The Distribution of Protected Areas in Relation to the Needs of Biotic Community Conservation in Eastern Africa

A Paper presented at the Regional Meeting on Coordinated System of National Parks and Reserves in Eastern Africa Seronera Lodge, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania 14-19 October 1974

by

Hugh F. Lamprey IUCN Consultant

IUCN Occasional Paper No. 16

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Morges, Switzerland, 1975 THE DISTRIBUTION OF PROTECTED AREAS

IN RELATION TO THE NEEDS OF BIOTIC COMMUNITY CONSERVATION

IN EASTERN AFRICA

A Paper presented at the Regional Meeting on Coordinated System of National Parks and Reserves in Eastern Africa Seronera Lodge, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania 14-19 October 1974

by

Hugh F. Lamprey IUCN Consultant

IUCN Occasional Paper No. 16 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Morges, Switzerland, 1975 © 1975 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources FOREWORD

IUCN has launched a programme aimed at ensuring that representative samples of the various types of natural biomes and ecosystems are conserved in a coordinated system of national parks and related protected areas. Such action was called for in Recommendation 1 of the Second World Conference on National Parks (Grand Teton National Park, U.S.A., September 1972).

As part of this programme Dr. Hugh Lamprey, IUCN/WWF consultant, undertook a survey of areas in eastern Africa within the framework of UNEP Project No. 0603-73-001. The results of his work are set down in the present paper. The survey was carried out during most of 1974 and covered nine countries: Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.

The report on the survey and related recommendations for action were considered by the Regional Meeting on Coordinated System of National Parks and Reserves in Eastern Africa held at Seronera Lodge, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, 14-19 October 1974. The version presented here incorporates suggestions made at that meeting. Whilst it will be included in the Proceedings of the Seronera meeting which will appear in the IUCN Supplementary Paper series, the report is being issued separately as IUCN Occasional Paper No. 16 because of its broad interest as a source document.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the Fund of UNEP and to WWF for financial support of Dr. Lamprey's work.

3 CONTENTS

FOREWORD 3

I. INTRODUCTION 7

II. CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES 7

III. THE PARKS AND RESERVES 9

IV. CONSERVATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN

AND CENTRAL AFRICA - CHECKLIST 12

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 48

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Africa General 54

B. East Africa - regional 55

C. Central Africa - regional 56

D. Southern Africa - regional 56

E. Botswana 57

F. Ethiopia 58

G. Kenya 59

H. Malawi 59

I. Somalia 60

J. Sudan 61

K. Tanzania 63

L. Uganda 64

M. Zambia 65

N. General 66

5 MAPS

Botswana . . . 69

Ethiopia 71

Kenya 73

Malawi 75

Somalia 77

Sudan 79

Tanzania 81

Uganda . . . 83

Zambia 85 I. INTRODUCTION

This paper aims to review the extent to which the biomes and their important biotic communities in nine eastern and central African countries are protected by their inclusion in national parks and game and forest reserves. It consists largely of tabulated and abbreviated information and it enumerates the countries and their parks and reserves in which the different communities are represented. Short notes provide additional information on the special importance of the conservation areas and on their security. In cases where a conspicuous community is not represented or is inadequately represented in a protected area, this is indicated.

Maps of the vegetation of each country are combined with maps showing the distribution of parks and reserves. Owing to the small scale used this can give only an approximate representation of the inclusion of the major communities within the protected areas. Similarly, the protection of natural ecosystems in an African region can only be reviewed superficially in a paper of this length. Nevertheless it is hoped that the most important gaps in the conservation coverage of the region can be identified. Above all there is a need to draw attention to biotic communities which are vulnerable to irreversible change and to possible extinction. Experience has shown that progressive ecological changes are usually degrading and lead to a reduction in species diversity or biological productivity or both. Such changes should not be confused with successional processes which are cyclical or with the relatively rare instances of recovery towards more diverse and productive associations.

The objectives of biological conservation have been discussed else- where (e.g. Lamprey 1972) and the subject will not be pursued in this paper. It is assumed that the maintenance of the highest possible degree of endemic diversity is the main objective and this paper reviews the extent to which this is achieved by the existing system of parks and reserves. The conservation of biomes and ecosystems in as natural a state as possible has become recognized as a virtual imperative and is incorporated in the O.A.U. African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES

A review of the state of conservation of the biotic communities of a region necessitates the adoption of a practical scheme of classifi- cation. As yet none exists which portrays adequately the full range of diversity of ecosystems, and the construction of a comprehensive scheme presents almost insuperable difficulties. For practical purposes our classification has to be based on major vegetation types characterized by a combination of physiognomic and floristic features (mainly dominant tree and shrub species and genera), However it is important to recognize the limitations of this system as a means of identifying all biotic communities.

7 8

The information available on which to base an assessment of the protection of existing communities is inadequate and unevenly distributed. There are floristic lists, descriptions and maps for most countries or regions, based mainly on the woody plants. In the descriptions and maps the authors have tended to use. their own class- ification and terminology. Nevertheless, present knowledge on vegetation has been used to construct a vegetation map of Africa (AETFAT: Keay 1958) on a scale of 1:10,000,000, in which most (but not all) of these individual approaches have been reconciled. A second map of African vegetation on a larger scale (AETFAT: White 1974) is in press. These maps can only show the distribution of the larger blocks of vegetation with a relatively low degree of resolution but much of their merit lies in the largely successful attempt at a unified classification across the African continent.

There are excellent works on the birds and mammals of several countries and regions and more locally on the reptiles and amphibians. A small number of ecological surveys of varying degrees of detail have been carried out, incorporating integrated accounts of plant and animal communities but for the most part biogeographical information tends to be sharply divided into the botanical and the zoological. It is only in recent years that the ecosystem approach has prevailed with its aim of describing the whole range of organisms and their functional relation- ships with each other and their environment. Information on invertebrate fauna and micro-organisms is particularly sparse.

Our ability to identify biotic communities is limited by the extent and detail of the ecological exploration of the area concerned. Although we can recognize and define the broader categories of biotic community on the basis of a relatively small number of conspicuous plants and animals, at a higher level of resolution we will probably fail to identify numerous small and local ecosystems.

A related problem is the recognition and documentation of variation in the botanical composition within biomes and also in the relative dominance of the component species, particularly in those biomes which have wide geographical ranges. Such variation may be due to topography, soil, drainage, local climate, fire distribution and frequency, or the direct and indirect effects of man. There will also be genetic variation within species across the geographic range of an extensive biome. The process of evolutionary divergence resulting from partial or total genetic isolation may lead to speciation, particularly where a biome is represented by several island ecosystems as in the case of the montane and Afro-alpine communities of eastern Africa. Each community tends to possess its own complement of endemic species and races as well as many that are common to other areas or to the biome as a whole. The mountain massifs of eastern Africa are particularly good examples of localized endemism in plants and animals.

The conclusion that must be drawn from our knowledge of the ecological and genetic variation within biomes is that no two sample areas are exactly alike. The implications this has for the selection of areas for the protection of biotic communities, are discussed below.

The system of classification of biomes and their sub-types used in this review is based as closely as possible on that of IUCN (1973) but with modifications which are intended to adapt it to the vegetation of 9

Africa and to the terminology usually applied to it. Some difficulty has been experienced in fitting certain localized biomes into the classification system and there is the inevitable uncertainty about equating a vegetation zone with its ecological equivalent in the other hemisphere. However, provided that the system is applied with the full knowledge of its limitations, it can serve the purpose of identifying the main biomes and communities and in plotting their distributions.

III. THE PARKS AND RESERVES

In the past, the survival of indigenous ecosystems has most commonly occurred in areas which have remained undeveloped through historical accident or owing to the existence of serious obstacles to development. Many such areas have been included in national parks and reserves but most commonly in those cases where the community has included spect- acular wildlife or scenery. The possibility of exploitation for tourism has been a strong incentive for the maintenance of many natural and near-natural areas. On the other hand some national parks and reserves have been specifically established for the protection of individual species or communities of special interest.

Thus, while some biotic communities have been given protection fortuitously and others by design, as yet there has been no deliberate action or policy to ensure the survival of all known habitats. The need to initiate such a policy is very urgent. Some ecosystems remain totally unprotected. The only regular breeding habitats of the lesser flamingo, Lake Natron and Central Island in Lake Rudolf, have no conservation status. The estuarine and littoral habitat of the dugong is unprotected and dugongs apparently do not normally occur in the small marine parks and reserves in Kenya. None of the breeding beaches of marine turtles is protected.

Some ecosystems have been depleted to the point of extinction by felling or by ecological degradation due to excessive grazing and/or burning. The coastal rain forests of eastern Africa are an example. Although the greatest general hazard to biotic communities is the insidious destruction of vegetation and consequently of wildlife habitat as well, over very large areas the habitat has survived but some wildlife populations have been greatly reduced or even exterminated by excessive hunting. The roan antelope and the greater kudu have become localized and rare in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya through hunting.

The first step in achieving the protection of a biotic community is in most cases the declaration of a legally established national park or reserve which will protect it against human interference. The inclusion of a habitat in a designated conservation area will clearly not guarantee its actual protection if conservation measures are not enforced. The failure of law enforcement is regrettably the cause of very great hazard to some habitats in eastern Africa. Even in the most rigorously managed parks and reserves, poaching, felling and actual encroachment remain serious problems. 10

The urgent need to declare new protected areas, even in extensive habitats that still appear relatively unaffected by human influence, is indicated by the accelerating incursion which is taking place into formerly uninhabited and unfrequented areas. The increasing needs and incentives of expanding human populations in search of meat, timber, fuel and agricultural land will inevitably result in the re- duction or degradation of existing natural habitats. The activities of charcoal burners in all types of woodland in eastern Africa are causing the destruction of vegetation and animal habitat over significant areas.

While essential resources and land for cultivation must be made available, there is the urgent necessity to ensure that viable examples of all communities remain protected. At present no effective mechanism appears to exist to ensure that individual biomes and ecosystems are not seriously depleted or even totally destroyed. This situation may be partly due to the absence of effective land-use planning at the national level or to the failure to implement planning. Frequently, however, the requirements of biological conservation have been omitted from national policy or have been given little or no priority. The implementation of policies which fulfil the aims of the O.A.U. Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources calls for the acceptance of the concept of biotic community conservation by governments, far sighted and detailed land-use planning based on ecological knowledge and also on public education. The basic principle that no biotic community should be threatened with extinction, serious depletion or degradation, remains to be given active support.

