ISSN 2394-1227
Volume: 3 Issue-8 August- 2016 Pages - 72 Indian Farmer A Monthly Magazine
Volume: 3, Issue-8 August -2016
Sr. Full length Articles Page Editorial Board No. Roughage: Let’s Make It Nutritious 528-535 1 Tarun Kumar Varun, Mokshata Gupta and Zulfqar ul Haq
Editor In Chief Role of soil organic carbon in climate Mitigation and Sustainable Agri- 2 536-540 culture Dr. V.B. Dongre, Ph.D. Sunil Kumar, R N Meena andVikram Kumar
3 Advancement Of Somatic Embyogenesis In Cotton 541-543 Soalnki H. V., Mehta D. R. and Rathod V. B. Editor 4 Mulberry: The Super Fruit 544-546 Dr. A.R. Ahlawat, Ph.D. Aanchal Johari and Isha Kaushik
5 Silage: A boon for fodder scarcity 547-549 Members S. S. Kadam and Mohd. Arif,
Dr. Alka Singh, Ph.D. 6 Handling Of Livestock and Livestock Products for Marketing 550-552 Dr. K. L. Mathew, Ph.D. Binoy Chandra Naha, Prasanta Boro, Lalrengpuii Sailo, Atherajendra Prasad, Rajni Chaudhary and Om Prakash Dr. Mrs. Santosh, Ph.D. 7 Importance of Genomic Selection and Genetic Association Study For 553-555 Dr. S. S. Patil, Ph.D. Livestock Improvement Binoy Chandra Naha, Prasanta Boro, Lalrengpuii Sailo, Chandra Prakash, Athe Rajendra Prasad, Rajni Chaudhary and Om Prakash Subject Editors 8 Concept of climate change and impact on livestock production and re- 556-562 Agriculture production B.D. Savaliya, S.S. Parikh and P.M. Gamit Dr. R. S. Tomar, Ph.D 9 Orchid: Its Commercialization and Varietal Development 563-568 Veterinary Science Varun Kumar Badaya, Amit Dadheech, Meenakshi Dhoot and Irfan Khan Dr. P. SenthilKumar, Ph.D. 10 569-570 Calf Pneumonia Vikash Sharma, Lalit, Babulal Jangir and Madan Pal Home Science
Dr. Mrs. Surabhi Singh, Ph.D. 11 Mycotoxicosis in poultry 571-577
Kamdev Sethy, S. S. Parhi, S.R. Barik, P. Swain, S.M. Nayak and S. Khadenga Horticulture Dr. Timur Ahlawat, Ph.D 12 Stakeholders and Their Roles In Conservation Of Animal Genetic Re- 578-580 sources (AnGRs) Of India
K. Jagadeesan 13 Application of Stem Cells in Veterinary Practice 581-585 Prasanna Pati, Umesh Kumar,D.N.Mohanty,A.K.Nahak and Laxman Sharma
14 Light Trap: An Eco-Friendly Tool For The Managemnt Of Insect Pests 586-589 P. S. Wadaskar, D. M. Jethva, D. V. Jadav and T. K. Balas
15 Genetics for disease resistance – Scope in dairy animals and poultry 590-598 Beena Sinha, Ragini Kumari, Anjali Kumari and Tripti Kumari
(Note: ‘Indian Farmer’ may not necessarily subscribe to the views expressed in the articles published herein. The views are expressed by authors, editorial board does not take any responsibility of the content of the articles) Indian Farmer 3(7):528-535; August-2016 Varun et al
Roughage: Let’s Make It Nutritious
Tarun Kumar Varun1 , *Mokshata Gupta2 , and Zulfqar ul Haq2 1 Division of Dairy Cattle Nutrition, NDRI, Karnal- 132001, Haryana 2 Division of Animal Nutrition, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology-Jammu, R.S.Pura, J&K, 181102 *Corresponding Author email- [email protected]
n tropical countries like India, livestock attributes include lignification, subsist mainly on crop residue based silicification, crystallinity of cellulose, etc. I diets and are suffering from the which are known to be the inherent shortage of feed both in terms of quality nutritive constraints in straw. Although and quantity. The available roughage and straw produced every year is plentiful, but concentrate for livestock feeding can meet the amount a ruminant can consume is not only 50 and 10% respectively of their sufficient to sustain a reasonable level of requirement. They are generally fed high production due to its low nutritive value i.e fibrous crop residues (wheat straw, rice low voluntary intake, slow rate of digestion straw, stovers, etc) characterized by high and low content of available energy, indigestible fibre due to increased protein, minerals and vitamins and thus lignification of cellulose i.e. cellulose exists animal productivity. Therefore, it has not in an undefined complex with lignin, which been maximally utilized for livestock lowers its digestibility. production yet and may be fed as part of Although straw is an important the roughage component of the diet. The feedstuff, and indeed the staple feed in situation strongly demands the large parts of the developing world for improvement of the nutritive value of high ruminants, it is not preferred by animals. A fibrous crop residues through various characteristic of straw is that it mainly treatments for the efficient utilization of consists of highly lignified cell wall existing feed resources. Therefore various material, which often constitutes upto 80% physical and chemical treatments have of the dry matter. It includes cellulose, been suggested which improves the feed hemicellulose and lignin in the ratio 4:3:3, quality either by increasing digestibility or respectively, while the rest comprises of by enhancing palatability, by weakening nitrogenous compounds and ash. Nutritive and breaking down lingo-cellulose bonds in value of straw is controlled by its chemical crop residues , thus increasing daily feed attributes that limit the digestion of intake and enhance the rate of digestion cellulose and hemicellulose. These and availability of nutrients. 528 | P a g e
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Supplementation with limiting nutrients lignin. To break down these components also improves the utilization of straw. cellulase, hemicellulase and ligninase are Among the various chemical treatments, required. These enzymes are not produced urea treatment is simple because urea is by the animals themselves but the cheaper, easily available and assumed to be reticulorumen of ruminants maintains equivalent to anhydrous or aqueous microorganisms that do produce cellulase ammonia for upgradation of straws. and hemicellulase. However, lignin cannot Sodium hydroxide is the single most be broken down in the rumen due to the effective chemical for improving the lack of ligninase enzyme. Even if lignin digestibility of various low quality could be degraded in the rumen it would roughages. However, these treatments have not provide much energy for the animals. their own limitations and few are Lignin, however, has important effects on environment unfriendly. livestock production through effects on Recently, the biological treatments degradability and feed intake. of crop residues have been developed to Theoretically, lignin located between the improve the accessibility of cellulosic cellulose microfibrils is regarded as the fractions and thus improving their most abundant natural aromatic organic digestibility and feeding value. The major polymer that plays a role in resisting obstruction in biological conversion of compressing forces, providing protection lignocelluloses is the physical protection of against consumption by insects and cellulose by lignin against cellulolytic mammals, and also inhibiting the rate and enzymes. The potential of biological degree of microbial degradation. treatments has been explained by the Silica, an element of the cell walls, ability of certain microbes to disrupt plant reduces palatability and the degradability cell wall by partial breakdown of the lignin- of straw in the rumen due to its direct carbohydrate complex thus improving their action in preventing colonization by utilization in the rumen by increasing the ruminal microorganisms. The combination availability of fermentable energy to of low intake, low degradability, low ruminal microbes. nitrogen content and an unbalanced The aim of this paper provides an mineral composition means that straw overview of some techniques to improve alone may not even meet the animal’s the nutritive value of straw as livestock maintenance needs. The fiber is very feed and hence their performance and difficult to degrade, which is further productivity. complicated by the poor functioning of the NUTRITIVE QUALITY AND UTILIZATION rumen due to the unbalanced availability of OF ROUGHAGES IN RUMINANT nutrients, the low protein content, the lack Straw consists predominantly of cell walls, of easily available energy comprised of cellulose, hemicellulose, and 529 | P a g e
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and the low content of essential minerals Feeding of high-energy feedstuffs such as P and S. Hence, due to the low has a negative associative effect on the degradability and the poor rate of degree of utilization of roughage. One of the degradation, animals will tend to consume primary species responsible for the less. digestion of roughages is cellulolytic Roughages comprise over 50% of all bacteria. The primary end-product of feedstuffs fed to livestock animals digestion of roughages is acetate which is a especially ruminants. They are plant-based relatively weak acid. The primary end- feedstuffs with high fiber content which product of fermentation of high-energy provide a range of nutrients to the animals. feedstuffs is propionate which is a They also function to maintain and relatively strong acid. An additional end- optimize the efficiency of the GI tract. They product of microbial fermentation of high- are high in fibrous carbohydrates such as energy feedstuffs is lactate which is also a cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Their stronger acid. Compared to roughages, the mineral content is influenced by the type of digestion rate and extent are higher and the roughage and mineral content of the soil. In resultant pH of the rumen is lower for high- general, they are high in calcium, energy feedstuffs. The lower pH has a potassium, micro-minerals and fat-soluble negative effect on the microorganisms vitamins and moderate to low in responsible for digestion of roughages (the phosphorus as compared to concentrates. cellulolytic microbes are inhibited by a pH Legumes have a higher calcium and of 6.0 or lower). Therefore, the magnesium contents compared to grasses. incorporation of high-energy, high non- They are also a good source of the B- fibrous carbohydrate feedstuffs decreases complex vitamins. They may contain one or the utilization of roughages. more antinutritional factors such as PURPOSE OF ROUGHAGE TREATMENT: alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, toxic To increase voluntary intake by improving amino acids, and/or mycotoxins. Their digestibility. nutritional value also varies with the To increase the energy availability for proportion of cell contents to cell wall physiological functions by reducing losses components and on the extent of cell wall in digestive processes. lignification. Their effective use requires To dissociate physical &/or chemical matching nutrient requirements of an bonding between lignin and cellulose, animal with the nutritional value of hemi-cellulose. roughage and also appropriate processing To increase the surface area for providing and supplementation. The composition of more exposed surface for the action of the diet influences the extent and rate of microbes as well as digestive enzymes their digestion. resulting into higher digestibility.
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To enrich the crop residues with deficient most commonly used alkaline agents are nutrients either by treatment or sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonia (NH3) supplementation. and urea. To reduce the bulkiness through densification. PHYSICAL TREATMENT OF STRAWS Physical treatments of roughages have received an appreciable amount of research. The mainly used physical methods are grinding, chaffing, bhoosa making, pelleting, irradiation, water washing, water soaking, very fine grinding in ball mills, etc. With all-roughage diets, grinding causes an increase in intake and weight gain. These effects are greater for Straw pellets roughages with lower digestibility and nitrogen can be a limiting factor for Chemicals to improve the utilization of improvement by grinding of very poor roughages may be alkaline, acidic or roughages like straw. They can be ground, oxidative agents. Among these, alkali soaked, pelleted or chopped to reduce agents have been most widely investigated particle size or can be treated with steam and practically accepted for application on or X-rays or pressure cooked. Grinding and farms. These alkali agents can be absorbed pelleting decreases dry matter into the cell wall and chemically break degradability due to a decreased down the ester bonds between lignin and fermentation rate and decreased total hemicellulose and cellulose, and physically retention time of the solids, resulting in an make the structural fibers swollen. These increased intake but at the same time processes enable the rumen increases the net energy value of the straw microorganisms to attack more easily the because the nutrients that are digested are structural carbohydrates, and thus utilized more efficiently by the animal. enhancing their degradability and CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF STRAW palatability. This is the most practical treatment for use NaOH treatment on-farm, as no expensive machinery is The principal advantages of the NaOH required, the chemicals are relatively cheap treatment are increased degradability and and the procedures to use them are palatability of treated straw, compared to relatively simple. However, the chemicals untreated straw. However, it is not widely themselves are not harmless and safety available and may be too expensive to use precautions are needed for their use. The for small-scale farmers. In addition, its 531 | P a g e
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application can be a cause of environmental fibrous constituents. It also adds nitrogen pollution, resulting in a high content of and preserves the straw by inhibiting sodium in the environment. Its various mould growth. Besides, improvement in methods are: degradability of structural carbohydrates, it is an effective means of reducing the amount of supplemental nitrogen, costs of purchasing protein-rich feedstuffs, enhancing acceptability and voluntary intake of the treated straw by ruminants. Optimum level of ammonia for treatment of crop residues is 2.5-3.5% of D.M. Ammonia reacts slowly than NaOH and reaction speed depends on temperature and moisture. Speed is higher at higher levels. Moreover, the physical strength of ammoniated straw is significantly lower Basic principle of chemical treatment than that of the untreated straw. In (breakage of linkage between lignin and addition, the proportion of small feed structural carbohydrates) particles tended to be higher and stimulated more attachment and growth of Beckmann method: It involves the soaking the rumen bacteria. The reduced particle of straw into 10 times its weight of 1.5% size and the increased attachment sites NaOH solution for atleast 4hrs. The liquid is could lead to subsequent increased then drained off and the straw is washed microbial colonization and digestion. So, until free from alkali. ammonia treatment increases feed value by Modified Beckmann method: This method making the cell wall more available for the is closed treatment involving little NaOH rumen microorganisms and also the (0.75gm/kg). increased N content improves microbial Dry method: It involves the treatment of growth. the straw with small amount of conc. NaOH Urea treatment solution. Straw is sprinkled with NaOH Straw treated with urea releases ammonia solution while being mixed and then fed after dissolving in water. For practical use directly without washing. by farmers, urea is safer than using Ammonia treatment anhydrous or aqueous ammonia because it Treatment of straw with anhydrous and provides a source of nitrogen (crude aqueous ammonia, urea or other ammonia- protein) in which straw is deficient. Since releasing compounds has been widely urea is a solid chemical, it is also easy to investigated to improve degradability of handle, transport and is easily available. 532 | P a g e
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availability to the host animal which otherwise would have been wasted. Urea treatment also enriches the straw for its protein content (up to 9-10%). Simplest criteria of a good treatment may be adjudged by the change in colour of treated straw from clear yellow to brown or dark brown. Treated straw should be absolutely free from any mold with smooth texture. As a matter of fact straw treated with 4% urea
Stacks of ammonia treated straw will result in a protein content of 15-16% when no ureolysis took place. Basic steps of urea treatment: I) Chaffing/thrashing of crop residue/stover by chaff cutter to 1-2” size II) Collect/store the chopped straw at a safe and dry place till further use III) Weigh 100kg straw for urea treatment IV) Make the urea solution by dissolving 4 kg urea into 40 liter water V) Spread the straw layer on polythene or
tarpaulin sheet Urea spraying over the straw VI) Fill the urea solution in a container and
spray over straw layer uniformly In addition, it is considerably cheaper than VII) Fill the urea treated straw immediately NaOH or NH3. Therefore it is most suitable in an airtight bag and close it properly for small-scale farmers to improve the VIII) Ensure the complete air tightness of quality of straws. Addition of Ca(OH)2 to bag and keep it for at least 2 weeks urea improved the IVDMD. IX) Open the bag: remove top 1-1 ½ inch Urea treatment of straw and stover works layer and offer the straw to livestock on the principal of ureolysis and alkali Precautions: action on the cell through dissolving the 1. The calf of below six month will not be structural carbohydrates especially the fed with treated straw. hemicellulose, swelling of the plant matter 2. The pregnant cattle are also not being fed in an aqueous environment, reducing the with treated straw. physical strength of cell. Urea treatment of 3. Mouldy straw should not be fed to the straw leads to an increase in intake (20- animals. 25%), digestibility (10-15%) and energy
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4. The treated straw will be fed after Lime treatment exposure of air for at least 10 minute. Lime [CaO/Ca(OH)2] is a weak alkali agent with a low solubility in water. It can be used to improve the utilization of straw and also can be used to supplement the ration with calcium. Soaking and ensiling are two methods of treating straw with lime. Although it increases the degradability of straw, but the dry matter intake decreases due to reduced acceptability of the treated feed by animals. Ensiling of straw with 4 or 6% Ca(OH)2 showed a higher IVDMD than using 4 or 6% urea. However, mould growth may occur in the Ca(OH)2 treated
Basic steps in urea treatment of straw straw. The combined application of lime and urea would give better results than Benefits of urea treated straw: urea or lime alone due to increased 1. Enhanced nutritive value. degradability and an increased content of 2. Treaded paddy straw is liked by cattle. both calcium and nitrogen. The use of lime 3. Increase palatability. may be safer and more cost effective to use 4. Intake will increase than NaOH. 5. Maintains the health quality. Biological methods Urine treatment These methods have great potential in As urine contains urea, so it can be used as comparison to the use of expensive a source of urea and ammonia to improve chemicals. They are eco-friendly too. The the quality of straw. Urine can be sprayed organism grown on the straw must obtain over the straw in a similar way as is done its energy from the straw itself and degrade with urea solutions and can provide a cellulose and hemicelluloses. Successful nearly equal improvement of the biological treatment involves the degradability and nitrogen content as other application of organism which degrades methods of ammonia treatment. lignin. The use of fungi and/or their Moreover, the use of urine is hampered by enzymes that metabolize lignocelluloses is the difficulty of separation of urine from a potential biological treatment to improve faeces in ruminant husbandry. This also the nutritional value of straw by selective makes the use of urine rather unhygienic delignification. This method is difficult to and therefore not advisable to use, apply in developing countries due to lack of although its use is without costs for technology to produce large quantities of farmers and is normally available in excess. fungi or their enzymes to meet the 534 | P a g e
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requirements. There are also various CONCLUSIONS serious problems to consider and Ruminant production had and will continue overcome. For example, the fungi may to play a vital role in India. A large produce toxic substances. It is also difficult proportion of the straw produced is not fed to control the optimal conditions for fungal to the livestock. However, its further growth, such as pH, temperature, pressure, development is confronted with major O2 and CO2 concentration when treating problems related to the scarcity of grazing the fodder. and low quality of crop residues which are White-rot fungi treatment: White-rot the major sources of available feed for fungi, belonging to the wood-decaying ruminant. As an alternative, several basidiomycetes, as lignocellulolytic treatments have been used to improve the microorganisms are able to decompose and degradability, voluntary intake and metabolize all plant cell constituents nutritive value of straw, such as physical or (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) by chemical treatments, but the practical use their enzymes. Its various species are of these treatments is still restricted in effective lignin degraders and have the terms of safety concerns, costs and ability to improve the nutritive value of potentially negative environmental fodder for ruminant nutrition. consequences. Use of biological treatment Exogenous fiber-degrading enzyme i.e ligninolytic fungi, including their treatment: Most commercially available enzymes, may be one potential alternative exogenous fiber-degrading enzyme to provide a more practical and eco- products consist of cellulases and friendly approach for enhancing the xylanases, as produced for non-feed nutritive value of straw. All these applications. Commercial enzymes used in treatments help to improve the nutritive the livestock feed industry are generally of value of the straw, animal productivity and fungal (mostly Trichoderma overall profitability of the dairy enterprise. longibrachiatum, Aspergillus niger, A. oryzae) or bacterial origin. Enzyme treatment alone or in combination with other treatments increases the degradability of straw by the rumen microorganisms. In addition, fibrolytic enzymes in ruminant feed improves average daily gain of steers, fleece weight and wool production of lambs and in milk yield of dairy cows.
