sites and species); - Built and living religious heritage set in a natural environment - Rituals, ceremonies and pilgrimages

Biocultural diversity and Biocultural approach To better connect nature and culture, I also introduced the theory of biocultural diversity and biocultural approach. Since the 1990s, the concept of “biocultural diversity” has been emphasized to bridge the gap between nature and culture. The findings of the links between biological and cultural diversity, including their global overlapping distributions 11 and the common threats they face came from the thought-provoking phenomenon that the continuous worldwide biodiversity loss is paralleled by the extinction of cultural diversity, especially the linguistic diversity (Harmon& Maffi, 2002; Maffi, 2001). With the efforts of a group of social scientists and conservationists, it became clear that diverse cultural knowledge, beliefs, practices and languages threatened by the socio-economic and political processes. The survival of indigenous and local cultures as well as the environment they depend was in peril, let along the integrity of them (Maffi, 2005). The loss of biocultural diversity has long-term implications since we lose the opportunity to explore the potential use of extinct species for future use as well as the traditional ecological knowledge and management systems originated from other cultures that may enlighten future conservation (Muller, 2004; Zhang, 2004; Rudd et al., 2003; Pretty et.al, 2009). So, it was necessary to bring all these elements together and to protect the diversity of life in all its form. The biocultural diversity includes biological diversity at all its levels from genes to ecosystems as well as cultural diversity in all its manifestations ranging from individual ideas to entire cultures. More importantly, there are interactions among all of these (Loh& Harmon, 2005). In general, according to Maffi (2010), the central tenet of biocultural diversity was that “the diversity of life is diversity in both nature and culture and that the two diversities are co-evolved and interdependent”.

Biocultural diversity has significant implications for conservation practice and policy- making. Based on the reorganization of biocultural diversity, the biocultural approach takes both biological and cultural aspects into account to conserve the certain sites with local knowledge, practices, and ontologies (Caillon et.al, 2017). Through the biocultural approach, conservation discourse and policies increasingly promote the active and effective participation of Indigenous and local people (Maffi, 2010). Davidson-Hunt et al. (2012) pointed out that enhancing the participation and capabilities of indigenous and local people could promote innovation and co-evolution of biocultural diversity. Also, in a time of global change, the protection of WHSs based on biocultural approach should pursue more interactional and inclusive approaches according to not only local but also national and international contexts (Apgar, 2017). According to Gavin et. al (2015), there are eight principles of biocultural approaches to conservation: 1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation; 2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive governance; 3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation; 4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context; 5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks; 6. Nurture partnership and relationship; 7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties; 8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge. Though the principles also left room for other stakeholders, I mainly focused on the indigenous and local people in my thesis. Based on the data I collected, I could verify whether these principles are followed in the protection of three sites. Then, I would compare the governance and management of three sites to see which heritage 12 emphasized more on CSV of indigenous or local people.

Conceptual framework The biocultural approach was used to guide the analysis of conservation of a certain site, reminding decisionmakers and governance actors of the importance of both biological and cultural aspects. So, indigenous or local people were stimulated to participate in conservation. The CSV typology could further help to analyze which kind of values were most important, which values already have been included in the plan and which values still needed more attention. The results could be used to make specific plans to study and protect certain values that were less emphasized. Otherwise, if the protection of CSV was too general, the CSV typology and principles of biocultural approaches were useful to deepen the understanding and management of CSV.

The principle “1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation” could relate to each type of CSV, the multiple objectives could be the protection of any tangible or intangible attributes and qualities that convey the CSV. The principle “2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive governance” more connected to traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance of Historical, ethnological value. The traditional customs, law and governance of indigenous or local people were possibly included in the planning and governance. The principle “3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation” referred to each value because CSV closely connected to natural resource no matter for recreation, study, make a living or other use. The principle “4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context” generally protect the rights of indigenous or local people depending on specific situations. The principle “5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks” more related to traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance of Historical, ethnological value. The traditional institutions, traditional forms of organization might be adapted to the modern institutional frameworks, involving indigenous or local people into management systems. The principle “6. Nurture partnership and relationship” and principle “7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties” generally protected the CSV and promoted the participation of indigenous or local people. The principle “8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge” was concerned more to Artistic, traditional and contemporary; Historical, ethnological; Linguistic traditions; Religious and spiritual values. These values showed the special worldviews and knowledge created by indigenous or local people in different forms.

The principles 4, 6, 7 did not directly relate to certain values. They were more like the basis for other principles, while the principles 1, 2, 3, 5 could be used immediately to protect certain value.

3. Research methodology This qualitative research offers a comparative case study, mainly using the method of 13 documents analysis. As mentioned before, all three sites are mountain sites in China but inscribed for different types of heritage. With relatively similar mountainous features and political conditions, it was possible to compare these three sites. After analyzing them separately, I identified similarities and differences between the three cases and discussed possible reasons behind.

Comparing to other methods in a qualitative study trying to collect the raw data, document analysis relied more on the description and interpretation of existing data. It was an efficient and effective way to gather data because many documents were in the public domain (Bowen, 2009), especially in the field of the WHSs.

The iterative process of document analysis consisted of content analysis and thematic analysis. Content analysis was the process of organizing data into categories related to the research questions (Bowen, 2009). Thematic analysis was a process involves focused re-reading and review of the data to recognize pattern based on emerging categories (Fereday &Muir-Cochrane, 2006). In this thesis, I focused on the CSV of local people in three WHSs. Since I decided to use Table 1 as categories, I organized data based on Table 1 during the content analysis. Meanwhile, I was objective and sensitive to identify whether there were some other values. Then in the process of thematic analysis, I checked the categories and explored the patterns of CSV. The back-and-forth interaction with the data continued throughout the study.

4. Data collection The data was mainly collected from the official website of UNESCO, including the nomination, decision, evaluation, management and other documents of three sites. Since Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan were inscribed as WHS in 2018, 2009 and 1987 respectively, the relevant of Mount Taishan was much less and behind the times than other two sites. I also searched for other articles relevant to the three sites, especially management plans and other grey literature from websites of three sites and Chinese WHSs, like the “Regulations on the protection and administration of Mount Taishan scenic area” (2018) from the website of The Management Committee of Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. Other relevant literature was an important resource as well.

The data analysis has mainly focused on the category of CSV (Table 1). I focused on the way of coding. The values of Table 1 were coded from 1-7 as initial top-level codes. Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities of each value could be seen as sub-codes. Sub-codes were coded as well start from a to x. For example, Value 3 Artistic, traditional and contemporary had four attributes and qualities, which can be coded from 3a to 3d (See Table 2). Then, I went through all the resources I collect and marked CSV of local people at each site with codes. According to what emerged from the data, no codes had to be changed and no new codes were developed. After reviewing all the documents, the CSV of each site and relevant governance and management were synthesized and concluded. A short description of each value was listed in the Table. Finally, I compared 14 the results of CSV as well as governance and management between three sites, discussing the possible reason.