The existence of a legally established park or reserve does not ensure the survival of the habitats it contains. It is the policy of some Forest Departments to harvest valuable timber trees from all accessible forests. Only in a few instances have forest nature reserves for the conservation of natural flora and fauna been established and these have tended to be very small. The notable exception is the large S.W. Mau montane forest nature reserve in Kenya. In some forest areas nature reserves have been discontinued. In a paper presented to the 19th meeting of the Specialist Committee on Forest Research of the East African Community in 1971, Dr. W.G. Dyson made a strong recommendation to the Chief Conservators of Forests for additional measures to preserve forest types and particular tree species. His recommendations have not been implemented and the threat to the survival of many tree communities in East Africa has increased since 1971.

In some instances the existence of a national park has been apparently detrimental to the ecosystems it contains. The protection of elephant populations in East Africa within several large national parks has resulted in the virtual removal of large areas of the indigenous woodlands and thickets, to the disadvantage of other wildlife species and to the elephants themselves. This situation has presented a very difficult management problem and it is hoped that time will restore what may possibly be a temporary imbalance between elephant populations and their habitats. 11

With the possible exceptions mentioned above the long term conservation of indigenous biotic communities will depend mainly on the protection they receive from their inclusion in national parks and reserves. Appropriate management rather than passive protection will undoubtedly be necessary to maintain many communities, but their inclusion in a park or reserve can provide the controlled conditions under which such management can be undertaken. There is considerable threat to the maintenance of some national park ecosystems from gross ecological disturbance originating outside the parks themselves. An example is the change in the flood regime of the Kafue flood-plain in Zambia which will result from the construction of the Kafue dam downstream. L AFRICA - CHECKLIST Secure Secure Secure Secure Secure Secure. Endemic flora Secure. Endemic flora flora unprotected. Secure. Endemic flora Secure. Endemic flora Status uncertain. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS tion by agriculturalists. Endemic afro-alpine flora. Endemic afro-alpine flora. Other areas of afro-alpine Forest virtually eliminated. Forest threatened by deforesta- Mountain nyala habitat. AREA, (proposed N.P.) Simien N.P. PARK OR RESERVE Simien N.P. Bale Mt. F.R. Bale Mt. G.R. Mt. Kenya N.P. Mt. Kilimanjaro N.P. Ruwenzori F.R. Ruwenzori F.R. Mt. Kenya N.P. Mt. Elgon N.P. Mt. Kilimanjaro N.P. Nafka G.R. COUNTRY Kenya Tanzania Tanzania Uganda Kenya Uganda Ethiopia Ethiopia (including peat bogs) moorland SUB-TYPE (a) alpine tundra (b) heath and (a) rain forest IV. CONSERVATION OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN AND CENTRA BIOME 1. Afro-alpine 2. Montane

12 Status uncertain. Small segment of mountain. largest area of fully pro- tected montane forest in Secure Forest extensive. Secure. eastern Africa. agriculturalists. The montane forest areas are except where inaccessible. They have been partly replaced Secure if present fire control is maintained. Large forest area partially protected by forest reserve. The nature reserve is the has occurred in natural forest. Full protection through nature reserves in several areas is recommended. fire climax grassland nearly replaced by introduced conifers, Forests severely reduced by by exotic conifers and eucalypts. Forest and Brachystegia woodland/ Relict patches of forest. managed for timber production Much agricultural encroachment but intact in gullies. . 2 forest reserves The montane areas of Kenya have 25 of approx. 10,000 km with total area (incl. S.W. Mau Sanctuary South Vipya F.R. Harrar Wildlife Chepalungu F.R. Mt. Kenya F.R. & N.P. Western Mau F.R. Eastern Mau and Nyika Plateau N.P. Mt. Elgon F.R. & N.P. Nature Reserve) Aberdare F.R. & N.P. Kenya Malawi

13 2(d)). Some relict forest patches Includes Mt. Meru Crater and Status uncertain. Status uncertain. in park. survives. Small areas of forest survive. Secure. Ridge top only. Status uncertain. Forest intact. remain. along access roads included of mountain for conifer planting. Ngurdoto Crater. Black rhino population seriously depleted exploitation. Fire control essential to maintain remaining forest. Some rain forest outside reserve (see Two small segments of forest Forest greatly reduced on west Locally settled and heavily poached. Little wildlife by poaching. Otherwise secure. Forest secure. Illegal timber REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS AREA, Illingus Mts. F.R. Imatong Mt. F.R. Kilimanjaro N.P. Kilimanjaro F.R. Zomba Plateau F.R. Jebel Marra F.R. Kilimanjaro G.R. PARK OR RESERVE Dedza Mt. F.R. Arusha N.P. Mt. Mlanje F.R. Mangochi F.R. (continued) Sudan Tanzania COUNTRY Malawi (continued) SUB-TYPE (a) rain forest BIOME (continued) 2. Montane

14 d en- greatly and grazing. Doubtfully secure. for agriculture. Small reserves, exploited for timber. tion. Status uncertain. reserves, vulnerable to disturb- ance. Threatened by felling Small forest area (sub-montane). colobus subspecies. Secure. Very important faunal and floral area. South-west Uganda; habitats of Forest severely opened by fire Montane rain forest within 150 km of sea and below 1500m. Forest of red colobus subspecies. relict mountain gorilla popula- has a high proportion of endemic plants and animals. Many small Very small forest areas. Habitat Only habitat of another red Large areas replaced by conifers. (Lake Rukwa area) Coastal mountain Impenetrable F.R. N. & S. Pare Mts. Ngorongoro Conser- vation Area Forest Reserves: Nguru Mts. Uluguru Mts. Nguu Hills Highland F.R. Kayonza F.R. Kikeno F.R. Usambara Mts. West Kilombero Rubeho Mt. & Southern Uzungwa Mts. F.R. Mbizi Mts. F.R. Mt. Elgon F.R. fragmented; it is particularly vulnerable to poaching an croachment, its conservation security doubtful. n.b. Montane and sub-montane Forest Reserve in Tanzania Uganda Ruwenzori Mts. F.R.

15 Secure if fire controlled. tiguous with Malawi Nyika. Status uncertain east Uganda. Secure. forest through fire. Nyika Secondary montane grassland Protected montane areas in north-east Uganda. Secure. Protected montane areas in Relict forest patches. Con- The Kenya Highlands consist Plateau extends into Zambia. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS The Ethiopian Highlands are predominantly of this type. probably derived from forest. and unprotected montane and sub- areas. partly of montane grassland, Widely distributed in protected present in the five montane montane areas. Derived from AREA, (Ard Miri & Al Mado) Imatong Mts. F.R. Simien N.P. S. Vipya Plateau Illingus Mts. F.R. PARK OR RESERVE Kidepo N.P.; Zulia, Forest Reserves Kadam Forest Reserves Bale Mt. G.R. Jebel Hamoyet Nyika N.P. Nyika N.P. Gulf of Aden Mts. Jebel Marra F.R. Jebel Obkeik Morongole & Timu Aberdare N.P. Moroto, Napak & Mt. Mlanje (continued) Zambia Somalia Sudan COUNTRY Uganda Kenya Ethiopia Malawi (continued) SUB-TYPE (a) rain forest (b) grassland BIOME (continued) 2. Montane

16 Secure. Small area. Secure. Small areas protected. Small areas of montane grassland. Extensive. Secure and unprotected montane areas. Extensive. Secure. Local. Probably secure. and unprotected montane areas. Grassland widely distributed in protected and unprotected Extensive. Secure. Widely distributed in protected Nyika Plateau is in Malawi. Extensive. Secure. Widely distributed in protected montane areas. Larger part of South Vipya Ruwenzori F.R. Plateau F.R. Highlands, Mahari Mts., Rubeho Mts., Elton Plateau, Loliondo Livingstone Mts., Kidepo N.P., Zulia, Kadam Forest Reserves Nyika N.P. Ngorongoro Conser- Kilombero Scarp F.R. Livingstone Mts. F.R. Ngorongoro, Southern Hills Morongole, Timu, Mt. Kenya F.R. & N.P. Aberdare F.R. vation Area Mt. Meru F.R. Mpanda Highlands Moroto, Napak & Zambia Kenya Tanzania Tanzania Uganda Uganda Malawi (Oreobambos) (Arundinaria) bamboo (c) bamboo forest

17 Also forms - 7,000 ft.). (5,000 Secure. Small patches of forest 7,000 ft. Secure. Forms small closed forests. Status uncertain. Small relict Small scattered stands. elsewhere in Ethiopian Highlands. stands present. Scattered forest patches, on all Secure. out montane area. Central core of volcano covered REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Relict patches occur here and Present in small stands through- heathland of dwarf trees above Closed forest in Meru Crater. by closed forest of Juniperus. montane areas. Status uncertain. AREA, (Juniperus) (Widdringtonia) (Juniperus) (Juniperus) (unprotected) (Ard Miri & Al Mado) (Mt. Meru Crater) Simien Mt. N.P. Suswa Volcano only in one area of PARK OR RESERVE N.P.s and F.R.s Nyika Plateau N.P. Mlanje Mt. F.R. Mlanje Mt. F.R. Gulf of Aden Mts. Gaan Libah N.P. & G.R. Juniperus: recorded Red Sea Hills (un- protected) Ngorongoro Conser- Mt. Kenya & Aberdare Arusha N.P. vation Area Somalia Sudan COUNTRY Ethiopia Kenya Tanzania Malawi (Juniperus and Widdringtonia) SUB-TYPE (d) African cedar BIOME (continued) Montane . 2

18 throughout montane area of individual trees throughout Secure if not altered by dense Intermediate between medium level threatened by deforestation. tion status uncertain. Similar to Kakamega F.R. Being felled for illegal settlement and for replacement by conifers for new pulp mill. elephant population. Closed forest. Secure. Present in small stands Tanzania. Present as small stands and reduced by felling for agriculture. and montane forest. Small areas forest, Lake Victoria. Conserva- W. African type. Being seriously Relict groundwater forest. Most easterly forest of Congo & montane area. Merges with Kagera R. swamp (Juniperus) Ruwenzori F.R. E. and N.E. Uganda Kidepo N.P. Kakamega & South Nandi Forest Reserves N. Nandi F.R. Lake Manyara N.P. Nguu and Nguru Mt. Meru F.R. Mt. Elgon F.R. Montane F.R.s in Forest Reserves Minziro F.R. Tanzania Uganda Kenya 3. Humid forest (a) medium level