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Role of soil organic carbon in climate Mitigation and Sustainable Agriculture
Sunil Kumar1*, R N Meena2andVikram Kumar1 Research Scholar1, Assistant Professor2 Department of Agronomy, Institute of agricultural sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India *Email: [email protected]
Abstract management strategies that lead to greater Soil organic carbon (SOC) is of local C storage in the soil, thereby mitigating GHG importance as it determines ecosystem and effects, improving soil fertility and agro-ecosystem function, influencing soil productivity. fertility, water holding capacity and many INTRODUCTION other functions. It is also of global Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the carbon importance because of its role in the global associated with soil organic matter. Soil carbon cycle and therefore, the part it plays organic matter is the organic fraction of the in the mitigation or worsening of soil that is made up of decomposed plant atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases and animal materials as well as microbial (GHGs). Carbon sequestration on organisms. Soil carbon pool comprises of agricultural lands is possible through a two components: SOC and soil inorganic range of soil management strategies and carbon (SIC). The SOC pool includes highly could be substantial with widespread active humus to relatively inert charcoal C. implementation. Sequestration of historic The SIC pool includes elemental C and carbon emissions is now essential as carbonate minerals (e.g. gypsum, calcite, mitigation alone is unlikely to stabilize our dolomite, aragonite and siderite).Soil atmosphere. There are numerous organic carbon is an important attribute of management strategies for drawing carbon soil quality and its productivity. Soils are out of the atmosphere and holding it in the among the largest terrestrial reservoirs of soil. These strategies vary in effectiveness carbon and hold potential for expanded C across different climates, soil types, and sequestration. At the same time, this geographies. The way in which land is process provides other important benefits managed following land use change has also in terms of increased soil fertility and been shown to affect SOC stocks. Therefore, environmental quality. SOC is vital for we have the opportunity in the future to ecosystem function, having a major adopt sustainable land use and land influence on soil structure, water-holding
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Indian Farmer 3(8):536-540; August-2016 Kumar et al capacity, cation exchange capacity, and the continuous turnover of organic carbon soils ability to form complexes with metal materials in soil, and SOC is not a uniform ions and to store nutrients (Van Keulen, material but rather a complex mixture of 2001). Appropriate management of soils to organic compounds at different stages of increase SOC levels can therefore increase decomposition. Approximately ¾ carbon the productivity and sustainability of losses in the form of CO2 and reaming agricultural systems (Cole et al,. 1997). carbon involvein humification process and Small changes in the soil organic carbon some part of C assimilated in microbes. (SOC) stock could result in significant When the carbon losses in the form of co2 impacts on the atmospheric carbon more than 75% than it becomesdangerous concentration. Climate change is expected for climate. to have significant impacts on soil carbon The top metre of the world's soils stores dynamics (Schils et al., 2008, Conant et al,. approximately 2 200 Gt of carbon, two-thirds 2011). Environmental change and carbon of it in the form of organic matter (Batjes, are intrinsically linked. When contained in 1996). This is more than three times the greenhouse gases, carbon is a part of the amount of carbon held in the atmosphere. problem. But in its organic form in the soil, However, soils are vulnerable to carbon losses carbon represents a major part of the through degradation. They also release solution. Sustainable land management greenhouse gases to the atmosphere as a (SLM) practices, such as mulching, zero result of accelerated decomposition due to tillage, green manuring and water land use change or unsustainable land harvesting, enhance soil carbon levels. management practices (Lal, 2010). Soil erosion Maximizing the potential return on associated with conventional agricultural investment in SLM practices requires a practices can occur at rates up to 100 times strategic, integrative approach across the greater than the rate at which natural soil efforts to respond to the grand formation takes place (Montgomery, 2007). environmental challenges of our time: Peatland drainage worldwide is causing climate change, land degradation and carbon-rich peat to disappear at a rate 20 times biodiversity loss. greater than the rate at which the peat Carbon cycle and soil carbon pools accumulated (Joosten, 2009). SOC forms part of the natural carbon cycle. What determines the global distribution Organic material is manufactured by plants of soil carbon? through the process of photosynthesis is, The worldwide distribution of SOC reflects using atmospheric carbon dioxide and water rainfall distribution, with greater as raw materials. The plants (and the accumulations of carbon in morereduced animals as part of the food chain) eventually oxygen availability in wet soils slows the die and return to the soil where they are decomposition of SOM by soil microbes. decomposed and recycled. Minerals are Drier and well-aerated soils promote more released into the soil and carbon dioxide rapid decomposition and accumulate less back to the atmosphere. There is a SOM. Where soil oxygen, soil moisture
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Indian Farmer 3(8):536-540; August-2016 Kumar et al levels and nutrient status are sufficient, Carbon uptake occurs through higher temperatures accelerate biological photosynthesis. Carbon sequestration is processes such as biomass production and represented by an increase in the stocks of decomposition, and therefore SOC carbon in any reservoir than the dynamics (Batjes, 2011). That is why atmosphere. Proper adoption of crop draining peatlands provokes a rapid rotation can increase or maintain the oxidation of stored SOM and releases large quantity and quality of soil organic matter, amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere, and improve soil chemical and physical especially in warmer climates. Similarly, properties. Adequate application of conversion of natural grasslands or forests fertilizers combined with farmyard manure to tilled soils breaks up soil aggregates, could increase soil nutrients, and SOC produces better aeration, and thus content. Manure or crop residue alone may increases the decomposition of SOM and not be adequate to maintain SOC levels. releases of CO2, with higher rates occurring Crop types influence SOC and soil function in warm climates. Scientists have shown in continuous monoculture systems. SOC that in arable agriculture "no-till" land can be best preserved by rotation with management reduces carbon losses and reduced tillage frequency and with enhances the potential for carbon additions of chemical fertilizers and sequestration. manure. Accumulation of organic carbon in Carbon dynamics in agricultural systems soil can occur following changes in Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the most often management that either increase the reported attribute and is chosen as the production of residue remaining on the most important indicator of soil quality and field or decrease the loss of organic carbon agricultural sustainability. The different in the form of carbon dioxide (Marland et agricultural practices viz. cultivation, crop al., 2003). Management options for rotation, residue and tillage management, sequestering soil organic carbon (SOC) fertilization and monoculture affect soil include a decrease in tillage intensity, a quality, soil organic matter (SOM) and change from continuous to rotation carbon transformation. Cultivation and cropping, and a decrease in fallow period tillage can reduce soil SOC content and lead (Paustian et al., 2000). We should focuson a to soil deterioration. Carbon dioxide change from conventional tillage (CT) to emissions from agricultural systems occur no-till (NT) agriculture. West and Marland from: (a) plant respiration; (b) the (2002) reported by a variety of oxidation of organic carbon in soils and experiments that soil carbon can be crop residues; (c) the use of fossil fuels in increased by changing from CT to NT. agricultural machinery such as tractors, Importance of soil organic carbon in harvesters and irrigation equipment; and agriculture (d) the use of fossil fuels in the production Soil organic carbon is the basis of of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and sustainable agriculture and soil fertility. Soil pesticides. organic carbon is important for all three
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Indian Farmer 3(8):536-540; August-2016 Kumar et al aspects of soil fertility, namely chemical, component, and is thus capable of holding a physical and biological fertility. large amount of cations. The highly charged Nutrient availability: Decomposition of humic fraction gives the SOM the ability to soil organic matter releases nitrogen, act similarly to a slow release fertilizer. phosphorus and a range of other nutrients Over time, as nutrients are removed from for plant growth. the soil cation exchange sites, they become Soil structure and soil physical properties: available for plant uptake. SOC promotes soil structure by holding the CONCLUSION soil particles together a stable aggregates Soil carbon management is an important improves soil physical properties such as strategy for improving soil quality, water holding capacity, water infiltration, increasing crop yields, and reducing soil gaseous exchange, root growth and ease of loss. Capturing carbon in the soil helps cultivation. improve soil health and productivity, and Biological soil health: As a food source for stabilize the global carbon cycle, benefiting soil fauna and flora, soil organic matter plays agricultural production and can help to an important role in the soil food web by mitigate climate change.Past long-term controlling the number and types of soil experimental studies have shown that soil inhabitants which serve important functions organic C is highly sensitive to changes in such as nutrient cycling and availability, land use, with changes from native assisting root growth and plant nutrient ecosystems such as forest or grassland to uptake, creating burrows and even agricultural systems almost always suppressing crop diseases. resulting in a loss of SOC. Therefore, we As a buffer against toxic and harmful have the opportunity in the future to adopt substances:Soil organic matter can lessen sustainable land management strategies the effect of harmful substances e.g. toxins, that lead to greater C storage in the soil, and heavy metals, by acting as buffers, e.g. thereby mitigating GHG effects and sorption of toxins and heavy metals, and improving soil fertility. increasing degradation of harmful REFERENCES pesticides. Cation Exchange Capacity: As CEC Batjes, N.H. (1996). Total carbon and increases for a soil, it is able to retain more nitrogen in the soils of the world. of these plant nutrients and reduces the European Journal of Soil Science, 47 potential for leaching. Soil CEC also (2), 151-163 influences the application rates of lime and Batjes, N.H. and Sombroek, W.G. 1997. herbicides required for optimum Possibilities for carbon sequestration effectiveness. The stable fraction (humus) in tropical and sub tropical soils. of SOM is the most important fraction for Global Change Biology, 3 (2), 161-173. contributing to the CEC of a soil. Conant, R.T., Ryan, M.G., Ågren, G.I., Birge, Nutrient Retention and Release: Humus H.E., Davidson, E.A., Eliasson, P.E., has a highly negatively charged soil Evans, S.E., Frey, S.D., Giardina, C.P.,
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Hopkins, F.M., Hyvönen, R., reducing CO2 emissions from Kirschbaum, M.U.F., Lavallee, J.M., agricultural soils. Biogeochem. 48, Leifeld, J., Parton, W.J., Megan 147–163. Steinweg, J., Wallenstein, M.D., Wetterstedt, J.Å.M. and Bradford, M.A. Post, W.M., Emanuel, W.R., Zinke, P.J. and (2011). Temperature and soil organic Stangenberger, A.G. (1982). Soil matter decomposition rates synthesis carbon pools and world life zones. of current knowledge and a way Nature. 298, 156-159. forward. Global Change Biology, 17, Schils, R., Kuikman, P., Liski, J., Van Oijen, 3392-3404. M., Smith, P., Webb, J., Alm, J., Somogyi, Cole, C.V., Duxbury J., Freney J., Heinemeyer, Z., Van den Akker, J., Billett, M., O., Minami, K., Mosier, A., Paustian, K., Emmett, B., Evans, C., Lindner, M., Rosenburg, N., Sampson, N., Palosuo, T., Bellamy, P., Jandl, R. and Sauerbeck, D. and Zhao, Q.(1997). Hiederer, R. (2008). Review of Global estimates of potential existing information on the mitigation of greenhouse gas interrelations between soil and emissions by agriculture. Nutrient climate change (ClimSoil). Final Cycling in Agroecosystems, 49 (1-3), report. Brussels, European 221-228. Commission. Joosten, H. 2009. The Global Peatland CO2 Picture. Peatland status and drainage Van Keulen, H. (2001). (Tropical) soil associated emissions in all countries organic matter modelling: problems of the World. Wetlands International, and prospects. Nutrient Cycling in Ede, the Netherlands. Agroecosystems 61(1-2): 33-39. Lal, R. (2010). Managing Soils and Ecosystems for Mitigating West,T.O.andMarland,G.(2002).Asynthesiso Anthropogenic Carbon Emissions and fcarbonsequestration,carbonemission Advancing Global Food Security. s,andnetcarbon fluxinagriculture: BioScience 60(9), 708-721. comparing tillage practices in the Marland, G., West, T. O., B. Schlamadinger United States. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. and Canella, L. (2003). Managing soil 91, 217–232 organic carbon in agriculture: the net effect on greenhouse gas emissions. Tellus , 55B, 613–621. Montgomery, D.R. (2007). Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 13268-13272 Paustian, K., Six, J., Elliott, E. T. and Hunt, H. W. (2000). Management options for
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Indian Farmer 3(8):541-543; August-2016 Soalnki et al
Advancement Of Somatic Embyogenesis In Cotton
Soalnki H. V., Mehta D. R. and Rathod V. B. Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001
here are four domesticated strategies, after first one was reported by species of the cotton, two Price and Smith in 1979 (Zhang et al., T tetraploid species from Americas, 2001 and Sun et al., 2004). Gossypiumhirsutumand G. barbadense, Although regeneration efficiency and two diploidspeciesfrom Africa-Asia, via somatic embryogenesis has been namely G. arboretum and G. herbaceum. improved, problems remained are:- High Of the four species, G. hirsutum(upland frequency of abnormal embryo cotton) has dominated the world cotton development, the excretion of secondary commerce, being responsible for 95% of metabolites from the explant to the the annual cotton, with approximate medium and low maturation and annual plantation of 35 million ha conversion rate of somatic embryos into worldwide and grown in over 50 plantlets. countries. Since cotton is highly Somatic embryogenesis: susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses, Direct Somatic embryogenesis: it requires intensive crop management. Cells or explant directly undergoes Although conventional breeding embryogenesis in absence of callus programmes have made steady proliferation improvement in agronomic traits, not Indirect Somatic embryogenesis: much genetic diversity exists for further Cells or explant first undergo callus improvement. However, transformation proliferation and embryoids develop techniques have provided ample scope within the callus tissue for introduction of foreign genes in Step for Somatic embryogenesis cotton, which involves the efficient 1.Callus initiation regeneration system.Regeneration 2. Callus proliferation through somatic embryogenesis over 3. Selection of embryogeniccalli organogenesis is preferred because of 4. Somatic embryo induction single cell origin of the somatic embryos 5. Somatic embryo development and thus reducing the chimeric 6. Maturation of somatic embryos transformation event. In vitro cultured 7. Germination of somatic embryos cotton cells have been induced to 8. Hardening and transfer to soil undergo somatic embryogenesis in Factors affecting callus initiation numerous laboratories using varied
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1. Source of explant and its physiological 3. Using tissue culture techniques condition somatic embryo is induced in the 2. Type of explants callus. 3. Media used 4. Somatic embryo are proliferated 4. Plant Growth regulators 5. Histodifferentiation and maturation of 5. Nitrogen source somatic embryo Maturation of Somatic Embryo 6. Desiccation and tolerance induction Maturation of embryos refers to their using tissue culture techniques. physiological capacity to follow proper 7. Encapsulation of somatic embryo germination. It is the terminal event of 8. Invitro germination or transported to embryogenesis and characterized by the field for germination. attainment of mature embryo CONCLUSIONS morphology and sometimes rapid growth Somatic embryogenesis in cotton has continues to occur leading to precocious been induced from callus obtained from germination. cotyledons, stems, roots, petioles and Embryo germination and plant hypocotyls. However, the best response recovery has been obtained from hypocotyls. Obtaining cotton plants from somatic Regeneration in Gossypium remains embryos is often more difficult than largely cultivar/genotype dependent. would be expected due to low and Somatic embryogenesis can be induced in abnormal germination. Early literature two ways viz.,Direct somatic concerning reports of somatic embryogenesis and Indirect somatic embryogenesis in cotton did not include embryogenesis. MS media with Gamborg detail data on plant recovery except of (B5) vitamins gave better callus initiation. Trolinder and Goodin (1987). Embryogeniccalli can possibly be Synthetic seed identified on the basis of callus Synthetic seed can be defined as the morphology and cytology. Among various artificial encapsulation of somatic auxins, NAA recorded greater embryo, shoot buds or aggregates of cell embryogenic response. In general, or any tissues which has the ability to explant derived from immature tissues form a plant in in-vitro or ex vivo produce embryos more easily.Nitrate as a condition. Synthetic seeds can be stored source of nitrogen in the medium is found for a long time in appropriate condition. beneficial for somatic embryogenesis. Synthetic seed production and used Liquid culture step is helpful for technology is rapidly growing branch of embryogenic developmental seed biotechnology. Toshio Murashige in processes.Vermiculite is helpful for 1970 first coined the term synthetic seed. germination of embryos and plantlet Steps for production of synthetic seed recovery. 1. Explant is selected from choice of REFERENCES plant Price, H.J. and Smith, R.H. (1979). Somatic 2. In a laboratory using tissue culture embryogenesis in suspension techniques callus is induced in the cultures explants.
