SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE SURVEY OF IMATONG MOUNTAINS WATER TOWER, AND KINYETI RIVER WATERSHED, SOUTH SUDAN, 2014
For AFRICAN WILDLIFE FOUNDATION Nairobi/Kenya
BASELINE SURVEY REPORT 2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are most grateful to: South Sudan Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture (SSCCA); Government of Eastern Equatoria State (EES), State Ministries of Local Government, Law Enforcement and Wildlife Conservation; Finance and Economic Planning; Agriculture and Forestry; Health and Youth and Sports. We are most grateful to the Payam and Boma leaders especially those from the counties of Torit, Magwi and Ikotos. We are most grateful to the chiefs in the bomas the studies were conducted. Gratitude also goes to the household respondents who represented the counties and generously provided the information upon which this report is based. We would also like to acknowledge the substantive contribution of the research field team. Lastly, we are most honored to the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) for giving us the opportunity to do this assignment.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AWF African Wildlife Foundation CBNRM Community Based Resource Management DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration. EA Enumeration Area EES Eastern Equatoria State ECG Environment Cluster Group EIA Environment impact Assessment EKN Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Juba FGD Focus Group Discussion GROSS Government of South Sudan ICFR Imatong Central Forest Reserve IEC Information Education and communication IDI In-depth Interview IKW Imatong Mountains Basin and Kinyeti Watershed KII Key Informant Interview LRA Lord’s Resistance Army MDG Millennium Development Goal MFI Micro Finance Institutions NBHS National Baseline Household Survey NGO Non-Government Organization NRM National Resource Management NRMG Natural Resource Management Group NTP Non Timber Produce PHH Post-Harvest Handling SACCO Savings and Credit Co-operations EA Strategic Environmental Assessment SES Social Economic Survey SESA Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment SSDP South Sudan Development Plan SSNBS South Sudan Natural Bureau of Statistics UN United Nations UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund VAM Vulnerability Assessment Mapping WCS Wildlife Conservation Society WFP World Food Programme
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... ii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... x 1. 1INTRODUCTION ...... 15 1.1 Background ...... 15 1.2 Objective of the Socio-economic Baseline Survey ...... 18 1.3 Scope of Work ...... 18 1.4 Methodology ...... 19 1.4.1 Team Composition and Logistics ...... 20 1.4.2 Logistics ...... 20 1.4.3 Training of the Field Team and Piloting of survey ...... 21 1.4.4 Sampling ...... 21 1.4.5 The Fieldwork ...... 22 1.4.6 Administration of the Structured Questionnaires ...... 23 1.4.7 Administration of the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)...... 23 1.4.8 In-depth Interviews (IDIs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) ...... 23 1.4.9 Review of Secondary Information ...... 23 1.4.10 Other approaches and tools ...... 24 1.4.11 Quality Assurance ...... 24 1.4.12 Data entry /cleaning/ processing and analysis ...... 24 1.4.13 Limitations of the study ...... 24 2 INSTITUTIONAL, POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK...... 25 2.1 Institutional Framework ...... 25 2.1.1 Ministry of Interior and Wildlife Conservation ...... 25 2.1.2 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Tourism, Animal Resources, Fisheries, Cooperatives and Rural Development...... 25 2.1.3 Ministry of Electricity, Dams, Irrigation, and Water Resources ...... 26 2.1.4 Ministry of Environment ...... 27 2.1.5 South Sudan Land Commission ...... 27 2.1.6 Natural Resource Management and Environment Working Groups ...... 28 2.1.6.1 Natural Resources Management Group ...... 28 2.1.6.2 Environment Cluster Group ...... 28 2.1.7 Traditional Authorities ...... 28
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2.1.8 Policy and Regulatory Framework ...... 29 2.2.1 South Sudan Development Plan (SSDP) ...... 29 2.2.2 Environmental Protection Bill, 2010 ...... 31 2.2.3 South Sudan Water Policy, 2007 ...... 31 2.2.4 The Draft Forestry Policy, 2012 ...... 32 2.2.5 The Land Act 2009 ...... 32 2.2 Legal and Institutional Challenges ...... 33 2.3.1 Policy implementation ...... 33 2.3.2 Need of Integration of Policies and Institutions ...... 33 2.3.3 Community Participation in Natural Resources Management ...... 34 3 FINDINGS ...... 35 3.1. Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics ...... 35 3.1.1 Household size and Composition ...... 35 3.1.2 Age groups of the household heads ...... 35 3.1.3 Marital Status ...... 35 3.1.4 People with special needs ...... 36 3.1.5 Employment ...... 36 3.1.6 Household settlements ...... 37 3.1.7 Household Size ...... 37 3.1.8 Ethnic Composition ...... 37 3.1.9 Religion ...... 38 3.1.11 Energy Sources for Lighting and Cooking ...... 39 3.1.12 Basic Household Assets ...... 40 3.1.13 Ownership of Dwellings ...... 41 3.1.14 Bank Accounts, Cooperative, MFI, SACCO and Groups savings Accounts ...... 41 3.1.15 Household Current Level of Annual Indebtedness over the Past 3 Years ...... 42 3.2 Social Development ...... 42 3.2.1 Health, Water and Sanitation ...... 42 3.2.2 Access to Health Services ...... 43 3.2.3 Access to water ...... 44 3.2.4 Distance and Time Spent During Water Sourcing...... 44 3.2.5 Safety of drinking Water ...... 45 3.2.6 Toilet /Pit Latrine Facilities ...... 46 3.2.7 Education and Literacy ...... 47
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3.3 Economic Characteristics ...... 48 3.3.1 Income Generation ...... 48 3.3.2 Household Expenditure ...... 50 3.3.3 Land and Property Ownership and Control ...... 50 3.3.4 Women Ownership and Inheritance of Land ...... 51 3.3.5 Livestock Ownership and Control ...... 52 3.4 Agricultural Production ...... 53 3.4.1 Crop Production ...... 53 3.4.2 Agriculture Equipment and Machinery ...... 56 3.4.3 Training and Capacity Building ...... 57 3.4.4 Factors Limiting Agricultural Production ...... 58 3.4.5 Disasters and coping mechanisms...... 58 3.4.6 Food Security ...... 59 h HYPERLINK \l "_Toc404873837" 3.4.7 ...... Access to Media and Publicity 61 3.5 Physical Access to Amenities ...... 62 3.6 Awareness of natural resource information ...... 62 3.7 Community Based Natural Resources Management ...... 63 3.8 Conflict ...... 64 3.8.1 Conflict Resolution Mechanisms...... 65 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 67 4.1 Conclusion ...... 67 4.2 Recommendations ...... 69 REFERENCES ...... 72 ANNEXS ...... 74 Economic Characteristics ...... 86 Labour, Income generation and expenditure ...... 86
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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Administration Units and Number of Respondents Covered by the Survey ...... 18 Table 2: Field work team composition ...... 20 Table 3: Sampling Frame by Data Collection Method ...... 22 Table 4: Respondent sex distribution by household and county ...... 35 Table 5: Age groups of the household heads ...... 35 Table 6: Ethnicity of the respondents ...... 38 Table 7: Religion distribution per County ...... 38 Table 8: Materials used to Construct Dwelling Houses by County ...... 39 Table 9: Energy sources for Lighting and Cooking ...... 39 Table 10: Household cooking places at household level...... 40 Table 11: Level of Indebtedness of Households in the Past Three Years ...... 42 Table 12: Showing the water related illness in the households ...... 43 Table 13: Percentage distribution of the time taken by the household members to fetch water...... 45 Table 14: Main person who collects water in the household by county ...... 45 Table 15: Methods of Making Water Safe for Drinking ...... 45 Table 16: Level of education of the different household heads ...... 47 Table 17: Sources of household income ...... 49 Table 18: Households’ average percentage annual expenditure ...... 50 Table 19: Land Tenure System by County ...... 51 Table 20: Distribution of Livestock among the sampled households ...... 52 Table 21: Distribution of the main crops cultivated in the survey area ...... 53 Table 22: Average Production and earning per crop sale (per year) ...... 54 Table 25: Conflicts in the past 12 months...... 65
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure: 1: Eastern Equatoria showing the counties of study ...... 16 Figure 2: Kinyeti River Watershed ...... 19 Figure 3: Marital status of the household member ...... 36 Figure 5: Sources of credit for the household members ...... 42 Figure 6: Sources of medical treatment for the sick household members...... 43 Figure 7: Number of health workers in the health facilities ...... 44 Figure 8: Main source of drinking water at county level ...... 44 Figure 9: Variation of Water Availability throughout the Year ...... 46 Figure 10: Reasons as to why children were not attending school ...... 47 Figure 11: Perceived right to female ownership by the respondents ...... 51 Figure 12: Women Inheritance of Land by County ...... 52 Figure 13: Comparison between the training in livelihood activities ...... 57 Figure 14: Foods Consumed by Households...... 59 Figure 15: Level of food adequacy over the Year in the households ...... 60 Figure 16: Awareness of Natural Resource Information ...... 61 Figure17: Importance of natural Resources ...... 62 Figure 18: A study of household’s perceptions of would be benefits from Conservancies...... 63 Figure 19: Ways of Reducing Conflicts ...... 65
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LIST OF PICTURES Picture 1: A settlement in Hillieu Boma Himodonge Payam ...... 37 Picture 2: Sorghum growing along Liria Torit road ...... 54 Picture 3: Millet, Beans, G. Nuts and Maize Cereals growing in John Abrahams garden in Hillieu boma 55 Picture 4: Drying Sorghum on an open rack in a homesteads in Hillieu Boma Himodonge Payam ...... 56 Picture 5: Produce still dried on bear ground-Magwi boma in Magwi Payam during a harvest period. ... 56 Picture 6: PIC 8: Women are responsibility for food provision, Moti Boma, Torit ...... 59
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report presents the findings of the Socio-economic Baseline Survey (SES) conducted for the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) in Imatong Mountains Water Tower and Kinyeti River Watershed in Equatoria State (EES) of the Republic of South Sudan.
The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) is an international conservation organization which specializes in environment and sustainable development. AWF received a five year grant from the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (EKN) in Juba to secure the Imatong Mountains Water Tower in Eastern Equatoria State (EES). AWF commissioned Amani Royale (currently Tango Consults) to undertake a socio- economic baseline survey (SES) to generate information on socio-economic conditions within the survey area. The aim of the survey was to enable designing, adopting, and monitoring of efficient and effective programs. The baseline was conducted in three counties of EES: Torit, Ikotos and Magwi.
This survey employed a mixed-methods methodology for data collection, purposely to triangulate information from the various key informants using questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGD). This process provided independent verifications at all levels. A socio-economic profile of the surveyed areas was drawn from primary data through key informants at the household levels. Two Payams in each of these Counties were targeted and two Boma’s from each of the Payams. The number of households, sampled per Boma was twelve (12). Most of the households lived in nuclear families, with the most families married and living together. The average household size was seven (7) members, with most households having between 1-5 Children (below 18 years). The survey showed that the majority of the households were headed by male (79.3%) who fall between 20 to 34 years (28.3%) and 35 to 49 years (48.3 %). Findings showed that there are stable settlements in the Imatong Basin and Kinyeti Watershed as househouseholds reported having lived in the area for an average of 16 years (33.1%).
The area is dominated by the Lotuko (61.4%), the Acholi at 32.4%, Langi were at 4.8% and at Pari 1.4%. As regards to the religious affiliation, the area is predominantly Catholic (77.2%) followed by the Protestants (Anglicans) at 14.5% while Pentecostals were reported at 4.8 % and traditionalists at 3.5%. The members with disability were 3% of the total number of people in the survey area. Households with at least a member of family with special needs (PWSN) accounted for 14.5% with Torit having the highest number at 20.8%, followed by Magwi with14.3% and Ikotos with 8.3%.
The main occupation of the population within EES is agriculture. Most of the households practice subsistence mono agriculture, with some intercropping observed in some areas in Torit. The surplus of the
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produce is sold as a source of household income. The main crops grown are maize (21.4%), cassava (21%) and groundnuts (18.3 %). Agriculture is rudimentary using mostly the hand hoe (97.2%). Majority (70.3%) of the households had never participated in agricultural training programs. Up to 77.2% of the household claimed they did not use improved agricultural techniques such as drip irrigation or improved seeds.
Women dominate the agricultural production sector yet it was revealed that they were constrained by socio- cultural obligations not only limit their productivity, efficiency and effectiveness but also affected the growth of agricultural sector within the region. Men, especially the youth see agriculture as an unprofitable profession and are interested in trades that generate quick income such as charcoal burning, timber sales, and fishing. Households depend on rain fed agriculture yet the area is characterized by erratic rainfall patterns. Other factors limiting agriculture production include limitation of capital, labour, agricultural inputs, access to land, improved agricultural practices. Others are infertile soils, pest and diseases, insecurity, unfavorable climate and laziness. Approximately 67.6 % of the households had been severely affected by natural climatic events such as droughts, floods and landslides in the last 5 years.