19 (Chapman and White, 1970). Small nature reserve (inadequate). Small nature reserve maintained in forest. "Only well preserved reasonably "Elsewhere, below 1370 m. tiny Exploited for timber extraction. extensive example in Malawi"... for timber and felled for agri- culture. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Game Reserve. primate spp. Security uncertain; relict patches ... occur" forest present. Being exploited Rubondo I. which is also a Congo Forest type. Habitat of 11 being settled by agriculturalists. Exploited for timber. Remnant patch of lowland rain All subject to encroachment by by agriculturalists, except AREA, PARK OR RESERVE Kome, Maisome and Budongo F.R. Lake Victoria Island Forest Reserves: Rubondo Islands Kibale F.R. & G.R. Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve Matandwe F.R. COUNTRY Tanzania Kenya Uganda Malawi (continued) (continued) SUB-TYPE (a) medium level (b) low level BIOME (continued) 3. Humid forest

20 1960). (Moomaw, miles" to identify among the dry forest Small areas. Not protected. Includes oil and raphia palms. "the rain forest association is to prevent extinction. types. to excessive felling. coastal lands by the combination stands must cover nearly 100 square In 1974, further depleted. and forest-woodland intermediate "Rare in Malawi" (Chapman and Small area. of fire, logging and cultivation, The "Nature Reserve" does not rain forest survive but difficult vation status uncertain. being continually depleted on protect any rain forest area. Full protection needed immediately Very small remnants of coastal White). Local in swamp areas. Conser- Lake Victoria shore. Raphia palm swamp forest. Unprotected. Possibly vulnerable but at present relatively intact (Above areas in- "Nature Reserve" Shimba Hills N.R. adequately protected; indicated in not gazetted.) Vicinity of Lake Victoria Nkota Kota G.R. Kagera River G.R. Nyamirembe G.R. Mida-Gedi N.R. Witu F.R. Arabuko-Sokoke but Mto wa Mbu Sudan Tanzania Kenya Tanzania Malawi (c) Swamp forest

21 "Swamp forest occurs throughout the high-rainfall belt from Swamp forests of lake creeks secure. in the N.W. to Mbala and Isoka in the N.E. and SW to Mpika, Serenje, Mkushi and Kabwe Small areas along Tana and Tsavo the Tana R. mangabey and colobus. "Widespread along the banks of Sudan. Districts" (Fanshawe 1969). Rivers. Secure. clearing for agriculture. rivers and lakes" (Chapman and near Lake Victoria. Probably Protection urgently needed. Forest patches small. Subject to REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS N. of Lake George. Secure. Mwinilunga, Kabompo and Balovale Unprotected. Only habitat of White, 1970). Widespread along rivers in S. AREA, the area between PARK OR RESERVE Kampala and L. Wamala. Kafue N.P. Tsavo N.P. Tana River Forest Bodigeru G.R. Southern N.P. Forest Reserves of Nkota Kota G.R. Ruwenzori N.P. North Luangwa N.P. Kidepo N.P. (proposed) Nimule N.P. Zambia Sudan Kenya COUNTRY Uganda Malawi forest groundwater (continued) SUB-TYPE (d) riverine and (c) swamp forest BIOME (continued) 3. Humid forest

22 Small areas flanking rivers and on Small area in north-west of Park. Secure. Streams entering L. Tanganyika. in south and west Tanzania. Ishasha River. Extensive along Secure. cutting by pastoralists. contiguous with montane forest. Orangi, Grumeti & Balangeti Rivers. Groundwater forest at base of scarp. This type occurs along most rivers rivers in Uganda; relict patches on Nile in Kabalega N.P. Classified also under type 7. Extensive On lower slopes of Rift scarp; Common along streams in north- north-east. hilltops. Vulnerable to fire and Riverine forest local. western Zambia; also occurs in Serengeti N.P. Selous G.R. South Luangwa and Sanctuary Gombe Stream N.P. Chobe N.P. Harrar Wildlife Nairobi N.P. Lari F.R. Lake Manyara N.P. Ruwenzori N.P. Liuwa Plain N.P. North Luangwa N.P.s Masai Mara Reserve Tanzania Zambia Botswana Kenya Uganda Ethiopia (a) medium level forest evergreen 4. Dry

23 d in from Secure. Small areas flanking Mara River REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS included here. Dry forest on recent lava flows. and on hilltops in north of Park. culture and logging. Important eliminated. Manilkara and forest type is the only known and one of very few habitats Sokoke pipit. "This forest has been all but cultivation ... are chiefly Vulnerable to fire and elephants. component, Brachylaena, nearly of Clark's weaver and the Numerous small relict areas Currently being felled for agri- habitat of the owl Otus irene responsible". (Moomaw, 1960). Afzelia greatly reduced. This destroyed in the south and is within category 6 could be Manilkara-Diospyros association. rapidly disappearing in the north as well. Fire and AREA, (includes small Serengeti N.P. PARK OR RESERVE Kibwezi F.R. and Tsavo West N.P. reserve) Boni Forest. Arabuko-Sokoke F.R. ungazetted nature Unprotected formerly extensive dry forest areas. category 6 below. But they probably represent remnants n.b. Other small areas of dry forest might perhaps be include (continued) COUNTRY Kenya Tanzania Uganda Kenya Kenya (continued) (coastal) SUB-TYPE (a) medium level (b) low level (b) low level BIOME (continued) evergreen forest 4. Dry

24 Itigi type of Tanzania. type needs immediate protection. Secure. Very similar to typical Sub-type extensive W. Uganda. the point of extinction. The sub- Secure. reduction for agriculture. Total forest exist on coast near Kenya Secure. Secure. Relict patches survive but are on within the Mkomazi G.R. Brachylaena dry forest Unprotected. Subject to continuous protection needed. Park. Relict patches of dry evergreen protected in small stands. by increasing settlement in the Wildlife generally scarce. border (unprotected) as well as Major wildlife habitat. Threatened Sumbu N.P. Sioma Ngwezi N.P. Several small forest reserves Coastal strip. Unprotected Tanga Region Chobe N.P. Liuwa Plain N.P. The Itigi thicket Ruwenzori N.P. Forest Reserves Mkomazi G.R. Zambia Zambia Tanzania Tanzania Botswana Uganda thicket/ forest forest (b) Itigi type (a) Baikiaea (a) medium level thicket clump forest savanna derived from forest, incl. mosaic; savanna 5. Dry deciduous 6. Forest savanna

25 Small areas on edge of REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS isolated stands throughout Secure. Now being felled for softwood planting. Chapman and White, 1970. Secure. Fanshawe, 1969. Extensive. Status uncertain. Kenya coast. Main association: islands of Pemba, Zanzibar and Termed transition woodland by Termed "Lake basin chipya" by Ditto. Also occurs as small Unprotected. Extensive type along numerous. Northern Province. The greater part of the coastal duiker. Moyowosi flood plain. Afzelia-Albizia. Hyphaene palms Habitat of Zanzibar colobus and vegetation of Tanzania and of the Mafia is referable to this type. AREA, (S. shore of L. PARK OR RESERVE Buhindi F.R. Victoria). Boni Forest Several small forest Unprotected Lake Bangweulu Kwale F.R. reserves on mainland Vipya Plateau F.R. Lake Mweru Mt. Mlanje F.R. COUNTRY Tanzania Zambia Tanzania Kenya Malawi (continued) (coastal) SUB-TYPE (a) medium level (b) low level BIOME (continued) mosaic 6. Forest/savanna

26 Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Important wildlife area. Secure. Recently established from former G.R.(see also biome type 10). Secure. Good example of miombo flora and fauna. Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Extensive. Habitat of typical is the habitat of the eastern chimpanzee and several other endemic sable antelope population. The western third of the park. antelope. Important wildlife Extensive type along south coast. Habitat of rare and local Sokoke Threatened by deforestation. primate spp. Secure, but small. Woodland areas small. Habitat of pipit and Clark's weaver. miombo fauna including sable habitat. With forest elements and oil palm, Shimba Hills N.R. Southern N.P. Katavi N.P. Ruaha N.P. Kasungu N.P. Numatina G.R. Gombe Stream N.P. Ashana G.R. Arabuko-Sokoke F.R. Mt. Barizunga G.R. Somalia Sudan Tanzania Kenya Malawi (Miombo) and/or Isoberlinia woodlands (a) Brachystegia relatively and savannas moist woodlands 7. Broad-leaved

27 Southern portion of Park. Secure. Important wildlife area. Largest also protected in Forest Reserves. Secure. Large. Important wildlife Secure. Large. is exploited for the timber of exploited. Secure. The western parts of both Secure. Extensive. area. This reserve protects the largest Includes small miombo area. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Forest reserve covers the greater of western Tanzania. This type Pterocarpus and for beeswax and Large areas of the Brachystegia Very extensive in south of Reserve. protected miombo area. part of the Brachystegia woodlands honey. Otherwise remains intact. woodland of southern Tanzania are known area of Brachystegia micro- parks consist of miombo woodland. phylla (Upland Miombo). Not AREA, Salanka F.R. Selous G.R. PARK OR RESERVE Rungwa G.R. Tanzania Ugalla G.R. Forest Reserves: Western and southern Mikumi N.P. (Kondoa area) South Luangwa and Sumbu N.P. Kafue N.P. North Luangwa N.P.s COUNTRY Tanzania Zambia (continued) (continued) SUB-TYPE (a) Miombo BIOME (continued) relatively moist woodland/savanna 7. Broad-leaved

28 d in many for cultivation and charcoal Secure but very small. Small area in Park. Secure. Small area in north-west of Park; Small isolated area. Secure. Secure, but tree density greatly extension of larger area near immediate conservation problem. survive or increase if protected from fire. Type extensive from Meru to Roan antelope habitat. reduced by elephants. Uganda. Secure. S. Sudan. Unprotected. No burning. Musoma, L. Victoria shore. Secure. Very extensive type in N.W. Extensive type in N. Uganda and Machakos areas, but much felled Remnant in north of Park. Might Seven small Forest Serengeti N.P. Several small Forest Tarangire N.P. Kidepo N.P. Serengeti N.P. Lambwe Valley G.R. Kabalega N.P. Reserves in the Reserves Machakos area ) ) areas in W. Tanzania. n.b. This type forms ecotone between miombo and grasslan Kenya Tanzania Sudan Tanzania Uganda Uganda) savanna woodland/ mum savanna woodlands (b) Combretum (d) Terminalia (c) Butyrosper-

29 elephants and fire. fringing the pans in the north and stands near rivers. Also numerous listed by Burtt, Davy & Hoyle 1958. elephants and fire. and locally dense in forest-savanna REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Tree density much reduced by Hyphaene palms present in small Borassus palm woodland local Both Hyphaene and Borassus are Conservation status probably secure. forest-savanna mosaic, in south. and common in S. Sudan. Tree density much reduced by Hyphaene occurs in woodlands near mouth of Tana River. Borassus and Hyphaene widespread Borassus woodland in river Hyphaene stands present in coastal Large stands of Borassus. west of reserve (see biomes 11 & 12). mosaic on coast, on coral sands. valley. Secure. AREA, PARK OR RESERVE Kabalega N.P. Two small Forest Tana River Bubasci G.R. Reserves in same area Tsavo N.P. Makgadikgadi G.R. Kidepo N.P. Tarangire N.P. (proposed) Somalia Sudan COUNTRY Uganda Botswana Kenya Tanzania Malawi Borassus) woodlands woodlands (continued) (Hyphaene and SUB-TYPE (d) Terminalia (e) Palm BIOME relatively moist wood1and/savanna (continued) 7. Broad-leaved