Table 2. The coded values based on Table 1 (Verschuuren et al. in press).

Values Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities that convey those values

1.Aesthetic- - 1a. Beauty, silence, tranquility, harmony Perceptual or Scenic

2.Recreational and - 2a. Mental and physical well-being therapeutic

3.Artistic, traditional - 3a. Performing arts; music and dance and contemporary - 3b. Literature, poetry and prose - 3c. Decorative arts - 3d. Visual arts; landscape painting, installation and landscape art, nature photography, movies and television show etc.

4.Information, - 4a. Scientific knowledge knowledge and - 4b. Educational value educational

5.Historical, - 5a. Traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance ethnological - 5b. Traditional practices and trades - 5c. Festivals, fairs and historical events - 5d. Gastronomy and food-cultures

6.Linguistic traditions, - 6a. Languages or dialects both written and oral - 6b. Vocabulary related to nature; place names and their etymologies - 6c. Traditional folk-tales, legends, proverbs, epics and songs

7.Religious and - 7a. Natural elements considered holy, sacred, magical or spiritual mythical (sacred natural sites and species); - 7b. Built and living religious heritage set in a natural environment - 7c. Rituals, ceremonies and pilgrimages

5. Results I first introduce the general situation and management of three sites. Then, the differences between each type of values and managements between three sites are discussed separately. Finally, I make an analysis of management based on the biocultural approach principles.

General situation and management of three WHSs Fanjingshan was once seen as a barren wasteland where the indigenous people and migrants were referred to as barbarians by the Central Dynasties of China. However, Fanjingshan was the sacred mountain for residents all the time. It was the spreading of Buddhism from the Song Dynasty through which Fanjingshan gradually attracted the attention of the Central Dynasties. The natural WHS, Fanjingshan currently focuses on the development of ecotourism. From 2014 to 2019, the main goal is protecting abundant forest resources and natural ecological environment of Fanjingshan according to the Master Plan of Ecotourism Development of Guizhou Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve from 2014 to 2023 submitted to UNESCO. Meanwhile, multi-dimensional publicity and educational system would be formed. The goal between 2020-2023 is promoting the coordinated, sustainable development of nature, society and economy to create a "Fanjingshan" as a model of ecotourism. It should be noted that the folk culture of minorities is one of the emphases in the Master Plan. The property is managed by a multi- level from the national to the local level government system. Otherwise, a co-operative system involving various sectors of the government, technical institutions, research institutions and local communities has been created. (Ministry of Housing and Urban- Rural Development People’s Republic of China, 2016a; 2016b; 2016c; 2018)

Mount Wutai has fostered the world Buddhist Manjusri worship center for over 1600 years based on the special landscape with cold climate. Mount Wutai is also a testimony to the extinct Chinese royal religious civilization lead by emperors. It displays a unique and dynamic cultural landscape. The Conservation and Management Plan for the Nominated WHS of Mount Wutai from 2005 to 2025 aims at the restoration of the visual landscapes and the overall environment of the Core Zone. The Ministry of Construction takes the overall responsibility for the management of Mount Wutai. While several different agencies of Shanxi Province directly participate in management. Otherwise, each registered temple had an administrative/ management committee (People’s Government of the Mount Wutai National Park, 2007). The Religion and Heritage Administration Bureau of Mount Wutai National Park supervise religious activity inside the Park. The Bureau subordinate to the Shanxi Provincial Administration of Religious Affairs which is responsible to protect the rights of religious groups. The Mount Wutai Buddhist association is a civil group consisted of representatives from the Temples. It works as a bridge between the administrative agencies and devotees (Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS, 2009). As for the involvement of local people, the Master Plan of the Mount Wutai National Park from 2005 to 2025 emphasized multi-stakeholder cooperation and community coordination. 16

Mount Taishan is a mixed WHS where cultural values were enhanced by the natural setting, and the natural setting enables the expression of cultural values. It is a famous Chinese sacred mountain, "a partial miniature of Chinese culture" like the scholar Guo Moruo said. The Master plan of Mount Taishan scenic area from 2016 to 2035 (2016) focuses more on strengthening monitoring, building a data platform and beautifying the environment. The present administrative organization is the Management Committee of Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. The representatives of the National World Heritage Office, the Bureau of Cultural Relics and Religions, the Bureau of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, and other functional departments, administrative units also play a role in the management (Decision 36COM 8E, 2012). Based on The Master plan of Mount Taishan scenic area from 2016 to 2035 (2016), the Regulations on the protection and administration of Mount Taishan scenic area (2018), there is no emphasis on multi- stakeholder cooperation and local involvement. According to the research of Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009), local people are at the bottom of the heritage stakeholder hierarchy. They shared little benefits comparing to the government and enterprises while having very limited ways to involve in the plan and management of Mount Taishan.

Otherwise, to preserve the integrity and authenticity of properties, three sites have many similarities between their management plans, for example, the restoration of vegetation, relocation of residents inside the property, removal of the improper building and the exclusion of mining. The visitors’ numbers and their behavior are also strictly controlled. The carrying capacity of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan are 8000, 10000 and 30000 visitors per day respectively.

In the next part, I mainly extracted each type of value and management from the documents of UNESCO. The references about Fanjingshan mainly included Executive Summary of Mount Wutai (2007), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan (2016a), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan Atlas (2016b), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan Management Plan (2016c), Supplementary Information to the World Natural Heritage Nominated property: Fanjingshan (2018) and Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Fanjingshan (2018). The Reference about Mount Wutai mainly included The Nomination file of Mount Wutai (2007), Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS on Mount Wutai (2009), Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Mount Wutai (2009) and Decision: 33 COM 8B.7 (2009). The reference about Mount Taishan mainly included Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS on Mount Taishan (1987), Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Mount Taishan (1987), Periodic Reporting Cycle 1, Section II of Mount Taishan (2003) and Document 36 COM 8E - Adoption of retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value (2012). The contents from other resources were cited as usual.

The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value Fanjingshan: 1a: Fanjingshan is distinguished by its typical subtropical mountain forest ecosystem and numerous landscapes like peculiar peaks, pristine rivers, thick forest and stunning 17 wildflower. The variable meteorological phenomena like rainbows, cloud seas make Fanjingshan even more attractive and mysterious. The stark seasonal contrasts also contribute to the beauty of Fanjingshan. Every season, visitors can enjoy different scenery. Meanwhile, the geological features, favorable climatic conditions combine with little disturbance by human activities has made extremely rich biodiversity in Fanjingshan. According to the nomination document, 7,161 species of wild animals and plants have been recorded in the property. Based on the Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of Fanjingshan, more trails and viewing platforms will be built to let visitors enjoy the beauty of Fanjingshan. Since the quick development of tourism brings some pressures to the aesthetic value presentation, the monitoring system will be used to study the tourists’ preference for the future plan to optimize tourists’ time, spatial distribution. Otherwise, Fanjingshan’s beauty can also be presented to the public vividly by creative photography, painting and specimen exhibitions of flora and fauna etc., which is connected to Artistic, traditional and contemporary value- Visual arts (3d).