Women were responsible for food provision (74.0%) with (72.4%) of the households reported to having two cooked meals each day. Although maize is the most commonly grown, cassava is the most consumed food and greens are the least consumed in the study area. The households experienced inadequate food supply mostly during the months of June, July, August, and December.
Water related illness and diseases were reported in all counties. Torit and Magwi registered the highest at 38.7 % each while Ikotos had the least at 22.6 %. Malaria was the most prevalent water related disease in the area. Poor sanitation were observed, with 60.0% of households not having basic pit latrine while by 67.2% of the households are sharing pit latrines. Pit latrines that were available were of the traditional type (not VIP). Women 82.8 % were responsible for water collection. Interestingly, it was reported that 55.9% of the households reside less than a kilometre away from their source of water. 36.4 % of the households are between 1-3 km away from their source of water and 66.7 % of households’ main source of drinking water was public boreholes. 73.1% of the households in the survey do not take any measures to make their drinking water safe. Of those who do it was revealed that most household (85.7%) accessed treatment from health centres which were located less than 10km from their homes. Approximately 84.1% of the respondents indicated that members travelled on foot to access treatment.
Most households (48.3%) use firewood and straw shrubs for lighting while the major energy source for cooking is firewood (87.9%) and charcoal (28.8%). There was very little mention about alternative sources of energy. Most households (46.2%) listen to messages about conservation from radio /televisions. The majority (75.2%) of the households had never: participated in natural resource meetings or conferences. 56.6 % had never seen posters that conveyed messages about natural resources. That explains why only 50.0% of
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the households felt inclined to contribute to the reduction of threats to forests, wildlife and natural resources. Although 87.6% of the respondents said it was important to conserve natural resources, 55.9% of the sampled households did not want to volunteer land for conservation purposes especially in Torit (70.8%) and Ikotos (56.3%). Approximately 76.4% of the households have not heard of any community conservation group. 36.6% have participated in community based natural resource conservation activities. Of the conservation groups’ membership, 90.0% were reported to be women. Majority (61.4%) of the household heads could read and write (literate). Magwi was found to have the highest % of 77.6% of household heads who have ever attended school. Majority (90.0%) of the children attended public schools and 50.7% of households resided less than three kilometres from schools.
Land ownership within the survey area is very high with 89.7 % in Magwi, 89.6 % in Ikotos and 91.7% in Torit reported to own the land they use or live in. More than a half (52.7%) of households reported having titles for their land with 30.2% of the respondents in Ikotos, 51.2% from Torit and 76.7% from Magwi having titles for their land. It was also found that almost a half (48.5%) of the population held land under the customary tenure system while 40.8 % held land under the freehold land tenure system. Customary tenure in this context is where land is communally owned but with members of the households or community having individualized plots and land for common use such as grazing land. The majority (51.41%) of the households owned between 1-5 acres.
In addition, 55.86% of respondents said women in EES were allowed to own and inherit land. 97.2 % of the respondents reported that they did not own any productive assets such as ox-ploughs and tractors especially in Torit and Ikotos while 64.6 % of the households said they did not own any livestock. It was revealed that households had limited collateral which explains why 93.7% didn’t acquire any loans for agriculture. A total of 93 % of the respondents reported they owned their dwellings. These dwellings are mostly temporary shelters constructed out of mud, timber and grass, or semi-permanent with mud and wattle walls and corrugated iron roofs. The biggest population (82.7%) of the respondents reported to have earth flooring. The findings showed that majority of the households had grass thatched roofs (87.5%) with only 12.4 % of the respondents reported to have houses with corrugated iron sheets.
Approximately 12.4 % of the households reported having personal bank accounts. Sources of credit included village and family savings (22%), farmer’s association groups (5.0%), loans from SACCO/MFI (47.0%), and banks (26.0%). Although respondents revealed that their indebtedness had decreased over the past three years they were uncomfortable to disclose their incomes and expenditure patterns. Upon persuasion however, it was revealed that the sale of farm produce is by far the most important (23.0%) source of income in the household, Torit had 76.2%, Ikotos had 73.7% and Magwi with 89.8%. Sale of timber or forest products was the second most (19.4%) important source of household income especially among households in Torit (76.2%). These findings were consistent with the fact that the survey area largely depends on
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agriculture with a greater focus on crop production and sale of timber or forest products. Plans for soil conservation must therefore seek to address methods of farming as well as diversification of income generation. Additionally the findings revealed that households in the survey area had a monthly expenditure of 102.6SSP ($22.8), less than one dollar a day, suggesting a 50% populace living in absolute poverty.
The findings showed that land (82.6%) is a basis for extensive conflict within the survey area. This was mainly reported in Torit. Land was followed with community and cultural related conflicts (24.4%) mainly in Ikotos, then family related conflicts (20.1%) reported in Magwi, clan conflicts scored 13.1%, cattle rustling 10.9%, pasture 8.7% and fishing 4.4%. Importantly 14.0% of the households had never experienced conflicts and there was no mention of water related conflicts. FGDs reported that there exists wildlife related conflicts; in situations where wild animals attack people and destroy their crops. Such wildlife related conflicts were characterised by monkey attacks on crops with over 98.0% in Ikotos and Torit. FGDs respondents reported presence of leopards, hyenas and bush rats in Torit. Money- related conflicts were reported by household members in Ikotos and Torit. Land is one of the common causes of inter-tribal conflict. It can be concluded therefore that: The households appreciate the environmental challenges threatening the area and they will most readily stay to implement programs that will be introduced Although the people are aware of the environment challenges, there is scanty information with regards to appropriate agricultural methods and natural resources policies With low income and poor saving culture among community, the targeted households are still financially illiterate Members from the communities’ sampled are willing to adopt new development projects Priority should be given to interventions that will sensitize the populace on environmental awareness The community does not appreciate the fact that humans can co-exist with wild animals on the same piece of land.
Several program implications and actions for improving the situation of the surveyed communities have been identified following the analyses provided in this report. They are summarized below:
To address environmental degradation at the local level, natural resources local by-laws should be developed and implemented focusing on vegetation, soils, climate, soil degradation, land management and fire management. With regards to the general management of the food security intervention, it is essential to promote diversification of income, as focusing on agriculture alone to improve access to food will not be sufficient. Additionally since total farm output and productivity are low; it is necessary to identify the
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key constraints affecting agricultural performance in the target areas and implement activities that will help farmers to overcome their production constraints. To achieve soil and water conservation, there is need for pro-active training and capacity building programs on improved agricultural techniques. This can be achieved by working with local government and using extension workers and community based organizations for sustainability. There is a need to improve community sanitation and medical services including capacities for diagnosis and treatment, as well as creating community awareness in preventative measures for malaria, diarrhea, and other water borne diseases. Preventive measures to control malaria transmission such as mosquito nets, treatment/drying up of breeding sites and spraying should be introduced. To improve the income of the target area, interventions on market linkages and price information systems for small scale farmers needs to be carried out. There is also need to carry extensive extension services on good farming practice and marketing of produce to assist the farmers. There is need to do a specialized gender study in the survey area on the gender roles, relationship, decision making and ownership of property. This will enable analysis and establishment of actual practices over ownership of and access to productive assets within the different gender roles across decision making levels. There is need to carry out extension services and interventions of saving and loan associations, trainings on how to start businesses, as well as making the credit facilities accessible. This is crucial for the households as they will be able to access alternative livelihood options and increase their household incomes. Most of the members interviewed had invested their proceeds into household productive assets, food, medical care, school fees and scholastic materials. Education programs should be supported to increase the literacy level in the area. Literacy will be important in changing the communal attitudes on natural resource management and conservation. The projects developed should work through the existing community structures such as the chiefs and community leaders to deliver the program. The research established that the communities have their own mechanisms of how to handle conflict. This in effect strengthens the sustainability mechanisms by creating a link pin between communities and their leaders by fostering social accountability, good governance and transparency. Program delivery through local structures also ensures community led program monitoring, evaluation. Messages on conservation of the natural resources should be aired during the morning and evening hours to target the majority of the households. However due to community gender roles, an early afternoon schedule for a radio program would be suitable. The conservation messages can be run throughout the week using English, Lotuko, Acholi and Juba Arabic.
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1. INTRODUCTION This social-economic baseline is an initiative of the AWF with funding from the EKN to secure the Imatong Mountains Water Tower in EES. AWF’s intervention geographically focuses on River Kinyeti’s upper watershed and its headwater, within the Imatong Central Forest Reserve (ICFR). It is expected that such an intervention will safeguard the water provisioning ecosystem function of the Imatong Mountain forests and their role as a water tower and the upper Kinyeti River’s water catchment area. This survey is part of projects set out within the AWF project. These projects aim at ensuring that key protected areas within the region are functionally connected so that community support within the dispersal areas is realized through higher socio-economic achievements. AWF commissioned Amani Royale (currently Tango Consults) to undertake a socio-economic baseline survey in the Imatong mountains water tower and the Kinyeti watershed to generate information on conditions around the area. This report documents the findings of the baseline survey.
1.1 Background Since independence in 2011, South Sudan’s’ leadership is working towards re-building a country whose social, economic, political and cultural fabric was ruined by decades of civil war. The rebuilding process has seen the review and reform of policies and laws. The key policy document is the South Sudan Development Plan (SSDP) whose theme is “Realising Freedom, Equality, Justice and Prosperity for All”, which sets out a medium-term agenda for development process. The SSDP is a transparent framework for on-going design and appraisal of new government policies and programmes; and, for evaluating whether expenditures are delivering planned results and value for money. The objectives of SSDP relate in various ways to conservation of the environment and related interventions. The most direct relationship lies in objective two, which seeks to promote economic growth and sustainable development and improve livelihoods to reduce poverty. Objective three aims at promoting the well- being and dignity of people through access to basic social services.
In order to roll out environmental conservation and sustainable development, the government has put in place environmental laws that decentralize environmental management to local governments, a fact that is instrumental for AWF to implement its programmes in the Imatong Mountains Water Tower and Kinyeti River Watershed (IKW). There is an Environmental Protection Act that enforces violation of the environment, which will apply when strict conservation practices begin to be implemented.
The survey area was in specified counties along the IKW, within EES. The EES borders Central Equatoria State to the West, Uganda and Kenya to the South, Ethiopia to the East and Jonglei State to the North. The
EES is made up of 8 Counties which consist of Magwi, Lopa/Lafon, Ikotos, Torit, Budi, Kapoeta East, Kapoeta North and Kapoeta South. Although Ikotos, Torit and Lafon counties are the most affected by the Kinyeti Watershed, and indeed were proposed as the survey sites, Lafon was replaced by Magwi which is on the Ateppi River Watershed which also originates from the Imatong Mountain Water Tower. The decision was based on the fact that during the field work period, Lafon was inaccessible due to the heavy rains and insecurity because of the ongoing intertribal clashes within the county. While the team was on ground 11 people were killed in the area and the State leadership advised against travelling there. Although Magwi County does not lie directly in the Kinyeti watershed, its alternative yields accurate information because the county lies within a watershed (Ateppi river/watershed). Although the findings revealed that Magwi County presented a relatively competitive age over other two counties in terms of social-economic characteristics, the findings obtained presented triangulation opportunities.
The Imatong Central Forest Reserve lies on the South Sudan-Uganda border, about 190 km south-east of Juba, between latitudes 30 45' and 40 10' N and longitudes 320 30' and 330 10' E. The Imatong mountains lie south of the main road from Torit to the Kenyan border town of Lokichoggio. The reserve, which includes most of the Imatong and Acholi mountain ranges, covers about 1,032 square kilometers. The mountains are in the EES and extend into Northern Uganda. See figure 1 below
Figure: 1: Eastern Equatoria showing the counties of study
The Imatong Mountains and the Kinyeti Watershed lie within EES of South Sudan. The area experiences a tropical wet and dry climate with abundant rainfall in the months of April to November.
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The Kinyeti River flows northward from the Imatong Mountains eventually dispersing into Badigeru Swamps. A large part of the mountain range contains the Imatong Central Forest Reserve (ICFR).
Since the enactment of the Sudan Forest Act in 1989, residents within EES have been prohibited from accessing the forest reserve. Entering the forest reserve is illegal except for management. Today however, the majority of the occupants of the Imatong Mountains are heavily dependent on the forest reserve for timber, firewood, charcoal, honey, bush meat and arable land. Such activities account for the income generation, and survival of people within the region.