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Gossypiumklotzschienum.Andress. Planta.,145(3):305-307. Trolinder Norma L and Goodin J. R. (1987). Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration in cotton GossypiumhirsutumL. Plant Cell Rep., 6: 231-234. Sun Yuqiang, Zhang Xianlong, Jin Shuangxia, Liang Shaoguang&NieYichun. (2004). Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration in wild cotton (Gossypiumklotzschianum). Plant cell, tissue and organ culture. 75: 247- 253. Zhang, B.H.; Feng, R.; Liu, F.; Wang, Q. (2001). High frequency somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration of an elite Chinese cotton variety. Bot. Bull. Acad. sin.,42: 9-16.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):544-546; August-2016 Johari and Kaushik
Mulberry: The Super Fruit
Aanchal Johari* and Isha Kaushik** *INSPIRE Fellow, Research scholar** Deptt. Of Foods & Nutrition CCS HAU Hisar, Corresponding author: [email protected]
ulberry is a kind of nourishing tract, promote gastric juice secretion, tonic medicine that can broadly strengthen the ability for digesting and M be used to cure some debility assimilating, improve the appetite, and symptoms when used with other eliminate abdominal distention and restoratives. The person, who has constipation. Mulberry is suitable also for symptoms such as anemia, dizziness, or low chronic gastritis and chronic hepatitis. libido, can take a tonic to build up health Mulberry has the function of nourishing with mulberry. Wine made by immersing blood. If the person who has anemia, pallor, the mulberry in rice wine or grape wine, is dizziness, insomnia, and heart-palpitations a medicament for weakness after diseases regularly takes mulberry juice, they will that can also be used to tonify masculine experience good effects. Women who have vitality and benefit overall vitality. the above symptoms after childbirth, or Mulberry can nourish and promote anyone after a long-time sickness or after a production of body fluid. The person who major operation, can take mulberry has body fluid deficiency often feels their frequently as a restorative. Compounding mouth parched and tongue scorched. When Those who experience premature aging, mulberry is ripe in the summer, a person such as graying hair and impotence, can can take one ounce every day. This product take mulberry often. The pill, electuary, and has a faint scent and sweet taste, suitable wine all have high efficacy. The effect will for people of all ages. Brew water to take be better for blackening hair and the dry fruit, using 10 grams each time. The beautifying when it is combined with other person who has dry eyes and uses their herbs like Indian gooseberry, green tea, etc. eyes a lot during work can drink mulberry The mulberry juice can also be applied juice, which can nourish the body fluid and topically to the head to promote healthy strengthen sight. hair growth. Mulberry contains plentiful nutritious HEALTH BENEFITS OF MULBERRIES elements, such as minerals and vitamins; it . Mulberry fruit contains some nutrients can cure chronic diseases of the digestive (e.g., small amounts of calcium, iron, 544 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):544-546; August-2016 Johari and Kaushik
vitamin C, and B-vitamins), the . They also contain good amount vitamin anthocyanins improve blood circulation A, vitamin E and in addition to the and other body functions to alleviate above mentioned antioxidants also some symptoms that arise under the contain many other health promoting conditions like anemia, constipation, flavonoid poly phenolic antioxidants premature graying of hair, etc. such aslutein, zeaxanthin, ß- . Delicious, fleshy, succulent mulberries carotene and α-carotene in small but are low in calories; but are rich source notably significant amounts. These of many health promoting plant compounds help act as protect from derived compounds, minerals and harmful effects of oxygen-derived free vitamins that are essential for optimum radicals and reactive oxygen species health. (ROS) that play a role in aging and . Mulberries have significantly high various disease process. amounts of phenolic flavonoid . Zeaxanthin, an important dietary phytochemicals called anthocyanins. carotenoid selectively absorbed into Scientific studies have shown that the retinal macula lutea where it is consumption of berries have potential thought to provide antioxidant and health effects against cancer, aging and protective light-filtering functions in neurological diseases, inflammation, the retina of eyes. diabetes, and bacterial infections . Mulberries are excellent source of iron, . The berries contain resveratrol, which is a rare feature among berries, another polyphenol flavonoid contains. Iron, being a component of antioxidant. Resveratrol has been found hemoglobin inside the red blood cells, to be protective against stroke risk by determines the oxygen carrying alteration of molecular mechanisms in capacity of the blood. blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to . They also good source of minerals like vascular damage through decreased potassium, manganese, and activity of angiotensin (a systemic magnesium. Potassium is an important hormone causing blood vessel component of cell and body fluids that constriction that would elevate blood helps controlling heart rate and blood pressure) and increased production of pressure. Manganese is used by the the vasodilator hormone, nitric oxide. body as a co-factor for the antioxidant . In addition, these berries are an enzyme, superoxide dismutase. excellent source of vitamin-C, which is . They are rich in B-complex group of also a powerful natural antioxidant. vitamins and vitamin K. Contain very Consumption of foods rich in vitamin-C good amounts of vitamin B-6, niacin, helps body develop resistance against riboflavin and folic acid. These vitamins infectious agents, counter inflammation are function as co-factors and help and scavenge harmful free radicals. 545 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):544-546; August-2016 Johari and Kaushik
body in the metabolism of products of metabolism. In recent years, carbohydrates, proteins and fats. with considerable work on cultivating the . Mulberry contains phytosterols, which mulberry plants under various conditions, are cholesterol-lowering agents. While mulberry fruit juice has been commercially most studies have been done on produced as a health beverage, and it has Mulberry's effect on blood sugar, the become very popular all around the world. studies have also found that serum Use of mulberry leaf extract, mulberry leaf cholesterol levels dropped after powder, dried mulberry fruit is gaining continous consumption of mulberry. wide popularity among the masses. The dominant taste of the ripe fruit is sweet but usually somewhat bland, due to the high water content and low level of other flavoring ingredients, but a richer flavor develops if the fruit is dried; it can then be used as a raisin substitute. Mulberries contain important nutrients that may improve your health. Nutrients in mulberries include protein and carbohydrates as well as vitamins and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, carbohydrates, and iron. Mulberries also contain fiber. Its high water content keeps it relatively low in calories. Use of mulberry as a herb therapy (as complex formulas) may address a health problem by using a group of several herbs that have a similar end effect, but with different active components and different mechanisms. For example, a formula comprised of mulberry fruit, Indian goose berry, similar other berries may nourish blood, alleviate constipation, and have antioxidant, antiaging effects. Together, these may reduce adverse oxidative reactions, enhance circulation, alleviate inflammatory processes that yield systemic consequences, and improve the digestion and absorption of nutrients while enhancing the elimination of waste 546 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):547-549; August-2016 Kadam and Arif
Silage: A boon for fodder scarcity
S. S. Kadam and Mohd. Arif, Department of Agronomy Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUA&T, Udaipur -313001 email- [email protected]
he success of livestock industry is anaerobic or air tight condition and it is mainly depending on feed and also called as pickle of green fodder. T fodders. It is well known fact that Generally during the rainy season there is about 60-65% expenses are incurred on ample quantity of green grasses are feed and fodder only. Due to ever available almost all parts of the country. increasing cost of concentrate feed it would Such green grasses if cut, chaffed and not be affordable to the farmers to include stored in air tight condition during the post the concentrate for feeding of the animals monsoon period it will be a source of to get maximum benefits from livestock nutrition in the form of silage during the products. Therefore successful dairying lean period. and goat farming it is utmost essential to STEPS OF SILAGE OF SILAGE MAKING include the green fodders in feeding 1. Selection of crop – Generally fodder system. Unfortunately there is a acute cereal crops like maize, jowar, bajra, shortage of green fodders due to vary less oat, napier, hybrid napier and other area under cultivation of fodder crops grasses which are rich in carbohydrate (4.7% of total cultivatable area). Also due are proffered for silage making. If the the large number of marginal and small poor quality grasses like paragrass, farmers, whose main intention of guinea grass and other locally available subsistence cannot allowed the land fodder grasses are selected for silage specially forage cultivation lead to the making then 2% urea solution can be fodder shortage. Due to which the used as an additive to improve its productivity of the animal is very low. The quality. shortage of green fodder is aggravated 2. Harvesting of crop – Crop should be during the drought condition which we harvested at pre flowering stage to get have witness since last two to three years. maximum nutrition in silage material. If Under such circumstances silage could be it is delayed then the quality of the the one of the alternatives to have a regular silage will be poor. supply of green forage throughout the year. 3. Drying of crop – After cutting the crop Silage means preservation of green should be dried atleat for 1 -2 days to fodder without loss of nutrients under have moisture content 55-60%.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):547-549; August-2016 Kadam and Arif
4. Chaffing – After proper dying the crop 60-65 days however, by using culture it should be chaffed 2-3cm pieces with becomes ready within 35-45 days. If the help of chaff cutter, to prevent 30% there is a no scarcity of the fodder than wastage of green fodder. silo pit can be kept as such for several 5. Filling of the silo pit – Various years. Once it is opened then it should structures are used for storage of silage be finished within 10-15 days. Also the material depending upon the required quantity can be removed for availability of the green fodders, feeding of the animals and the pit number of animals and availability of should be closed as earlier process with labours. Bunker silo is popular silo pit remaining quantity in the pit. Generally which is constructed with the bricks when colour of silage material changes and cement etc. On an average one from green to golden yellowish colour cubic feet of silo pit can store about 18- then it is assumed that it is prepared. 20 kg of green fodder material. This Also it gives pleasant aroma like structure is used when there is a ample ripening of fruit. quantity of green fodder, more number of animals and more labour. While filling the silo pit the chaffed material should be distributed evenly and pressed or trampled constantly to remove the air from the pit. The small, marginal and landless farmers those who are having 3-4 animals can prepare the silage by using various sizes of the plastic bags. About 500-700 kg of green fodder material can be stored in such plastic bags. So, 10 such plastic bags are sufficient to store the green fodder material in the form of silage for feeding of 3-4 animals. This technology is becoming popular among the small farmers because, it is cheap, not laborious and convenient to filling and transporting the silage material. 6. Sealing of silo pit – After completion of filling of the bunker silo pit it should be sealed properly with the help of earth and cow dung slurry to prevent entry of Bunker silo & Plastic bag for silage water and air inside the structure. COMPOSITE SILAGE 7. Opening of silo pit – Silage becomes When cereal crops rich in carbohydrate ready for feeding of the animal within and legume crops rich in protein are cut,
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Indian Farmer 3(8):547-549; August-2016 Kadam and Arif chaffed and stored together under is the pre requisite because they contain anaerobic condition is called composite more CHO, which is essential for the silage. For getting the good nutritive formation of lactic acid, butric acid, and quality of the silage it is advocated that acetic acid during the decomposition which about 70-80% green fodders belong to helps to maintain the keeping quality of the cereal group such as maize, jowar, bajra silage. Otherwise inclusion of large and 20-30% should be from legume quantities of legumes may decay the silage fodders such as cowpea, lucerne, berseem material. etc. Inclusion of cereals in large quantities
Table 1: Nutritive analysis of silage Sr. No Parameter (%) DHN-6 fodder Maize bran Composite silage 1 Moisture 62.74 61.21 60-70 2 Crude protein 9.03 7.65 8.8-12.09 3 Ether extract 0.86 3.07 1.3-3.3 4 Crude fiber 27.80 15.24 17-26 5 Total Ash 9.55 2.03 6-8 6 NFE 52.76 71.11 48-60
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Indian Farmer 3(8):550-552; August-2016 Naha et al
Handling Of Livestock and Livestock Products for Marketing
Binoy Chandra Naha, Prasanta Boro, Lalrengpuii Sailo, Atherajendra Prasad, Rajni Chaudhary and Om Prakash ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, U.P-243122
resh meat is a highly perishable good chains. In urban centres and industrial and prone to spoilage, must be areas, the number of small butcheries F treated with utmost care for selling their own produce directly to consumer protection. Meat must be consumers decreased substantially over produced, transported, stored and the last decades. With growing populations marketed under hygienic conditions. Often and increasing demands for meat, better fresh meat is shipped from one region suited marketing systems were needed. around the globe to markets with higher Modern supermarket outlets took on this demands. Industrial meat processors, when role. Such high volume meat production faced with a shortage of raw meat and trade require stringent quality control materials, are able to import large systems to avoid health hazards for the quantities of frozen meat trimmings from consumers. around the world for further processing. In A fast industrialization process took place industrialized countries fresh meat is joined by a concentration of urban mostly generated in modern slaughter population and the development of mega facilities and an uninterrupted cold chain is cities, serious problems in food supply applied during cutting, transportation and emerged. Serious health hazards for marketing. Meat inspection and quality consumers can emerge. In recent years, control procedures are put in place and supermarkets are emerging in such areas, implementation is monitored by but prices may be higher and meat is often Government authorities. Depending on the not affordable to lower income groups. location, basically two different marketing In developing countries with agricultural systems can be observed. based economies, fresh meat is still mainly FRESH MEAT distributed through traditional wet In rural settings of industrialized countries, markets or simple meat stalls. These wet the whole meat marketing chain is often markets and meat stalls are often attached covered by traditional butcheries selling to slaughter places or in the proximity of fresh meat produced in the immediate rural slaughter facilities and in the absence surroundings, thus avoiding long supply of functional cold chains, fresh meat is
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Indian Farmer 3(8):550-552; August-2016 Naha et al purchased in the early morning and cooked and consumed the same day. In all above Collaborative programmes for training mentioned cases, strict regulations on meat informal market operators have been hygiene and safety must be applied. In carried out and guidelines for organising order to facilitate the efforts of producer marketing groups and improving Governments and regional and quality and packaging are being developed international authorities, FAO and WHO and disseminated. The aim is to ensure that have established the Codex Alimentarius. milk and dairy products marketed by small The various codes are frequently updated traders are wholesome as well as and availed to authorities as guidelines for affordable. Because imports are important the establishment of appropriate food in many developing countries, information safety regulations. on markets and specifications are included. Milk Livestock production and marketing Marketing of milk is particularly difficult At the household level, livestock plays a for small-scale producers scattered in rural critical economic and social role in the lives areas throughout the developing world. of pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, and The logistics of moving small quantities of a smallholder farm households. Livestock perishable commodity are covered in fulfills an important function in coping with collection but the marketing aspects shocks, accumulating wealth, and serving require organisational and technical skills as a store of value in the absence of formal and an understanding of quality and safety financial institutions and other missing issues. Choice of product and technologies markets. This implies that, given the must be suited to the scale and location of economic growth in Ethiopia and the the operation, while the price, promotion region, the market demand for livestock and packaging must meet local and livestock products is likely to continue requirements. growing in the future. The government The economic importance of animal by- recognizes the importance of livestock in products: poverty alleviation and has increased its
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emphasis on modernizing and commercializing the livestock sub-sector in recent years. CONCLUSION Focusing on four key livestock classes— cattle, sheep, goats, and chicken—this chapter undertakes three tasks: (1) it provides a characterization of the livestock subsector, (2) it assesses livestock and livestock product value chains based on primary data, and (3) analyzes the trends in marketing and trade of live animals and animal products. Carrying out these tasks relies on the critical review of existing literature and policy documents, as well as extensive use of both secondary and primary data, including household and traders’ surveys.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):553-555; August-2016 Naha et al
Importance of Genomic Selection and Genetic Association Study For Livestock Improvement
Binoy Chandra Naha, Prasanta Boro, Lalrengpuii Sailo, Chandra Prakash, Athe Rajendra Prasad, Rajni Chaudhary and Om Prakash ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, U.P-243122
GENOMIC SELECTION (GS) Genomic selection is new method to GS is the selection of an individual based on traditional marker-assisted selection the molecular breeding value approaches where selection are created based on few assessed through evaluating all the genetic markers. As compared to identify markers which is located throughout the individual loci significantly associated with genome of that individual. a complex trait, genomics uses all marker Sequence-based genomic selection of data as predictors of performance. cattle: PRINCIPLE OF GENOMIC SELECTION:
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Indian Farmer 3(8):553-555; August-2016 Naha et al
principle that genotypes can be compared