Mount Wutai 1a: The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of nature in Moutain Wutai is closely related to temples. In other words, the Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value in Mount Wutai is inseparable from Religious and spiritual value- Built and living religious heritage set in a natural environment (7b). Its buildings are a record of Buddhist temples and are harmonious with the surrounding landscape both visually and religiously. The high peaks, snow cover, thick forests of pines, firs, poplar and willow trees and lush grassland of Mount Wutai are attractive but usual. It is the temples make it unique. The management of Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of Mount Wutai can be seen as the protection of whole property, so I do not discuss it here.

Mount Taishan 1a: Mount Taishan has experienced nearly 3 billion years of natural evolution, it is formed through complicated geological and biological processes that resulted in a gigantic rock mass covered with dense vegetation. Thousands of years’ human use contributed to a beautiful landscape dominated by humans, but there are substantial areas free of both historic and modern features such as the Rear Rocky Basin. Mount Taishan is tall and huge, so the climate changes apparently at the different elevation. Some well-known natural sights scenery depends on the specific weather or season, like the sunrise, “golden shining from the sky” and “icy cave in midsummer”. Some ancient trees also have memorable meanings. In general, the beauty of Mount Taishan comprises the characteristics of magnificence, seclusion and elegance. According to the Master plan, Management Committee tries to construct a beautiful, special and balanced ecosystem through natural and artificial restoration for Mount Taishan. While ancient trees are registered and protect especially.

All three mountain sites have great Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value because of their natural environment and geological landscapes. Since they were WHSs, the management all focuses on the protection and minimize the negative effect of keeping beauty. The 18 management pattern of this value is different between Fanjingshan and the other two mountains. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan are distinctive because of the landscape that showing the harmony between human and nature. In order to experience the best Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of two mountains, natural elements and cultural elements are inseparable. While for Fanjingshan, the best Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value comes from the natural landscape. Though the management might be similar to three sites. The principle of management is different. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan focus on the harmony between natural elements and cultural elements. Fanjingshan aims to keep the natural landscape as original as possible.

Table 3.1 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

1. Aesthetic-Perceptual 1a: Diverse mountain/ 1a: Buddhist temples with 1a: Diverse geological or Scenic water/ forest/ climate the surrounding landscapes; gigantic rock landscapes, geological Landscape mass covered with dense features and landforms; vegetation; Meteorological Meteorological phenomena; Ancient trees phenomena; Seasonal contrasts; Numerous unique species

Management 1a: More trails and 1a: General protection 1a: Construct a beautiful, viewing platforms; More special and balanced professional interpreters; ecosystem through natural Optimize tourists’ time, and artificial restoration; spatial distribution; Hold Register and protect ancient creative photography, trees painting, specimen exhibitions-linked to 3d

The Recreational and therapeutic value Fanjingshan: 2a: Fanjingshan aims to develop the“Fanjingshan” model of ecotourism, which is suitable for people who want to get close to nature. Abundant forest resources are appropriate for forest bathing, hiking, camping and biking, while outdoor barbecues, cave expeditions or mountaineering expeditions are not allowed. In the ecotourism zone, visitor tour processes are monitored to study the satisfaction and duration of people’s stay. The Monitoring system also helps to prompt and warn visitors.

Mount Wutai: 2a: As a Buddhist sacred mountain, hiking is the only form of recreation mentioned in the management plan. The relevant management is designing routes.

Mount Taishan: 2a: The situation of Mount Taishan is similar to Mount Wutai. However, Mount Taishan is the easternmost mountain in China, so most Chinese people have a Mount Taishan complex that they want to climb Mount Taishan, especially climbing to see the sunrise. The magnificent sunrise also linked to The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value (1a). The annual International Mountain Tai Climbing Festival started from 1987 is one of the most important festivals in Mount Taishan (Jia, 2010), attracting a great number of visitors and mountaineering enthusiasts.

Considering the Outstanding Universal Value of WHSs, the first principle of management is protection. So, some recreation like hiking might be limited to a certain area and some area might be closed when necessary. In general, the Recreational and therapeutic value of all WHSs is to some extent limited. Relative to cultural and mixed heritages, natural heritages often have more resource and activities for recreation and therapy, but the activities have to be strictly managed. So, the patterns of Fanjingshan is different from the other two mountains.

Table 3.2 The Recreational and therapeutic value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

2.Recreational and 2a: Ecotourism; Forest 2a: Hiking 2a: Climbing (Mount therapeutic bathing; Hiking; Outdoor Taishan complex, climbing sports (biking) to see the sunrise)

Management 2a: Design walking route; 2a: Design routes 2a: Organize annual Monitor visitors’ behavior, International Mountain Tai satisfaction and duration Climbing Festival of stay

The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value Fanjingshan: 3a: Fanjingshan area has its own tea culture which gave birth to the special song, dance and performances of the Tang Dynasty (Xiao, 2018). The performances show scenes of life that relate to picking tea-leaves. It has been listed as Provincial intangible cultural heritage (The fifth representative of intangible cultural heritage in Guizhou province, 2019). The relevant management plan for this intangible heritage has not been found. 3c: Many different minorities have lived in Fanjingshan area since ancient time. The custom and batik of Tujia, customs, silver jewellery and batik of Miao are famous all over China. The decorative themes of their customs, jewellery are often plants and animals. As 20 many visitors are interested in folk culture, Tuanlong Folk Village of Tujia people is developed to display the life of Tujia people including their customs, handiworks. 3d: The natural beauty of Fanjingshan attracts various photographers. For example, the sea of azalea flowers is one of the most popular scenic sites. In this scenic site, the specific photography site is going to be built. The Fanjingshan management organizations also plan to provide an interactive platform to professional photographers, organize photo shows and invite camera crew. Through such methods, Fanjingshan can become more famous.

Mount Wutai 3b: Mount Wutai has been a classical subject of Chinese writers and historians since the Tang Dynasty. Some Buddhist masters from India and Japan also write articles related to Mount Wutai. Some historical records, travel notes, poetry and prose are published since the Ming Dynasty. 3d: The beauty of the Wutai landscape with its temples has inspired many artists since ancient time. In the Dunhuang Grottoes, there is a large landscape painting of Mount Wutai. It is almost a detailed map of all the temples in their verdant surroundings. In addition, since 1990, some documentaries have been made to propagandize Mount Wutai.