The degradation of the Imatong Forest reserve started in the 1940s as a result of the forestry project in the Kinyeti basin that was funded by the British colonial administration. This project allowed residents to clear the native trees and natural forest habitats and replace them by the commercial fast-growing softwoods like pines and cyprus. Although the Forest Act later prohibited access to the forest reserve in 1989, the forest was not protected during the civil wars. Consequently the mountainous areas continued to attract increased human settlement. As a result, environmental degradation, particularly hillside erosion and misuse of forest resources have increased over the past years. The poor methods of soil and water management have also led to degradation of the soil and reduction in the water supply of the IKW. Imatong Mountains Water Tower and the Kinyeti River Watershed.
Over the last decade, the area has experienced droughts, inconsistent rainfall patterns and floods that have affected food production and responsible for numerous health ailments that result from water contamination and deteriorated hygiene conditions of the area (Red Cross 2010). While the forest game has reduced significantly due to changes in flora and fauna, an increased number of people still depend on the hunting for food and income. Although not a focus of this study, qualitative respondents revealed that poaching was one of the major income generating activities with fear that frequency of poaching episodes were bound to deplete the forest game. In addition to poaching, the residents are engaged in hillside farming and that explains why this activity has led to soil erosion along the mountainous slopes.
The poor eroded soils and scanty rainfall has led to significant reduction in crop yields over the years. This is affecting the food security for humans and animals and forcing intra and extra community’s competition for pasture and water. The respondents expressed fear that the poverty levels are likely to increase that may lead to tensions. The peoples’ livelihood is dependent on agriculture and therefore the sustainability of the Imatong Mountains Water Tower is crucial for community survival. The lower part and the mouth of Kinyeti River is an area with high biodiversity value. By ensuring permanent water flow in the Kinyeti River, sustainability of livelihoods within the survey area will be upheld. Interventions are therefore urgently needed to address the unregulated use of water and other natural resources within the watershed.
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Regulation of environmental protection must be put in context. While it is important to address human action on the environment, it must be considered that people in these communities are poor and depend largely on the environment for their survival. According to the population analysis in the SSDP, 55% of those living in rural areas fall below the poverty line while 24 % of people living in urban areas are poor. Majority of the population in South Sudan (84%) live in rural areas, thus the highest percentage of the poor (93%) is also in the in rural areas. Co-existent actions should be put in place in conservation interventions. An effective and efficient programme requires baseline information that informs its interventions and provides indicators for monitoring progress.
1.2 Objective of the Socio-economic Baseline Survey The objective of this baseline survey is to collect socio-economic data on conditions around Imatong forest and Kinyeti watershed in South Sudan to help AWF design effective programs, monitor success and adapt programs as needed. The specific objectives are to: a) Collect socio-economic data from the targeted survey areas. b) Analyze and profile natural resource users differentiated by resource use, gender, age and origin. c) To determine the socio-economic dependency of people living in the project area on land, forest and water resources especially with a gender lens. d) To explore suitable restoration and conservation strategies based on current use and value attached to land, forest and water resources. e) To provide a monitoring framework to assess project impact during the project mid-term review and end of project evaluation.
1.3 Scope of Work The baseline was conducted in three Counties of Torit, Ikotos and Magwi. Two Payams in each of these units were targeted and two Boma’s from each of the Payams. The table below provides the details of the administrative units targeted during the baseline survey.
Table 1: Administration Units and Number of Respondents Covered by the Survey Counties Ikotos Torit Magwi Payams Katire Imatong Ifwotur Himodonge Magwi Lobonye Boma Katie Imilai Hiniso Humadongi Moti Gunyoro Hillieu Eorohore Magwi Miika Palvari Pasok Male 35 30 34 Male 13 18 15 Total 48 48 49
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Figure 2: Kinyeti River Watershed
1.4 Methodology The survey was conducted with consultations from Governments of South Sudan (GOSS) and EES, AWF staff, State Ministries for Local Government, Law Enforcement and Wildlife Conservation; Finance and Economic Planning; Agriculture and Forestry; Health; and Youth and Sports. All protocols and necessary approvals for carrying out research and surveys in South was done. Clearance was got from the South Sudan Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture and EES Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and Local Government, Law Enforcement and Wildlife Conservation. The two entities gave introductory letters that enabled the research team to conduct the research at all levels of the administrative structure.1
At the community level the survey team engaged with county commissioners, payam administrators, boma chiefs, wildlife/forest officials, police and chiefs. This survey employed a mixed-methods approach for collection of data. Quantitative methods were used to data on socio-economic levels at the households while the qualitative methods were used to collect data on community perceptions using FGDs and individual in-depth interviews (IDI).
1 The SSCCA wrote a letter to the EES Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs introducing Amani Royale/Tango Consult and requesting for approval to conduct the baseline survey in the state. The EES Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs after consultations with the EES Ministry of Local Government, Law Enforcement and Wildlife Conservation advised against going to Lafon and instead proposed Magwi. 19
The study started with an extensive literature review on the subject matter and the areas. This was followed by administration of 145 structured interviews to household heads. Similarly, 15 IDIs/KIIs and 11 FGDs were conducted. The respondents were mainly household heads and community members whose livelihoods and health is wholly dependent on sustainability of the IKW. The respondents were balanced to include an almost homogenous blend of youth, women and men. Senior officials in relevant government departments (state and local), private sector NGOs/businesses and other relevant development agencies working in the area were also part of participants.
Tango consults worked in close consultation and with the guidance of the client (AWF), key stakeholders and communities. The consultations revolved around actual site selection, sampling, timing of survey and best ways of accessing the communities. Participation of the stakeholders was seen as key for purposes of effectiveness and ownership of the outcomes of the survey as well as the subsequent project implementation by AWF. The mixed-methods methodology was purposely adopted to triangulate information from the various sources to provide independent verifications and reliability on the findings at all levels. Triangulation increased reliability of the findings provided in the report thus a data source that gives AWF background information appropriate to implementation of its project.
1.4.1 Team Composition and Logistics The research team composition was as in the table below:
Table 2: Field work team composition
Field Team Number of persons
Field manager 1
Field coordinators and Supervisors 5 Note taker 3
FGD moderator 3 Focal persons 3
Enumerators 15
IDI interviewers 3
1.4.2 Logistics A survey guide was developed which directed the team throughout the exercise and provided basic instructions. The area was expansive in nature and the weather condition at the time was characterised by heavy rains therefore, four vehicles were used during the execution of the study. Other supplies used included stationary such as note books, flip charts, pencils, rubbers, umbrellas, clear files, paper bags,
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and pens. Due to the sparseness and inaccessibility of the homes, boda boda motorcycle transport was also used to transport the enumerators to the sampled households.
1.4.3 Training of the Field Team and Piloting of survey A one day training was conducted by Tango Consult before commencement of field work. A total of 5 field coordinators and supervisors, 3 focal persons and 15 enumerators (5 per county) were trained. The enumerators included 1 FGD moderator, 1 note taker, and 1 IDI interviewer per county. The field coordinators and supervisors conducted the FGDs and the IDIs. After the training sessions, the field team went ahead to carry out the pretesting or piloting of the all the study tools with supervision from the research leaders. The pre-testing exercise was carried out in Torit because participating households shared similar characteristics as the rest of the selected survey areas including language and dialects.
1.4.4 Sampling This baseline survey employed a pre-determined four-stage sampling procedure outlined below: a) Selection of the primary sampling units/clusters served by the watershed. Up to 30% of the clusters within each of the three watershed zones were selected using probability proportionate to size. Three replacement clusters were also selected in agreement to fill the gaps in case any of the originally selected clusters were inaccessible for one reason or another. b) Selection of enumeration areas (EA) at boma area within the selected primary sampling units: A random sample of 4 enumeration areas from each of the randomly selected clusters was done. c) A random selection of 20 households2 within each EA following the generally accepted practice. d) Random selection of household heads was based on the 50-50 gender rule from within each selected households. One household head of either sex per household responded to questionnaire. This balanced selection was meant to ensure that information was received from men and women. Appropriate representation of the youth in the sample was also considered.
For the survey, three counties were selected as a representative sample. The counties selected were; Ikotos (upper watershed), Torit (middle watershed) and Magwi. Magwi replaced Lapo/Lafon because it was inaccessible due to first, insecurity and second, heavy rains during the time of the fieldwork. The State finance ministry which was to give letters introducing the Tango Consults research team to the county and payam leaders advised against Lafon because even government vehicles were not allowed to travel there at the time due to the insecurity caused by the ongoing conflict between the Lopit and Pari communities. In a meeting between the state minister for finance and economic planning, local government, AWF field office and Tango Consults team it was agreed that Magwi County (specifically Magwi and Lobonye payams) should replace Lafon. Magwi is within the Ateppi River Watershed, a catchment of the Kinyeti Watershed, which
2A household was defined as “people eating from the same pot.” 21
originates form the Imatong Mountain. As indicated in the scope, 2 Payams were targeted per County and in each Payam, 2 Bomas were sampled.
The decision to conduct the study in these counties, payams, bomas and villages were reached after consultations with the State, County, Payam and AWF field staff. The criteria based itself, in addition to other factors such as accessibility, security, socio-economic activities, language, cultural practices and the AWF project area. The total sample was 277 respondents where 145 were for quantitative and 137 respondents for qualitative components distributed as follows:
Table 3: Sampling Frame by Data Collection Method
Sample composition Method of data collection Total Males Females Quantitative/ questionnaire 99 46 145 Qualitative (15 IDI/ KII) 8 7 15 Qualitative (11 FGDs) 54 63 117 Total 161 116 277
The initial indicative sampling frame and sample size was dependent on the population in the study area, sex, and age. There was a deliberate effort to ensure a 50% representation by females and males was met. Of paramount importance was inclusion of respondents aged 16-30 years in line with the 2008 South Sudan population census results. This sampling frame could not be sustained because the survey was conducted during the rainy season and most of the women were working in the fields. Therefore the field team did not interview the proposed female respondents. Consequently, 68% male and 32% female respondents were interviewed as opposed to the planned parity of numbers. Nevertheless the field team felt that the data collected from the 32% female participants was representative of the sample size. This discrepancy were corrected in the FGDs where with the assistance of the chiefs, 63 out of the 117 respondents were females amounting to 46% male and 54% female. Most of the IDIs were done in Torit which is the state capital where most government offices are based.
1.4.5 The Fieldwork Enumerators conducted interviews in all areas of the village starting from the central location and randomly interviewing households within the selected Bomas in Torit. In Magwi and Ikotos counties houses were selected purposively in order to focus on the study population that showed characteristics that were relevant to the scope. In sparsely populated areas, the teams interviewed every second household. With the participation of the entire study team, data collection begun in Torit, which is centrally located and also the
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state capital and moved into Magwi and Ikotos with lessons acquired from Torit. This helped supervisors and enumerators to get the experience to be used in other sites.
1.4.6 Administration of the Structured Questionnaires The structured household questionnaire (see Annex 2), was designed to investigate demographics of the population, socio-economic characteristics, physical access to amenities and community based natural resource knowledge and management. While the general tool was administered to members of the community: women, men & youth of both gender, FGD and IDI schedules were administered to government officials, community leaders and natural resources & livelihoods actors for triangulation of community findings with technical issues from the service providers. This was to capture the level of capacity and structure of public services provided to the Boma. Interviews were held in English, local languages mainly Lotuko, Acholi, Pari, Langi and Juba Arabic depending on the respondent’s preference.
1.4.7 Administration of the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The FGDs was selected as a methodology to obtain perspectives and opinions in an interactive setting that encouraged open and free discussions where participants expressed their views thus generating a wealth of information that would be used to qualify findings from the quantitative analysis. FDGs sought to use the experience of the targeted communities in the area to tease out key issue to realize the objectives of the baseline survey. Four groups were identified to be crucial. They included farmers, non- farmers, youth and vulnerable groups3 such as women, elderly and persons with disability. The FGDs were organized by the chiefs and focal points under the direction of Tango Consult supervisors and coordinators. The discussants constituted a diverse group of mixed groups and women’s groups from each County where the FGDs were conducted. A total of 11 FGDs of about 8-12 people [Ikotos (4), Torit (3) and Magwi (4)] were conducted. In total 63 females and 54 males participated in the FGDs.
1.4.8 In-depth Interviews (IDIs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) IDIs and KIIs were conducted with state (9), local government (3), community (5), private sector (2) and civil society officials (2). The IDIs/KIIs targeted national, state, local government, community, private sector and civil society officials.