Selection is mainly used for genomic "directly" . selection predictions, which help to more Genetic association can be between rapid and lower cost gains from breeding. phenotypes, between a phenotype and a Genomic prediction combines marker data genetic polymorphism. Association with pedigree data help to increase the between genetic polymorphisms occurs accuracy of the prediction of breeding and due to non-random association of their genotypic values. alleles. Most of genetic variation in GENETIC ASSOCIATION STUDY (GAS) the human genome is in the form of SNPs mainly which is due to point mutations that GAS is the analysis of a sequence such as a produce single base-pair differences among region of a chromosome or a gene for its chromosome sequences. GWAS have involvement in controlling the phenotype of become an important tool for discovering a specific trait or disease. GAS of genetic susceptibility genes for complex diseases. association aims to test whether single- locus alleles or genotype frequencies, differ CONCLUSION between two groups of individuals (such as Information like genotype diseased subjects and healthy controls). frequencies, linkage disequilibrium (LD), Genetic association studies are mainly the and recombination rates, across populations help use to conduct GWA 554 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):553-555; August-2016 Naha et al analysis using millions of SNP markers. haplotypes from alleles based on their Linkage disequilibrium (LD) is the study of frequencies. Genetic association studies are population genetics for the non-random used to determine whether a genetic association of alleles at two or more loci. variant is associated with a disease or trait: LD indicates a situation in which the if association is present, a particular allele, genetic markers occur more or less genotype polymorphisms will be seen more frequently in a population than would be often than expected by chance in an expected from a random formation of individual carrying the trait.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):556-562; August-2016 Savaliya et al
Concept of climate change and impact on livestock production and reproduction
B.D. Savaliya*, S.S. Parikh and P.M. Gamit Cattle Breeding Farm, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat *Corresponding Author:[email protected]
Abstract change on livestock are in reducing water Animal agriculture is the major contributor and pasture availability and other feed to increasing methane (CH4) and nitrous resources. It is important to understand the oxide (N2O) concentrations in Earth’s livestock responses to the environment and atmosphere. Generally, there are two-way analyze them, in order to design impacts of livestock on climate change. The modifications of nutritional and first part is the livestock contribution to environmental management, thereby climate change, while the second part is improving animal comfort and performance. concerned with livestock getting affected by INTRODUCTION climate change. Hence, improving livestock production under changing climate scenario Livestock production is the world’s must target both reducing greenhouse gas dominant land use, covering about 45 % of the Earth’s land surface, much of it in (GHG) emission from livestock and harsh and variable environments that are reducing the effect of climate change on unsuitable for other uses. Climate change livestock production. These efforts will could impact the amount and quality of optimize livestock production under the produce, reliability of production, and the changing climate scenario. The role of natural resource base on which livestock livestock on climate change is primarily due production depends. Climate is an to enteric CH4 emission and those from important factor of agricultural manure management. Adapting to climate productivity. The changing climate is change and reducing GHG emissions may expected to have severe impact on require significant changes in production livestock production systems across the technology and farming systems that could world. World demand for animal protein affect productivity. Many viable will rise as the population and real opportunities exist for reducing CH4 incomes increase and eating habits emissions from enteric fermentation in change. Therefore, animal production ruminant animals and from livestock plays and will continue to play a key role manure management facilities. The direct in food supply. While the increasing impacts of climate change on livestock are demand for livestock products offers on its growth, milk production, market opportunities and income for reproduction, metabolic activity, and disease small, marginal, and landless farmers. occurrences. The indirect impacts of climate Livestock production globally faces
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Indian Farmer 3(8):556-562; August-2016 Savaliya et al increasing pressure because of negative rural poverty reduction; therefore, environmental implications particularly livestock development is vital for farmers because of greenhouse gas (GHG) in developing world in particular. emission. Global climate change is GHG EMISSION AND CLIMATE CHANGE expected to alter temperature, precipitation, atmospheric carbon dioxide Increases in the concentrations of GHGs will reduce the efficiency with which the (CO2) levels, and water availability in ways that will affect the productivity of Earth’s surface radiates to space. More of crop and livestock systems. Climatic the outgoing terrestrial radiation from changes could increase thermal stress for the surface is absorbed by the animals and thereby reduce animal atmosphere and reemitted at higher production and profitability by lowering altitudes and lower temperatures. These feed efficiency, milk production, and result in a positive radiative forcing that reproduction rates. Environmental stress tends to warm the lower atmosphere and reduces the productivity and health of surface. Because less heat escapes to livestock resulting in significant economic space, this is the enhanced greenhouse losses. Heat stress affects animal effect – an enhancement of an effect that performance and productivity of dairy has operated in the Earth’s atmosphere cows in all phases of production. Heat for billions of years due to the presence of stress also negatively affects reproductive naturally occurring GHGs: water vapor, function (Amundson et al. 2006). Normal carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone, methane estrus activity and fertility are disrupted (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Different in livestock during summer months. As a GHGs have differing abilities to warm the result of negative weather impact on atmosphere. Any changes in the radiative livestock rearing, the poor balance of the Earth, including those due shepherds/farmers whose principal to an increase in GHGs or in aerosols, will livelihood security depends on these alter the global hydrological cycle and animal performances are directly on atmospheric and oceanic circulation, stake. Housing and management thereby affecting weather patterns and technologies are available through which regional temperatures and precipitation climatic impacts on livestock can be DIFFERENT SOURCES OF GHGS reduced, but the rational use of such There are two ways that GHGs enter technologies is crucial for the survival Earth’s atmosphere. One of them is and profitability of the livestock through natural processes like animal enterprise. The livestock sector has been and plant respiration. The other is much maligned since the publication of through human activities. The main Livestock’s Long Shadow by FAO (2006) human sources of GHG emissions are and the allegation that the industry fossil fuel use, deforestation, intensive contributes more to climate change than livestock farming, use of synthetic the automobile industry does. However, fertilizers, and industrial processes. the real relationship between livestock There are four main types of forcing and climate change is much more GHGs: CO2, CH4, N2O, and fluorinated complex. Livestock play a critical role in
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gases. The main feedback of GHG is water anthropogenic sources of CO2. In addition, vapor. The GHGs are (1) carbon dioxide – animal agriculture is the major accounts for around three-quarters of the contributor to increasing CH4 and N2O warming impact of current human GHG concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere. emissions. The key source of CO2 is the The global food system, from fertilizer burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, manufacture to food storage and and gas, though deforestation is also a packaging, is responsible for up to one- very significant contributor. (2) Methane third of all human-caused GHG emissions.
– accounts for around 14 % of the impact The global release of CH4 from of current human GHG emissions. Key agricultural sources accounts for two- sources of CH4 include agriculture thirds of the anthropogenic CH4 sources. (especially livestock and rice fields), fossil These sources include rice growing, fuel extraction, and the decay of organic fermentation of feed by ruminants waste in landfill sites. Methane doesn’t (enteric CH4), biomass burning, and persist in the atmosphere as long as CO2, animal wastes. CH4 is a potent GHG, and though its warming effect is much more its release into the atmosphere is directly potent for each gram of gas released. (3) linked with animal agriculture, Nitrous oxide – accounts for around 8 % particularly ruminant production of the warming impact of current human (Sejianet al. 2012). Apart from this,
GHG emissions. Key sources of N2O livestock wastes also contribute include agriculture (especially nitrogen- enormously to the agricultural sources of fertilized soils and livestock waste) and CH4 and N2O. industrial processes. N2O is even more IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON potent per gram than methane. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AGRICULTURAL CONTRIBUTION TO Impact on growth: CLIMATE CHANGE It is known that livestock that are Modern agriculture and food production exposed to highambient temperatures and distribution are major contributors augment the efforts to dissipatebody of GHGs. Agriculture is directly heat, resulting in the increase of responsible for 14 % of total GHG respirationrate, body temperature, and emissions, and broader rural land use consumptionof water and a decline in decisions have an even larger impact. feed intake (Maraiet al. 2007). Apart from Deforestation currently accounts for an feedintake, feed conversion also additional 18 % of emissions, Agriculture significantlydecreases after exposure to has significant effects on climate change, heat stress. Exposure of the animal to a primarily through the production and highenvironmental temperature release of GHGs such as CO2, CH4, and stimulates the peripheralthermal
N2O. Further, alterations in land cover receptors to transmit suppressivenerve can change its ability to absorb or reflect impulses to the appetite center in the heat and light, thus contributing to hypothalamusand thereby causes a radiative forcing. Land use changes such decrease in feedintake (Maraiet al.2007). as deforestation and desertification The decrease in feedintake could be due together with fossil fuels are the major to the adaptive mechanism ofanimal to
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Indian Farmer 3(8):556-562; August-2016 Savaliya et al produce less body heat. Growth, (SNF), and total solid percentages were theincrease in the live body mass or cell lower in the summer season in dairy multiplication,is controlled both cows. Thermal stress also appears to genetically and environmentally(Maraiet bring about some decrease in percentage al. 2007). Elevated ambient temperature of lactose and acidity in the milk which in is considered to be one of the turn affects the milk freezing point. In environmental factors influencing growth addition to this, the heat stressexposed and average daily weight gain in animals’ milk has lower value of calcium livestock. The reason for the effects of (Ca), phosphorus (P), and magnesium elevated ambient temperature on growth (Mg) and high chloride (Bernabucciet al. reduction could be due to the decrease in 2013). In heat-stressed cow, the anabolic activity and the increase in proportion of short-chain (C4–C10) and tissue catabolism (Maraiet al. 2007). The medium-chain (C12–C16) fatty acids are increase in tissue catabolism could be low, while long-chain fatty acid (C17– attributed to the increase in C18) are more in milk (Bernabucciet al. catecholamines and glucocorticoid after 2013). These changes in the fatty acid exposure to heat stress in livestock. chain may be due to reduced synthesis of Impact on milk production: these free fatty acids (FAA) in the The effect of elevated temperature on mammary glands as well as due to milk productionis probably most negative energy status of the cow deleterious for any animal production exposed to thermal stress. Heat stress system which forces animal toreduce feed also has a negative impact on the milk intake, resulting in lowered milk yield. casein (α- and β-casein). The lower The heat stress not only decreases the content of α- and β-casein tends to milk yield in the animals but it also increase the pH of milk and lower P drastically affects the quality of milk content, during the summer months (Bernabucci and Calamari 1998). Apart (Kumeet al. 1989). from high temperature, humidity is also Impact on reproduction: an important factor influencing milk yield Reproductive axis is one plane where in the animals. The decreases in milk stresseffects are the most pronounced production can range from 10 to >25 %. and have grosseconomic impact. As much as 50 % reduction in milk yield Livestock farmers in arid andsemiarid can be due to reduced feed intake during environment primarily depend on thermal stress, and other 50 % might theirlivestock for their livelihood depend on heat-related lactogenic security. The keyconstraints in arid and hormone fluctuations (Johnson 1987). semiarid tropical environment are their Besides the thermal stress, the decline in low biomass productivity, high climatic milk yield is also dependent upon breed, variability, and scarcity of water (Sejian, stage of lactation, and feed availability 2013). All these constraints make these (Bernabucci and Calamari 1998). The regions a major challenge for sustainable effect of heat stress is more in high- livestock production. In particular, the yielding cow as compared to low-yielding reproductive potential of livestock in cow. Milk fat, milk protein, solid not fat these areas is influenced by the exposure
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Indian Farmer 3(8):556-562; August-2016 Savaliya et al to harsh climatic conditions, namely, high composition of the sward. The most ambient temperature, and long-distance important impacts of climate changeon walking in search of food and water grazing lands will likely be through resources. It is an established fact that changes in both pasture productivity and reproduction processes are influenced forage quality. In warmer climates, during thermal exposure in ruminant increased heat stress and increased species and glucocorticoidsare evaporative demand would likely have paramount in mediating the inhibitory negative effects on pastures (Cobon and effects of stress on reproduction Toombs 2007). Further, drought, an (Kornmatitsuket al.2008 ). Heat stress environmental stress with periods of significantly reduces the level of primary limited or no water during the growing reproductive hormone estradiol. Thermal season reduces forage production for stress influence on estrous incidences grazing and haymaking.Prolonged and embryo production is a well- drought forces livestock andhay established fact (Sejianet al. 2013). In the producers to better manage their fields to changing scenario of climate change, minimize recovery after the drought thermal stress along with feed and water ends. scarcity is the major predisposing factor Impact on water availability for for the low productivity of ruminants livestock: under hot semiarid environment. Researches pertaining to impact of Livestock grazing under hot semiarid climate changeon water resources for environment face extreme fluctuations in livestock are very scanty.Water resources the quantity andquality of feed on offer in particular are one sector whichis throughout the year (Martin et al.2004). highly vulnerable to climate change. Undernutrition affects reproductive Climatechange and variability have the function in ruminants at different levels potential to impactnegatively on water of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal availability and access to and demand for axis (Chadioet al.2007). Nutrient water in most countries. Climatechange deficiency that results following reduced will have far-reaching consequences feed intake after heat exposure forlivestock production, mainly arising potentially acts on the reproductive from its impact on rainfall patterns which process and affects estrusbehavior and later determinethe quantity and quality ovulation rate. of grassland and rangeland productivity Impact on pasture and feed (Assan 2014). As per IPCC availability for livestock: (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Climate change and associated Change) the net impact of climate change environmentalstress such as drought, on water resources and freshwater high/low temperature,ozone, elevated ecosystems will be negative due to
CO2, soil water logging and salinity affect diminished quantity and quality of the pasture and forage availabilityto available water. The impact of climate livestock. Collectively,stresses may change can aggravate water problem in reduce the harvested forage yield,alter its hot semiarid areas leading to overgrazing nutritive value and change species which ultimately culminate in rapid
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Indian Farmer 3(8):556-562; August-2016 Savaliya et al runoff in these areas leading to flooding. maternal undernutrition on the Frequent droughts might be a cause of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal concern in terms of disease and parasites axis responsiveness in the sheep distribution and transmission, apart from at different ages postnatal. J the physical losses to livestock. Further, Endocrinol 192:495–503. the drying of water resources will create Cobon, D.H. and Toombs, N.R. (2007). a situation where livestock need to walk Climate change impacts on the long distances in search of water, creating water resources of the Cooper an additional stress to these animals. Creek catchment. In: Proceedings Hence, it’s going to be a huge challenge of MODSIM Congress’ for livestock researchers across the globe Christchurch, pp 483–489. to develop appropriate strategies to FAO (2006). World agriculture: towards ensure access to water for livestock 2030/2050: prospects for food, production. nutrition, agriculture and major REFERENCES commodity groups. Interim report, Global Perspective Amundson, J.L., Mader, T.L., Rasby, R.J. Studies Unit, Food and and Hu, Q.S. (2006). Agriculture Organization of the Environmental effects on United Nations, Rome. pregnancy rate in beef cattle. J Johnson, H.D. (1987) Part II, chapter 3: AnimSci 84:3415–3420 and Bioclimate effects on growth, endocrine responses in Malpura reproduction and milk ewes under semi-arid tropical production. In: Bioclimatology environment. Trop Anim Health and the adaptation of livestock. Prod 45:107–116. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Assan, N. (2014). Possible impact and Kornmatitsuk, B., Chantaraprateep, P., adaptation to climate change in Kornmatitsuk, S. andKindahl, H. livestock production in Southern (2008). Different types of Africa. IOSR J Environ SciToxicol postpartum luteal activity Food Technol 8(2):104–112. affected by the exposure of heat Bernabucci, U., Basiricò, L. andMorera, P. stress and subsequent (2013). Impact of hot reproductive performance in environment on colostrum and Holstein lactating cows. milk composition. Cell MolBiol ReprodDomestAnim 43:515–519. 59(1):67–83. Kume, S., Takahashi, S., Kurihara, M. Bernabucci, U. and Calamari, L. (1998). andAii, T. (1989). The effects of a Effect of heat stress on bovine hot environment on the major milk yield and composition. mineral content in milk. Jpn J ZootecNutrAnim 24:247–257. ZootechSci 60:341–345. Chadio, S.E., Kotsampasi, B., Marai, I.F.M., El-Darawany, A.A., Fadiel, A. Papadomichelakis, G.,Deligeorgis, and Abdel-Hafez, M.A.M. (2007) S., Kalogiannis, D., Menegatos, D. Physiological traits as affected by andZerwas, G. (2007). Impact of
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heat stress in sheep – a review. livestock. In: Sejian V, Naqvi SMK, Small Rumin Res 71:1–12. Ezeji T, Lakritz J, Lal R (eds) Martin, G.B., Rogar, J. andBlache, D. Environmental stress and (2004). Nutritional and amelioration in livestock environmental effects on production. Springer- reproduction in small ruminants. VerlagGMbH Publisher, Germany, ReprodFertil Dev 16:491–501. Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 469–502. Sejian, V. (2013). Climate change: impact Sejian, V., Maurya, V.P., Kumar, K. and on production and reproduction, Naqvi, S.M.K. (2013). Effect of adaptation mechanisms and multiple stresses (thermal, mitigation strategies in small nutritional and walking stress) ruminants: a review. Indian J on growth, physiological Small Rumin 19(1):1–21. response, blood biochemical and Sejian, V., Indu, S., Ujor, V., Ezeji, T., endocrine responses in Malpura Lakritz, J. and Lal, R. (2012) ewes under semi-arid tropical Global climate change: enteric environment. Trop AnimHealth methane reduction strategies in Prod 45:107–116.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):563-568; August-2016 Badaya et al