Mount Taishan 3b: Mount Taishan has been the inspiring resource for philosophers, writers and poets for a long time. The traditional Chinese culture of Mount Taishan is so abundant that the status of it is the highest among Chinese mountains. 3c: The folk crafts of Mount Taishan closely related to the religion, like phoenix robe and embroidered shoes are the offerings to the goddess of Mount Taishan (Cui, 1989). 3d: Inspired by Mount Taishan, a model of mountain painting was raised in the Northern Song Dynasty (BC 960-1127). The conceptual model of a mountain includes the traces of man, graceful structures bridges, gateways or pavilions while contrasting with somber pine forests or frightening rocky cliffs. It has influenced generations of landscape painters. The documentary and TV show of Mount Taishan are also diverse.

All three sites have impressive traditional Artistic, traditional and contemporary value. With technological development, modern visual arts like photography and film become increasingly important for the three sites. The indigenous Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of Fanjingshan is emphasized as well. However, the management of traditional Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three sites is less or even not mentioned in the management plan. So, the only difference of this pattern between Fanjingshan and other two mountains are the emphasis of indigenous Artistic, traditional and contemporary value.

Table 3.3 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

3. Artistic, traditional and 3a: Song, dance and 3b: Historical records, 3b: Literature works of contemporary performance of tea culture travel notes, poetry and famous Chinese artists and 3c: Tujia customs and prose since the Tang scholars like Confucius, batik; Miao customs, silver Dynasty; Writings by Libai, Dufu, etc jewellery and batik visiting Buddhist masters 3c: Folk crafts like 3d: Photographs and films from India and Japan phoenix robe and of the sea of azalea 3d: A large landscape embroidered shoes flowers; Documentary and painting of nearly whole 3d: The landscape painting TV shows Mount Wutai in the of depicting mountainous Dunhuang landscapes; Documentary Grottoes; Documentary and TV shows and TV shows

Management 3c: Develop Tuanlong Folk Village of Tujia people to display customs, handiworks of minority 3d: Provide photography sites and interactive platform to the professional photographer; Organize photo shows and related activities; Invite camera crew to shoot

The Information, knowledge and educational value Fanjingshan 4a: Typical subtropical mountain forest ecosystem, special geographical conditions and great biological diversity of Fanjingshan is valuable for the scientific research. Fanjingshan management institutions attach great importance to research. A series of projects are carried out mainly contain regular basic research or special investigation of background resources, long-term monitoring, application research on protection and management. For further study, they plan to strengthen and enlarge the research team, establish and improve the scientific mechanism of Fanjingshan. The cooperation with universities and scientific institutes at home and abroad is also significant. Moreover, Panxi rare wildlife ecological park is planning to be built as the wildlife protection and research center. 4b: Besides the exploration of new scientific knowledge, Fanjingshan management institutions also have a detailed plan for education. They plan to build an ecological popular science education center to introduce the scientific value of Fanjingshan. After 22 understanding the overview of Fanjingshan in education canter, visitors can choose special trips to explore more about nature. The signs and interpretations of science popularization education are also set in particular areas. Since the audio interpretation on cable cars is the main way of interpretation for a long time, professional interpreters will be trained to help visitors. As for local people, community education programs have been compiled in the education center. Meanwhile, giving out handouts, calendars or other awareness and publicity materials about natural protection content is supplemented to guide residents to protect the environment spontaneously. Especially, education for students could be more specific by cooperating with the educational department.

Mount Wutai 4a: May experts and scholars both home and abroad have been making study tours to Mount Wutai to research the geology, physiognomy, biological resources over the years. The protection and management of Mount Wutai have been actively supported by different scientific research institutions. The current goal of scientific research is strengthening monitoring to collect and record data at different stages. 4b: Mount Wutai has long been a base of the field of geology, geomorphology and biology research for universities and institutes. So, it is a great place to investigate for students majoring in geology. The interpretation and education are not only about natural elements but also closely connected to Buddhist culture. Mount Wutai has 8 themes in interpretation and education like typical ancient plantation surfaces and cultural landscape. Otherwise, basic geology summer camps for primary and middle school students in neighbouring areas are organized.

Mount Taishan 4a: Special geotectonic location, long geological evolution history and typical geological remains of Mount Taishan are attractive for geologist home and abroad. For example, it has been selected by the 30th International Geological Conference (IGC) and the 15th International Mineral Assembly (IMA) as one of the after-meeting fields for investigation. It is also a popular site for scholars specialized in palaeontology to visit and have field studies. Mount Taishan management committee is now working on the establishment of a monitoring system. 4b: Mount Taishan administration has cooperated with some internal geological, forestry and agricultural universities to build teaching and research base. They also plan to set up a Mount Taishan museums for presentation and education. The publicity through various media is emphasized to improve the awareness of local people and visitors, especially the Mount Taishan conservation day of June 9. The management committee also encourages related education in schools.

All three sites pay much attention to the information, knowledge and educational value, especially the Fanjingshan. It might because the Fanjingshan is during the early stage of planning, so Fanjingshan management institutions have more work to do to develop research and education of Fanjingshan like designing the education center. The pattern 23 of the Information, knowledge and educational value is different between Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan. Fanjingshan has greater biological diversity and unique species, so it has to pay much more attention to certain research and education.

Table 3.4 The Information, knowledge and educational value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

4. Information, 4a/b: Original, special 4a/b: Great geology, 4a/b: Special geotectonic knowledge and ecosystem; Great physiognomy, biological location, long geological educational biological diversity; Typical resources evolution history, typical geographical conditions; geological remains; Specific species paleontological resources

Management 4a: Strengthen and 4a: Coordinate with 4a: Strengthen monitoring; enlarge the research team; different scientific Attract geologists and establish and improve research institutions; palaeontologist home and scientific mechanism Study tours conducted by abroad Multiple scientific projects experts and scholars both 4b: Cooperate with some including long-term home and abroad; internal geological, forestry monitoring, application Strengthen monitoring and agricultural universities research etc.; Coordinate 4b: Remained as a base of to set up research base; with different scientific the field of geology, Build museums; Publicity research institutions; Plan geomorphology and through various media; research region biology research for Encourage related 4b: Delivery handouts; universities and institutes education in schools Presentation and training; since the 1930’s; Organize Build museums, Summer Camp for education center; Species primary and middle information signs school students

The Historical, ethnological value Fanjingshan 5a: The property, its buffer zone and surrounding areas are mainly inhabited by ten or more ethnic minorities including Tujia, Miao, Dong. In general, they are kindhearted, believing in practiced animism and worship of ghosts, so they traditionally protect the environment and sustainably use resource. Miao and Tujia people who live in surrounding areas particularly cherish natural forests that they have formulated “village regulations and folk laws” to protect forests. The well-preserved primary vegetation in the Fanjingshan is closely bound up with the environmental cognition and cultural beliefs of indigenous people. Nowadays, indigenous people are encouraged to participate in the planning and management of Fanjingshan. The China Man and Biosphere committee have organized various studies of this valuable ethnobotanical knowledge. Their 24 traditional practices of environment and natural resources protection have been preserved. 5b: Traditional mode of production of indigenous people have been maintained for a thousand years and wood has been used as main materials for their building. Now traditional farming, planting activities of indigenous people are permitted in the community protection zone. Tourists can enjoy the residential landscape of indigenous people and experience the process of producing tea in Tuanlong Folk Village. 5d: Tujia people have the custom of making glutinous rice cakes and drinking tea. The Chinese herbal dietary therapy of indigenous people is also attractive. In Tuanlong Folk Village, visitors can try the indigenous food.