1.4.9 Review of Secondary Information The baseline survey employed the secondary data as well. Although information on South Sudan is still scarce in study reports and internet sources, Tango Consults referred to available data from the inception of the assignment. Available literature informed development of the study instruments, data collection, analysis and report writing.
3 Vulnerable groups were selected as a category of individuals who experienced a higher risk of socio-economic inadequacy as a result of disasters such as floods and social exclusion than the general population: these groups included women, and persons with disability.
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1.4.10 Other approaches and tools Other approaches included consultation with representatives; Payam representatives (mainly district Resource Officers). Other stakeholders that were consulted included the Executive Directors and /or their selected representatives from Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) such as Caritas and SNV South Sudan that are funding activities in the respective areas.
1.4.11 Quality Assurance The field team coordinators re-checked and reviewed all the questionnaires before leaving the villages to ensure accuracy and quality of the data collected. Tango Consult field manager monitoring expert also joined the survey team in their first days field work to kick the process. The field manager also conducted a repeat interview in selected households to ensure quality of the data. A review meeting was held on the completion of the first day field work in order to ensure that the survey teams understood the questionnaire perfectly and carried out the interviews and FGDs according to the survey guidelines.
1.4.12 Data entry /cleaning/ processing and analysis Tango Consults has an in-house data entry staff and the required data entry hardware and software. The data analyst supervised data entry and carried out data cleaning by using different tests to ensure accuracy of data. Data analysis was done using STATA Version (13) Generated data were interpreted and narrated by technical experts, field manager and field coordinators. The data set is available in a CD-ROM.
1.4.13 Limitations of the study a) Due to the adverse weather conditions, fieldwork took 18 days instead of the 10 days originally planned. The survey was conducted during the rainy season (in times of heavy rains and floods). Roads were inaccessible and the team got stuck on two occasions and spent two days on the road on each occasion. This affected the start of the field work. It also slowed down the data collection and on some days the teams would fail to access the communities completely. b) The population is sparse and this meant covering long distances to access the sampled households. In events such as this, the work went on however with difficulty since the enumerators were familiar with the locations and villages with good knowledge of boundaries. This enabled them to stay within the sampled area in spite of the sparse population. c) The study area had poor terrain, swampy areas. This was coupled with bad roads with potholes slowed down the data collection.
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2 INSTITUTIONAL, POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK The institutional, policy and legal framework development for South Sudan was interrupted by the breakout of internal conflict in December 2013. A major challenge for GOSS in the near future will be to keep the focus on working towards a better and sustainable future for the country and all its citizens, and to keep individual administrators away from the temptations that may be posed by private investors to orient decisions in their advantage, or even to use their position for their own profit.
2.1 Institutional Framework South Sudan has five administrative levels, namely; (a) national level, (b) State, (c) county, (d) Payam and (e) Boma. The Government of South Sudan has different ministries at both national and state levels working on issues related to the environment. Ministries related to environment and natural resources within the EES include State ministries for; local government, law enforcement and wildlife conservation; agriculture and forestry and directorates of environment, petroleum and mining, finance and economic planning, Information, broadcasting and telecommunication. In addition, state ministries responsible for finance, rural development, and physical planning, dams, bridges and road infrastructure have an important role to play in assuring effective management of natural resources and the environment.
2.1.1 Ministry of Interior and Wildlife Conservation The ministry is responsible for among others maintaining internal security, conservation of wildlife and handling national disaster management. It houses the national police, prisons and wildlife services.
2.1.2 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Tourism, Animal Resources, Fisheries, Cooperatives and Rural Development The Agriculture, Forestry, Tourism, Animal Resources, Fisheries, Cooperatives and Rural Development is responsible for agriculture and food security planning, policies and strategies formulation. It has the mandate to coordinate food security activities and information at national and state levels. It chairs the Food Security and Livelihood Cluster at both the national and state levels. The Agriculture Sector Policy Framework (2012/2016), the South Sudan Development Plan (April 2011), the Transitional Constitution of The Republic of South Sudan (RSS) (2011), and the South Sudan’s Vision 2040 are the major guiding frameworks for achieving food security. The Ministry is responsible for:
Formulation of legislation, policies, standards, and plans for the development of agriculture and forestry sector; Prevention of environment degradation through tree planting, soil and water conservation and proper utilization of agricultural land;
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Promotion of sustainable use of natural resources for agricultural and forestry production including non-timber forest products; Creation of a national food policy to ensure adequate food availability throughout South Sudan; Training, agricultural extension service, research, disease control, agricultural micro finance/credit, and regulation of sale and use of agricultural chemicals and phytosanitary; Collect agricultural, animal and forestry production data and their socio-economic impact on incomes and well-being; and Provide technical assistance and training to State governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for agriculture and forestry matters
2.1.3 Ministry of Electricity, Dams, Irrigation, and Water Resources The Ministry of Electricity, Dams, Irrigation, and Water Resources is mandated to carry out and supervise irrigation and hydropower development, water storage, provision of access to sufficient safe water, ecosystem balancing, flood control, and safeguarding against physical obstruction and pollutants. It carries out formulation of policies, laws, guidelines and plans for water resources development, utilization, conservation and management in South Sudan. The Ministry is responsible for water management and supply for crops, fisheries, livestock, wildlife and humans; hydropower generation; navigation enhancement; protection of water sources and water bodies from pollution; and watershed management (including water, soil vegetation conservation). The Ministry’s major roles are: Coordination and Development of policies, strategies and Regulations. Establishment and management of warning systems, pertaining to water occurrence, leading to reduction of flood risks and mitigation of droughts. Ensuring and overseeing efficient and effective provision of water supply and sanitation in rural and urban areas Mapping and quantification of water resources; through conducting of fundamental and applied researches pertaining to hydrological studies of rivers and groundwater aquifers. Conducting feasibility studies for future projects and training of technical cadre. Coordination of hydrological studies of trans-boundary rivers; and Design, implementation, supervision, operation and maintenance of water works, including: canals for irrigating and draining agricultural fields; embankment of dykes and levees for flood control; excavation of hafiirs for harvesting water; dams for storing water and generating
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electricity; establishment of benchmarks and gauges for measuring water levels, discharges, extraction and Recharge; and river draining and remodeling measures. The Ministry has seven technical directorates including that for administration and finance, water resources management and coordination, hydrology and survey, planning and projects, Irrigation and drainage, rural water supply and sanitation and states’ directorates of water and sanitation. The Ministry has developed the South Sudan Water Policy whose goal is to support social development and economic growth by promoting efficient, equitable and sustainable development and use of available water resources, and effective delivery of water and sanitation services in South Sudan.
2.1.4 Ministry of Environment The Ministry of Environment is a key agency responsible for the development and implementation of environmental policy and legislation, performing the following functions and duties: . Develop and execute policies and programmes on environmental protection and conservation throughout South Sudan; . Establish the Government’s environmental policy and monitor its effectiveness and impact; . Create programmes, in collaboration with other ministries, for the control of environmental degradation and control of desertification; . Develop Environmental Impact Assessment standard methodologies and procedures for Government development policies and for private sector investment; . Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for environment and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy; . Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for environmental protection and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy.
The government structures at the state levels are somehow different with those of the national levels. At the level of the states and local governments, environmental governance has not yet been shaped. States have environmental directorates attached to one of their ministries. In Eastern Equatoria, the Directorate of Environment is part of the State Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism. The EES also has the Environmental Task Force, composed of representatives of all state line ministries. Its role is joint planning of natural resources issues, and it meets monthly.
2.1.5 South Sudan Land Commission The Land Commission is an independent agency within the Government, responsible for the management of land, involving issues such as ownership, registration, conflict resolution and
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development of policy and legislation in this regard. It is a crucial entity for the coordination of management of the environment as well as of natural resources. The commission has a partnership with UN-HABITAT. The Land Act 2009 lays out an institutional arrangement for land management at the lower administrative levels, but this has not yet been put in place in Eastern Equatoria unlike Central Equatoria which has its own land commission.
2.1.6 Natural Resource Management and Environment Working Groups To support coordination of policy development and technical support two working groups have been established the Natural Resources Management Group and the Environment Cluster Group.
2.1.6.1 Natural Resources Management Group The aim of the Natural Resource Management Group (NRMG) is to ensure holistic and integrated management of South Sudan’s natural resources for sustainable development. The NRMG is mainly comprised of seven Government ministries and the South Sudan Land Commission: a) Agriculture, Forestry, Tourism & Animal Resources, Cooperatives & Rural Development, b) Ministry of Environment, c) Ministry of Land, Housing and Physical Planning, d) Ministry of Interior and Wildlife Conservation, e) Ministry of Transport, Roads and Bridges, f) Ministry of Petroleum, Mining and Industry, g) Ministry of Commerce and Industry, h) Ministry of Electricity, Dams, Irrigation & Water Resources, i) Ministry of Finance, Commerce and Economic Planning and ,South Sudan Commission
2.1.6.2 Environment Cluster Group The Environment Cluster Group (ECG), formed by development partners including UN agencies and NGOs, was established to assist the Ministry of Environment in identifying and addressing significant environmental issues in South Sudan, and ensure that the Ministry of Environment is effective in coordinating its development partners through knowledge sharing, formation of partnerships, and provision of collaborative support. The ECG creates an opportunity for development partners to provide a coordinated approach in support of the Government that enable joint activities to be taken in identifying solutions to existing and newly emerging environmental issues.
2.1.7 Traditional Authorities Traditional authorities still play an important role in South Sudanese society that should not be overlooked. The traditional system often has three levels: local chiefs, paramount chiefs and king. Traditional authorities
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play a role in various fields such as social-related legal issues. They also enforce traditional regulations on resource use. They preside over allocation and sale of community land. Other examples in Imatong area include the obligation to return any small fish caught to the water, regulations for the use of forest fires, and the protection of certain wildlife and tree species. Traditional authorities collect fines from trespassers and taxes from resource users, such as pastoralists using their territory for the grazing of livestock.
2.1.8 Policy and Regulatory Framework The fundamental policy framework is the Transition Constitution of South Sudan. Most of the environmental related policies and laws are drafts in the final consultation and approval phase. Policies and legislation at lower levels follow after those at national level and therefore an analysis of the lower administrative levels is even more restricted. EES has its own State Transition Constitution that follows the Transition Constitution of South Sudan.
2.2.1 South Sudan Development Plan (SSDP) The main guiding document for the development of the country is the South Sudan Development Plan which addresses conflict management, poverty reduction and economic development. One of the goals of the document is to strive for less dependence on oil. The Government’s role is not to undertake economic activities itself, but to create an enabling environment for economic development by assuring peace, security, rule of law, macroeconomic stability, basic infrastructure and effective tax administration (GOSS, 2011). The SSDP is structured through four ‘Pillars’, namely: (a) governance, (b) economic development, (c) social and human development, and (d) conflict prevention and security. Within these pillars, cross cutting issues are defined as (1) anti-corruption, (2) capacity development, (3) environment, (4) gender, (5) HIV and AIDS, (6) youth, and (7) human rights.
Under the Governance Pillar, the Government’s role is to: Ensure that development is sustainable through enforcing environmental and social impact assessments for all development programmes and projects; Accede to and ratify applicable and beneficial multilateral environmental treaties, conventions and agreements; and Promote inclusive participation, access to information and good governance in sustainable natural resources management and environmental protection.
The Economic Development Pillar covers the following priority programme areas: Agriculture and forestry, Roads and road transport development, Development of energy, mineral and mining sectors (including oil),
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Animal resources and fisheries, and Water resources management, development, utilization and provision of sanitation services.
Environmental sustainability of economic development and related activities including oil extraction, logging and charcoal production is to be ensured. The use of environmental impact assessments (EIAs) is required for infrastructure and power supply development.
The Social and Human Development Pillar envisages environmental awareness-raising of children, and improved health and sanitation facilities focusing particularly on the youth. A national early warning system will be developed to reduce risks of disasters.
The Conflict Prevention and Security Pillar will ensure environmental awareness-raising of disarmament, demobilization, reintegration (DDR) participants as well as the requirement of EIAs for all major construction projects, adherence to climate change, adaptation strategies, and risks of climate change to livelihood, security and economic development.
The draft South Sudan National Environmental Policy, 2010 is intended to achieve sustainable development. Once enacted the policy will provide a roadmap for addressing environmental issues in light of the following factors:
The likely huge investment and development activities following a peace agreement and formation of a national unity government; Emerging environmental management challenges pertaining to diversion of land use systems, urban sprawl, mineral exploration, loss of biodiversity, waste management and others; Ineffective environmental governance due to inadequate institutional capacity and limited government budgetary allocation for environment; The need to harmonize the environmental legal frameworks with sectorial legislation and guidelines at both national and state levels; The need to decentralize and devolve management of the environment to the lower levels of government within the framework of the likely federal system rule following a peace agreement; The current state of environmental degradation as manifested in increasing loss of biodiversity due to over-exploitation of forests and inadequate sanitation associated with urban sprawl; Lack of reliable information and data on the environment and limited research capacity.