Orchid: Its Commercialization and Varietal Development
Varun Kumar Badaya*1, Amit Dadheech1, Meenakshi Dhoot1 and Irfan Khan2 1Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, 2Department of Plant Pathology Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan (India). Email: [email protected]
rchidaceae family is the most from Orchis morio L.). The name means diverse, advanced and evolved "testicles" in Greek, which makes it more O flowering plants and widely masculine. The name refers to the paired adapted genera found in different underground bulbs of the Mediterranean ecosystems and habitats on earth. They are orchid because of its similarity to the male the one of oldest flowering plants reproductive organ. Also, it is practiced in originated 100 million years ago, spread olden times that plants resembling a across all corners of the world. Orchids are particular human organ or part, is believed one of the most diverse and advance to be a cure for ailments of that part. With groups of plants in this family and its size this name, orchids are definitely not ranges from the tiny and miniscule feminine. The name was used by the Greek botanicals to the gigantic forest epiphytes; philosopher Theophrastus from Lesbos with flowers of various shapes, sizes color (372-289 BC), in his Enquiry into and scents, and inhabiting a wide degree of Plants. Dioscorides adopted the word environment. Orchid habitats are widely "orchis" which probably referred to the distributed and they are found in almost all same "orchis" of Theophrastus, in a continents except Antarctica. They are one manuscript of medicinal plants. He also such special group of plants listed in ‘red expounded on the aphrodisiac properties of book’ of IUCN and were banned for orchids, a concept which lasted until the collection from forests as per Indian laws 15th to 16th century. Thus, the first named and covered under The Convention in orchid was believed to be an aphrodisiac International Trade in Endangered Species and could revitalize reproductive of Wild Fauna and Flora for export and fertility. Finally, John Lindley used the term imports. to name the orchid family in his book "The What’s in an Orchid Name? Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants" The name "orchid" came from the first (1830-1840). named orchid plant, Orchis (most likely
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Traditional Uses of Orchids domestic implements, clothing, body At present, orchids are used as cut-flowers ornaments, cremonial articles, funerary (a multi-million dollar business), house relics and weapons. The yellow strips made plants and for landscaping. However, there from D. crumenatum stem were used for are other uses of orchids aside from decorative purposes in basketry and hat these. The orchid Vanilla planifolia, which making, and D. heterocarpum was used to is native to Central America, and is decorate items of clothing. D. tetraedre is cultivated in the West Indies and Java for used in small hand-woven baskets and in its vanillin flavor (CNN, 2015). In the past, cigar cases. Yellow bark from D. secundum orchids have been used for a wide variety is used to decorate bows and arrows, of both spiritual and material purpose. personal ornaments and funerary relics. The Philippine local folks have an The rich Indian orchid diversity is extensive use for orchids, specially the known by its varied colors, shape, scented genus Dendrobium (Palmer, 2001). and aesthetic nature. Apart from Dendrobium taurinum was used to make a floriculture traits for cut flower and potted wash to remedy loss of hair. A plants; many flowers, pseudo-stem and tonic decoction was made from bulbs of orchids are being used in Dendrobium crumenatum and it was also Ayurveda, Tibetean and Siddha medicine used for ear ache and ear infections. The with various names viz., dbang lags, Jeevak, old stalks from this orchid were cut and Vridh and Rishbhak etc. The Eastern used as ties. The dried stems Himalayas, Western Ghats and Indo-Burma of Dendrobium heterocarpum were used to region were the three hot spots in India make a belt to hold up the loincloth. The harboring more than 800 species. Five stems or canes of several species states in North-East India have orchids as of Dendrobium, including D. macrophyllum, their state flower indicates their sacred have had local use in various aspects of value and cultural importance in society. weaving, basketry and wickerwork. D. Modern Uses of Orchids crumenatumis used is used for straw Orchids are primarily grown because of plaiting and making straw hats. The yellow their beautiful flowers. They are mass material used to decorate artifacts is produced by the thousands or millions to provided by local species of Dendrobium. support the world cut-flower This is due to the fact that the orchid stems industry. Also, interest in orchids arose due turn yellow on drying, the color being to their exotic beauty, rarity, and hidden intensified by exposing the stems to heat mystery. Orchids are also raised as rare from the sun or fire. The outer covering house plants, wherein most of their of the stems are cut into strips, which are owners are orchid specialists and either woven into artifacts such as mats hobbyists. In their native habitat, orchids and armbands, or fixed around objects such are used by the country's town folks in as arrows and fire sticks. The many types of many ways. Flowers are used in wedding articles decorated in this way include ceremonies, in honoring guests, or as
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Indian Farmer 3(8):563-568; August-2016 Badaya et al offering in burial; the seed capsule of (Rasmussen, 1995). The fungus needs to Vanilla is used for flavoring; some of the infect the seeds in order for it to survive in orchid petals are used as garnishing in its early stages of development. The dishes; and some orchids with scented mycorrhizae infect the basal part of the flowers are even used as an aphrodisiac, seed and release an enzyme which converts sexual stimulant or as herbal medicine. starch in the surrounding area into simple Orchids are also produced in large numbers sugars. These will be the energy source or as a landscape plant, potted house plant food of the germinating embryo up to its used to accent particular areas in the development into a mature plant. Not all of home. Small flowered orchids nowadays the seeds grow in nature. Only the seed are now gold or silver electroplated to be which land on a suitable surface (a rock, a made into fine life-size jewelry for women. bark of a branch or on the ground) and Some East Asian cultures use various infected with its particular mycorrhizae, species of orchids for medicinal purposes; germinates and grows into a plant. This excessive collection for both medicinal and comprise only about an average of only horticultural uses has threatened the 1%. However, through science and survival of some endangered orchid species technology, almost 99% of the seeds could (Schuiteman, 2007). now be raised into mature plants through Orchid Propagation embryo culture. In the early years of orchid culture, people Embryo culture or embryo rescue is have no idea of how to propagate these one of the techniques used in the plants. Orchid hobbyist usually gets commercial breeding and propagation their orchids from forests. Then, they of orchids. Thousands of plants could be found out that orchids also produce fruits produced in this method in a year, due to (capsules) when their flowers are the fact that orchids literally produce pollinated naturally by bees or artificially thousands to millions of seeds (about 6,200 by man. Each orchid fruit contain in Cephalanthera grandiflora and 2-3 thousands of seeds. Orchid seeds are very million in Cattleya labiata). In this method small (about 470-560 microns long, 80-129 the viable seeds or ovules are sterilized and microns wide) and weight about 6 placed inside a flask containing artificial micrograms. Their size is one of the factors growing media. The media consist of which gave them the tendency to be mineral salts, vitamins, amino acids, sugars dispersed by wind for thousands of and growth hormones. After a year or so kilometers, away from their original habitat inside a flask, seedlings are then brought (Seaton and Pritchard, 2008). However, not out into the nursery where they grow into all of these seeds germinate and grow into maturity. From these plants that are mature plants in nature. Most (but not all) produced, a breeder usually selects the best orchid seeds need a symbiotic fungus flowering plant, registers it and then clones or mycorrhizae, usually of the genus this selected plant through the Rhizoctonia, in order to germinate conventional division, cutting or kiekis
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Figure 1- Propagation of orchid through kiekis method transferred into the nursery where they method (Fig.1), or better still, through plant are permitted to grow into maturity. The tissue culture. plants produced in these way are true-to- Plant tissue culture, particularly meristem type and identical to that of the mother culture or mericloning is the most efficient plant. A disadvantage of this method of way of mass producing a selected propagation is that the seedling that is species or hybrid. In this method, the shoot produced will takes many years to flower tip or very young inflorescence is severed, (Hartmann et al., 2011). sterilized, and its actively growing region is obtained and cut into minute pieces (Fig.2) and inoculated into a flask containing artificial culture media (Fig.3). The tissue is permitted to undergo callus formation, and then grows into minute orchid plantlets. These callus and plantlets are then further divided to produce the required number of plants inside the laboratory. When the right numbers of plants are obtained, then, the plantlets are then hardened and Figure 2- Propagation of orchid through shoot tip cut method
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Figure 3- Growing orchid in artificial culture media
Varietal development of orchids in India and their lesser chances for better Due to degradation of natural forest cover, adaptation to the local Indian conditions. illegal exports and excessive collections by Due to persistent demand the India researchers, amateur growers and became a dumping site for segregating hobbyists, the orchid population faced populations that won’t qualify as varietal phenomenal decease in their own natural standards as per Indian Seed Act, 1966 and habitats. Studies indicated, nearly 50 PPV & FR Act, 2001. However, the varieties species became endangered and threatened developed from native gene pool category in India. Due to non-availability of (indigenous species) adapts to local modern hybrids in India, the large scale conditions (G x E) and performs well with imports were made with huge investments. free from pests and diseases. Further, These imported varieties are 15 to 16th development of new varieties using native generations hybrids developed by orchid resources helps to understand the Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, Australia and USA genetical control of traits and assist to etc. Even though, the initial performance of construct genetic maps and indirectly imported hybrids is good, their decreases the pressure for habitual performance was degraded in course of collections from forest areas due to the time, mainly due to varietal vulnerability closer resemblance to native species.
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However negative linkage, differential interspecific level. To date, more than ploidy level, long juvenile phase and 1,25,000 hybrids have been registered with compulsory dependence on tissue culture an average of 10,000 or more every year. for progeny development are observed to The success and ease with which such a be challenges for varietal improvement of large number of hybrids are produced orchids. every year depends upon the fact that most After the launching the breeding of the orchid genera and species have no programmes at National Research Centre generic barriers and they cross freely with for Orchids at Sikkim, inter-generic hybrids each other. It must be mentioned that most (1 no.), primary hybrids (2 no.), secondary of the orchid genera are still in the process hybrids (5 no.), tertiary hybrids (6 no.) and of evolution and most of the orchids groups somaclonal mutants (2 no.) were are in reality only artificial constructs. The developed. More than 3,500 germplasm other two factors which have played a collections were maintained under ex-situ major role in the development of orchid conservation at center and mass hybrids are polyploidy and introgressive multiplication of RET species is another hybridization. challenge. The state flower of Mizoram and REFERENCES endangered species, Renanthera imschootiana known as ‘Red Vanda’ was CNN Money (2015. “The World’s Priciest Foods.” Cable News Network. registered with NBPGR (IC 566525/INGR Hartmann, Hudson T., Dale E. K., Fred T. D. 10113) for floral characters. and Robert L. (2011) Geneve. Hartmann In the year 2012, the breeding cycle & Kester’s Plant Propagation Principles of orchids was re-invented in India after and Practices (8th ed.). Upper Saddle the flowering of primary hybrid from first River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2011. indigenous cross, PBX-05-56/2012 (C. Palmer, T. (2001) “Dendrobiums of the lowianum x C. tigrinum), which was initially Philippines: Traditional Uses.” In:Orchids of the Philippines (22nd bred in 1903 from United Kingdom. Two Annual Orchid Workshop, August 4, scented lines PBX-05-772 & PBX-05-751 2004) Houston, Texas, USA: The were developed by 2013 using native Houston Orchid Society. pp.47. scented species, Cymbidium iridiodes as Rasmussen, H. N. (1995) Terrestrial male parent. The three varieties viz., orchids from seed to mycotrophic plant. Cymbidium ‘B. S. Basnet’, Aranda ‘Kunga Cambridge University Press, Gyatso’ and Dendrobium ‘V. Nagaraju’ were Cambridge. Schuiteman, A. (2007) “Biodiversity and released for cultivation. conservation of orchids: the importance FUTURE ASPECTS of Kew’s fieldwork.” Kew.org blog post. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew. Since 1856 when the first orchid hybrid Seaton, P. T. and Pritchard H. W. (2008) Calanthe dominyi flowered, a very large Life in the freezer. Orchids: 76: 762- number of artificial hybrid have been 773. produced both at intergeneric and
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Indian Farmer 3(8):569-570; August-2016 Sharma et al Calf Pneumonia
*Vikash Sharma1, Lalit2, Babulal Jangir1 and Madan Pal3
1Department of Veterinary Pathology, LUVAS, Hisar 2Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, LUVAS, Hisar 3Department of Veterinary Surgery and radiology, LUVAS, Hisar *Corresponding Author: sharmavikashjind@ gmail.com
alfhood diseases have a major Poor ventilation impact on the economic viability of Susceptible age group of calf C cattle operations, due to the direct Most disease occurs in the weaned calf costs of calf losses, treatment and long- and in fattening stock. Calves less than term effects on performance.. Calf four weeks often have antibody pneumonia is a major problem in dairy protection, but can develop pneumonia if and beef herds. Pneumonia usually occurs they did not receive enough colostrum or in young housed calves (five weeks to five months old) either being reared as dairy replacements or in beef systems, usually reared indoors. It is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in calves, both during the pre-weaning period and shortly following weaning. It is a multifactorial disease, and the most common post-mortem diagnosis incalves. Cause Pneumonia in pre-weaned calves is a multi-factorial disease involving a well known group of viruses (bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine respiratory colostrum of poor quality. Disease occurs syncytial virus, BRSV; parainfluenza 3 when natural defences are low, or there is virus, PI3, bovine coronavirus) and a high load of infection in the bacteria (Mycoplasma bovis, Pasteurella environment. Pneumonia can occur at any multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, time of the year, although most cases are Histophilus somni) and environmental risk seen during winter housing. factors. Forms of the disease Predisposing factors Acute pneumonia Warm, wet weather Chronic pneumonia Mixed age groups Symptoms Stress such as weaning or disbudding Acute pneumonia Overcrowded buildings and high stocking Dullness and depression density
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Keep age groups separated Cows should be vaccination for IBR, BVD, PI3 and BRSV this can provide some pneumonia protection to their offspring Prevent aspiration pneumonia Minimize weaning stress
High temperature Increased respiration rate Nasal discharge Coughing Reduced food intake In severe cases there may be death Chronic pneumonia Chronic pneumonia is more gradual in onset and the cow may appear to still eat well but may have a slight nasal discharge, sometimes with an increased respiration respiratory rate and cough. Treatment Antibiotics, anti-inflammatories and immune boosters should be prescribed for treatment. Prevention Following care should be taken to reduce risk of pneumonia: Young calves should all receive 10% of their bodyweight in good-quality, first-milked colostrum within 12 hours of life to provide vital immune defence Ventilation should be adequate, often if ammonia can be smelled it is a sign of poor ventilation Feeding calves inadequately will reduce calf growth and their immune system response Keep calves pan dry and well-bedded
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Indian Farmer 3(8):571-577; August-2016 Sethy et al
Mycotoxicosis in poultry
Kamdev Sethy*, S. S. Parhi, S.R. Barik, P. Swain, S.M. Nayak and S. Khadenga Department of Animal Nutrition College of veterinary science and Animal Husbandry Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751003, *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
oultry industry is rapidly growing animals. It is likely that contaminated feeds industry in the world. India has will contain more than one mycotoxin. P achieved self sufficiency in food PROBABILITIES OF CONTAMINATION production and is marching ahead towards Warm humid climate provides congenial attaining nutritional security for its people. atmosphere for the growth of fungi and In this context, poultry eggs, which is highly production of toxins. Aspergillus flavus nutritious and the cheapest source of high which is known as storage fungi may infect quality protein and the poultry meat that is and produce aflatoxins in crops in the fields comparatively leaner and less expensive also. Food grains are normally harvested at than that red meat. But disease like higher moisture content and then dried to mycotoxicosis occurs by ingestion of pre- bring down the moisture content up to safe formed toxins elaborated by fungi in level before storage. Delay in drying to safe cereals. In general, mycotoxins lower the moisture levels increases risks of mould profitability in poultry industry due to huge growth and mycotoxin production. Natural economic losses by decreasing growth rate, calamities like floods or torrential feed conversion efficacy, carcass yield, unseasonal rains during pre, mid or post- carcass quality and increased susceptibility harvest stages may render the crops to other diseases caused due to their vulnerable to microbial attack. Faulty immunosuppressive effects (Vasanti et al., storage conditions may also enhance the 1998). Although there are upwards of 350 chances of microbial attack and production mycotoxins identified in nature (CAST, of mycotoxins. Various mycotoxins along 2003), aflatoxins, ochratoxins and with their effects were presented in zearalenone are the most significant due to Table.1. adverse effects on egg production in the commercial egg industry. There are hundreds of different mycotoxins which are diverse in their chemistry and effects on