Mount Wutai 5b: The surroundings of the temples have been traditionally managed as farmland. The farmers make a strong contribution to the management of surrounding areas for provisions for monks and residents. 5b: Now, the Management committees adjust the development of agriculture within the appropriate area and guide the farmers to develop special ecological agriculture with high science and technology content. The focus is shifted from production to protection.

Mount Taishan 5b: Traditionally, habitats made a living mainly by farming, supplementing by collecting, hunting, husbandry and so on. Since Taishan has been the sacred mountain from ancient time, the tertiary industry has developed for a long time (Cui, 1989). 5d: The water, Chinese cabbage, tofu, pancake of Mount Taishan is special and famous all over China. Also, Mount Taishan area has a long history of brewing liquor. The liquor made of Mount Taishan water is of great quality (Cui, 1989).

It is clear that the patterns of the three sites are different. Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai pay more attention to the Historical, ethnological value. While for Mount Taishan, the Historical, ethnological value might not important enough to be managed.

Table 3.5 The Historical, ethnological value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

5.Historical, ethnological 5a: The indigenous people 5b: The surroundings to 5b: Traditionally, habitats including Tujia, Miao, the temples have been made a living mainly by Dong are kindhearted and traditionally managed as farming, supplementing by believe in practiced farmland for provisions collecting, hunting, animism and worship of for monks and residents husbandry and the tertiary ghosts; village regulations industry and folk laws; Indigenous 5d: The water, Chinese people continue cabbage, tofu, pancake of traditional environment Mount Taishan is special protection and sustainably and famous; Mount Taishan use resource has a long history of 5b: Traditional mode of brewing liquor production; Use wood as main building materials 5d: Chinese herbal dietary therapy; The custom of making glutinous rice cakes and drinking tea of Tujia people

Management 5a: Encourage indigenous 5b: Adjust the people to participate in development of conservation; Study agriculture within the ethnobotanical appropriate area; Guide knowledge; Traditional the farmers to develop practices of indigenous special ecological people have been agriculture preserved 5b: Traditional farming, planting activities are permitted in the community protection zone; Tourists can experience the process of producing tea in Tuanlong Folk Village 5d: Display Chinese herbal dietary therapy, provide tea in Tuanlong Folk Village 26

The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value Fanjingshan 6a: There are minority languages of indigenous people in the Fanjingshan area. 6b: Tea is of special meaning for people who live in the Tongren area (where Fanjingshan located). More than 50 areas were named after tea in Fanjingshan region (Xiao, 2018). 6c: Because of the popularity of tea culture, there are many wide-spread folk-tales about tea in Tongren (Xiao, 2018). Diverse legends of Buddha and celestial beings originated from specific scenic spots are also popular.

Mount Wutai 6c: As a Buddhist sacred mountain, the legends of Mount Wutai mainly relate to Buddhism. For example, there is a legend says that Mount Wutai is once a mountain with a harsh climate, thanks to the help of Manjusri, the climate of Mount Wutai becomes suitable.

Mount Taishan 6b: The god of Mount Taishan as the god of death is popular locally, so many local areas are named after death. 6c: The folk literature of Mount Taishan is abundant, including folk-tales and legends of celestial beings, anecdotes of famous people and proverbs of Mount Taishan. For example, there is a famous Chinese story of Confucius in “the book of rites”, a collection of texts. One day, Confucius passed by Mount Taishan and he found a woman weeping at the grave. The woman’s families were killed by tigers in succession, but she did not want to move because there is no tyranny in this place. Confucius educated his students that tyranny was crueler than a tiger.

The pattern of Fanjingshan is different because of the indigenous culture. It is the only site mainly lived by indigenous people, so there are minority languages in Fanjingshan property. The long history of three sites all brings about abundant traditional stories. However, the Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value seems not closely relate to the outstanding values of three sites. So, there is no emphasis on the management of the Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value.

Table 3.6 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

6. Linguistic traditions, 6a: Minority languages of 6c: Buddhist legends 6b: Many areas were named both written and oral indigenous people originated from after death as the god of 6b: More than 50 areas the natural scenery of Mount Taishan is the god of were named after tea in Mount Wutai death Fanjingshan region 6c: Folk-tales and legends 6c: Many wide-spread of celestial beings; folk-tales about tea; Anecdotes of famous Legends of scenic spots people; Proverbs of Mount and buildings Taishan

Management

The Religious and spiritual value Fanjingshan 7a: Fanjingshan has been the sacred mountain since ancient time for residents. “Sleeping Buddha” consists of mountains is one of the most famous sceneries of Fanjingshan. “Fengshui” greatly affect the indigenous people, most minorities define and protect “Fengshui” forests to ensure a healthy environment and good luck. So, some oldest trees of Cinnamomum and conifers are revered in such Fengshui forests. They also believe that wild animals are the good spirits of the mountain, so they protect and respect wild animals. The indigenous people in the property area are well aware of the co-existence relationship between natural resource and human (Xing and Ma, 2004). The Buddhism principles like “All living things are equal” are consistent with indigenous cultural beliefs. So indigenous people tend to protect nature spontaneously (Zhang, 2014). The management committee tries to make use of the positive effect of indigenous culture and Buddhist culture to encourage indigenous people to involve in conservation. 7b: During the 17th and 18th centuries there were 5 Royal Temples and 48 Ordinary Temples in Fanjingshan. Some temples and ruins have remained until now. Recently years, management committee works on the repair and reconstruction of old temples. A detailed study of the temple ruins in Fanjingshan is also going to be made on the premise of authenticity. 7c: Besides international religious festivals of Buddhism like lunar June 19, there are some local religious festivals related to nature like lunar February 1. The Zen tea culture derived from Buddhism culture has remained in the temples. Zen tea ceremony is a great part of Fanjingshan Buddhism. Visitors are permitted to partake in pilgrimage and related activities on religious festivals. Zen tea ceremony will be developed as a high-quality tourism project. So, a tea room will be built on the platform near the cliff.