The policy is based on the following principles: good governance, sustainable development, prevention, subsidiarity, the precautionary principle, scientific knowledge, skills and expertise, and ‘The Polluter
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Pays’. The policy gives guidance to all relevant sectors: agriculture, biodiversity, energy, fisheries, forestry, health, human settlements, industry, livestock, mining, oil, roads, tourism, transportation, water and sanitation. It emphasizes the importance of carrying out Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) in relation to any activity that may affect the environment.
2.2.2 Environmental Protection Bill, 2010 The arrangements required for the implementation of the environmental policy are elaborated in the Environmental Protection Bill 2010 whose passage was affected by the current conflict which has made government to prioritize security. Relevant provisions are:
The establishment of the South Sudan National Environmental Authority (Clause 8); The arrangements for the integration and mainstreaming of the environmental policy in line ministries and lower level governments through Environmental Liaison Units and State Environmental Committees and Local Environmental Committees (Clauses 23-27); The elaboration and implementation of the 5-yearly Environmental Action Plan (Article 28); The implementation of EIA, EIS, environmental audits and monitoring (Articles 29-33); Land use planning (Article 42); The protection of wetlands, lakes, rivers, hilly and mountainous areas, biodiversity, forests, rangelands, natural heritage and the ozone layer (Articles 43-55).
2.2.3 South Sudan Water Policy, 2007 The Water Policy approved in 2007 represents an important first step towards the establishment of a comprehensive regulatory framework for rational management and utilization of water resources and effective delivery of water services in Southern Sudan. The overall goal of the GOSS Water Policy is to support social development and economic growth by promoting efficient, equitable and sustainable development and use of available water resources, and effective delivery of water and sanitation services in South Sudan. The policy has a specific sub policy that addresses the issues of Water Resources Management (WRM), Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS), and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation (UWSS).
The policy establishes basic principles and objectives to guide future water sector development. It aims to provide greater clarity to the sector entities, to reduce institutional fragmentation, to attract external investment, to support the emergence of effective government structures, and to support interventions in other sectors. It provides a framework for optimal allocation of available water resources in Southern Sudan on an equitable and sustainable basis. Importantly, the policy calls for a holistic sector-wide approach and provides a foundation for future development of more detailed strategies, which will set out the institutional,
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administrative, technical and financial arrangements for policy implementation (including establishment of appropriate management structures such as a Water Council, Water Boards, or Water Committees).
Several plans have been developed to implement the policy. These include the Strategic Framework for Water, Sanitation and Health (2011); the National Rural Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Subsector Action and Investment Plan (2012-2015). The National Rural Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Sub-sector Action and Investment Plan that is designed to implement the policy, highlights the need for participatory community-based processes, developing effective local management structures to increase community ownership, development and involvement of the private sector, improving local governance and the inclusion of women, children and vulnerable groups in the planning and development of rural WASH activities. These policies and plans provides the basis for any conservation intervention in South Sudan. The AWF project should focus on how it can contribute to achieving the goals of these plans.
2.2.4 The Draft Forestry Policy, 2012 The Forestry Policy provides a framework for management of forests at national, state and local levels across the Republic of South Sudan. The policy recognises the importance of forests for commerce, communities and conservation. It mandates the South Sudan Forest Commission (SSFC) to provide regulations and operational standards for a vibrant forest sector while the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Cooperatives and Rural Development (MAFCRD) provide oversight. The policy spells out ownership and management responsibilities of forest reserves. It gives ownership and management of National Forest Reserves (formerly known as Central Forest Reserves) to the national government. It also gives ownership and management of forests on communal land to the communities through community forestry and agro-forestry practices. The policy defines forest revenue collection and sharing at different levels and encourages that such arrangements should take into account ownership, responsibility and inputs in forest management such as protecting the rights of local communities.
The key point here for AWF is the recognition of the community as a major stakeholder in the sustainable management of the forest that requires the national and state governments to enter into collaborative forest management agreements and arrangements with communities, in order to manage forests sustainably and in a way that ensures increased benefits to communities. This means that AWF project will have to enter into arrangements and agreements not only with the national or state governments but also with the communities.
2.2.5 The Land Act 2009 The Land Act was enacted in 2009 and it is another crucial legal document in relation to sustainable environmental management. The Land Act classifies land as (a) communal, (b) public, or (c) private
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land. Only South Sudanese citizens can own land, but foreigners can lease land. The Act defines rights and restrictions of land users and owners. The Land Commission supervises the application of the Land Act and its institutional set-up at the different administrative levels is elaborated in the Act. The Act prescribes Environment impact Assessment (EIA) for investment projects, but there are no elaborate provisions for land use planning such as land use categories or planning and allocation procedures. A Land Policy is still under development and it will include some amendments to the Land Act.
2.2 Legal and Institutional Challenges
2.3.1 Policy implementation
The South Sudan National Environmental Policy and Environmental Bill provide a very good basis for sustainable environmental management of the country, covering practically all required issues. The Challenge, however, will be its implementation. The Bill is well elaborated, but it refers to a long list of tasks to be accomplished before it can actually be fully implemented:
Completion of orders, regulations, standards, criteria, measures, mapping, registers, and prescriptions as mentioned in the Bill; Establishment of institutional capacity, regulations and commitment at the lower administrative levels (Environmental Liaison Units and State Environmental Committees and Local Environmental Committees); Realization of capacity (including financial resources) for monitoring and law enforcement.
One of the most crucial threats in the immediate future is that the Environmental Bill has not yet been endorsed, so investments and development affecting the environment continue without being assessed and guided. As the originating and coordinating body for the Environmental Bill, the Ministry of Environment is tasked with presenting the Bill to the Council of Ministers for endorsement. It is of paramount importance that an immediate and concerted effort is made by the ministry have the Bill endorsed. But with the ongoing conflict issues of environment are not in the high priority of government at the moment and passage of this bill is likely to further delay.
2.3.2 Need of Integration of Policies and Institutions Most natural resources management related sectoral policies are very sector-oriented. The environment is recognized by several policies and the SSDP as a cross cutting issue to take into account in programming. Several policies such as the Electric Power Policy and Petroleum Policy and laws such as the Mining Act, Petroleum Act, explicitly mention the importance of EIAs. However, generally land and natural resources are regarded only from the perspective of how they are interact with each sector, instead of being considered as
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a common asset to be managed by the sectors jointly to achieve a wise, fair and sustainable development of the country’s wealth for all. As a result, each sector devolves a part or all the cost of its development to other sectors. Examples are (a) charcoal burners destroying resources for livestock keepers and Non-Timber Produce (NTP) collectors, (b) livestock keepers burning tree seedlings of future forest users, (c) dam builders degrading floodplains of livestock keepers and fishers, etc.
The effectiveness of an EIA to achieve integrated development has limitations. An EIA is effective for the correction of project plans and the mitigation of its expected negative effects. However, it does not optimize resource use strategies and policies taking all sectors into account in an integrated way. The tools used to realize integrated policy development leading to sustainable natural resources management and climate change adaptation and mitigation are the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) or Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA).
2.3.3 Community Participation in Natural Resources Management The concept of Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), has not yet been used in South Sudan. This concept is particularly effective to facilitate the involvement of local communities in the management of restricted use areas, such as protected areas, forest reserves, buffer zones and corridors. A successful application in the East African region of this approach was in the Amboseli and Maasai Mara Reserves and other game parks in Kenya where several communities owned conservancies have been established. In view of the large wildlife areas to be managed in both the east and west of the country, the development of this approach could be beneficial for both communities and government agencies responsible for resource protection. This approach also fits in well in a decentralized governance model. Indirectly linked to resource-use planning are urbanization, migration and population growth. Although the SSDP deals extensively with health and the large proportion of the population that needs to be educated, there is no reference to population policy.
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3 FINDINGS
3.1. Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics The Imatong Mountain Basin and Kinyeti Watershed runs through EES and includes the areas of Ikotos, Torit Counties. Magwi County however runs along Ateppi river watershed. The area is inhabited by Nilotic ethnic groups such as the Acholi, Lango and Lotuko. The Lotuko however form the dominant ethnic group with 61.4 % although these groups are further distinguished by several dialects. Reports indicate that there have been significant demographic changes in the Imatong Mountains and Kinyeti water basins associated with conflict between competing groups and increased pressure on the environment. There is however no data to support this trend since the results of the 2008 population census were disputed by the Southern Sudanese officials.
3.1.1 Household size and Composition The analysis of the socio-economic data shows that the majority of the respondents were male (79.3%). This was mainly because many of the women were in the gardens, engaged in domestic chores or were hesitant to participate at the time of the interviews. This affected the initial goal of interviewing equal proportions of females and males. The breakdown of respondent’s gender by county is as shown below in Table 4. Table 4: Respondent sex distribution by household and county Characteristics Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Totals (%) Male 62.5 69.4 72.9 68.3 Respondent’s sex Female 37.5 30.6 27.1 31.7
3.1.2 Age groups of the household heads
Majority (76.6%) of the household heads were less than 50 years of age. The youngest house hold head however was 24 years while the oldest was 70 years. The mode of household head was 45 years and the mean was 41 years. At county level, almost a half (48.3%) of the household heads were between 35 to 49 years of age in the 3 counties as shown in Table 5 below.
Table 5: Age groups of the household heads Age Group (years) Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Totals (%) 20-34 22.9 32.7 29.2 28.3 35-49 47.9 42.9 54.2 48.3 50-64 27.1 24.5 12.5 21.4 Above 64 2.1 0.0 4.2 2.1
3.1.3 Marital Status The survey sought to establish the category of families. The category included classifications of nuclear, polygamous or extended families. Majority (47.6%) of the respondents were living in nuclear families with an average of 4 children. Polygamous families accounted for 11.0% while the extended families were 41.4%. Respondents who were married and living totalled to 78.0%, the widows/widowers 35
accounted for 10.0%, those who were never married accounted for 01.0%, those that were married and not leaving together were at 05.0% while those that were divorced were at 06.0% . Findings revealed that most of the respondents who were married were living together with their partners. Figure 3: Marital status of the household member
3.1.4 People with special needs According to this survey, people with special needs present with physical, sensory cognitive or intellectual impaired conditions. The circumstances may be as a result of disease, war, violence or inborn. The proportions of people with Special needs were 3% of the total number of people in the survey area. Households with at least a member of family with a special need accounted for 14.5 % with Torit having the highest number at 20.8%, followed by Magwi with14.3% and Ikotos with 8.3%. It could be assumed that Torit having been a strong military base during the liberation war in EES, there was likelihood that the population therein may have suffered from the effects of the land mines from the liberation struggle.
3.1.5 Employment This survey defines formal employment as the state of working for an agreed period of time within specified payment and working terms. Examples in the survey area included public and private offices, government and private administrators, doctors, teachers and forest guards, and NGOs. Informal employment on the other hand was considered as a state of causal engagement such as working on farms, stone querying, selling of timber and bamboo, charcoal burning, fishing and hunting. The participants pointed out that employment in both the formal and informal sectors is characterized by challenges such as nepotism, exploitation, low pay and job scarcity.
On the other hand the women discussants disclosed that majority of them faced sexual harassment, gender segregated and low access to employment opportunities.Employment among the respondents in each county was 35.8 % in Torit, 29.4 % in Magwi and 35.9 % in Ikotos. Based on the fact that EES legislative employment age is 18 and above, it was evident that over 50 % of the population in the study
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area is unemployed. That possibility explains why the unemployed people had to resort to the clearing of forest cover for agriculture and charcoal burning to obtain income.
3.1.6 Household settlements There are stable settlements in the Imatong Basin and Kinyeti Watershed. Most respondents had lived in the area for more than 10 years. When respondents were asked about members of the household who had left the area for over one month, 65% of them claimed that they had not moved from the area while 35 % left the area either due to unemployment (34.6%), marriage accounted for (34.6%) or temporarily to stay with a relative. Of those who moved out of the area, 52 % were not expected to remit food or money back home. Therefore they did not have any financial obligation to the rest of the household members thereafter. This stability of settlement within the study area is useful to guide community interventions for protection of the watershed. It is likely that communities targeted will stay in the area to implement programs that will be introduced and are likely to have keen interest since they have a stake. The picture below shows a geographical environment ideally preferred for long-term settlements in Torit. It was disclosed that since rocks were at a relatively higher altitude, people felt protected, secure and possibly opted to stay for longer periods of time within a specific area.