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Table: Moulds and mycotoxins important in intensive animal production. Affected Affected Mould genus Mycotoxin Effects grains species Liver toxin immune Aspergillus spp Corn, peanuts depressant, Aflatoxins cottonseed All species intestinal B1,B2,G1,G2 meal, including man hemorrhage, sorghum carcinogenic Aspergillus and Maize, Kidney Mainly pigs Ochratoxin Penicillium cereals, rice degeneration and poultry Aspergillus and Cyclopiazonic Cereals, Kidney toxin, shell Poultry and Penicillium acid peanuts, corn quality pigs Reduced appetite, sometimes Fusarium Deoxynivalenol Cereals, corn Pigs, poultry vomiting, neurological effects Reduced egg Cereals, Fusarium T-2 production, poor Poultry oilseeds shell quality Corn ,hay, Fusarium Zearalenone grass, grain, Reproductive Pigs, sheep screenings Corn, grain Horses, pigs, Fusarium Fumonisin Neurological screenings poultry Sorghum,(C. Claviceps Ergot Reduced growth All species africana) Alternaria Tenuazoic acid Cereals, fruit All species
Toxic Effect of Mycotoxins Aflatoxins are a family of extremely toxic, Fungal pathogens include Aspergillus, mutagenic, and carcinogenic compounds Penicillium and Fusarium has been produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. proposed as the pathogenic agent parasiticus. A. flavus isolates produce associated with mycotic hemorrhagic bowel aflatoxins B1, and B2 while A. parasiticus syndrome (HBS) in dairy cattle. Healthy isolates produce aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and cows with an active immune system are G2 more resistant to mycotic infections as Zearalenone compared to dairy cows in early lactation, Zearalenone and zearalenol are estrogenic which are immune suppressed. metabolites of several species of Aflatoxins Fusarium. Zearalenone is the cause of
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Indian Farmer 3(8):571-577; August-2016 Sethy et al hyperestrogenism in swine. F. graminearum consumption, diuresis and dehydration. is the major zearalenone producing fungus Ochratoxins, mainly produced by of the Fusarium species that cause corn ear Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium and stalk rots, but other species of verrucosum, are primarily nephrotoxic and Fusarium produce zearalenone, as well as secondarily hepatotoxic in poultry other mycotoxins. (Marquard and Froehlich, 1992). Laying Trichothecenes hens show reduced egg production and Trichothecenes are a family of 200-300 characteristic yellow-brown staining of egg related compounds that apparently exert shells due to the deposits of urate in the their toxicity through protein synthesis cloaca. inhibition at the ribosomal level. Several Citrinin species of Fusarium such as T-2 toxin and Citrinin can co-occur with ochratoxin, is diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) are commonly produced by both Penicillium and found in agricultural commodities. The Aspergillus which also targets the kidney. toxic effects of trichothecenes include Symptoms of pruritis, pyrexia and anemia, leukopenia, skin irritation, feed hemorrhagic syndrome in a dairy herd refusal, gastrointestinal effects such as were attributed to citrinin . vomiting, diarrhea, and bowel ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MYCOTOXINS inflammation. The economic effects of mycotoxins are T-2 Toxin manifested in several obvious and direct T-2 toxin is produced primarily by F. ways but also in more subtle expressions. A sporotrichioides and F. poae, but is also study carried out in a poultry farm at the produced by other species of Fusarium. The outskirts of Hyderabad during an outbreak toxicity of T-2 toxin in laboratory animals is of aflatoxicosis, showed that over a three- well-documented. T-2 toxin is a very potent week period, following exposures to mycotoxin associated with gastroenteritis, aflatoxin in the diet, the egg production in intestinal hemorrhages and death. the 11,000 layer poultry farm went down Fumonisin from an initial 90 per cent level to 60 per Fumonisin toxicity is thought to result from cent level. Soon after the withdrawal of the disruption of sphingolipid biosynthesis. incriminating diet, the egg production Fumonisins B1, B2, and B3 are produced in started picking up, but never reached the fungal cultures or found in naturally original level. During this period the contaminated corn samples. economic cost in terms of reduced egg Ochratoxin A output, medication, non-utilization of the This mycotoxin is produced by species of contaminated feed, cost of food analysis, Penicillium and Aspergillus, and is a etc. were calculated to be over Rs 45,000. causative agent of kidney disease in pigs This amount is equal to about 10 per cent of that has been referred to as mycotoxin the initial cost of the establishment of the porcine nephropathy, producing symptoms farm. The various impacts were : including diarrhea, increased water1 . Mortality in poultry
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Occasionally outbreaks of flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are mycotoxicosis around the world have primarily hepatotoxic and secondarily resulted in devastating effects on the nephrotoxic in poultry. Aflatoxins have poultry industry. Good examples of such been found as natural contaminants in feed outbreaks are: stuffs such as groundnuts, maize, 1) Turkey Disease (aflatoxicosis) sunflower, soyabean, sorghum, cotton seed outbreak in turkeys in the UK, and oats (Ellis et al., 1991). The loss of 2) Outbreak of ochratoxicosis in hatchability due to embryonic death was turkeys the most sensitive indicator of aflatoxicosis 3) Outbreak of T-2 toxicosis in in broiler breeders and leghorns, although laying hens (Devegowda et al., 1996) the production decline can be delayed and 2. Increased health care and veterinary requires several weeks to return to normal costs (Devegowda et al., 1996). Aflatoxicosis is To prevent the adverse effects of characterized in broilers by bruising, and in mycotoxins in humans and animals, many highly susceptible immature species, such therapeutic and preventive strategies must as ducklings, subcutaneous hemorrhages. It be put in place that add to the cost of is evident that high-producing hens will be maintaining human and animal health. susceptible to aflatoxicosis since the liver is 3. Decreased livestock profitability responsible for synthesis of the precursors Livestock profitability largely depends on of both yolk lipids and albumen the amount of milk, meat or eggs produced incorporated into eggs. Egg size, egg weight per unit of feed consumed and/or the and yolk weight decrease in egg (Eaton and number of progeny produced. Mycotoxins Groopman, 1994). In Japanese quail, the interfere with the absorption of nutrients, impairment of feed conversion, egg inhibit several digestive enzymes and production, egg weight hatchability and reduce feed conversion efficiency, all of exterior and interior egg quality due to which increase production costs. aflatoxin-induced liver damage and delayed Mycotoxins such as zearalenone and T-2 maturation in males and females. toxin increase embryonic mortality and INTEGRATED APPROACH TO reduce fertility and hatchability (Leeson et PERVENTION OF MYCOTOXINS al., 1995). Management practices 4. Loss of forage crops and feeds Adequate ventilation of poultry housing to Mycotoxin-contaminated crops and feeds reduce relative humidity removes moisture are unfit for human and animal available for fungal growth and toxin consumption. Severely infested crops and formation in feeders. feeds must be destroyed. Growing resistant varieties 5. Impact of mycotoxins on egg In view of the hazardous effects of production mycotoxins, efforts are being made to Aflatoxins, the most important group of develop mould resistant varieties which mycotoxins, mainly produced by Aspergillus will be mould free not only in fields as
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Indian Farmer 3(8):571-577; August-2016 Sethy et al standing crops but during storage also they manipulates disinfection by inhibiting will restrict development of moulds. aerobic fungi, elimination of mycotoxin Harvest practices production and conservation of desirable Harvest at a relatively low moisture content quality factors in the grain. (<14.0%) if possible. Do not delay Dietary Management harvesting unduly as the mycotoxin content Increasing dietary levels of nutrients such of grain already infected by Fusarium spp as protein, energy, dietary fiber, buffers and could increase significantly. antioxidants may be advisable (Galvano et Post-harvest practices al., 2001). Transition rations can reduce Sieve out broken and damaged kernels to stress in fresh cows and reduce effects of achieve the required grade. Ensure mycotoxins. Strategic use of mould transport containers and bins are clean, dry inhibitors could also be beneficial. and free of insects and mouldy. If drying is Detoxification required, prevent over drying and over- Cooking at atmospheric pressure can heating of the circulated air as this leads to destroy about 50 percent of the toxins cracked and damaged kernels. (Galvano et al., 2001). Dry roasting and oil Prevention of mould growth roasting of groundnut reduces aflatoxins to In stored grain, mould damage may be a significant degree. Cooking rice under 15 prevented mainly by three kinds of lbs pressure for 5 minutes gave maximum methods viz. drying of grain, controlled destruction of aflatoxins as compared to atmosphere storage and chemical ordinary cooking or cooking with excess treatment. water. The detoxification can also be done Drying of grain by treating with ammonia gas under The most effective mycotoxin control pressures of 2 to 3 atmospheres for 15 to measures is to dry the commodity such that 30 minutes at a temperature of around 0 the water activity (aw) is too low to support 90 C. mould growth and/or prevent mycotoxin Mycotoxin binding agents production. To prevent the growth of most The most commonly used strategy of moulds the aw needs to be 0.70, which reducing exposure to mycotoxins is the translates to a moisture content of decrease of their bio-availability by the approximately 14% for maize and 7% for inclusion of various mycotoxin binding groundnuts at 20°C. agents or adsorbents, which leads to a Controlled atmosphere storage diminishing of mycotoxin uptake and The significance of underground storage distribution to the blood and target organs. lies behind the philosophy of grain cooling This works in particular well with and depleting the oxygen content to the aflatoxins, as this group of toxins has a desired level whereby the microbes and chemical structure which favors insects cannot grow. Air-tight storage also adsorption, especially by materials of works on the same phenomenon where the mineral origin, like clay and zeolite. For an depletion of oxygen by grain respiration effective mycotoxin removal strategy, the
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Indian Farmer 3(8):571-577; August-2016 Sethy et al nutritionist and the feed mill shall look into and is lower than that of HSCAS and benton a more detailed approach. While selecting a ite. toxin binder one need to pay attention to Activated charcoals the binding efficacy, binding stability, Activated carbons are an important group effective inclusion rate and least active on of sorbents. They are a family of nutrients. carbonaceous substances obtained by Different types of Binding Agents pyrolysis of several organic compounds and Zeolites manufactured by activation processes Zeolites are hydrated aluminosilicates of aimed at developing a highly porous sodium, potassium, calcium, and barium. structure (Galvano et al., 1996). The highest They can be readily dehydrated and abilities were noted in the adsorption of rehydrated, and are used as cation aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin, whereas the exchangers. Zeolite gives very good result lowest were seen in the adsorption of in binding aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone deoxynivalenol. (Piva et al., 1995). Biological binding agents Bentonites The elimination of other mycotoxins than Bentonite has been shown to bind aflatoxin aflatoxins (e.g. trichothecenes, zearalenone, B1 in vitro and reduce its toxic effects. ochratoxins or fumonisins) from Sodium bentonite and a synthetic zeolite contaminated feedstuffs by the use of mixture (80:20 ratio) did not depress feed adsorbents did not lead to any satisfactory intake or nutrient apparent digestibility results so far, as most of the adsorbing while preventing aflatoxin accumulation in agents bind them only weakly in vitro and the liver of growing lambs and decreasing are practically ineffective in vivo. aflatoxin recovery in urine by several fold Interestingly, modified Hydrated sodium calcium mannanoligosaccharide (Mycosorb, Alltech aluminosilicate (HSCAS) Inc.) derived from the cell wall of S. HSCAS, a phyllosilicate derived from cerevisiae was reported to have even higher natural zeolite, is perhaps the most binding capacity (95% aflatoxin, 80% extensively investigated sorbent. There is a zearalenone, fumonisin up to 59%, and evidence of high affinity of HSCAS for vomitoxin up to 12%; (Devegowda et al., aflatoxin B1 both in vitro and in vivo form. 1998). Indeed, its protective properties are very CONCLUSION low toward ochratoxin and zearalenone and nil toward trichothecenes. Several effective ways for prevention and Clays control hazardous fungi and their Clays such as kaolin, sepiolite and dangerous mycotoxins have been montmorillonite have a variable ability to presented. The methods include biological reduce toxic effects of aflatoxin B1. control and physical and chemical However, their efficacy is limited to treatments. Care must be taken by animal aflatoxin B1 feed processors and poultry producers to
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Indian Farmer 3(8):571-577; August-2016 Sethy et al ensure mycotoxins do not enter the food Vasanthi S and Bhat RV (1998). Mycotoxins chain. in food: Occurrence, health and REFERENCES economic significance and food control measures. Indian Journal of Medicine CAST (2003). Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant, Research, 105: 212-224. Animal, and Human Systems. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Task Force Report 139; Ames, Iowa, USA. Devegowda G, Aravind BIR and Morton MG (1996). Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mannan oligosaccharide to counteract aflatoxicosis in broilers. Proceeding of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, Sydney. pp. 103-106. Eaton DL and Groopman JD (1994). The Toxicology of aflatoxins: Human health, Veterinary and Agriculture Significance. Academic press: San Diego, USA. Ellis WO, Smith JP, Simpson BK and Oldham DH (1991). Aflatoxins in food: Occurrence, biosynthesis, effects on organisms, detection and methods of control. critical reviews in food science & nutrition abbreviation, 30(4): 403- 39. Galvano F, Piva A, Ritienia and Galvano G (2001). Dietary strategies to counteract the effects of mycotoxins : A review. Journal of Food Protein, 64(1):120-131. Leeson Steven, Diaz, and Summer D, John (2001).Poultry metabolic disorders and Mycotoxins. University Books press, pp. 274-280. Marquard RR and Frohlich AA (1992). A review on recent advances in understanding ochratoxins. Journal of Animal Science, 70:3968-3988.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):578-580; August-2016 Jagadeesan
Stakeholders and Their Roles In Conservation Of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGRS) Of India
K. Jagadeesan Assistant Professor Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding Veterinary College and Research Institute, Orathanadu 614 625, Tamil Nadu Email: [email protected]
nimal Genetic Resources (AnGRs) 3. Thrive well against poor management of India includes cattle, buffalo, 4. Made out of G X E interaction A sheep, goat, pig, camel, horse, yak, Causes for threat to AnGRs (genetic mithun, donkey and poultry breeds of our diversity): country. NBAGR, GoI is the authority for 1. Breed dilution identication, characterization, evaluation, a. Due to indiscriminate crossbreeding documentation, conservation and b. Narrow minded breeding policy – utilization of AnGRs of our country. favours only for milk production Conservation: instead of improving the overall It can be defined as the efficiency under a management of the given This paper deals about different biosphere of human use environmental stakeholders and their roles involved for benefits in present condition in conservation of farm animal time together with 2. Transformation of genetic resources in India. The role maintaining its potential multi-purpose of each set of stakeholder is varying to meet the future needs. (milk, draught, The conservation includes but the ultimate goal is to conserve manure) animal the preservation the present resources for future production into (maintenance of genetic generations. single objective variability) along with up- animal production gradation (improvement) of the genetic system (only for milk) potential and management of a breed for 3. Change in the mind-set of people (so use in future. called modernization or globalization Some basics behind the existence of or unorthodox approach…) genetic diversity (in the form of AnGRs) a. Rural folks started to think in in our country: economical term about rearing low 1. Result of evolutionary process producers of our AnGRs. But, they 2. Adaptation to harsh climatic condition ignored that our AnGRs can thrive well
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Indian Farmer 3(8):578-580; August-2016 Jagadeesan
in zero-input system in our tropical 1. Can try to adhere with the national conditions. A few decades ago, our breeding policy i.e., can avoid ancestors wisely acted and kept unsystematic crossbreeding different breeds as their pride and part 2. Can educate the gene keepers about of life which was laudable their live national heritage and 4. Cluelessness of scientific community to encourage them for conservation explore, appreciate the uniqueness of 3. Can play intermediate role between mysterious AnGRs and finally to make livestock owners and government to the breed become economically viable fulfill the demand – supply pathway 5. Existence of weak link among different 4. Can document the information on stakeholders AnGRs available in his jurisdiction A HOLISTIC APPROACH FOR Role of Scientific community: CONSERVATION OF AnGRs 1. Can plan out the numerous alternative Whose responsibility to conserve the strategies for various real world AnGRs? situation to conserve our AnGRs 1. I as a “livestock keeper” 2. Can table the issues such as pastoralists 2. I as a “veterinary officer” rights to graze the animal in forest, use 3. I as a “member of scientific community” of common resource properties (CRP), 4. I as an “Administrator” loans, incentives to the concerned 5. I as a “Politician” authority 6. I as a “responsible citizen of India” 3. Can workout the effective population 7. It is every animal’s rights to live on the size (Ne) for each breed in its breeding Mother Earth and each animal has its tract for maintenance of genetic own role to play in its eco-system variability Role of Livestock keepers: 4. Can evaluate the sire using modern 1. Can try to appreciate the approaches and can ensure the comprehensive value of our AnGRs availability of indigenous breeds 2. Can come forward to form breed germplasm for A.I. It has been a society or breeders association – it will perennial problem for long time help them to sort out their problems 5. Can involve in wise breed wise census regarding AnGRs to prioritize the breeds for 3. Can try to maintain a simple, lucid conservation and can act timely records about their animals and its 6. Can play lead role for livestock performances stakeholders to start organized farm in 4. Can show enthusiasm to adapt the breeding tract scientific animal production system 7. Can execute the advanced technique 5. Can explore the uniqueness of each such as MOET, ONBS, CNBS, ET, etc. AnGR and utilize them in a novel way 8. Can explore the new avenue to market Role of Veterinary officers: our AnGRs products which may contain uniqueness
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Indian Farmer 3(8):578-580; August-2016 Jagadeesan
9. Can research on transgenesis, cloning 1. Can join with NGO to contribute for to regenerate the near extinct species effective conservation of AnGRs 10. Can conduct the breed shows annually 2. Can purchase livestock products of our and reward the livestock keepers and AnGRs thereby spread the awareness among 3. Can love our wonder AnGRs and feel the public for them Role of Administrator: “HOW MANY TIMES MUST A MAN TURN 1. Can realize the importance of AnGRs HIS HEAD AND PRETEND THAT HE and speed up the process in all the JUST DOES NOT SEE?” – Bob Dylan’s possible ways like sanctioning loan, issuing incentives, appreciating the stakeholders, etc. 2. Can establish biodiversity park at urban and metro cities for children and public to get them awareness about nature’s gift 3. Can establish at least one government farm for each breeds at their breeding tract 4. Can start at least one regional centre of NBAGR for each state 5. Can recruit project specific (here it is conservation of AnGRs) scientists with some interesting plan of work to revive our AnGRs. 6. Can recruit the huge numbers of veterinary graduates, post-graduates and PhD holders at various level to work under field condition with appropriate rewards Role of Politician: 1. Can allocate the budget skillfully for specific purpose based on priority 2. Can appreciate the genetic diversity and act promptly against genetic death, breed dilution by amending the law favours traditional pastoralists, livestock keepers for conservation of AnGRs Role of responsible citizen of India:
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Indian Farmer 3(8):581-585; August-2016 Patil et al
Application of Stem Cells in Veterinary
Practice
Prasanna Pati¹, Umesh Kumar¹,D.N.Mohanty²,A.K.Nahak³ and Laxman Sharma4 1.Ph.D Scholar, Department of Animal Reproduction Gynaecology and Obstetrics 2. Professor and Head, Department of ARGO 3. Assistant Professor, Department of ARGO 4. MV.Sc Scholar, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology,IVRI College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry,OUAT, Bhubaneswar Corresponding Author: [email protected]
tem cells have enormous uses in visible tool for regenerative therapy of animal cloning, drug discovery, gene chronic ,debilitating and various S targeting, transgenic production and unresponsive clinical diseases and regenerative therapy. Stem cells retain the disorders. ability to become some or all of the more Sources of stem cells than 200 different cell types in the body. Stem cells can be classified as Embryonic Hence, unique regenerative potential of StemCells (ESCs) and Adult Stem Cells these cells make their use indispensible in (ASCs) depending on their source . The the area of therapeutics. They are plasticity is the ability of stem cells to unspecialized cells that can give rise to differentiate which may form one cell type specialized cells and capable of dividing or multiple types of cells. Totipotent means and renewing themselves for long periods ability to differentiate into all three germ (Arias,2008).Based on the potency stem layers including placenta , similarly cells can be totipotent ,pluripotent pluripotent stem cells can form all three ,multipotent oligopotent ,unipotent and germ layers except placenta. The based on source it can be divided as multipotent stem cells can differentiate embryonic, fetal, adult, amniotic fluid, cord into multiple cell types of particular tissue blood and induced pluripotent stem cells. type whereas unipotent can form only one Stem cell microenviroment (niche) cell type.The first successful report of provides support and stimuli to control mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) was stem cell properties. The application of followed by isolation and characterization stem cells in human medicine is well of EScells in other species like hamster, established and it is commonly used for mink, rabbit, ratmonkey, marmoset, chronic and accidental injuries and in chicken, human, baboon, dog, cat, horse, veterinary medicine they rapidly become a pig, cow, sheep, goat and buffalo (Evans et
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Indian Farmer 3(8):581-585; August-2016 Patil et al al., 1981, Martin et al.,2002) Adult stem cells are of various types, hemopoeitic stem Stem cell research has huge therapeutic cells, mesenchymal stem cells, neural stem potential: cells, skin stemcells, retinal stem cells etc. Research in stem cell field can Mesenchymal StemCells (MSCs) can be enoromously help the field of agriculture as isolated from bone marrow, fat, umbilical well as biomedical, veterinary and cord blood (UCB), amniotic fluid, placenta, pharmaceutical research(Brown et al., dental pulp, tendons, synovial membrane 2012., Gade et al., 2012). It was applicable and skeletal muscle . They have the in many scientific studies such as, in potential to differentiate into cells of understanding of cancer biology(Ricardo et various tissues like fibroblasts, muscle, al., 2003), genomic fingerprinting and bone, tendon, ligament, and adipose tissue. development of the embryo at an early Friedenstein and co-worker isolated these stage, application in drug screening and cells as colony-forming unit fibroblasts tissue engineering(Gurtener et al., 2007), from murine bone marrow. Further, Caplan helpful in generating transgenic animals (1991) for the first time named these cells and animal biotechnology ,testis as mesenchymal stemcells. MSCs have been xenografting and spermatogonial stem cell isolated from a number of species like transplantation. Stem-cell therapy is the human, rat, mice, dog, cat, pig, horse, sheep, use of stem cells to treat or prevent a goat, cattle . MSCs can be isolated and disease or condition. Stem cells are thought cultured easily with high ex vivo expansion to mediate repair via five primary rate. This makes these cells an attractive mechanisms: tool in regenerative medicine for cell 1) providing an anti-inflammatory effect, 2) therapy. homing to damaged tissues and recruiting
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Indian Farmer 3(8):581-585; August-2016 Patil et al other cells, such as endothelial progenitor bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments, as cells, that are necessary for tissue growth, well as muscle, neural and other progenitor 3) supporting tissue remodeling over scar tissues; they have been the main type of formation, 4) inhibiting apoptosis, and 5) stem cells studied in the treatment of differentiating into bone, cartilage, tendon, diseases affecting these tissues.Embryonic and ligament tissue. To further enrich stem (ES) cells, induced pluripotent stem blood supply to the damaged areas, and (iPS) cells, and cord blood-derived cells are consequently promote tissue regeneration, also beginning to be investigated in the platelet-rich plasma could be used in laboratory but have not yet been applied to conjunction with stem cell the clinical scenario. Companion animals transplantation. The efficacy of some stem can serve as clinically relevant models that cell populations may also be affected by the closely mimic human disease . method of delivery; for instance to There are two main categories of regenerate bone, stem cells are often stem cells used for treatments: allogeneic introduced in a scaffold where they stem cells derived from a genetically produce the minerals necessary for different donor within the same species generation of functional bone . and autologous mesenchymal stem cells, Stem cells have also been shown to derived from the patient prior to use in have a low immunogenicity due to the various treatments. A third relatively low number of MHC molecules category, xenogenic stem cells, or stem found on their surface. In addition, they cells derived from different species, are have been found to secrete chemokines used primarily for research purposes, that alter the immune response and especially for human treatments. promote tolerance of the new tissue. This 1. Nerve cells could treat stroke, allows for allogeneic treatments to be Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, multiple performed without a high rejection risk sclerosis, spinal cord damage, and brain Veterinary applications damage, even when it is congenital. Research currently conducted on horses, This has particular potential as the dogs, and cats can benefit the development brain is 'immune privileged' and does of stem cell treatments in veterinary not reject tissue from medicine and can target a wide range of anotherindividual. injuries and diseases 2. Heart muscles cells could treat heart suchas myocardialinfarction,stroke, tendon attacks and congestive heart failure and ligament damage, osteoarthritis, osteo 3. Skeletal muscle cells could treat chondrosis and muscular dystrophy both in muscular dystrophy. large animals, as well as in humans. Most 4. Insulin-producing cells could treat stem cells intended for regenerative diabetes. Although many cases of therapy are generally isolated either from diabetes are caused by an immune the patient's bone marrow or from adipose response, transplant experts are trying tissue. MSCs can differentiate that make up to prevent this.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):581-585; August-2016 Patil et al
5. Cartilage cells could treat stem cells is also restricted by the fact osteoarthritis. that their differentiation is somewhat 6. Blood cells could treat cancer, immune unpredictable. The fear of uncontrolled deficiencies, inherited blood diseases, growth and cancer limits the use of andleukaemia. stem cells, especially embryonic stem 7. Liver cells could treat hepatitis and cell for their potential to teratoma cirrhosis formation (Zhili et al., 2014). 8. Skin cells could treat burns and other 3. A major difficulty that scientists skin wounds, and replace scars. continue to encounter is the 9. Bone matrix cells could treat identification of stem cells in adult osteoporosis tissues and successfully trigger 10. Retinal cells could treat several forms differentiation into desired cell type is of blindness another challenge for the researchers. 11. Animal research is looking at the 4. The cost of stem cell therapy is possibility of regrowing missing teeth. extremely expensive. The high cost of Suspensory ligament injuries are a stem cell therapy is certainly beyond common problem in horses that can result the financial ability of ordinary citizens. in performance-limiting lameness. Over the Though the potential of stem cell years, veterinarians have used many therapy sounds promising, the high methods to help horses with ligament price tag takes away all hope for injuries, but the success rate remains low, ordinary people with incurable particularly hind limb suspensory diseases. injuries.Injection of stem cells from a CONCLUSIONS horse’s bone marrow into the injured area The science of stem cells is a field with of the proximal suspensory ligament great potential for treating injury and provides good responses.Though not disease. Stem cells are undoubtedly, most proven yet, bone marrow stem cells are promising for cell-based therapies thereby thought to stimulate natural ligament provides a powerful and flexible option for regeneration that should more closely physician and veterinarians to restore resemble the original tissue (WSU,2009). function and improve human and animal Limitations of stem cell therapy: health through novel techniques. Stem cell 1. Many ethical issues arises from the use therapy in regenerative veterinary of oocytes and blastocyst and their medicine is a viable option for the equine donation. as well as the small animal veterinarian, 2. The usefulness of stem cell therapy is offering a safe and clinically effective tool restricted by the body’s rejection of for the clinician to assist in his/her cells and tissues. Structures present on treatment of the animal with difficult the cell surfaces cause the cells to be wounds or unresolved musculoskeletal or rejected when transplanted into joint pain whereas research is still going on another body. The therapeutic use of in other farm animals.
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REFERENCES Wahington state University (WSO) Arias A(2008). Drosophila melanogaster (2009).WSU researching stem cells and the development of biology in the and surgical technique to heal equine 20th century. Methods Mol.Biol.420: 1- suspensory ligament injuries. College 25. of veterinary Medicine. 6:4. Brown S, Harman R, Black L (2012). Zhili R, Meiyan W, Zeng H, Martin S, Ananda Adipose- derived stem cell therapy for G, Yongy, Yangx, Xuemei F (2014). An severe muscle tears in working effective approach to prevent immune german shepherds: Two case reports rejection of human ESC- derived Stem cell Discovery, 2:41-44. allograft cell stem cell. 14: 121-123. Evans, M.J. and Kaufman, M.H. (1981). Establishment in culture of pluripotential cells from mouse embryos. Nature, 292(5819):154-156. Friedenstein, A.J., Chailakhjan, R.K., and Lalykina, K.S. (1970). The development of ? broblast coloniesin monolayer cultures of guinea-pig bone marrow andspleen cells. Cell Tissue Kinet., 3:393-403. Gade N, Pratheesh M, Nath A, Dubey P, Amarpal Y, Sharma T(2012) .Therapeutic potential of stem cells in veterinary practice. Vet.world.5: 499- 507. Gurtner C, Callaghan J, Longaker T (2007).Progress and potential for regenerative medicine.Annu.Rev.Med.58: 299-312. Martin, D.R., Cox, N.R., Hathcock, T.L., Niemeyer G.P., and Baker, H.J. (2002).Isolation and characterization of multipotential mesenchymal stem cells from feline bone marrow. Exptl. Hematol., 30:879-886. Ricardo P, Michael Fc, Sean JM (2003). Applying the principles of stem cell biology to cancer. Nat.Rev.cancer.3:895-902.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):586-589; August-2016 Wadaskar et al
Light Trap: An Eco-Friendly Tool For The Managemnt Of Insect Pests
P. S. Wadaskar, D. M. Jethva, D. V. Jadav and T. K. Balas Biocontrol Research Laboratory, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh (India)-362 001
he attraction of moths and other record and/or catch efficiency. For nocturnal insects to light is a well- faunistic purposes, and for inventorying or T known phenomenon and has been assessing larger areas, it is usually used for collecting nocturnal insects since preferable to use high-powered lights (e.g. the beginnings of scientific entomology in 125 W lamps) and to choose sampling the 18th century. The first purpose built sites for maximum effect and across devices which could be termed actual habitat-types, such as ridge tops, forest light-traps were used by the Romans in edges, etc. For ecological and habitat- the 1st century AD (Morge, 1973). Many of related studies which require the insect species, mostly nocturnal are standardized comparisons and often known to be positively phototrophic and target habitat- or niche-specific species it are attracted towards artificial light in is better to use low-powered lamps (e.g. 8 large numbers. Entomologists may utilize W fluorescent tubes) placed well inside this phenomenon to capture night flying the target habitats. insects (looper moths, green hoppers etc.) Basic elements of Light Trap: in a device called LIGHT TRAP. While A) Light: Source (electric bulb insects are attracted in a lesser degree to [incandescent, ultraviolet, florescent, open fire, oil lamps, paraffin lamps, mercury vapor], flame [oil, kerosene, gas, kerosene lamps and other light sources, wood], lantern) the most effective lamps are those with a B) Collector: Container (pan, bucket, bag, high emittance in the UV part of the net, box, cage, walk-in enclosure,) spectrum (350 nm to 550 nm). The lamps C) Usual Additional Elements: killing which normally come within this range of system, baffle, funnel, hood spectrum are Actinic BL light, mercury Components of Light Trap vapour lamps, black light lamps and A) Light Assembly and Support fluorescent tubes. Assembly: Light assembly attaches to Overall there are two main support assembly at the underside of approaches in the use of light traps. The triangular mounting frame. qualitative approach aims at maximizing
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B) Ballast and Starter Assembly: Ballast The ommatidia are packed in a and starter assembly is attached to the top hexagonal array so as to cover a large of frame. visual field with certain spatial C) Baffling System: Baffling system resolution and to perceive the motion of consists of three baffles that are most objects. preferably made of white 4 mm The spectral sensitivities of polyethylene and are about 9 inches x 4½ photoreceptors determine the visible inches. light wavelength for insects, which D) Collection assembly: Collection often expands into the ultraviolet (UV) assembly is located below light assembly region, which is invisible to humans. and baffle assembly. A compound eye typically contains three types of photoreceptor cells with Light sources used in light traps: spectral sensitivity peaking in the UV, 1. Electrical Sources: Incandescent blue, and green wavelength regions, Tungsten filament lamp 100 to 150 respectively, as exemplified in watt, Latest Energy saver Compact honeybees. Fluorescent Lamps (CFL), Mercury At any rate, it is likely that many insects Vapour lamps & Sodium lamps, Black can perceive UV light as a unique color. light or Ultra Violet lamps 15 to 20 watt, It is well known that insects fly toward MV lamps 80, 125 and 160 watt streetlamps or other outdoor followed by 15 watt UV lamps are the illumination at night. best source attracting majority of the This innate phototactic behavior has insects. provided the basis of the design of 2. Non-electrical Sources: Kerosene lamps electric insect killers. Equipped with or petromax, LPG gas lamps, Carbide UV-emitting fluorescent tubes, the (Acetylene) gas lamps, Oil torches using insect killers effectively attract insects waste mobile oil, Solar photovoltic such as moths and beetles and prevent generators these insects from entering into greenhouses and stores that are open Insect reactions to light and its at night. applications to pest management Factors Affecting Responses to Light Most insects have two types of Light intensity and wavelength photoreceptive organs, compound eyes Combinations of wavelengths and ocelli. Time of exposure Compound eyes are made up of a large Direction of light source number of light-sensitive units termed Contrast of light source ommatidia. Intensity and color to that of ambient An ommatidium contains an elongated light bundle of photoreceptor cells, each having specific spectral sensitivities.
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Suppression of Nocturnal Insect Designs of Light Trap Activities by Yellow Light a. Rothemsted Lightf . Universal Light Fruit-piercing moths such as Eudocima Trap Traps tyrannus (L.) and Oraesia emarginata b. Robinson light trap g. JNKVV Light trap c. New Jersey Light models (L.) damage fruit in orchards. Trap h. Solar Insect Light Damage can be prevented by running d. Stephens Light Trap Trap yellow fluorescent lamps in the orchard e. PEST-O-FLASH Lighti . Black Light Traps at night. Trap j. NCIPM Light Trap This strategy makes use of the fact that when moths encounter light above Factors affecting light trap catches certain brightness at night, under which Weather and Moonlight their compound eyes are light adapted A) Ambient population of adults as in the daytime, the light adaptation 1. Host availability suppresses nocturnal behaviors such as 2. Migration flying, sucking the juice of fruit, and Immigration mating. Emigration This technique of suppressing behavior B) Light source using yellow fluorescent light is also 1. Spectral composition used to prevent damage to 2. Intensity chrysanthemums and carnations by the C) Responsiveness of insects cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera 1. Intensity of surrounding light Hubner (Shimoda and Honda, 2013). 2. Flight activity of adult 3. Location of trap 4. Height of trap D) Trap design 1. Light distribution 2. Prevention of escape 3. Capacity of collection chamber 4. Protection of specimen from rain water
Effect of Moonlight on Insect Catches Lunar periodicity plays an important role in catch efficiency. In short, the stronger the moonlight is, the less attraction a lamp has to insects. The ratio between catch in new moon nights and catch in full moon nights has been given as 2.67: 1 and as 2.59: 1 (Nowinszky et al., 1979). While it was once suspected that insect activity in general might be lower in moon nights, it
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Dent, D. R. and Pawar, C. S. (1988). The influence of moonlight and weather on catches of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in light and pheromone traps. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 78: 365-377. Morge, G. (1973). Entomology in the western world in antiquity and in medieval times. In: Smith, R. F., Mittler, T. E.and Smith, C. N. (Eds). History of Entomology. Annual Reviews Inc. Palo Alto, CA: 37-80. Nowinszky, L.; Szab ,S. O; Oth G. T; Ekk, I. and Kiss, M. (1079). The effect of the moon phases and of the intensity of polarized moonlight on the light-trap has since been shown that lamp attraction catches. Zeitschrift f¨ur Angewandte is weaker. Entomologie, 88: 337–353. In fact insect activity seems to be higher in Shimoda, M. and Honda, K. (2013). Insect bright, moonlight nights as indicated by reactions to light and its applications comparisons of light-trapping with other to pest management. Applied methods such as suction traps (Bowden, Entomology Zoology, 48:413–421. 1981) and pheromone traps (Dent & Pawar, 1988). When insect activity actually diminishes in moon nights this is usually due to other negative weather factors, especially rapidly falling temperatures as commonly observed in clear nights. REFERENCES Bowden, J. (1981). The relationship between light- and suction-trap catches of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), and the adjustmentof light-trap catches to allow for variation in moonlight. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 71: 621- 629.