30 Small area. Secure. Borassus woodland along lower Hyphaene stands locally frequent. east Botswana. severely checked by elephants Hyphaene woodlands on Mkata Borassus stands. Secure. Kidepo River. Secure. Present in the "Borassus palm Park; extensive in north and Type extensive. Some areas Mbalageti River. Secure. Plain. Hyphaene stands. Secure. Large stands of Borassus along This type occurs in south of but generally secure. Type occurs in south and belt" in Lango District. north-east of Park. Secure. Serengeti N.P. South Luangwa N.P. & Kafue N.P. South Luangwa N.P. Katavi N.P. Chobe N.P. and North Luangwa N.P. Lake Manyara N.P. Ugalla River G.R. & Kidepo N.P. Kafue N.P. Lochinvar N.P. Mikumi N.P. Zambia Botswana Zambia Uganda (Colophospermum mopane) (a) Mopane relatively dry woodlands and savannas 8. Broad-leaved

31 extensive in W. Ethiopia; climatic ecotone between Secure. Status uncertain. the wide zone of climatic fluc- tuation between the Brachystegia Conservation status of both Status uncertain. Habitat Secure. This type represents Secure. the moist savanna. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS reserves uncertain. Type of white rhino. This type is the climatic ecotone and the Sudan Zone Isoberlinia Extensive. Secure. Extensive. Secure. Dry bamboo (Oxytenanthera) Probably secure. montane and Acacia savanna. between Sahelian Acacia savanna present in large thickets within woodlands. woodlands and Acacia woodlands. AREA, Shambe G.R. Chire G.R. and Gash-Setit G.R. PARK OR RESERVE Selous G.R. Dinder N.P. Nxai Pan N.P. Katavi N.P. Nimule N.P. Reserve Omo N.P. (proposed) Matandu F.R. Mago Wildlife Sudan Sudan COUNTRY Ethiopia Ethiopia Tanzania Botswana thicket climate ecotone dry savanna climate tone dry ecotone savanna dry savanna SUB-TYPE (b) Ethiopian (c) Sudan/Sahel (e) Dry bamboo (d) Southern eco- BIOME (continued) relatively dry woodland/savanna 8. Broad-leaved

32 1500 m. Widespread but local. Small stands and many scattered thicket clump savanna. Secure. in Brachystegia woodland Small stands exist in Katavi trees in dry Acacia bush. as component in Capparis Brachystegia woodland; near Secure. rocky areas of Brachystegia. E. candelabra. In stands and Oxytenanthera thickets in Oxytenanthera thickets occur Tanganyika. Extensive. E. candelabra. Scattered in E. candelabra. Small stands. E. nyikae. Large stand on Both types extensive in dry between Mpanda and Lake N.P. & Nkamba F.R. Euphorbia nyikae and E. robechii. Ngorongoro Crater wall. Very dense area of E. candelabra. woodland elsewhere. Serengeti N.P. Katavi N.P. and Kasungu N.P. F.R.s Tsavo N.P. Ngorongoro Conser- Ruwenzori N.P. Misuku and Kaseye Nkamba F.R. Nakuru N.P. vation Area Tanzania Tanzania Kenya Uganda Malawi Malawi robechii candelabra nyikae Euphorbia Euphorbia Euphorbia 9. Euphorbia

33 locally eliminated by elephants. See also under grasslands (biome 12). Sub-types: a, b, l, g, n. Secure. Sub-types: a, b, n, u, v. Secure. Sub-types: a, b, n, u, v. Secure. Sub-types: a, b, n, u, v. Secure. Sub-types a, n, u, v, with Terminalia sericia and Grewia spp. Acacia elements much reduced and threatened. salt pans, where is is unprotected. Small stands on shore of fringing Galana River. Olduvai Gorge. Fringing vegetation of coastal Fringing vegetation of salt Lake Ndutu. Fringing vegetation of Lake This type probably not Local in alkaline pans pans and creeks on coast, Massek and present in upper REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS where it is unprotected. AREA, Tsavo N.P. Central Kalahari G.R. Khutse G.R. Makgadikgadi G.R. Gemsbok N.P. Serengeti N.P. Tanzania coast Ngorongoro Conser- Rift Valley Lakes Tsavo N.P. Kenya coast vation Area PARK OR RESERVE N.P. (proposed) COUNTRY Ethiopia Kenya Tanzania Botswana Kenya SUB-TYPE plain woodland woodland woodland woodland/bush (i) A. albida (f) A. drepanolobium (g) A. reficiens (h) A. sieberiana (e) A. seyal flood- (b) A. tortilis woodland (c) A. senegal/A. hockii (d) A. xanthophloeia (a) Acacia-Commiphora BIOME (Suaeda) lands and thicket savannas dominated dry wood- 11. Acacia 10. Saltbush

34 Status uncertain. Sub-types: Status uncertain. Secure. Sub-types: b, f, d, m. Seriously over-grazed by live- in Tanzania. Secure. Sub-types: Small area of type 8. Secure. Sub-types: a, b. Secure. Sub-types: a, b. Secure. Sub-types: a, b. stock. Sub-types: a, b, d, f. Secure. Sub-types: a, b. a, b. awaited. Sub-types a, b, g and 1 (in riverine woodland). Secure. Sub-types: a, b. Status uncertain. Contiguous with Serengeti N.P. a, b, c, d, e, f, m, n, o. Probably secure. Sub-types: b, h. Recently gazetted; by-laws Springs G.R. Isiolo Buffalo Kora and Rahole G.R.s Gewane W.R. Nairobi N.P. Marsabit N.R. Reserve Ass Reserve Amboseli N.P. Masai Amboseli G.R. Masai Mara G.R. Maralal Game Awash N.P. Alledeghi W.R. Mille-Sardo Wild Meru N.P. Awash West Wildlife Ethiopia A. elatior (j) A. lahai (k) A. nubica (l) (n) A. mellifera (o) A. gerardii (s) A. etbaica (m) A. kirkii (p) A. clavigera (q) A. abyssinica (r) A. stuhlmanni (t) A. zanzibarica (u) A. giraffae (v) A. uncinata

35 Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Secure. Western part of Park; Sub-types: a, b. Provides part Secure. Sub-types: a, b, c, lands of the Plains supports the sub-types: a, b. sugarcane plantations. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS of the habitat of migratory pop- and Tedo Controlled Hunting Area of Ethiopia. greatest ungulate populations in Extensive but conservation status d, e, f, h, i, m, n, o, p, s. Together with the edaphic grass- Area selected for irrigated ulations of eland, tiang and cob. uncertain; adjoins Gambella W.R. Africa. AREA, Stefanie W.R. Serengeti N.P. PARK OR RESERVE Gambella W.R. Bodigeru G.R. Boma G.R. Proposed National Parks: Rift Valley Lakes, Omo, Mago, Nachisar and Danakil Dinder N.P. Yob W.R. Mago W.R. Sudan COUNTRY Ethiopia Tanzania (continued) BIOME SUB-TYPE inated dry two pages woodland/savanna (continued) 11. Acacia dom- See previous

36 (eastern part of Park). (type j) and over-grazing in low areas. Sub-types: a, b, settlement. Sub-types: a, b, Secure. Sub-types: a, b, d, Secure. Sub-types: a, b, d, i, h, f. Secure. Sub-types: d, q. Secure. Sub-types: a, b, i Secure. Sub-types: b, e, f. Sub-types: a, b, f, n, d, e. Important wildlife area. Secure. Sub-types: a, b. e, f, h, m, n, r, t. d, e, f, j, k. and overgrazing by livestock. in Chobe N.P., the larger part in lands are vulnerable to overgrazing the Okavango Delta needs protection. Not secure; much illegal d, e, f. Vulnerable to effects of fire conserved flood-plain grassland is Vulnerable to fire on highlands Comparatively small part of the by livestock. A greater area of Moremi G.R. Elsewhere the grass- Tarangire N.P. Kidepo N.P. Lake Manyara N.P. Ruaha N.P. Ngorongoro Conser- Maswa G.R. Arusha N.P. vation Area Mkomazi G.R. Chobe N.P. and Mikumi N.P. Moremi G.R. Uganda Botswana lands . flood plains. Delta grasslands. Lake shore grass- (a) edaphic seasonal 12. Grasslands

37 (Blair-Rains and McKay, 1968). shrub and tree; shrub/tree and the Park. Secure. Important wildlife habitat. dense shrub - see biome 11). Small areas only (e.g. Uaso Nyiro Important wildlife habitat. Part Secure. corridor of Park. Secure, but REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS The fringes of the pans (north and uncertain. subject to poaching. halophytic, grasslands and halo- phytic herbaceous semi-desert R. delta, north of Lake Natron). Habitat of Nile lechwe. Status Habitat of Nile lechwe. Status of Mkata R. flood plain lies in Unprotected in Malawi. uncertain. Major wildlife habitat. Western Mainly halophytic, or degraded west) consist of savanna (scattered AREA, Zeraf G.R. Serengeti N.P. PARK OR RESERVE Unprotected Fanyikang Is. G.R. Katavi N.P. Makgadikgadi 6.R. Mikumi N.P. Sudan COUNTRY Botswana Kenya Tanzania Malawi (continued) lake shore delta and grasslands (continued) SUB-TYPE (a) flood plains, BIOME (continued) 12. Grasslands

38 (mainly topi and puku) the very large Hagana heronry (in inundation as at present. Subject to years of inundation Important bird habitat including to serious poaching. subject to long periods of as at present, when wildlife areas, subject to poaching. Unprotected. Isolated population area. Habitat of puku (Kobus populations are greatly reduced Unprotected. Important wildlife of topi (Damaliscus)subject by loss of habitat and poaching. An important area, still unprotected. A. seyal stands). Unprotected. Unprotected. Important wildlife vardoni) and abundant bird life. Alkaline lakeshore grasslands, Unprotected. Abundant bird life. Lake shore grasslands. Secure. South-west shore of Lake Rukwa Buhoro Flats Lake Manyara N.P. Wembere flood plain Kilombero flood plain Malagarasi and Moyowosi flood plains plain Lake Opeta flood Ruwenzori N.P. Uganda