Picture 1: A settlement in Hillieu Boma Himodonge Payam 3.1.7 Household Size The average household size is seven members, (range 2-21). Most (81.4%) households have between 1to 5 children (below 18 years). In a survey carried out by the World Bank and the South Sudan National Bureau of statistics (SSNBS), the population growth rate as of 2013 is at 4.1%. This implies that the population in the Imatong Basin and Kinyeti Watershed is projected higher in the next few years, forecasting fears that is environmental challenges facing the area are not altered, will threaten the sustainability of the watershed.
3.1.8 Ethnic Composition The population in the survey area is predominantly Lotuko at 61.4 %, followed by Acholi at 32.4 %, Langi were 4.8 % and Pari 1.4 %. The Lotuko dominated Torit and Ikotos at 97.9 % and 83.3 % respectively. The population in Magwi is largely Acholi at 93.9 %. With regard to natural resource exploitation the Lutoko
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ethnic groupings dominated with 55.5% in activities such as charcoal burning and sale of forest products especially in Torit (76.2%). It was found out that the different ethnic groups did not appreciate any conservation measures. The respondents’ perceptions on the importance of conservation of natural resources was low among the Acholi, langi and Pari. It was surprising to find out that the Lotuko who do more exploitation had a 58.3% awareness of the importance of natural resources. The ethnicity by County is as shown in table 6 below.
Table 6: Ethnicity of the respondents Ethnic Group %age Natural resource Importance of natural exploitation resource conservation Lokuto 61.4 55.0 58.3 Acholi 32.4 41.3 35.4 Langi 4.8 2.5 4.7 Pari 1.4 1.3 1.6
3.1.9 Religion The area is predominantly made up of Catholics who account for 77.2 % followed by Anglican at 14.5 %, Pentecostals at 4.8 % and traditionalists at 3.5 %. Religious beliefs are key influences and can be entry points for conservation interventions. Thus a breakdown of religion by county is shown in table 7 below.
Table 7: Religion distribution per County Religious Groups Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Totals (%) Catholic 87.5 69.4 75 77.2 Anglicans 14.5 22.5 12.5 14.5 Pentecostals 4.8 8.2 6.3 4.8 Traditionalists 3.5 0.0 6.3 3.5
3.1.10 Housing Infrastructure
The respondents were asked about their housing environment, including access to electricity, source of drinking water, time taken to water source, type of toilet facilities, house construction materials, and possession of various durable goods. The team also observed the different types of houses and building materials used for construction of roads, schools and health facilities. The research team observed the different means of transport, the availability of electricity poles, boreholes and water pumps.
The findings show that the population depends largely on natural resources for construction of housing using grass, timber and bricks made out of clay soil obtained from swampy areas. Generally, the type of material used for construction is an indicator of the economic status of the household as well as an indicator of potential exposure to disease-causing agents. There is therefore a large risk of environmental degradation that calls for measures to address it. The biggest population which accounts for 82.7 % of the households
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reported to have earth, sand and mud floors. There was 8.6 % with cemented floors while 7.2 % had used dung on their floors. Households who used wood plank and ceramic tiles were 0.7%. Materials for roofing were largely grass which is reported by 87.6 % of the respondents and only 12.4% of the respondents reported to have corrugated iron sheets.
Out of 145 households visited, 72.4 % lived in houses of mud walls, 15.2 % respondents had walls of wood plank/timber, 8.3 % had stone brick with cement, 3.5 % of the respondents had stone with mud walls and only 0.75 % of the respondents reported having corrugated iron sheets for walls.
Table 8: Materials used to Construct Dwelling Houses by County Characteristic of interest Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Total (%) Type of dwelling floor Earth/sand/mud 85.4 77.3 85.1 82.7 Cow Dung 8.3 2.3 10.6 7.2 Ceramic tiles 0.0 2.3 00 0.7 Cement 6.3 15.9 4.6 8.6 Wood plank 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.7 Type of Roofing material Grass thatch 91.6 79.6 91.7 87.6 Corrugated iron sheets 8.3 20.4 8.3 12.4 Type of Walling material Wood Plank, ,sheets 6.3 14.3 25 15.2 Mud wall 87.5 63.3 66.7 72.4 Corrugated iron 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.7 Stone with mud 2.1 8.2 0.0 3.5 Stone/brick with Cement 4.2 14.3 6.3 8.3
3.1.11 Energy Sources for Lighting and Cooking Energy is a basic necessity for any community to warm itself and hence it serves as an essential requirement to survival among the communities. The study investigated sources of energy for lighting, cooking and other energy needs. The type of cooking fuel used by a household reflects both economic status as well as exposure to varying types of pollutants.Respondents reported making use of firewood (48.3%), Kerosene (17.2%) and straw shrubs (17.9%) for lighting, with Torit being dominant with 60.4 % and 29.2 % for using straw, shrubs or grass respectively. A smaller number said they used charcoal (1.38%) and kerosene (17.2%) for lighting. Minimal use of alternative sources of lighting such as torches and solar energy were reported.
Table 9: Energy sources for Lighting and Cooking Energy sources Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Total (%) Energy Sources for lighting Kerosene 8.3 22.5 20.8 17.2 Firewood 60.4 34.7 50 48.3 Charcoal 0.0 0.0 4.2 1.4 Straws/shrubs/Grass 29.2 8.2 16.7 17.9 Others Specify 2.1 34.7 8.3 15.2
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Energy Sources for Cooking Electricity 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 liquefied Petroleum Gas(LPG), 10.5 0.0 0.0 1.8 Kerosene, 0.0 4.1 2.4 2.8 Firewood, 100.0 68.8 95.8 87.9 Charcoal, 15 55.1 4.8 28.8 Straws/shrubs/Grass 15 0.0 14.3 8.3
The survey also collected data on where the cooking usually takes place and results show that most respondents (68.3%) own a separate hut from the main house where cooking takes place, 22 % of the households cook outside in the open while 8.3 % of the households use another room within the main house to cook and 1.4 % reported use of other ways. During FGD the participants shared that a liters of kerosene was at 7SSP (≈$1.5). Firewood according to the participants was collected from the wild as opposed to being purchased. The survey team did not encounter any households that purchased firewood for respondents claimed that trees were available and free to be cut down from the wild. Additionally, the survey established that the participants were either unaware of their expenditures or uncomfortable to disclose them.
From the findings it is evident that the environment is being depleted for energy sources for lighting and cooking, which is largely from forest products for firewood and charcoal. These sources of energy also have health related hazards that result from frequent use of firewood. The use of these energy sources has negative impacts on education as children cannot read in the night. Alternatively they resorted to use of poor lighting causing damage to their sight. Although South Sudan is endowed with other forms of energy such as wind and sunshine, these have not been exploited for development of energy. There is also limited use of bio-gas in the region, an alternative that should be considered for the preservation of Imatong and Kinyeti watershed in future projects.
Table 10: Household cooking places at household level. Area where cooking normally takes place Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Total (%) In a Separate house 68.6 75.5 60.4 68.3 In another room within 2.1 10.2 12.5 8.3 Others specify 0.0 2.0 2.1 1.4 Outside in the open 29.2 12.2 25.0 22.1
3.1.12 Basic Household Assets The study sought to establish ownership of basic household assets. Common assets owned by the households included radios 44.1 %, bicycles 35.2 % and mobile phones at 25.5 %. Only 10.3 % owned wall clocks/wrist watches, 8.3 % had television sets powered mainly by generators and solar power. The findings showed that 3.5 % of participants from the survey area owned cars. Those who owned bicycles were 32.2%. It was further established that bicycles are the most commonly used means of transport, followed by motor cycles 15.1%, car/truck 3.5%, and donkeys’ at 1.4%. Despite the fact that this is an
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agricultural community, it was surprising to note that there was no ownership of tractors and tuk-tuk (built up motorcycle) registered in Ikotos and Torit except for Magwi that registered a 2.8% ownership.
3.1.13 Ownership of Dwellings A total of 93.0 % of respondents owned their dwellings. Although the nature of these dwellings shows semi- permanent settlement, it was established that indeed the communities believed and presented themselves as a permanently settled community whose characteristics where dictated by economic challenges.
3.1.14 Bank Accounts, Cooperative, MFI, SACCO and Groups savings Accounts One of the biggest constraints to livelihood security is lack of access to financial capital, education and life skills. Financial services also offer security when populations can save money in institutions. The study found out that there is limited access to credit and microfinance services. It was noted that the main factors limiting expansion of microfinance institutions in rural areas included inadequate security of property and persons in those areas and poor transport infrastructure (Atil, 2009).
Regarding ownership of bank accounts, 10.4 % of respondents from Ikotos, 16.3 % from Magwi and 10.4 % from Torit had personal accounts with banks or SACCO /MFI. On the whole the area had 12.4 % community members with personal accounts while 11.7 % community members held group accounts which facilitated borrowing from a micro-credit institution without asset collateral (as the groups provide guarantee to borrowers from their group). Financial literacy and skills were also found wanting, thus the very low savings culture. Community members who have personal bank accounts are very positive about it and urge other households to open savings accounts.
Only 13.1 % of respondents had taken a loan in the past 12 months mostly for payment of school fees. The data showed that SACCOS/MFI were the highest source of loans covering 47.4 %, banks catered for 26.3%, farmers associations provided 5.0 %, and relatives/friends represented 11.0 %. It was interesting to note that much as this was an agriculture community, most of their loans were mainly in cash. Participants disclosed that this posed challenges because sometimes members of their SACCOs failed to put the borrowed money to the intended use. It can be concluded that with low income and poor saving culture, members from the household are still financially non-literate.
Household’s access to various forms of credit is critical for economic empowerment. The study investigated; (i) types of credit available, (ii) the purpose for which each was obtained and (iii) its source. It was found that 93.7% didn’t acquire any loans for agriculture because they lacked collateral. Among the few households (6.3%) that acquired the loans, 77.8 % of these obtained them from informal financial institutions such as SACCOs. Overall the community members had inadequate access to credit and mainly obtained credit from friends, relatives, NGOs and Government. The sources of credit is shown in the figure 3 below.
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Figure 5: Sources of credit for the household members
3.1.15 Household Current Level of Annual Indebtedness over the Past 3 Years The study found out that on average the household’s current debt from all sources was 1,394 SSP which is approximately 440 USD. The study also compared current annual indebtedness of the households over the past three years. Results of the analysis are as shown in the table 11 below:
Table 11: Level of Indebtedness of Households in the Past Three Years
Current level of indebtedness compared with the last Percent three years Decreasing 29.0 Increasing 25.5 Don’t know 24.8 Staying much the same 20.7
3.2 Social Development
3.2.1 Health, Water and Sanitation The survey looked at the health of the population, mode of treatment, access/distance to health facilities and number of trained health workers. The survey examines the simple, all-encompassing household hygiene levels in terms of access to clean and safe water, availability of proper methods of waste disposal and related effects. The findings would be useful in establishing the proximity of the study area to fatal diseases like typhoid, cholera and dysentery. Since piped water, water drawn from protected wells, and deep boreholes are expected to be relatively free of these diseases, it was important that the survey establishes the actual water sources so that it rules out the associated health hazards. The findings showed that the community members were aware of the health hazards associated with water and sanitation. Despite this fact, it was established that the highest proportion (64.1%) of the households in the three (3) counties reported to have had members who fell sick from water related illness during the past 12 months. Torit and Magwi registered the highest prevalence each with 38.7 % of household members that suffered from water related illnesses. On average three members from each
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household had fallen sick from water related illnesses during the last 3 months. Malaria was the most prevalent water related disease in the survey. Participants reported that 60.2 % of members that suffered from water related diseases in the past three months were currently healthy. 34.4% were currently sick, while 5.4% reported that the sick members had succumbed to death. Diarrhoea and Typhoid also accounted for a large proportion of the sick household members with 21.90 % and 23.9 % respectively.
Table 12: Showing the water related illness in the households Disease / sickness % Malaria 35.1 Typhoid 23.9 Diarrhoea 21.9 Eye disease 9.5 Respiratory disease 4.5 Bilharzia 3.3 Cholera 0.83
3.2.2 Access to Health Services Most of the respondents (67.7%) reported that the household members who fell sick had received satisfactory treatment. Most of the household members that had suffered from a sickness/ disease/ailment (85.7%) sought treatment from nearby health centres and medical staff compared to those who visited traditional healers (7.90%) or used Herbs (6.40%).The findings show that members from the survey area appreciate and indeed utilise the health facility services.