Mount Wutai 7a: Mount Wutai is one of the four sacred Buddhist Mountains of China. It is identified as the dwelling place of Manjusri by Dharani Sutra. The remarkable natural shape with precipitous sides and five open rounded treeless peaks is closely connected to Buddhist beliefs that top five peaks of Mount Wutai symbolizing the “Five Wisdoms” of Manjusri. Many aspects of its landscapes around the five peaks have been deified sacred for Buddhism as well. Another important characteristic is the fairly low temperature, which meets the requirement for “a cool world” of the Buddhist sutras. Management committee plans to change the road and roadside buffer zones and increase local vegetation cover to keep the sacredness. 7b: Temples were constructed in Mount Wutai from 1st century AD, 53 monasteries remained as well as other buildings like pagodas. As the global center for Buddhist Manjusri worship, some temples also reflect ideas from Nepal and Mongolia. The landscape and building ensemble of Mount Wutai as a whole become sacred. So, the improper buildings are removed to keep the harmony between human and nature. Every temple with the environment inside is protected by a sole committee. 7c: From the Northern Wei period (471-499), 9 emperors made 18 pilgrimages to pay tribute to the bodhisattvas. The tradition of pilgrimage to the five peaks started by the emperors is still alive. There are two types of pilgrimage: the grand Buddhist ritual of Dachaotai (Big Pilgrimage) and Xiaochaotai (Small Pilgrimage). As a center of pilgrimage, Mount Wutai is important for Han, Mongolian and Tibetan adherents. Management committee tries to recover the important historical landscapes on the way along the pilgrimage route and maintain the routes as original as possible (see Figure 3&4). Otherwise, the management of pilgrimage during the period of religious ritual is strengthened.

Figure 3&4 Pilgrim Trackway of North Terrace, Mount Wutai & Pilgrim Trackway of South Terrace, Mount Wutai. By Shanxi Ancient Building Protection and Research Institute, 2007

Mount Taishan 7a: Mount Taishan is the spiritual home of the Chinese Nation consists of complex religions. First, it is a place of worship for a faithful official cult called “the King equal to Heaven" and the “Holy Emperor”. Second, the worship of God of Mount Taishan and the 29

Princess of the Azure Clouds play an important role for local people. Third, Mount Taishan is the sacred mountain for national religion Taoists, Confucians. Fourth, it is also sacred for Buddhists. So, Mount Taishan can be seen as the symbol of the Chinese nation. Other less systematic worship like Mount Taishan Shigandang (Worship of Yaishan stone) is also popular all over China. It even influences Japan, Vietnam and other countries (Cui, 1989; Zhang, 2017). The whole Mount Taishan as a sacred place, the management focus more on ecological restoration. 7b: Mount Taishan has extremely rich cultural heritage. There are 22 temples, 97 ruins, 819 stone tablets, 1018 stone inscriptions, 6660 steps between heaven and earth (see Figure 5). The buildings are in harmony with the specific environment. All buildings are strictly protected while the improper building is gonging to be removed. 7c: “Fengshan” sacrifice (The ceremony in homage to Heaven and Earth carried out by emperors) shows the lost civilizations of imperial China. Multiple festivals of different religions also attract many followers and visitors. The “fengshan” sacrifice area and buildings along the route are under the key protection.

Figure 5 Stone steps of Mount Taishan. By Charlie Fong, 2008，Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5327850

According to the resource I find, the Religious and spiritual value is the most important one among 7 values. All three sites are sacred mountains of great importance. Even for natural heritage Fanjingshan, the Religious and spiritual value is emphasized. The pattern of the Religious and spiritual value is similar among three sites. The Religious and spiritual value has deeply twisted with the mountain itself. Since the whole mountains of three sites are considered as sacred, the management of such value is actually the management of the whole mountain.

Table 3.7 The Religious and spiritual value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

7. Religious and 7a: “Sleeping Buddha” 7a: Top Five Peaks of Mount Wutai 7a: The mountain is a place spiritual consists of mountains; symbolizing the “Five Wisdoms” of of worship for a faithful “Fengshui” forests; Manjusri; Mount Wutai with fairly official cult called “the King Worship for Mountain low temperature meets the equal to Heaven" and the Spirits and totems of requirement for “a cool world” of “Holy Emperor”; Worship of fauna and flora the Buddhist sutras which is God of Mount Tai and the 7b: During the 17th and regarded as the dwelling place of Princess of the Azure 18th centuries there Manjusri Clouds; The sacred were 5 Royal Temples and 7b: Temples were constructed in mountain for Taoists, 48 Ordinary Temples in Mount Wutai from 1st century AD, Buddhists and Confucians; Fanjingshan, some 53 monasteries remained as well the symbol of Chinese temples and ruins remain as other buildings like pagodas Nation; Mount Taishan 7c: International religious 7c: The grand Buddhist ritual of Shigandang (Worship of festivals like lunar June 19; Dachaotai (Big Pilgrimage) and Yaishan stone) Local religious festivals Xiaochaotai (Small Pilgrimage); As 7b: There are 22 temples, 97 like lunar February 1; Zen a center of pilgrimage, Mount ruins, 819 stone tablets, tea ceremony Wutai is important for Han, 1018 stone inscriptions, Mongolian and Tibetan adherents 6660 steps between heaven and earth; the buildings are in harmony with the specific environment 7c: Fengshan sacrifice (The ceremony in homage to Heaven and Earth carried out by emperors); Religious festivals

Management 7a: Make use of the 7a: Change the road and roadside 7a: Ecological restoration the positive effect of buffer zones; Increase local 7b: Protect historical relics folklore culture and vegetation cover and buildings; Remove Buddhist culture 7b: Relocate improper buildings improper buildings 7b: Repair and reconstruct like hotels; Conserve, maintain 7c: Protect “fengshan” old temples; Make a temples and environment inside sacrifice area and buildings detailed study of the 7c: Recovery the important along the route temple ruins historical landscapes on the way; 7c: Visitors are permitted Maintain the routes as original as to partake in pilgrimage possible; Strengthen management and related activities; during the period of religious Build a tea room ritual

The role of cultural and spiritual values Though the three sites all have seven types of cultural and spiritual values, some types of values are not included in the management plan. To understand the role of cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people, seven types of values can be divided into three sites in this research. First, the values of all people, whether they are indigenous people, local people or outside people, these values are more or less the same for all people. The first set includes 1. Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic, 2. Recreational and therapeutic and 4. Information, knowledge and educational values. Second, the values of indigenous or local people only, including 5. Historical, ethnological and 6. Linguistic traditions, both written and oral values. The third set is uncertain values, including 3. Artistic, traditional and contemporary and 7. Religious and spiritual values. They can be either side or the combination of two sides. For example, a place with 7. Religious and spiritual value can relate to either Buddhism or indigenous worship or the combination of Buddhism and indigenous worship. According to this division, the first set- values of all people make a difference in the management plan in three sites. For 6. Linguistic traditions, both written and oral values, though each site has indigenous or local attributes, no one influences the management. As for 5. Historical, ethnological value, Fanjingshan has indigenous attributes which a difference in the management of Fanjingshan. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan have local attributes, but only the management of Mount Wutai is influenced. Under 3. Artistic, traditional and contemporary value, the indigenous attributes of Fanjingshan are included in the management plan of Fanjingshan, but local attributes of three sites all make no difference. Under 7. Religious and spiritual value, the value of all people and indigenous people influence the management plan of Fanjingshan. The value of all people and local people influence the management plan of Mount Taishan. The management plan of Mount Wutai only affected by the value of all people. The results are listed in Table 4.