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Indian Farmer 3(8):590-598; August-2016 Sinha et al Genetics for disease resistance – Scope in dairy animals and poultry
Beena Sinha*1 , Ragini Kumari1, Anjali Kumari2 and Tripti Kumari2 1Ph.D. Scholar DCB Division ICAR-NDRI, 2Ph.D. Scholar LPM Section ICAR-NDRI Corresponding author: [email protected]
ivestock diseases adversely affect major histocompatibility complex which is animal production throughout the found to occur in all mammalian species L world. Livestock keepers and other plays a central role in the development of stakeholders involved in promoting animal the immune system. It is an important health can draw on a number of approaches candidate gene involved in to reducing these negative effects. Options at susceptibility/resistance to various diseases. the herd level include chemotherapy, It is associated with intercellular vaccination, the control of disease vectors, recognition and with self/nonself and appropriate management methods but discrimination. It plays major role in these strategies fails due to growing determining whether transplanted tissue resistance to the drugs. There is a need of will be accepted as self or rejected as intervention with growing awareness of the foreign. Scope in dairy animal and poultry development of pathogen resistance to the depends in part upon the heritability of the therapeutic agent , which has led to calls for trait or traits used to measure disease reduction in the use of antibiotics and other resistance, as well as the amount of drugs throughout the human and animal variation among animals. The heritability of medicine, The possibility of between species traits associated with resistance to many transfer of resistances particularly from important diseases is often low to high and livestock pathogen to human pathogen and considerable variation among animals to fullfill the demand of consumers who are exists, breeding for disease resistance interested in organic foods. Resistance to depends upon whether there are trade-offs disease is a combined effect of adaptability, with other economically important traits.. preventive measure, immune system , There are certain constraints such as nutrition, genetics and management. The microbes can change their genetic makeup immune system is the adaptive defense much faster than we can change the host’s system that has evolved in vertebrates to genetic ability to resist them, data regarding protect them from invading pathogens, The the immune response, disease resistance and
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Indian Farmer 3(8):590-598; August-2016 Sinha et al economic production traits are not always other drugs throughout the human and available, genetic correlation between animal medicine (Axford et al. 2000), the production and disease resistance are often possibility of between species transfer of antagonistic, milk yield in cattle has resistances particularly from livestock antagonistic correlation with metabolic and pathogen to human pathogen, avoidance physiological traits. Thus an approach in or reduction in the need for therapy. With which disease are ranked in terms of their the increase in importance of organic importance and also in terms of their farming , to enable the human population amenability to genetic selection and need to to be adequately fed on traditional plant genetically improve resistance has to be and animal organism and to lessen the established. The benefit of achieving impact of ecological perturbation involved improved resistance should be assessed. with modern pharmaceutical intervention. INTRODUCTION For these reasons, new approaches or Livestock diseases adversely affect animal alternatives to addressing animal diseases production throughout the world and it are needed. One approach is genetic imposes a large cost on livestock selection for animals resistant to disease. production system, as all production Breed differences for disease related traits system being vulnerable to diseases. have been documented in many different Productivity of dairy animal depends on species. However, it is difficult to the genetic factors governing the determine why some animals become sick production as well as genetic factors while others remain healthy. Animal health controlling disease resistance or is influenced by many factors including susceptibility. Based on the direct costs of genetics, nutrition, age, stress, individuals diseases, total disease cost have management system, season, pathogen been estimated to be up to 20% of dosage, immunological background, turnover in developed countries and as epidemiology, animal biological status, and high as 35-50% of turnover within many other variables. These factors livestock sector in the developing world interact, thus confounding our ability to (Bishop et al,2014). Options at the herd understand the mechanisms of disease level include chemotherapy, vaccination, resistance. the control of disease vectors, and Understanding of immune system appropriate management methods. Knowledge of the mode of disease infection However, there are often constraints to the and host response is essential to sustainability of such disease control comprehend the complexity of selecting for strategies. Breeding for disease resistance disease resistance. Three sets of gene stems partly from awareness of the affects resistance: those responsible for development of pathogen resistance to the innate immunity, those that determine the therapeutic agent , which has led to calls specificity of the adaptive immune for reduction in the use of antibiotics and response, and those affecting the quality of 591 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):590-598; August-2016 Sinha et al acquired immune responses(Axford et diseases. It is associated with intercellular al,2000). Nramp1 is a gene controlling recognition and with self/nonself resistance to intracellular pathogens and discrimination. It plays major role in determinant of innate resistance. It is determining whether transplanted tissue
involved in regulation of MHC class 1 gene will be accepted as self or rejected as (Behl et al.,2012). It is found to be foreign. associated with bovine brucellosis The bovine MHC genes have been mapped resistance and susceptible phenotypes. to the bovine autosome 23 (BTA 23) and is Adaptive immune responses are referred to as Bovine Lymphocyte antigen distinguished from innate immune (BoLA). The genomic organization of the mechanism by a higher degree of specific MHCs of ruminants differs from that of reactivity for the inducing agent and recall mice and humans as class II region in memory. It can be cell mediated or ruminants is split into two subregions antibody mediated and involves antigen – which are separated by at least 15cM ,from presenting cells, thymus-derived cells and DYA in the class IIb region to DRB3 in class bone marrow – derived cells, antigen IIa region. (Fig.1) recognition molecule MHC (Major Scope of Selecting for Disease histocompatibility complex) class I and Resistance class II proteins on APCs, T cells and B cells Before we go to the scope of selecting for where as quality of adaptive immunity disease resistance there are various terms depends on interaction between APCs, T which are confusing or sometime cells and B cells. interperated wrongly. First is disease Major Histocompatability Complex resistance which is defined as the ability of The major histocompatibility complex the host to exert some degree of control which is found to occur in all mammalian over pathogen life cycle (Bishop,2012). species plays a central role in the Second is tolerance, it is animal’s ability to development of the immune system. It is an withstand the pathogenic effects of important candidate gene involved in infection. Third one is resilience, it susceptibility/resistance to various describes an animals ability to maintain 592 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):590-598; August-2016 Sinha et al performance in the face of disease Direct selection for disease resistance can challenge and the genetic resistance is the occur in three different scenarios genetic component to resist pathogen. (Rothschild, 1998). Scope for genetics of disease resistance First, animals may be observed in a given depends on feasibility, sustainability and production system or environment for lack desirability. The concern about feasibility of clinical expression of a disease. Under was articulated by Fisher (1930). If a gene this selection approach, it is assumed that has a favourable effect on host survival the disease pathogen is constantly present. (strictly speaking on reproductive success) The second direct approach is to uniformly then natural selection will fix the gene. challenge all breeding stock with infection. Therefore additive genetic variation will This approach can be costly depending not persist for traits that influence survival, upon the pathogen’s virulence and clinical such as resistance to important diseases. expression of the disease but is a reliable This is a powerful and oft-repeated measure of disease resistance. A third argument. Certainly, many traits related to approach is to challenge relatives or clones survival or reproductive success have low of the breeding stock, especially if the heritabilities (Nicholas 1987). However, a disease has a high mortality rate. This survey by Morris (1998) suggested that the latter approach is also a reliable method of average heritability of a range of disease determining genetic resistance. Templeton and production traits was similar. Further, et al., (1990) increased natural resistance differences in the breeds has been shown to brucellosis in calves from 20% to 59% for traits associated with many different after breeding cows to a naturally resistant diseases( FAO,2007). The evidence falls bull. into three areas: differences among breeds Indirect selection or strains (Table.1 and 2), association of Indirect selection for disease resistance can specific genes or genetic regions(Table. 3) be achieved by selecting for indicators of and the existence of significant disease resistance. Indicators of disease heritabilities. resistance include pathogen products (i.e. Genetic selection for disease resistance pathogen reproductive rates, pathogen Selection for disease resistance is costly. byproducts), and biological or Potential costs associated with measuring immunological responses. For effective disease resistance include reduced selection, indicator traits must be heritable, production, mortality, decreased longevity, highly genetically correlated with diagnostic costs, and therapeutic expenses resistance to the disease or diseases of although it can be done through two interest, accurate to measure, and methods- Direct selection and Indirect affordable. Here we can take the example selection (Fig.2.) of mastitis in cattle which is one of the Direct selection most prevalent disease of dairy cattle, which causes huge economic losses to the 593 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):590-598; August-2016 Sinha et al dairy industry worldwide. The incidence bypasses the need for challenging animals rate of clinical mastitis world wide with the disease organism, and the estimated to be 25%-60% .Genetic associated ethical concern. Most genes promoters of mastitis resistance is mainly related to disease resistance have been SCC ( somatic cell count) it enumerate the discovered using inbred strains of mice. concenteration of udder epithelial cells and Only a few genes have been linked to WBC which are shed in milk and are used disease resistance in cattle. The Nramp1 routinely in milk quality. SCC was the most gene (natural resistance-associated
suitable indirect trait for reduction of macrophage protein) isassociated with the mastitis through selection (Mrode and innate immune system. Nramp1 has been Swanson, 1996). Heritability of SCC varied linked with resistance to brucellosis from 0.07 to 0.19 (Schutz et al, 1994, Roger (Harmon et al., 1989), tuberculosis, and et al, 1995) and genetic correlation of SCC salmonellosis (Qureshi et al. 1996). with mastitis was high ranging from Recently, a region on chromosome 1 was 0.65(Philepsson et al.,1995) to 0.97 (Lund associated with infectious et al.,1994). BoLA loci found to have a keratoconjunctivitis (pinkeye) in cattle potential as marker in breeding for mastitis (Casas et al., 2006). Comparative genomics resistance. may make the identification of disease loci Marker assisted selection and candidate easier and more affordable. It may be gene possible to identify similar genes Now that genetic linkage maps are associated with disease available for the common farm animal susceptibility/resistance among human, species, work has intensified to find mice and livestock. quantative trait loci (QTL) and candidate genes for each diseased condition. The Fig. 2. A strategy for great potential of marker- assisted selection for disease resistance selection for disease traits is that it 594 | P a g e
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Challenges in genetics of disease development of highly resistant animals to rsistance one specific pathogen may make the Identification of phenotype Identifying animals more susceptible to another the phenotype for disease resistance is pathogen. difficult. It is a false assumption that in a Cost benefit ratio Justification for population of sick and healthy animals all including disease resistance in breeding healthy animals are disease resistant. Some programs can be challenging to establish. susceptible animals may not have been Most importantly, the economical cost of sufficiently exposed to the disease the disease must be sufficiently high to organism to get sick. Animals that appear rationalize selecting for resistance. If healthy may have sub-clinical infections antibiotics and other drugs have become and represent pathogen reservoirs. Often inefficient because of microbial resistance, the clinical expression of a disease can be selection for disease resistance may be confounded with a similar disease; for logical. Genetic selection for disease example pneumonia can be confused with resistance may be useful against diseases bronchitis, emphysema, pleuritis, for which neither vaccines nor therapeutics pulmonary adenomatosis, upper have been found. Selection may also be of respiratory infection, and pleural fibrosis. interest for diseases due to a variety of Accurate disease diagnosis is costly and pathogens infecting the host in a similar time consuming. Selection for disease manner or pathway. Organic meat resistance is much more complicated than production systems that cannot use selecting for production traits which can be vaccines or therapeutics may also find it measured directly or indirectly on each economically important to select for animal. In regards to selecting for disease disease resistance. resistance in livestock, it may not be ethical Disease resistant traits antagonistic to or cost efficient to challenge each animal production trait Selection for disease with a pathogen to determine its level of resistance may be unfavorable for animal disease resistance. production. If the genetic factors that Indirect selection of more than one improve disease resistance reduce disease Before breeding schemes for production traits such as growth or feed disease resistance can be developed, efficiency then selection for disease consideration of many different scientific resistance will decrease production. There areas such as microbiology, epidemiology, is sufficient evidence that such negative immunology, host-pathogen interaction, genetic correlations do exist. Milk yield in host biology, livestock production systems, dairy cattle has a positive correlation with etc., must be understood. For example, many disease traits (van Dorp et al., 1998). selection for animals resistant to a Selection for growth rate in turkeys particular pathogen may result in indirect increased their susceptibility to Newcastle selection for a more virulent pathogen or, disease (Sacco et al., 1994). In beef cattle, 595 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(8):590-598; August-2016 Sinha et al the genetic correlations of disease progress. New techniques and sources resistance with growth and feed efficiency could be used to generate new data for best traits are unknown. If these genetic selection in livestock correlations are unfavorable, then a selection index for total merit may be feasible to maintain production levels while selecting for disease resistance. Conclusions Table 1. A approach of genetic resistance to disease Disease Buffalo Cattle Goat should be ranked in terms of their Trypanosomiasis 17 4 economic importance and also in terms of Tick infestation 1 17 Anaplasmosis 2 their amenability to genetic selection. Piroplasmosis 4 Benefit cost ratio should be assessed for Heart water/ 1 the sustainability and desirability and need Internal parasite 1 2 1 to genetically improved resistance has to Fasciolosis 2 Bovine leukosis 9 be established. However, genomic Foot rot 1 exploration with phenotypic recording Total 4 59 5 offers new opportunities in genetic Table.2. Disease Resistant Compare Exp.Cond. Result References breed Fewer Village abomasal Claxton & leaperre, H. controtus N’Dama Zebu herd worm, lower 1991 FEC Ticks N’Dama x Field (amblyomma, N’Dama Fewer ticks Marttioli et al.,1993 Zebu condition hyalomma) Lower Ticks Gobra Field serological (anaplasma N’Dama Marttioli et al.,1995 zebu condition Prevalence marginale) &fewer ticks Less sever Theileria Holstein- Artificial Glass et al., Sahiwal clinical Annulata Friesian infection (2005) symptoms disease resistance in farm animals. 2nd REFERENCES Edition, CABI Publishing. Axford, R.F.E., Bishop, S.C., Nicholas, F.W. Behl, J.D., Verma, N.K., Tyagi,N., Mishra,P., and Owen, J.B.(2000). Breeding for Behl, R. and Josh, B.K.(2012). The Major Histocompatibility Complex in
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Bovines: A Review . ISRN Veterinary confermation in Danish Holsteins. Science. 2012 : 1-13 Livestock Production Science 39(3), Bishop, S.C. and Woolliams, A.J. (2014). 243-251. Genomics and disease resistance Mattioli, R.C., Bah, M., Faye, J., Kora, S. & studies in livestock. Livestock Science Cassama, M. 1993. A comparison of 166 : 190-198. field tick infestation on N’Dama, Zebu Casas, E., and R. T. Stone. 2006. and N’Dama × Zebu crossbred cattle. Quantitative trait loci for infectious Veterinary Parasitology, 47(1–2): 139– bovine keratoconjunctivitis. Anim. 148. Genetics (submitted). Mattioli, R.C., Bah, M., Kora, S., Cassama, M. Claxton, J. & Leperre, P. 1991. Parasite & Clifford, D.J. 1995. Susceptibility to burdens and host susceptibility of different tick genera in Gambian Zebu and N’Dama cattle in village N’Dama and Gobra zebu cattle exposed herds in the Gambia. Veterinary to naturally occurring tick infection. Parasitology, 40(3–4): 293–304. Tropical Animal Health and Glass, E.J., Preston, P.M., Springbett, A., Production, 27(2): 995–1005. Craigmile, S., Kirvar, E., Wilkie, G. & Morris, C. A (1998) Responses to selection Brown, C.G.D. 2005. Bos taurus and for disease resistance in sheep and Bos indicus (Sahiwal) calves respond cattle in NewZealand and Australia. differently to infection with Theileria Proceedings of the 6th world congress annulata and produce markedly on genetics applied to livestock different levels of acute phase production. 27:295-302. proteins. International Journal for Mrode,R.A. and Swanson,G.J.T.(1996). Parasitology, 35(3): 337–347 Genetical and statistical properties of Harmon, B. G., L. G. Adams, J. W. Templeton, somatic cellcount and its suitability as and R. Smith III. 1989. Macrophage an indirect means of reducing the function in mammary glands of incidence of mastitis in dairy cattle. Brucella abortus-infected cows and Animal Breeding Abstract 64(11): 847- cows that resisted infection after 857. inoculation of Brucella abortus. Am. J. Nicholsan, F.W.(1987). Veterinary Genetics. Vet. Res. 50:459-465. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lamont, S. J. 1989. The chicken major Philipsson, J., Ral, G. and Berglund, histocompatibility complex in disease B.(1995) Somatic cell count as a resistance and poultry breeding. J. selection criterion for mastitis Dairy Sci. 72:1328-1333 resistance in dairy cattle. Livestock Lund, T., Miglior, F., Dekkers, J.C.M. and Production Sciences 41(3): 195-200. Burnside, E.B. (1994) Genetic Qureshi, T. J. W. Templeton, and L. G. relationships between clinical mastitis, Adams. 1996. Intracellular survival of somatic cell count and udder Brucella abortus, Mycobacterium bovis 597 | P a g e
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(BCG), Salmonnella dublin and Salmonella typhimurium in macrophages from cattle genetically resistant to Brucella abortus. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 50:55-66. Rogers, G.W., Hargrove, G.L. and Cooper, J.B. (1995). Correlation among somatic – cell scores of milk within and across lactations and linear type traits of Jerseys. Journal of Dairy Science 78(4):914-920. Rothschild M. F. 1998. Selection for disease resistance in the pig. Proceedings of the National Swine Improvement Federation, Raleigh, North Carolina. Sacco, R. E., K. E. Nestor, Y. M. Saif, H. J. Tsai, and R. A. Patterson. 1994. Effects of genetic selection for increased body weight and sex of poults on antibody response of turkeys to Newcastle virus and Pasturella multocida vaccines. Avian Dis. 38:33-36. Templeton, J. W., D. M. Estes, R. E. Price, R. Smith III, and L. G. Adams. 1990. Immunogenetics of natural resistance to bovine brucellosis. In Proc. 4th World Congr. Gene. Appl. Lvstk. Prod. 396- 399. van Dorp, T. E., J. C. M. Dekkers, S. W. Martin, and J. P. M. Noordhuizen. 1998. Genetic parameters of health disorders, and relationships with 305- day milk and conformation traits of registered Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 81:2264- 2270.
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