Figure 6: Sources of medical treatment for the sick household members
Most of the health facilities (68.5 %) are government owned. 14.8% were privately owned, 13.0 % were NGOs funded and 2.0 % of the health facilities were uncategorised in terms of ownership. The highest proportion of the households reported that the distance to the health centres was less than 10 km from their homes and this explains the high percentage (85.7%) that sought treatment from a medical doctor/facility.
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The respondents reported that health centres normally have between 5 to10 health workers averaging 7 male and 3 female health workers in the different health centres. It is important to point out the inequality in job distribution between the male and the female within the survey area as previously pointed out. The distribution of the health workers by frequency is as shown in figure 7
Figure 7: Number of health workers in the health facilities
3.2.3 Access to water The main source of drinking water was found to be public boreholes (66.7%) and unprotected wells, spring or rivers (20.3%). Rain water was the least reported source of drinking water at 2.0%. This is because housing is majorly made of grass thatched roofs which doesn’t favour rain water harvesting. Torit had the greatest number of households who used water from unprotected wells/rivers/springs or private boreholes as shown in figure 8 below. Figure 8: Main source of drinking water at county level
3.2.4 Distance and Time Spent During Water Sourcing.
Majority of the households (55.9%) are located less than a kilometre away from source of water, 7.7 % are located 4 to 5 km away and 36.4% households are more than five km away from the water source. The findings further revealed that 82.8 % of the water collection was done by women and girl children.
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The water sources are generally secure. The findings shown below indicate accessibility of water to majority (87.4%) of the households since they spent less than half an hour to fetch water.
Table 13: Percentage distribution of the time taken by the household members to fetch water
Time taken to Fetch Water % Less than 15 minutes 44.0 15-30 minutes 43.4
31-60 minutes 10.5 More than 60 minutes 2.1
Table 14: Main person who collects water in the household by county
Main person who collects water in the in Torit Magwi Ikotos Totals the household (%) (%) (%) (%) Adult woman (above 18 years) 91.7 77.6 79.2 82.8 Adult man (above 18 years) 2.1 2.0 0.0 1.4 Female child (under 18 years) 6.3 16.3 14.6 12.4 Male child (under 18 years) 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.7 Hire hand/person 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.7 Water vendor/supplier 0.0 4.1 2.1 2.1
3.2.5 Safety of drinking Water Overall 73.1 % of the households in the survey did not take any measures to make their drinking water safe. As mentioned earlier, this could possibly justify why household members suffered from water related illnesses. Among households that took measures to make their drinking water safe, 70.7% disclosed that they add bleach/chlorine, 26.8 % boiled the water while 2.4 % let it stand and settle. The survey did not find any households that used water filters, solar disinfection and straining water through a cloth as a measure of making water safe for drinking as shown in table 15 below.
Table 15: Methods of Making Water Safe for Drinking
Methods of making water safe for drinking in the Torit (%) Magwi Ikotos Total (%) household (%) (%) Add bleach/chlorine 87.5 83.3 22.2 70.7 Boil 12.5 16.7 66.7 26.8 Let it stand 0.0 0.0 11.1 2.4 Water filters 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
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Solar disinfection 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Straining water through a cloth 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
The figure 9 below shows the months in the year during which the households experienced water scarcity in 2013. Rains were reported to be low from November to February with January being the month with the heaviest rain. The bar graph shows that the watershed generally has rain almost throughout the year with variation in November to February and June and July. Generally scarcity or availability is reliant on rain seasons.
Figure 9: Variation of water availability throughout the Year
3.2.6 Toilet /Pit Latrine Facilities Modern sanitation facilities are limited within the EES with specification to Torit, Magwi and Ikotos counties. The results of the survey showed that majority (60.0%) of the household did not have toilet facilities and practiced open defecation. Of the 40.0 % who had toilet facilities; pit latrines with slabs were the most dominant. At county level Magwi had the greatest proportion (79.6%) of pit latrines; followed by Torit with 23 % and Ikotos with 16.7 %. The latrines are traditional type (not VIP). The low use of latrines is a cultural phenomenon. Among those who owned a pit latrine, 67.3 % reported to share them with other households. The implication of shared toilet facilities is that without further precautionary measures there is bound to be a lot of diseases being spread due to poor hygiene.
The main method of solid waste disposal in the community was throwing in open heaps (40.0%). This was followed by dumping in pits at (24.1%); burning in the open was at (16.5%) and throwing in the garden was at (8.90%). Only 2.70 % of the respondents claimed to dispose of waste in skip bins.
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3.2.7 Education and Literacy According to the survey findings, 61.4% of the household heads could read and write (literate), of whom, 51.4 % had attained education up to lower primary as shown in table 16.
Table 16: Level of education of the different household heads Education level % Lower primary 51.4 Upper primary 29.7 Secondary 13.5 Tertiary college 5.4
From the survey, on average each household had at least one member who could read and write. This finding is important because possible for any intervention can be made using Information, Education and Communication (IEC) programme. Materials such as posters, brochures and other forms of written messaging can also be consumed by the literate member of the family, with the assumption that they will pass on the information to other members of the family Priority should therefore be given to communicative interventions that will sensitize the populace on environmental awareness.
3.2.8 Child Education The data findings revealed that on average each household had one child of school going age. It was also noted that there was relative gender balance among school going children. Of the children that were attending school, there was an average of one (1) male and (1) female child per household. Every household had one child of school going age that was not attending school. The results postulate a presence of equal opportunities for education for both male and female children (gender equality). However, intra-household variations were not examined. It was equally not possible to verify this data with actual school enrolment in the survey area. Counties due to the short time frame of the study. The majority of the children of the different households are attending public schools (90%). The reasons why the children were not attending school were as follows:
Figure 10: Reasons as to why children were not attending school
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Most of the households (50.7%) in the survey area reported that the distance of the schools from their homes is less than 3 kilometres. Nevertheless 49.3 % reported the distance of school from their household to be between (3 to10) km.
3.3 Economic Characteristics This section is a presentation of the economic characteristics of the households including income generation- Sources of household income, other income sources other than agricultural enterprise, other income not necessarily earned (transfers from relatives), household expenditure, land and property ownership and control, women ownership and inheritance of land. Similar to data gathered from the South Sudan Commission for Statistics and Evaluation (2010), the section concurs with the findings that show the monthly expenditure presenting half of the population living in absolute poverty at 74 (SDG) )- (Converted using the current rate to $12.98).
3.3.1 Income Generation According to the SSDP, 51.0% of its population are poor, with 55.0% of this population in the rural areas and 24.0% in the urban. The SSDP also indicates that 80.0% of poor rural households depend on agriculture for their livelihood. The survey defines poverty as a situation or condition where a household /person lacks the financial resources to enjoy a minimum standard of life and well-being that is considered acceptable in the society. Most rural households in South Sudan have few or no assets. The majority of the population lives in traditional, thatched-roof houses with little access to safe water, education and basic necessities.
This study set out to examine sources of income by the population in the area of study as a way of understanding its link with practices that affect conservation of the watershed as well as identify interventions to protect it. Respondents disclosed that the sale of farm produce such as cassava, maize, ground nuts, millet, okra, sweet potatoes, sorghum and beans is by far the most important source of income in the household. These findings are consistent with the fact that the country largely depends on agriculture with a great focus on crop production and casual labour for their income generation. 48
Although the members within the counties largely depend on agriculture, the respondents mentioned the following as alternative sources of income generation; sale of gum Arabic, bee keeping, fishing, craft making, stone querying and milling of grain. Plans for soil conservation must therefore seek to address methods of farming as well as diversification of income generation.
Table 17: Sources of household income
Source of income Ikotos (%) Magwi (%) Torit (%) Total (%) Sale of farm produce 88.9 89.8 74.5 23.7 Sale of timber or forest products 73.7 69.4 76.2 17.1 Pensions 53.3 18.4 36.4 8.7 Small business (retail) 57.1 18.4 45.2 8.5 Sale of livestock or livestock products 60.0 18.4 28.6 7.7 Casual labour- forestry or forestry products 66.7 12.2 41.9 7.7 Regular part time employment 35.3 18.4 26.8 5.5 Remittances 11.7 24.5 21.4 4.9 Casual labour-agricultural 37.5 4.1 19.6 4.5 Gifts of money 33.3 8.2 26.8 4.5 Resale of food aid 11.8 2.0 23.8 2.8 Regular fulltime employment 25.0 2.0 11.9 2.1 Government/ NGO assistance 27.3 4.1 8.8 2.1 Sale of sand 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.2
Study findings indicate that sale of farm produce is by far the most important (23.7%) source of income in the household, with Magwi having the highest % (89.8%) at county level. Sale of forest products such as timber and others like bamboo and charcoal accounted for the second most (17.1%) important source of household income especially among households in Torit (76.2%). The findings show that household average monthly income in the past year (from all sources in a normal month) was less than 100 SSP (≈$22.2) per month. From the onset, this data seemed inaccurate and upon triangulation it was discovered that the respondents were uncomfortable about disclosing their actual incomes or they were unaware of the quantification of their income.
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3.3.2 Household Expenditure Household incomes determine expenditure and equally the analysis of household expenditure patterns is important in determining the welfare levels of households. As previously mentioned, the respondents were uncomfortable to disclose their incomes and expenditure, however upon persuasion the research team arrived at the following findings. On average the households in the survey area had a monthly expenditure of 102.6SSP (≈$22.8), less than one dollar a day, suggesting a 50% populace living in absolute poverty. This compares to the findings reported by South Sudan Commission for Statistics and Evaluation (2010), where the monthly expenditure presented half the population living in absolute poverty at 74 (SDG)-(Converted using the current rate to ≈$12.98). The respondents revealed that their expenditures included basic needs such as food, health, education, nonfood items and savings. On average, households spend 41.4% of the total annual household income on buying food, 20.1 % on buying non-food items, 9.9 % on health, education on 17.8%, and savings took an average of 11. 8%. Most (82.1%) of the households had a single household head meeting the expenditure. Upon comparison of the households’ income obtained during the past twelve months, it was revealed that there was a 38.6% decline in household incomes. On probing the possible reasons as to why the incomes within the survey area were declining, respondents reported that since this was an agricultural community, the reasons for their reduced incomes was as a result of poor crop yields due to the degraded soils, limited access to seedlings and poor farming methods.
Table 18: Households’ average percentage annual expenditure Household income spending Mean annual proportion of spending (%) Buying food 41.4 Buying non-food items 20.7 Savings 11.4 Education 17.8 Health 9.9
3.3.3 Land and Property Ownership and Control Ownership of household and productive assets is indicative of level of welfare. The study sought to establish ownership of productive assets and land was found to be the most valuable productive asset owned by the households. The Land Act prohibits foreigners to own land but they are allowed to lease land for a maximum of 99 years. The survey revealed that there was no transparency in land ownership and that EES land laws were unclear. General household land ownership was at 89.7 % in Magwi, 89.6 % in Ikotos and 91.7 % in Torit. It was also found that approximately half of the population held land under the customary tenure system (48.5%), while 40.8 % held land under the freehold land tenure system. The findings showed that 30.2% of the respondents had land titles in Ikotos, 51.2% from Torit and 76.7% from Magwi. The
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majority of respondents, (83.1%), were not leasing out their land to anyone at the moment. Considering that land is a basic resource depended upon by the majority of the rural communities in EES the trends in its ownership points to a good foundation for increasing incomes. Land was one of the sensitive topics within the FGDs, upon triangulation it was established by the research team that the responses that were given with regards to land title deeds and disaggregate ownership based on males and females were inconclusive.
Ownership of other productive assets was found to be very low with a good number of respondents indicating other productive assets to be hoes and axes (97.2%). Some (3.5%) owned ox-ploughs and ox-carts, tractors (2.8%) and 32.2 % owned bicycles. The 51.4 % of the households with land said they own between 1-5 acres. The predominant sources for farm labour is human which was found to be available and cheap. It was of no surprise therefore, that farm mechanization was reported to be at only 5.6 %, within the survey area. Farming was a major activity indeed, the survey revealed that in the past month, the majority of the households worked on their farms, fields or herded livestock for 11-20 days out of the 30 days in a month.
Table 19: Land Tenure System by County Land Tenure System Ikotos (%) Magwi (%) Torit (%) Total (%) Customary 65.5 41.9 38.6 48.5 Freehold 25.6 53.5 43.18 40.8 Leasehold 9.3 4.7 18.2 10.8 Productive assets Hoe 91.7 100.0 100.0 97.2 Ox plough 2.1 8.2 0.0 3.5 Tractor 0.0 8.2 0.0 2.8 Disc plough 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Bicycle 35.4 45.0 16.6 32.4
3.3.4 Women Ownership and Inheritance of Land Up to 55.8% of respondents said women in EES are allowed to own and inherit land. This interesting finding correlates with cultural attributes of EES for example; there is a female traditional Chief in South Sudan from Torit by the names of chief Magdalena Ehisa Tito. By disposition, chiefs in the African setting are predominately male and own vast feddan (miles) of land. However it is important to point out that there were categories of people within the survey who claimed that women do not own or inherit land. The gender dimension to asset ownership could not be validated with actual statistics of women’s property rights. There is therefore need to do a further gender analysis using knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) survey to establish the actual practices over ownership and access to productive assets and other property issues.