Table 4 The certain groups that influence the management plan of three sites

The management The management The management plan of Fanjingshan plan of Mount Wutai plan of Mount Taishan

1.Aesthetic- All people All people All people Perceptual or Scenic

2.Recreational and All people All people All people therapeutic

3.Artistic, traditional Indigenous people no no and contemporary

4.Information, All people All people All people knowledge and educational

5.Historical, Indigenous people Local people no ethnological

6.Linguistic traditions, no no no both written and oral

7.Religious and All people All people All people spiritual Indigenous people Local people

Analysis based on eight principles of the biocultural approach After identifying the cultural and spiritual values in management, I use eight principles of biocultural approaches of Gavin et. al (2015) to analyze the management of three sites:

1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation. According to the documents, the Master Plan of Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai emphasizes multi-stakeholder cooperation. The Management plan of Fanjingshan especially mentions the involvement of indigenous people from inscription to management. Indigenous people are consulted to set their objectives. The objectives like keeping the traditional lifestyle and improving the livelihood are satisfied. However, the article of Wang et.al (2013) shows the problem of relocation program in Mount Wutai area. According to the “The Master plan of Mount Wutai scenic area from 2006 to 2025” (2006), six villages should move to the new community built for them in tourism service base. Meanwhile, they could get the compensations and job opportunities offered by the management committee of Mount Wutai. But, after the inscription of Mount Wutai, the relocation program is less emphasized, so the relocation meets the problem lacking fund. The villagers did not really move to the new community. They can only rent houses near their original villages to live. The community involvement of Mountain Wutai is also 34 limited (Xiao and Wu, 2008). The research of Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009) also shows the predicament of local people that they share little in benefits derived from World Heritage sites. There are limited ways for local people to get involved in the planning and management of Mount Taishan.

2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive governance. In Fanjingshan, village rules created by local residents make a great difference in protecting the local ecosystem and environment. The management plan aims to improve the village regulations and give full play to their role. Otherwise, the indigenous residents are organized to participate in the nominated property’s protection. The Nomination Text (2016b) also mentioned the long Buddhism Culture influences the belief systems of indigenous people, ensuring folk groups to conserve nature in everyday life. Therefore, a more complete top- down protection management system for heritage is built in Fanjingshan. In Mount Wutai, very little involvement of local communities is mentioned apart from firefighting, but the Community Regulation from Nomination file (2007) shows the principles of community coordination. For example, the principle that the community shall take the responsibility of monitoring and managing the environmental condition. So, there is the potential of indigenous people to affect the intergenerational planning and long-term governance in future for Mount Wutai. As for Mount Taishan, there is no relevant information about this principle according to the data I found.

3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation. Only Fanjingshan meets the situation of dynamic cultures. The management plan allows traditional farming, planting activities. However, hunting, grazing, logging, harvesting, fishing, mining (quarrying, sand-excavating), groundwater extraction and dam constructing are prohibited.

4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context; Based on the nomination document of Fanjingshan, all residents including indigenous people lived in the property area are consulted. All residents agree for the inscription of Fanjingshan. Indigenous people worry about whether their customs will be prohibited. They get the promise that they can keep farming, planting and having custom festivals in a certain area. Most counties inside the property are poor counties. They are promised to locate to places suitable for living and be offered free training opportunities. The relocation is voluntarily and compensated. The information on Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan is not enough.

5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks; For Fanjingshan, the property is managed by a multi-level (national to the local) government system. Meanwhile, a co-operative system involving various sectors of the government, technical institutions, research institutions and local communities has been created. For Mount Wutai, the Ministry of Construction takes the overall responsibility for the management of Mount Wutai. While several different agencies of Shanxi Province 35 directly participate in management. The Mount Wutai Buddhist association, a civil group consisted of representatives from the temples, works as a bridge between the administrative agencies and devotees. The Master Plan of Mount Wutai National Park (from 2005 to 2025) emphasized multi-stakeholder cooperation and community coordination. The present administrative organization of Mount Taishan is The Management Committee of Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. Other functional departments and administrative units also take part in the management. In all three sites, besides the government, other stakeholders are not directly involved in governance.

6. Nurture partnership and relationship; Related to principle 5, in Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai, it is possible to nurture partnership and relationship.

7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties; The Management plan of Fanjingshan shows the rights of indigenous people that they are aware of the nomination of Fanjingshan and their reasonable request could be satisfied. So, indigenous people are allowed to keep their customs, traditional farming and planting activities. Meanwhile, the management committee aims to improve the social protection consciousness and the sense of responsibility, organize the voluntary indigenous residents to participate in the protection and monitoring of field burning and the illegal collection of plants and hunting. For Mount Wutai, the Community Regulation from Nomination file (2007) lists the principles of community coordination. First, the principle of resource and environmental protection that the community shall be responsible for monitoring and managing the environmental condition. Second, the community should benefit in terms of economy, environment and education. Third, there should be a balanced share of rights, responsibilities and benefits. The Community Regulation shows the intention to incorporate the right and responsibility of the community. However, the relocation problem (Wang et.al, 2013) and low community involvement of Mount Wutai (Xiao and Wu, 2008) I mentioned in the principle 1 reveals that the implementation of Community Regulation is inadequate. The rights of the local community are not respected. The Management Plan of Mount Taishan has no information about the rights and responsibilities of different parties. The research of Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009) also shows that local community share little benefits and it is hard for them to get involved in the plan and management of Mount Taishan. The management committee does not recognize the right of the local community.

8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge. As I discussed above, in Fanjingshan, Buddhism culture and indigenous culture of nature are consistent with each other. In Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, local people mainly influenced by Chinese mainstream culture, especially in Mount Taishan. The Chinese mainstream culture of Daoism and Confucianism recognize the value of nature. Referring to the attitudes towards nature, Daoism emphasizes the harmony between human and nature. Confucianism claims that human should be benevolent to nature. So, Chinese 36 people have an inherent tendency to protect nature. So, in Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, the worldviews and knowledge of Chinese mainstream culture and Buddhism are also consistent with each other. So, respecting and combining different worldviews and knowledge is not a problem for three sites.