39 (Tanzania). Unprotected. Important wildlife area. Important wildlife area. Secure. Secure. Black lechwe habitat. Secure. Red lechwe habitat. Important wildlife area adjacent to Mara G.R. and Serengeti N.P. Subject to overgrazing in past. Important wildlife area. Secure. Status uncertain. Important artificially by new dam. Black lechwe habitat. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Two small parks. Secure if Unprotected. Unprotected. water levels are not altered wildlife area. AREA, (proposed) Isangano N.P. (Lake Semliki River Serengeti Plains grasslands Kafue N.P. Bangweulu) PARK OR RESERVE Delta G.R. Kafue Flats: Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon N.P.s Bangweulu N.P. Liuwa Plain N.P. Kedong Valley Lake Wamala Loita Plains Amboseli N.P. Zambia COUNTRY Kenya Tanzania Uganda (continued) lake shore grasslands grasslands delta and alkaline volcanic ash (continued) SUB-TYPE (a) flood plains, (b) edaphic BIOME (continued) 12. Grasslands

40 to serious poaching. Unprotected. Important wildlife area. Controlled hunting but subject savanna. Important wildlife area. Secure. Important wildlife areas. Con- trolled hunting areas. Subject to overgrazing by livestock. is in the Reserve, which will ungulate population. Grassland areas within the Acacia shortly be extended to include Small area. Secure. swamp (otherwise largely unprotected) Major wildlife area. Part of migratory range of very large Chief's Island and intervening areas. Unprotected. Unprotected. Woodlands virtually eliminated Woodlands locally eliminated N.E. edge of the Okavango Delta by fire and elephants. by fire and elephants. Serengeti N.P. and Shambarai, Sanya, Ngorongoro Conser- Plains: vation Area N. Masai Steppe Ngaserai Kenya Masai Steppe, Kipeto and Senya Kidepo N.P. Lorian Swamp Plains; Kitengela, Plains. Kabalega N.P. Lotikiri Swamp Ardai, Engaruka, Nairobi N.P. Athi and Kapiti Moremi G.R. Amboseli N.P. Kenya Botswana Kenya Uganda forest and fire-induced). derived from woodland (mainly (c) grasslands 13. Swamp

41 Includes part of Lake Malombe swanps. Includes some marshland. Status uncertain. Status uncertain. Small swamp areas protected. Secure. Habitat of black lechwe. Unprotected. Unprotected. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. AREA, (Bangweulu Swamp) Shire Swamps Zeraf G.R. Isangano N.P. Shambe G.R. PARK OR RESERVE Lake Chilwa Swamps Liwonde N.P. Elephant Marsh (Shire R.) Ugalla Swamp Bahi Swamp Selous G.R. Wembere Swamp Kilombero Swamp Kagera Swamp Vwaza N.P. (Proposed) Moyowosi Swamp Malagarasi Swamp Sudan COUNTRY Zambia Tanzania Malawi BIOME (continued) 13. Swamp

42 (a) for elephant, giraffe and rhino Secure. Habitat of red lechwe. Secure. Habitat of Kafue lechwe. Secure. Kafue lechwe. Abundant Secure. Includes shore of Lake Small sub-desert area in Reserve. Status uncertain. Status uncertain. shadow of Pare and Usambara Mts. Rudolf. only. (b) for rhino and ostrich only. Status uncertain. Conservation status uncertain uncertain. Unprotected. Small area in rain Unprotected bird life. As yet ungazetted. Status Kafue N.P. Blue Lagoon and Stefanie W.R. and Dahlak proposed 2 partial reserves. Liuwa Plain N.P. Lochinvar N.P.s Red Sea Hills G.R.(proposed) Chalbi and Koroli Deserts Omo, Mago, Danakil National Parks. East Rudolf N.P. Mille-Sardo Wild Ass Reserve Lake Manka area Marsabit N.R. Mille-Sardo Wild Ass Reserve Somalia. Kenya Sudan Ethiopia Tanzania Kenya Ethiopia 14. Sub-desert 15. Desert

43 Secure. Elsewhere unprotected. Several small areas unprotected. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Bird Sanctuary. Unprotected Extensive areas. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Crater Lake. Bird sanctuary. not extend into Lake Mobutu. Ruwenzori Park does not extend into Lakes Amin and George. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Unprotected. Kabalega N.P. does AREA, South-eastern Sahara; PARK OR RESERVE Oryx Reserve (proposed) Watamu Marine N.R. Lake Victoria Wadi Howar Addax and Lake Ngami Lake Tana Lake Naivasha Lake Malawi Chiuta and Chilwa Lake Victoria ) Lake Kyoga ) Lake Mobutu ) Lakes Malombe, Lake Victoria Lake Tanganyika Lake Duluti Lake Amin ) Lake George ) Sudan COUNTRY Somalia Kenya Tanzania Botswana Ethiopia Kenya Uganda Tanzania Malawi BIOME lakes (continued) 15. Desert 16. Mangrove 17. Freshwater

44 Includes Lakes Shala and Abiata, elsewhere in Ethiopia receive Secure if sewage pollution is stopped. lesser flamingo - the only habitat Unprotected. are the habitat of the greater and fish and crocodile habitat. important bird habitat. Unprotected. Unprotected. Lake shore only in Mweru Wantipa N.P. Lake shore only in Sumbu N.P. None of the alkaline lakes protection. of the latter. Park will include water area. Crater. Important bird habitats. both important wildlife areas. Unprotected. These lakes, together Weakly alkaline only. Important Two small alkaline lakes. Secure. As yet ungazetted and unprotected. Lake Manyara. Secure. Very Ngorongoro Crater and Empakai with those in Tanzania and Ethiopia (proposed) tip of Natron Serengeti N.P. Lake Bangweulu Lake Kariba Lake Mweru Lake Mweru Wantipa Rift Valley Lakes N.P. Elmenteita, Magadi and N. Lake Rudolf East N.P. Lake Tanganyika Lake Nakuru N.P. Lakes Hannington, Baringo, Ngorongoro Conser- vation Area Lake Manyara N.P. Zambia Ethiopia Kenya Tanzania 18. Alkaline lakes

45 g habitat. A survey is flamingo. REMARKS; CONSERVATION STATUS Unprotected. Lake Rukwa is a Unprotected. Dugong habitat. Unprotected. Unprotected. Almost the sole breeding habitat of the lesser Creeks, channels and bays. Unprotected. Dugong habitat. Unprotected. Dugong habitat. Dugong probably not present. Unprotected. Dugong habitat. Unprotected. Possible dugong habitat. very important bird habitat. Unprotected. Habitat of dugong. AREA, PARK OR RESERVE Kilifi Creek Balangida Lelu and Rukwa Tana River mouth Galana River mouth Umba and Mwena R. mouths Ruvu, Ndilila & Rufiji rivermouths Lake Natron Lakes Eyasi, Balangida, Lamu area Mida Creek: Watamu Giuba R. mouth Ndoya, Kombe, Msimbazi, Mkulumuzi, Kokindu, Pangani, Msangazi, Mligaji, Mvavi, Wami, Marine N.R. n.b. Other coastal areas in Somalia are reported as dugon urgently needed. Tanzania Somalia COUNTRY Kenya Tanzania (continued) BIOME estuaries (continued) 18. Alkaline lakes 19. River

46 . Important for sea bird nesting. Small area. Secure. island. Unprotected, like all Indian Ocean marine turtle pop- elsewhere are protected. Small area. Secure. damaged. Protection needed Unprotected. Important sea bird other coral islands in Tanzania. established. Reefs unprotected. Reefs unprotected and severely urgently. Unprotected. Unprotected like all the other Ethiopian islands in the Red Sea. Unprotected. Important sea bird nesting islands. nesting island. used by turtles for nesting. ulations are unlikely to survive unless protected beaches are At present unprotected. No reefs Very important sea bird nesting Unprotected, although a number are Sand beaches Dahlak Islands (proposed N.P.) Red Sea Coast Kiunga and Lamu Is. Fungu Kizimkazi (Latham I.); Malindi Marine N.P. Extensive reefs Whale Island Watamu Marine N.P. Dahlak Islands (proposed N.P.) many inshore coastal Is. n.b. Remainder of extensive reefs in Kenya are unprotected Ethiopia Kenya Somalia Sudan Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania Tanzania Ethiopia Kenya Tanzania Ethiopia, Kenya, 20. Coral reefs 21. Coral islands 22. Beaches

47 48

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS1

This section lists 24 biomes and sub-types that are judged, on the basis of the information presented in the previous section, to be in need of protection and includes recommendations for their conservation. These ecosystems are listed under three main priority categories as follows:

A. Seriously threatened: in need of immediate protection.

B. Locally threatened, but secure or extensive elsewhere.

C. Extensive, but not protected by park or reserve status.

The composite category A/B indicates that one important biotic community and animal habitat in the biome concerned (the Tana River Forest) is seriously threatened. A fourth category (D) would include all biotic communities which are in no need of additional protection at present.

It should be noted that the recommendations need to be interpreted in the context of overall land-use planning and are not intended to suggest that extensive biomes should be preserved in their entirety but rather that viable areas of each should be included within parks or reserves.

The region within which these recommendations are intended to apply is that covered by the nine countries invited to participate in the Regional Meeting on a Coordinated System of National Parks and Reserves in Eastern Africa, 14-19 October 1974 (Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Botswana). The region should be regarded as an administrative entity rather than an ecological one and it is clear that a review of the conservation status of biomes within it cannot be undertaken without regard for the status of the same biomes in the areas surrounding it. Thus, this review cannot stand on its own but must be complemented by further reviews of the state of nature conserva- tion in the following countries: Egypt, Libya, Chad, Central African Republic, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Angola, South West Africa, South Africa, Rhodesia and Mozambique.

Category A.

Biome no. 2, sub-types a, c and d. Montane communities.

A relatively small proportion of the montane forest area in eastern Africa is included in national parks. A large proportion of this biome is contained in forest reserves but these are subject to exploitation for timber and to extensive reduction for the planting of softwoods (e.g. Kilimanjaro and Elgon). Others are insecure against

1. The introductory paragraphs for this section were added on the recommendation of the Working Party which considered this paper as the basis for certain resolutions on the protection of biotic communities in eastern Africa. 49

encroachment and cultivation (e.g. the Mau and Cherangani Forests in Kenya, the Bale Forest in Ethiopia, Mt. Mlanje Forest in Malawi, the Usambara and Uluguru Forests in Tanzania). The protection of all montane forest floristic types should be ensured by the declaration of nature reserves of adequate area in all forest reserves.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type a. Medium level humid forests.

This is a very restricted relict community in eastern Africa with virtually all areas included in forest reserves (Kakamega, South and North Nandi Forests in Kenya; Bugoma, Kibale and Budongo in Uganda). These forests are subject to timber extraction or to felling for agriculture and softwood plantations. The few existing nature reserves they contain are too small and inadequate to protect their complete flora and fauna. There is an urgent need to increase the protection of these forests by additional areas of nature reserve in which no exploitation takes place.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type b. Low level humid forest.

Very small areas of coastal rain forest have survived and their area is being continuously reduced. The Witu and Arabuko-Sokoke Forests on the coast of Kenya, with the only remaining viable stands, are being exploited for timber or being felled for agriculture. It is recommended that all surviving coastal rainforest be totally protected.

Biome no. 4. Sub-type a. Medium level dry evergreen forest.

This type is reduced to small areas in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, where it should be totally protected. Dry evergreen forest receives protection in these countries as relict stands in the Serengeti and Nairobi National Parks and the Masai Mara Reserve and also in several small forest reserves. In Ethiopia this type is extensive but apparently protected only by the Harrar Wildlife Sanctuary.

Biome no. 4. Sub-type b. Low level dry evergreen forest.

Only relict patches and one probably viable stand of coastal dry forest have survived in East Africa. The Arabuko-Sokoke forest in Kenya contains the viable stand mentioned. It is exploited for timber and should now be totally protected. It is the only known habitat of the owl Otus irene.

Biome no. 7. Sub-type a. Coastal Brachystegia woodland.

From southern Tanzania to Malawi, Zambia, Rhodesia and Mozambique, the main Brachystegia woodland biome is extensive and is adequately protected in several large forest and game reserves and national parks. On the coast of Kenya a variant of this type, of very restricted range, occurs in close association with dry evergreen forest. It is of particular biological interest since, through the virtual absence of fire, it has a dense shrub layer, unlike the greater part of the Brachystegia woodland further south. It is probably a relict of a more widespread type on the 50

Kenya coast and is the only known habitat of two passerine bird species. It occurs in the Boni Forest (unprotected) and the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and the Shimba Hills National Reserve, but in small stands. This community needs further protection, particularly through the establish- ment of a reserve in the Boni Forest and an enlarged nature reserve in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve.

Biome no. 13. Swamps.

Very few extensive swamps in eastern Africa are included in parks or reserves. The two great swamp areas of the Okavango Delta in Botswana and the Sudd in Sudan are protected partially by very small reserves and there is an urgent need to include larger areas of these in national parks or reserves. In addition to the Sudd and the Okavango, the following swamp areas require protection:- Kenya: Lorian and Lotikiri Swamps; Malawi: Lake Chilwa and Shire Swamps; Tanzania: Wembere, Moyowosi, Malagarasi, Ugalla, Kilombero, Bahi and Kagera Swamps.

Biome no. 15. Desert.

The only existing reserve in a desert area is the Mille-Sardo Wild Ass Reserve in Ethiopia. There is considerable urgency to establish a game reserve in the Wadi Howar area of north-western Sudan to provide pro- tection for addax and scimitar-horned oryx as well as other desert wildlife. Exploration of the desert biome is necessary to identify other areas where reserves could be established.

Biome no. 19. River estuaries, creeks and sea-grass beds.

The estuaries, bays and sea-grass beds of the Lamu area of Kenya and elsewhere on the coast of eastern Africa are not included in any park or reserve and should be protected urgently. An additional reason for conserving these areas is the occurrence of threatened populations of dugongs. The findings of the IUCN dugong investigation group will assist in the selection of park or reserve areas.

Biome no. 20. Coral reefs.

Along the coastline of eastern Africa there are only three very small marine national parks, all in Kenya. The remainder of the very extensive reefs is still unprotected along the entire coast from Egypt to Mozambique, although the Badana National Park shortly to be established in southern Somalia will protect one section. It is recommended that additional marine national parks be established urgently in the coastal region of eastern Africa to protect reefs, especially where they are subject to destruction by the use of dynamite for fishing in certain countries.

Biome no. 22. Sand beaches.

No sand beaches are protected outside Tanzania where there is one coastal game reserve (Sadani). The nesting beaches of marine turtles 51

remain virtually unprotected along the whole coastline. The current survey being carried out by Dr. J. Frazier (sponsored by the East African Wildlife Society) will indicate the sites that should be protected.

Category A/B.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type d. Riverine and groundwater forest.

Protected by several parks in eastern Africa except in the case of the Tana River Forest, Kenya, the only habitat of the Tana River colobus and mangabey. This forest, which is now reduced to about 30 km2, is vulnerable to felling for shifting agriculture and requires immediate protection.

Category B.

Biome no. 3. Sub-type c. Swamp forest.

A very small proportion of the total area of swamp forest in Zambia and Malawi is protected in national parks and reserves. This biome requires additional protection throughout the region.

Biome no. 5. Sub-type b. Dry deciduous forest; Itigi thicket.

The Itigi thicket in central Tanzania, to which the so-called Itigi-type thicket of northern Zambia is floristically similar, is an unique and restricted biome. It has no conservation status and is subject to felling for agriculture. Although not in immediate danger, this area should be wholly or partly protected by the declaration of a game or forest reserve. The similar thicket in Zambia is fully protected in the Sumbu and Mweru-Wantipa National Parks.

Biome no. 6. Sub-type b. Forest-savanna mosaic at low level.

This type is extensive on the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania with a small area in southern Somalia. It represents the transition from forest to savanna and is present in various forms from near-forest to near-savanna woodland, depending on the stage of degradation from the original forest type. The Boni Forest of the northern coastal area of Kenya is a particularly dense example of this type and should be protected by the establishment of a forest or game reserve. It is an excellent wildlife habitat with large populations of topi, zebra and elephant. Felling for charcoal production is probably the greatest threat to the area.

Biome no. 7. Sub-type d. Terminalia moist savanna.

A restricted community occurring in association with Combretaceous savanna in northern Tanzania and in Uganda. Much reduced by fire and elephants. May require management protection (by the exclusion of fire and elephants) where it occurs in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania and the Kabalega National Park in Uganda. 52

Biome no. 12. Sub-type a. Flood-plain grasslands.

A very small proportion of the flood-plain area of eastern Africa is included in parks or reserves. The plain bordering the Sudd swamps in Sudan has one small reserve the security of which is uncertain. In Zambia, part of the Kafue and Bangweulu flood-plains are protected as is part of the grassland area bordering the Okavango Delta in Botswana. In Tanzania the flood-plains of Buhoro, Kilombero, Wembere, Moyowosi, Malagarasi and Lake Rukwa are unprotected with the result that their wild mammal populations are subject to uncontrolled illegal hunting.

Biome no. 14. Sub-desert.

A very small proportion of the sub-desert area of eastern Africa is included in parks and reserves. The only secure area appears to be the East Rudolf National Park in Kenya. The great vulnerability of the sub-desert biome to over-grazing, poaching and other misuse indicates that a much larger area of this type should be protected.

Biome no. 16. Mangroves.

On the coast of eastern Africa two small areas of mangrove are included in national reserves in Kenya, giving them partial protection. Several mangrove areas in Kenya and Tanzania should receive full protection. The largest of these, the Rufiji Delta, provides the greatest scope for inclusion in a national park.

Biome no. 17. Fresh water lakes.

The open water of all the fresh water lakes in eastern Africa (except some very small ones) is excluded from national parks and reserves although adjoining land areas may have park status. This is a major omission with potentially serious consequences for the conservation of aquatic flora and fauna, particularly in Uganda.

Biome no. 18. Alkaline lakes.

Although several alkaline lakes are fully or partially protected (Nakuru, Ndutu, Empakai and Manyara), Lake Natron, the breeding place of the lesser flamingoes and many of the greater flamingoes in eastern Africa, is unprotected. The following alkaline lakes (which collectively form the habitat of flamingoes) are not protected by national park or reserve status:- Ethiopia: Lakes Zwai, Langano, Abiata, Shala, Awasa, Abaya, Chamo; Kenya: Lakes Rudolf, Baringo, Hannington, Magadi; Tanzania; Lakes Natron, Eyasi, Balangida, Balangida Lelu.

Category C.

Biome no. 7. Sub-type c. Butyrospermum moist savanna.

This type is extensive in northern Uganda and southern Sudan. It is not included in any form of park or reserve. 53

Biome no. 11. Sub-types b, c. Grasslands including Acacia-dominated savannas

The semi-arid grasslands of eastern Africa, with the exception of the relatively small areas included in some national parks are undergoing ecological degradation primarily due to overgrazing by livestock. Overgrazing and, locally, bad agricultural practices, are resulting in serious soil erosion. The loss of productivity over the whole of semi-arid eastern Africa is probably the most serious conservation problem of the region. It necessitates far-reaching controls upon grazing practices throughout the semi-arid zone. 54

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. AFRICA - General

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Moreau, R.E. 1972. The Palaearctic-African Bird Migration Systems London.

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B. EAST AFRICA - Regional

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Huxley, J. 1961. The conservation of wildlife and natural habitats in Central and East Africa. UNESCO, Paris.

Lamprey, H.F. 1972. East Africa: its Peoples and Resources: Wildlife as a Natural Resource. Oxford.

Mackworth-Praed, C.W. and Grant, C.H.B. 1952. Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa. London. (2 volumes).

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Morgan, W.T.W. 1972. East Africa: its Peoples and Resources. Oxford. 56

Peberdy, J.R. 1972. East Africa; its Peoples and Resources; Rangelands. Oxford.

Pratt, D.J., Greenway, P.J. and Gwynne, M.D. 1966. A classifica- tion of East African rangeland, with an appendix on terminology. J. appl. Ecol. 3: 369-382.

Talbot, L.M. 1965. A survey of past and present wildlife research in East Africa. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 3: 61-85.

Trapnell, C.G. and Langdale-Brown, I. 1972. East Africa; its Peoples and Resources: Natural Vegetation. Oxford.

Verdcourt, B. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: regional synthesis (Eastern Africa). Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 54: 186-192.

Williams, J.G. 1963. The Birds of East and Central Africa. London.

C. CENTRAL AFRICA - Regional

Huxley, J. 1961. The conservation of wildlife and natural habitats in Central and East Africa. UNESCO, Paris.

Mackworth-Praed, C.W. and Grant, C.H.B. 1963. Birds of the Southern Third of Africa. (2 vols.). London.

Rattray, J.M. and Wild, H. 1961. Vegetation map of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Kirkia 2: 94-104.

Vesey-Fitzgerald, D.F. 1963. Central African grasslands. J. Ecol. 51: 243-273.

Wild, H. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: regional synthesis (Central Africa). Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 54: 232-233.

D. SOUTHERN AFRICA - Regional

FitzSimons, V.F.M. 1970. A Field Guide to the Snakes of Southern Africa. London.