In general, though the management of Fanjingshan only clearly relate to Historical, ethnological value of indigenous people, it basically follows the eight principles of biocultural approaches, ensuring the participation of indigenous people. However, for Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, the involvement of indigenous or local people in the management insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. The management of Mount Wutai express the intention of local community coordination, but a definite plan is absent. The relocation problem even reveals the disrespect of the local community. The management of Mount Taishan nearly mentions nothing about local community involvement.

6. Conclusion Refer to the main research question: What is the role of cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people in three World Heritage sites inscribed respectively for natural, cultural and mixed properties?

Three WHSs all emphasized the cultural and spiritual values of nature that they take natural and cultural elements into the account to make the management plan. However, the management committee mainly concerned about the CSV of all people, the role of CSV of indigenous or local people is not given specific importance. The similarity is that the 1. Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic, 2. Recreational and therapeutic, 4. Information, knowledge and educational and 7. Religious and spiritual values of all people are important for three sites. While 6. Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of indigenous or local people has no influence on the management of all three sites. The differences are: For Fanjianshan, 3. Artistic, traditional and contemporary, 5. Historical, ethnological and 7. Religious and spiritual values of indigenous people make a difference in the management plan. For Mount Wutai, 5. Historical, ethnological value of local people play a role in the management plan. For Mount Taishan, 7. Religious and spiritual value of local people influences the management plan.

Contrary to my conjecture, the management plan of natural heritage Fanjingshan are most concerned with CSV through biocultural approach, then cultural heritage Mount Wutai and then mixed heritage Mount Taishan. The design of these two management plans lacks community involvement which warrants a serious problem. The management committee of Mount Taishan does not treat the local community as stakeholders. There are two potential reasons behind the different importance of the three sites. First, Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan were inscribed as WHS in 2018, 2009 and 37

1987 respectively. Maybe with increasing awareness of biocultural diversity and the WHC focus on community involvement, aspects that testify of the biocultural approach were more easily adopted in the more recent nominations. Second, Fanjingshan is mainly lived by indigenous people. Comparing to local people, the protection of indigenous people might be prioritized.

Though the management plans of three sites all seem to pay much attention to the CSV of nature. There are several problems with the role of CSV of indigenous or local people. First, the management plans mainly consider the CSV of all people. Especially in Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, the CSV of local people are not emphasized. Local people nearly have no way to involve in the management. It might because CSV of all people is easy to understand and accept. Second, the CSV included in the management is quite general without the classification. Only Historical, ethnological value of indigenous people in Fanjingshan is clearly emphasized in the management through the biocultural approach. Probably because the attributes of Historical, ethnological value of indigenous people, especially traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance is easy to be implemented in the management. Other types of CSV have not connected to the basic rights of indigenous or local people yet. The management of them is only a small part of whole management and they are mainly managed for tourism rather than the protection of themselves. So, it is impossible to have a detailed understanding and protection plan of a certain type of values. Third, the involvement of local people in the management of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. It distinctly shows that the role of CSV of local people is not important in the management of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan.

7. Discussion The relations to other research Globally, the studies of CSV of nature are increasing quickly (Programme des Nations Unies pour l'environnement, 1999; Verschuuren & Brown, 2018). In China, such studies are lacking, but community involvement has been emphasized in World Heritage conservation recently and this acts a san example to China too. Scholars mainly focus on the development of World Heritage tourism (Wang et.al, 2008; Zhang, 2010; Su, 2012) through community involvement. It is consistent with the phenomenon that the management committees mainly consider the CSV of all people to attract visitors. When we mainly focus on the interests of prestige, tourism profits and economic development that World Heritage sites can bring, the economic and political interests might override all other concerns, including human rights principles and even conservation considerations. This phenomenon runs contrary to the original intention of the World Heritage Convention. However, it is a common problem among many States Parties to the Convention, including many of those serving as Members of the World Heritage Committee (Disko & Tugendhat, 2014).

My thesis could be used as an example of how to explore the CSV of world heritage in 38 detail. Based on the results I found, different World Heritage sites have different stakeholders and management plans. In Fanjingshan, indigenous people’s rights play a role in the management. While in Mount Wutai, Buddhist’s rights have been considered. Though the three sites are all mountain sites located in China, they are quite different. Considering Fanjingshan is the only site that covers the territory of indigenous people, further comparative research can be done between World Heritage sites that all have indigenous people. Also, there is a great difference between the inscription time of three sites. It seems that the later the site is inscribed as WHS, the more it concerns about biocultural diversity in management. Choosing the World Heritage sites inscribed in the same year could help to understand the level of concern of CSV in a certain year. Otherwise, it is possible to compare the period documents of a particular site to see the development of the management of CSV.

The current management of Fanjingshan is a great start for the involvement of indigenous people. The concern of CSV of indigenous people should be extended to the full spectrum, then strengthening the collaboration of government and indigenous people to combine them into a future management plan appropriately. The research of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan shows that there is a severe shortage of community involvement in these two sites. The relocation problem in Mount Wutai and little benefits for the local community of Mount Taishan both reveal that the management committee does not respect local community enough. Such disrespect of local community is a shortcoming that leads to increasing disparities between stakeholders needs and management application. The disparities will, in turn, reduce the possibility of implementing a biocultural approach. So, it is necessary to better understand the needs of local people and adapt the management to take them into account. The current management systems of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan has implemented for years led by governments. Most importantly, governments have to train and support local people strongly and independently express their rights and needs through education and sensitization. Access to information for local people also has to be improved. After increasing the motivation of local community involvement, the comprehensive assessment and consultation of CSV are necessary to understand the realities and objectives of local people. Based on such objectives, better management plan and mechanisms could be created following the criteria of biocultural approach.

It should be noted that with the increasing awareness of CSV in the World Heritage Convention, nomination itself is an important opportunity for tentative properties to resolve the problems refer to indigenous or/and local people. The evaluators will undertake dialogue with State Parties to resolve on-going conflicts and unresolved issues indigenous or/and local people (Larsen et.al, 2014). Now, indigenous or/and local people possibly to be involved in the WHS management at the very beginning. Some CSV of them even possibly be recognized as part of the outstanding universal value of the site (Olenasha, 2014).

Discussion of theoretical framework and research methodology Documents analysis is a great way to create an overview of the cultural and spiritual values of WHSs and their related management activities. The CSV typology helps to identify the different values, which is better for further study and management. The eight principles of biocultural approaches of Gavin et. al (2015) is a useful tool to analyze whether the management takes into account both natural and cultural elements. However, documents analysis can only work well as the first step to understanding value-based management. The interviews and surveys are needed to further verify the implementation of management.

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Appendix 1. The Criteria for WHSs Selection (i) to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;

(ii) to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design;

(iii) to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared;

(iv) to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;

(v) to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change;

(vi) to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria);

(vii) to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance;

(viii) to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;

(ix) to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;

(x) to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.