Mackworth-Praed, C.W. and Grant, C.H.B. 1963. Birds of the Southern Third of Africa. London. 57

E. BOTSWANA

Bell-Cross, G. 1972. The fish fauna of the Zambezi river system. Arnoldia 5 (29): 19 pp. (Refers to the Okavango system).

Blair-Rains, A. and McKay, A.D. 1968. The Northern Statelands, Botswana. Land Resources Study No. 5 (includes vegetation map).

Blair-Rains, A. and Yalala, A.M. 1972. The Central and Southern Statelands, Botswana. Land Resources Study No. 11 (includes vegetation map).

Bremenkamp, C.E.B. and Obermeyer, A.A. 1935. Scientific results of the Vernay-Lang Kalahari Expedition 1930. Sertum Kalahariense; a list of plants collected. Ann. Transv. Mus. 16: 399-442.

Campbell, A.C. 1972. Traditional utilization of wildlife in the Kalahari. Botswana Notes and Records, spec. ed. 1: 108-113.

Campbell, A.C. 1973. The national park and reserve system in Botswana. Biol. Cons. 5(1): 7-14.

Campbell, A.C. and Child, G. 1971. The impact of man on the environment in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records 3: 91-110.

Campbell, A.C. and von Richter, W. 1972. The policy of wildlife conservation in relation to other forms of land-use in Botswana. F0: AFC/WL: 72/20. (Working paper for 4th Session of FAO ad hoc working party on wildlife management).

Campbell, A.C. and von Richter, W. (in press). Planning and policy making - wildlife conservation in Botswana. S.A. Institute, International Affairs, Johannesburg.

Child, G. 1971. Ecological constraints on rural development in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records 3: 157-164.

Child, G. 1972a. The future of wildlife and rural land use in Botswana. Proc. SARCCUS Symposium, Nature Conservation as a form of land use: 75-78.

Child, G. 1972b. Wildlife and land use in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records, spec. ed. No. 1: 160-166.

Child, G. 1972c. Water in nature conservation and wildlife management in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records, 4: 253-256. 58

Child, G. and Röbbel, H. (in press). An ecological survey and preliminary management and development plan for the Moremi Wildlife Reserve. FAO/TA report.

de Beer, J.S. Provisional Vegetation Map of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. (MS).

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Parris, R. 1972. The ecology and behaviour of wildlife in the Kalahari. Botswana Notes and Records, spec. ed. No. 1: 96-107.

Parris, R. and Child, G. (in press). The importance of pans to wildlife in the Kalahari, and the effect of human settlement on these areas. J. S. Afr. Wildl. Mgmt. Assoc.

F. ETHIOPIA

Beals, E.W. 1968. Ethiopia: in Conservation of Vegetation in Africa South of the Sahara (Eds. Hedberg, I. and Hedberg, 0.). Acta Phyt. Suecica 54: 137-141.

Brown, L.H. 1973. Conservation for Survival. Ethiopia's Choice. Addis Ababa.

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Grimwood, I.R. 1965. Preliminary report on the status of the Somali wild ass in Ethiopia. Cyclostyled.

Hemming, CF. 1961. The ecology of the coastal area of northern Eritrea. J. Ecol. 49: 55-78.

Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G. 1957. Una carta geobotanica dell'Africa orientale (Eritrea, Etiopia, Somalia). Webbia 13: 15-132.

Scott, H. 1952. Journey to the Gughe Highlands (Southern Ethiopia), 1948-9: biogeographical research at high altitudes. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 163: 85-189.

Scott, H. 1958. Biogeographical research in High Simien (Northern Ethiopia), 1952-3. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 170: 1-91.

Urban, E.K. and Brown, L.H. 1971. A Checklist of the Birds of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. 59

G. KENYA

Agnew, A.D.Q. 1974. Wild Flowers of Upland Kenya. Nairobi.

Coe, M.J. 1967. The Ecology of the Alpine Zone of Mount Kenya. The Hague.

Dale, I.R. 1939. The woody vegetation of the Coast Province of Kenya. I.F.I. Institute Paper 18.

Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. 1961. Kenya Trees and Shrubs. Nairobi.

Fries, R.E. and Fries, Th. C.E. 1948. Phytogeographical researches on Mount Kenya and Mount Aberdare. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. III: 25.

Glover, P.E. 1966. An ecological survey of the Narok District of Kenya Masailand. 1961-1965. Mimeo.

Glover, P.E. 1973. List of plants numbered in the Shimba Hills Reserve and notes on the different vegetation types found therein. Kenya National Parks, Nairobi.

Lucas, G.L. 1966. Kenya. In Conservation of Vegetation in Africa South of the Sahara (Eds. Hedberg, I. and Hedberg, 0.). Acta Phyt. Suecica 54: 152-159.

Moomaw, J.C.A. 1960. A Study of the Plant Ecology of the Coast Region of Kenya. Nairobi.

Simon, N. 1962. Between the Sunlight and the Thunder. The Wild Life of Kenya. London.

Stewart, D.R.M. and Stewart, J. 1963. The distribution of some large mammals in Kenya. J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. 24.

Trapnell, C.G. and Griffiths, J.F. 1961. The rainfall-altitude relation, its ecological significance in Kenya. E. Afr. Agric. J. 25: 207-213

H. MALAWI

Benson, C.W. 1948. Evergreen forests near Blantyre. Comparative variety of bird species. Nyasaland J. 1: 45-52.

Benson, C.W. 1953. A Checklist of the Birds of Nyasaland. Blantyre and Lusaka.

Benson, C.W. 1953. The Nyika Plateau and its faunistic significance. Oryx 2: 158-164. 60

Burtt Davy, J., Hoyle, A.C. and Topham, P. 1958. Check List of the Forest Trees and Shrubs of the Nyasaland Protectorate. Zomba.

Chapman, J.D. 1957. The Indigenous Conifers of Nyasaland. Department of Forestry, Malawi. 10 pp.

Chapman, J.D. 1962. The Vegetation of the Mlanje Mountains. Government Printer, Zomba. 78 pp.

Chapman, J.D. 1968. Conservation of Vegetation in Africa South of the Sahara: Malawi. Acta Phytogeogr. Suecica 54: 215-224.

Chapman, J.D. and White, F. 1970. The Evergreen Forests of Malawi. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford.

Gifford, D. 1965. Butterflies of Malawi. Society of Malawi, Blantyre.

Hayes, G.D. 1972. A Guide to Malawi's National Parks and Game Reserves. Government Printer, Zomba.

Jackson, G. 1954. Preliminary ecological survey of Nyasaland. Proc. 2nd Inter-African Soils Conf.: 679-690.

Jackson, G. 1968. The vegetation of Malawi. II. The Brachy- stegia woodlands. X. The Brachystegia with evergreen understorey. Soc. Malawi J. 21: 11-19.

Malawi Government, 1965. The Physical Environment of Northern Malawi, with special reference to soils and agriculture. With map, 1:500,000. Malawi: Natural Regions and Areas. Sheet 1, Northern Malawi. Sheet 2, Central Malawi. Sheet 3, Southern Malawi.

Wye College, 1972. Malawi Project. (Nyika Plateau ecological survey). Final report.

I. SOMALIA

Bally, P.R.O., 1964. Recent floristic and faunistic changes in the Somali Republic with particular reference to specialised desert forms. IUCN Bull. N.S. 1 (11): 6-7.

Bally, P.R.O. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: Somali Republic South. Acta phytogeogr. Suec. 54.

Boaler, S.B. and Hodge, C.A.H. 1962. Vegetation stripes in Somaliland. J. Ecol. 50: 465-474. 61

Funaioli, U., Funaioli, S. and Alberto, M. 1961. Statut actuel des ongulés en Somalie. Mammalia 25 (1): 97-111.

Funaioli, U., Funaioli, S. and Alberto, M. 1966. The mammalian fauna of the Somali Republic. Status and conservation problems. Monitore zool. ital. 74 (Suppl.): 285-347.

Gilliland, H.B. 1952. The vegetation of eastern British Somaliland. J. Ecol. 40: 91-124.

Hemming, CF. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: Somali Republic North. Acta phytogeogr. Suecica 54: 141-145.

Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G. 1957. Una carta geobotanica dell'Africa orientale (Eritrea, Etiopia, Somalia). Webbia 13: 15-132.

J. SUDAN

Andrews, F.W. 1948. The Vegetation of the Sudan. Agriculture in the Sudan. (Tothill). London.

Andrews, F.W. 1950 (Vol. 1), 1952 (Vol. 2), 1956 (Vol. 3). The Flowering Plants of the Sudan.

Bond, W.R.G. 1919. Distribution of Sudan acacias. Sudan Notes and Records 2: 81-90.

Broun, A.F. and Massey, R.E. 1929. Flora of the Sudan. London.

Chipp, T.F. 1929. On the flora of the Imatong Mountains. Kew Bull.

Crowfoot, G.M. 1928. Flowering Plants of the Northern and Central Sudan. Leominster, U.K.

Darnoud, J.P. 1860. Aquatic plants of the Upper Nile. (In French). Le Caire, Bull. Inst. Egy. 3.

Drar, M. 1947. The plants of Jebel Marra, Sudan. (In Arabic). Monthly Agric. Rev. (Egypt) 3(4): 10-21.

Drar, M. 1948. The plants of Erkowit (a Hadendoa Region of E. Sudan). (In Arabic). Monthly Agric. Rev. 4(2): 21-29.

Drar, M. 1948. The plants of the Sudd Region. (In Arabic). Monthly Agric. Rev. 5(2): 20-25.

Halwagy, R. 1962. The incidence of the biotic factor in northern Sudan. Oikos 13 (1). 62

Happold, D.C.D. 1967. Guide to the natural history of Khartoum Province. III. Mammals. Sudan Notes and Records 48: 1-22.

Happold, D.C.D. 1969. The mammalian fauna of some jebels in the northern Sudan. J. Zool. Lond. 157: 133-145.

Harrison, M.N. and Jackson, J.K. 1958. Ecological classification of the vegetation of the Sudan. Forests Bull. No. 2. (New Series), Ministry of Agriculture, Khartoum.

Jackson, J.K. 1951. Mount Lotuke, Didinga Hills. Memoirs of Forestry Division, No. 3. Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan.

Jackson, J.K. 1956. Vegetation of the Imatong Mountains, Sudan. J. Ecol. 44: 341-374.

Jackson, J.K. 1957. Changes in the climate and vegetation in the Sudan. Sudan Notes and Records 38. Khartoum.

Kassas, M. 1954. The mist oasis of Erkowit, Sudan. J. Ecol. 42: 180-194.

Kassas, M. 1957. Ecology of the Red Sea Coastal Land. J. Ecol. 45: 187-203.

Mackenzie, P.Z. 1954. Catalogue of wild mammals of the Sudan occurring in the natural orders Artiodactyla and Perisso- dactyla. Khartoum Sudan Museum (Natural History) Publ. No. 4.

Obeid, M. and Mahmoud, A. 1969. The vegetation of Khartoum Province. Sudan Notes and Records. 50: 134-159.

Shaw, W.B.K. 1931. Flora of the Libyan Desert. Kew Bull. 4: 161.

Shaw, W.B.K. 1934. Flora of the Libyan Desert. Kew Bull. 7: 281.

Smith, J. 1944. The grass-acacia cycle in Gederaf and note on fire protection. Rep. Soil Cons. Comm., McCorquodale: 87-90.

Smith, J. 1949. Distribution of tree species in the Sudan in relation to rainfall and soil texture. Bulletin No. 4 Agricultural Publications Committee. Khartoum.

Willimott, S.G. 1957. Soils and vegetation of the Boma Plateau and Eastern District, Equatoria Province. Sudan Notes and Records 38.

Zaphiro, D. 1949. Notes on Loelli game. Sudan Wildlife and Sport 1(1): 6-17. 63

K. TANZANIA

Brenan, J.P.M. and Greenway, P.J. 1949. Checklist of the trees and shrubs; Tanganyika Territory. I.F.I., Oxford.

Fosbrooke, H.A. 1972. Ngorongoro; the Eighth Wonder. London.

Gilbert, V.C. 1970. Plants of Mount Kilimanjaro. Typed report. Office of Environmental Interpretation: U.S. National Park Service, Washington D.C.

Gillman, C. 1949. A vegetation-types map of Tanganyika Territory. Geogr. Rev.

Greenway, P.J. 1965. The vegetation and flora of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes and Records 64: 97-107.

(In same issue: Notes on mammals of Kilimanjaro: G.S. Child; Birds of the forest and alpine zones: H.F. Lamprey; The forest glades of Kilimanjaro: P.J. Wood. Bibliography of Kilimanjaro.).

Herlocker, J. and Dirschl, H.J. 1972. Vegetation of Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Canadian Wildlife Service, Report Series No. 19.

Lamprey, H.F. 1963. Ecological separation of the large mammal species in the Tarangire Game Reserve, Tanganyika. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 1: 63-92.

Lamprey, H.F. 1964. Estimation of the large mammal densities, biomass and energy exchange in the Tarangire Game Reserve and the Masai Steppe in Tanganyika. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 2: 1-46.

Leopold, A.S. 1970. Research Policy in the Tanzania National Parks. Tanzania National Parks.

Moreau, R.E. 1935. A synecological study of Usambara, Tanganyika Territory, with particular reference to birds. J. Ecol. 23: 1-43.

Napper, D.M. 1966. Grasses of Tanganyika with keys. Government Printer, Dar es Salaam.

Pearsall, W.H. 1957. Report on an ecological survey of the Serengeti National Park, Tanganyika. Oryx 4 (2): 72-136.

Phillips, J.F.V. 1929. Some important vegetation communities in the Central Province of Tanganyika Territory. S. Afr. J. Sci. 26: 332-372.

Phillips, J.F.V. 1931. A sketch of the floral regions of Tangan- yika Territory. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 19: 363-372. 64

Polhill, R.M. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: Tanzania. Acta phytogeogr. Suec. 54: 166-178.

Russell, E.W. 1969. Management Policy in the National Parks. Tanzania National Parks.

Serengeti Research Institute: Annual Reports 1969-1972/3. Tanzania National Parks.

Swynnerton, G.H. 1951. A checklist of the land mammals of the Tanganyika Territory and the Zanzibar Protectorate. J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. 20 (6 & 7): 274-392.

L. UGANDA

Bere, R.M. 1962. The Wild Mammals of Uganda. London.

Cott, H.B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 29.

Cott, H.B. 1968. Nile crocodile faces extinction in Uganda. Oryx 9.

Eggeling, W.J. 1947. Observations on the ecology of the Budongo rain forest. J. Ecol. 34: 20-87.

Eggeling, W.J. 1952. Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate. (2nd Edition revised by I.R. Dale).

Field, C.R. and Laws, R.M. 1970. The distribution of the larger herbivores in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. J. Anim. Ecol. 7.

Harker, K.W. 1961. An Illustrated Guide to the Grasses of Uganda. Government Printer, Entebbe.

Langdale-Brown, I., Osmaston, H.A. and Wilson, J.G. 1964. The Vegetation of Uganda. Government of Uganda.

Lind, E.M. 1956. Studies of Uganda swamps. Ug. J. 20: 13.

Lind, E.M. and Tallantire, A.C. 1962. Some Common Flowering Plants of Uganda. London.

Osmaston, H.A. 1968. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: Uganda. Acta phytogeogr. Suec. 54: 148-151.

Parker, I.S.C. and Watson, R.M. 1970. Crocodile distribution and status in the major waters of western and central Uganda in 1969. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 8. 65

Petrides, G.A. and Swank, W.G. 1965. Population densities and the range carrying for large mammals in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. Zool. Afr. 1.

Pitman, C.R.S. 1934. The Mabira Forest. Ug. J. 1: 7.

Ross, R. 1955. Some aspects of the Subalpine zone of Ruwenzori. Proc. Linn. Soc. 165: 136-140.

Snowden, J.D. 1933. A study in altitudinal zonation in South Kigezi and on Mounts Muhavura and Mgahinga. Uganda J. Ecol. 21: 7-27.

Snowden, J.D. 1953. The Grass Communities and Mountain Vegetation of Uganda. Crown Agents, London.

Uganda National Parks Handbook 1971 (5th Ed.). Uganda National Parks, Kampala.

M. ZAMBIA

Ansell, W.F.H. 1960. Mammals of Northern Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Benson, C.W. and White, C.M.N. 1957. Check List of the Birds of Northern Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Boughey, A.S. 1957. The vegetation types of the Federation. Proc. Rhod. Sci. Ass. 45: 73-91.

Boughey, A.S. 1964. Deciduous thicket communities in Northern Rhodesia. Adansonia 4 (2): 239-261.

Cole, M.M. 1963. Vegetation and geomorphology in Northern Rhodesia. Geol. J. 129 (3): 290-305.

Cottrell, C.B. and Loveridge, J.P. 1966. Observations on the Cryptosepalum forest of the Mwinilunga district of Zambia. Proc. and Trans. Rhod. Sci. Ass. 51: 77-120.

Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and National Parks. Annual Reports.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1959. Geographical extent of open forests and woodlands. Techn. Doc. 11. Meeting of Specialists C.S.A. on Open Forests of Trop. Africa, Ndola.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1960. Evergreen forest relics in Northern Rhodesia. Kirkia 1: 120. 66

Fanshawe, D.B. 1960. The origin of Baikiaea forest. Forest Newsletter 60: 17.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1969. The Vegetation of Zambia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Lawton, R.M. 1964. The ecology of the Marquesia acuminata forests and the related chipya vegetation type of N.W. Rhodesia. J. Ecol. 52 (3): 467.

Martin, J.D. 1932. The mukushi forests of N. Rhodesia. Agric. Dept. 2nd Annual Report: 71-76.

Martin, J.D. 1938. The vegetation of the Kalahari sands of N.W. Rhodesia. Unpublished ms.

Trapnell, C.G. 1937. Soils, vegetation and agricultural systems in N.W. Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Trapnell, C.G. 1943. Soils, vegetation and agriculture of N.E. Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.

Trapnell, C.G. 1958. The effects of fire in Brachystegia- Isoberlinia woodlands. Rept. E.A.A.F.R.O. 55.

Trapnell, C.G. 1959. Ecological results of woodland burning experiments in N. Rhodesia. J. Ecol. 47: 129-168.

White, F. 1962. Geographic variation and speciation in Africa with particular reference to Diospyros. Syst. Assn. Publ. 4: 71-103.

White, F. 1962. Forest Flora of Northern Rhodesia. London.

White, F. 1965. The savanna woodlands of the Zambesian and Sudanian domains. Webbia 19: 651-681.

White, F. 1968. The conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara: Zambia. Acta phytogeogr. suec. 54: 208-215.

Wild, H. 1952. The vegetation of S. Rhodesia termitaria. Rhod. Agric. J. 49 (5): 280-292.

N. GENERAL

Curry-Lindahl, K. 1969. The New African Conservation Convention. Oryx 10 (2): 116-126.

Dasmann, R.F. 1973. Classification and Use of Protected Natural and Cultural Areas. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 4. 67

IUCN. 1973. A Working System for Classification of World Vege- tation. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 5.

IUCN. Red Data Book. Vol. 1, Mammalia.

Red Data Book. Vol. 2, Aves.

Red Data Book. Vol. 3, Amphibia & Reptilia.

Red Data Book. Vol. 4, Pisces (Freshwater Fish)

Red Data Book. Vol. 5, Angiospermae.

Lamprey, H.F. 1974. Management of flora and fauna in national parks. In Second World Conference on National Parks (Ed. Elliott, Sir Hugh), pp. 237-257. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland.

Organization of African Unity. 1969. African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Publ. Secretariat of O.A.U., Addis Ababa. 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an independent international body, formed in 1948, which has its headquarters in Morges, Switzerland. It is a nion of sovereign states, government agencies and non-governmental organizations concerned with the initiation and promotion of scientifically-based action that will ensure perpetuation of the living world - man's natural environment - and the natural resources on which all living things depend, not only for their intrinsic cultural or scientific values, but also for the long-term economic and social welfare of mankind.

This objective can be achieved through active conservation programmes for the wise use of natural resources in areas where the flora and fauna are of particular importance and where the landscape is especially beautiful or striking, or of historical, cultural or scientific significance. IUCN believes that its aims can be achieved most effectively by international effort in co-operation with other international agencies, such as UNESCO, UNEP and FAO.

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is an international charitable organization dedicated to saving the world's wildlife and wild places, carrying out the wide variety of programmes and actions that this entails. WWF was estab- lished in 1961 under Swiss law, with headquarters also in Morges.

Since 1961, IUCN has enjoyed a symbiotic relationship with its sister organization, the World Wildlife Fund, with which it works closely through- out the world on projects of mutual interest. IUCN and WWF now jointly operate the various projects originated by, or submitted to them.

The projects cover a very wide range, from education, ecological studies and surveys, to the establishment and management of areas as national parks and reserves and emergency programmes for the safeguarding of animal and plant species threatened with extinction as well as support for certain key international conservation bodies.

WWF fund-raising and publicity activities are mainly carried out by National Appeals in a number of countries, and its international governing body is made up of prominent personalities in many fields.