Figure 11: Perceived right to female ownership by the respondents
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As observed above a high number of the households informed the survey team that women are allowed to control the use of land or even sell land. Ironically discussions with women however, revealed that all sale or inheritance is determined or controlled by men and must be with consent of the male family heads. Ultimately this finding informed the research that women do not have total consent and control. Conclusively it can be pointed out that it is important for EES to make land laws that not only attract investment opportunities but also cater to the gender roles within the communities.
Figure 12: Women Inheritance of Land by County
3.3.5 Livestock Ownership and Control Most households (64.6%) sampled did not have any livestock however 35.4 % of the households who owned livestock had cows, shoats, poultry and pigs and fewer households owned donkeys and camels.
Table 20: Distribution of Livestock among the sampled households Animals % Shoats (Goats, Sheep) 31.9 Poultry 31.1
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Cows 23.5 Pigs 7.6 Donkeys 3.4 Camels 2.5
Earnings from the sale of the livestock indicated that 80%households that sold cattle in the last 12 months and earned 2000 SSP (≈$ 444.4) per animal. Other sales of livestock were goats sold at 500 SSP ($ 111.1) by 66.7 % of the households, sheep at 500 SSP ($111.1) each by 60.6 % of households and poultry at less than 50SSP ($11.1) by 60.6 %. Overall more poultry (57.5%) was sold than any other livestock in the last 12 months. The survey also looked at consumption levels of animals and analyzed that among those who had livestock on average the household consumed 2 cows, 2 goats, 1 sheep and 5 chickens in the past 12 months.
3.4 Agricultural Production 3.4.1 Crop Production The main occupation of the population within South Sudan and indeed EES is agriculture. Agriculture is predominantly rain-fed. Most of the households practice subsistence agriculture with the surplus of the produce sold for income generation. Crop production which was an important attribute in the survey included the types of crops grown, size of area planted, amount of produce harvested and income from crop sale. The survey revealed that majority of farmers practiced mono-cropping for crops like maize, sorghum and millet however practices of intercropping were observed on a small scale in some areas in Torit. The major crop grown in the survey area was maize (21.4%), followed by cassava (21%) and groundnuts (18.3 %.). Findings indicate that agriculture is largely rudimentary with most household members having access to the hand hoe (97.2%). Majority (70.3%) of the households had never participated in training programs that aim at improving agricultural techniques. Up to 77.2 % said they did not use improved agricultural techniques such as drip irrigation and improved seeds. Table 21: Distribution of the main crops cultivated in the survey area
Crop %
Maize 21.4 Cassava 21 Groundnuts 18.3 Sweet potatoes 15.9 Beans 10.3 Millet 9.7 Sorghum 2.8 Coffee 0.2
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Simsim 0.2 Egg plant 0.2 Okra 0.2
Households cultivated land of between 1 and 5 acres. Analysis of size of land used for cultivation of the above food crops indicated that 56.8% cultivated each crop on one acre piece of land for season one and two. In all the crops grown, households obtained averagely 50-100kgs of produce. Growing of coffee was limited to small scale farms of between 1-2 acres, responses from members showed that growing of coffee was on the decline due to reduced yields.
Picture 2: Sorghum growing along Liria - Torit road
Table 22: Average Production and earning per crop sale (per year) Crop Total Annual Production (kg/acre) Total Annual earnings from the sale (SSP) Cassava 50-100 500 Millet 50-100 500 Sweet potatoes 50-100 500 Groundnuts 50-100 500 Beans less than 50 Less than 500 Maize 60 - 101 Less than 500
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Picture 3: Millet, Beans, G. Nuts and Maize Cereals growing in John Abrahams garden in Hillieu boma Households’ produce is sold at small village squares and markets. Alternatively produce is sold or bartered at reasonable prices to neighbors. Although the findings revealed that respondents appreciated that such produce price information would guide them to make decisions during the sale of their produce, majority of households (60.6 %) were unable to access any price information before selling their crops. The findings show that some households however received price information from family/friends (48.2%), radio (37 %) and farmer’s associations/cooperative (14.8 %).
It is important to point out that 51.1% of households who cultivated crops during the last 12 months did not sale any of their produce. Discussions revealed that most houses had opted to store their produce in anticipation of unfavourable climatic conditions. However it was reported that most households faced challenges related to drying and storage of produce. Households that sold part of their produce only sold less than 50kgs and retained the surplus. The other challenges faced by the households were limited market, poor soils, and unfavourable weather.
In addition to the above mentioned challenges, household farmers reported post-harvest food loss as one of the largest contributing factor to food insecurity in the survey area. The highest point of food losses within the food chain was reported to be at the pre-farm gate stage. Post-harvest losses were mainly with sorghum, maize and millet. Findings showed that remedies to reduce losses were still rudimentary. These remedies included threshing the grains for planting separately from the grains for food to avoid broken seed and drying seeds on grounds smeared with dung to create clean and even surfaces. Although households saved seeds handed down from generation to generation, these seeds 55
were usually attacked by diseases.The types of the post –harvest management systems mentioned in the survey area were mainly rudimentary and these included drying grains and vegetables on open racks as shown in the figure below.
Picture 4: Drying Sorghum on an open rack in a homesteads in Hillieu Boma Himodonge Payam
Picture 5: Produce still dried on bear ground-Magwi boma in Magwi Payam during a harvest period. and Lopwon Santos’Maize seed preserved for the next season Hillieu Boma-Himodonge Payam
During FGDs farmers confirmed that they appreciated the open rack as a suitable grain drying method. It was observed that most produce was dried on bare ground (slightly raised slab smeared with dung) as in Torit. Methods such as drumming of grain with sticks and storing semi-dry grain in sacks where the grain is vulnerable to damage by weather and pests are also used. The other challenge related to post- harvest handling was poor physical infrastructure in form of feeder roads and storage facilities. These problems were compounded in the Ikotos and Torit, where decades of insecurity have destroyed infrastructure and limited productivity, stifling the areas’ economic potential and farmers’ incomes.
3.4.2 Agriculture Equipment and Machinery Agricultural equipment consists of tools and machinery used for the production of crops. Although agriculture is the dominate income generating activity, it was observed that the industry was still largely un-mechanized. Most farmers use simple traditional equipment such as hoes (97.2), axes for farming and ox-plough at 3.5%. Extensive mechanisation that involved using tractors was at 2.8%. The challenges
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associated with low mechanisation in an agriculturally dependent community possibly explain why crop yields have continued to decrease over the years.
3.4.3 Training and Capacity Building Agricultural extension training was found to be inadequate within the communities. Up to 69.9 % of the households had never been visited by someone with agricultural experience to tell them about improved agricultural techniques. It was observed that usage of improved agricultural technique was limited for example, 77.2% of the households said they did not use improved farming practices such as drip irrigation. The respondents also claimed that they did not have access to improved seeds. The respondents were enthusiastic about the possibility of adopting improved agricultural technologies on their farms. Indeed 43.1 % said they would adopt such technologies if freely provided to them. Majority (70.3%) of the households had never participated in agricultural training programs. Of those that had participated in trainings, an analysis of the training programs showed that the training had been received on crop production, livestock and fishing. The findings revealed however, that the training that was carried out was inadequate and did not impact change of agricultural practices among the farmers.
The respondents expressed the need for agricultural training and capacity building programmes. Such programs would be comprised of activities aimed at promoting improved agronomic practices. Sustainability of these programmes will be achieved by working with local government extension workers and community based organizations. These programmes will promote best practices among community members and provide opportunities for new conservation programmes.
Figure 13: Comparison between the training in livelihood activities
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3.4.4 Factors Limiting Agricultural Production As previously mentioned, several factors influenced agricultural production in this area. It was observed that women dominate the agricultural production. It is however important to mention that the women are still locked in socio-cultural structures which limit their productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. It was observed that men, especially male youth see agriculture as an unprofitable profession and are interested in trades that will generate quick income such as charcoal burning, timber sales, and fishing.
Furthermore crop production within the EES is rain fed. The implication of this is that farmers relay only on rain for all their crop production. It was observed that the farmers did not practice any form of irrigation. Respondents mentioned that, the past years had been characterized by low productivity due to erratic rainfall patterns. Other factors mentioned by the respondents were lack of capital, limited labour, infertile soils, and shortage of farm seeds, lack of agricultural tools, pest and diseases, limited access to land, insecurity, unfavorable climate and laziness. Laziness of residents had become a major challenge in the past years and that explains why the Government of Eastern Equatoria State (EEG) has declared Fridays (during the rainy seasons) as farm days for the community as well as private and public officials, an initiative aimed at improving crop production.
3.4.5 Disasters and coping mechanisms. The respondents reported that the last ten years had been characterised by severe changes in climatic patterns. The survey showed that up to 67.6 % of the households had been severely affected by disasters such as droughts, floods and landslides. Agricultural production from these households had been affected by floods (57.5 %), drought 36.2 %, and by hailstones 4.3 %. In addition to reducing agriculture output, these disasters caused loss of property and damaged infrastructure. Such tragic events have culminated in low agricultural productivity and reduced incomes. It was interesting to find out that although these communities were not willing to volunteer any land towards conservation efforts, they were reported to have a sense of appreciation towards the forest as a natural resource that enable their survival. It was mentioned, for example that after such shocks, they devised coping strategies that were fully reliant on forest usage. This possibly explains why most young men have lost faith in agriculture and resorted to quick money making ventures such as, timber cutting, hunting and fishing.
Furthermore, households reported that in times of scarcity meals eaten per day were reduced. Families also resorted to borrowing food and collecting wild fruit and honey to cope with the food crisis. Torit having the highest % (38.9%) of households who borrowed food/money while Magwi had the least score (8.3%) of households who resorted to eating wild foods at county level. AWF and other Agencies should engage in interventions that build the resilience of the households, to avoid communities moving into negative coping mechanisms. The table below shows coping with food shortage by county. 58
Table 23: Copying With Food Shortage in the Household by County
Copying with food shortage in the household Torit (%) Magwi (%) Ikotos (%) Total (%) Borrow food/money for food 38.9 25.0 13.3 26.3 Change to a cheaper diet/less preferred foods 0.0 4.2 0.0 1.7 Eating wild foods frequently 16.7 8.3 20.0 14.0 Reduce the size/number of meals a day 44.4 33.3 53.3 42.1 Sell or consume more life stock 0.0 0.0 6.7 1.7 Sell/exchange household assets in order to buy food 0.0 16.7 6.7 8.8 Use of savings 0.0 12.5 0.0 5.3
3.4.6 Food Security The main person with the responsibility for food provision in the households was found to be the women. Findings showed that 74.0 % of the households reported women being responsible for food provision with Ikotos having the highest % at 85.4 %. The research also revealed that women are responsible for over 90.0 % food production.
Picture 6: PIC 8: Women are responsibility for food provision, Moti Boma, Torit
Figure 14: Foods Consumed by Households
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From the figure above, Cassava is the most common type of food consumed by the households followed by Maize whereas greens are the least consumed by the households in the area of study. Though maize is the most commonly grown, cassava is the most commonly consumed because cassava stays longer in the gardens as compared to maize, this enables the cassava to be harvested continually for different times of the year for a longer period of time? Although cassavas was not grown by all the households, it was continually bartered between households and remained the main food consumed in the area. Majority of the households (61.4%) reported that they did not have enough food in the past twelve months. Sampled households experienced inadequate food supply mostly during the months of June, July, August, and December.
Figure 15: Level of food adequacy over the Year in the households
The survey also looked at the number of meals consumed a day to understand the food security situation of the survey area. The highest % (72.4%) of the households reported having two cooked meals each day. This was highest in Torit with a % of 83.3%. Magwi was the only county with households that had more than three (3) meals a day.
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Table 24: Number of Meals Consumed Daily per Household Number of meals Ikotos (%) Magwi (%) Torit (%) Total (%) 1 10.4 6.1 8.3 8.2 2 77.0 57.1 83.3 72.4 3 12.4 32.4 8.3 18.0 4 0.0 2.1 0.0 0.7 5 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.7
3.4.7 Access to Media and Publicity Almost half (46.2 %) listen to radio or watch television with messages on conservation of natural resources especially in the morning (47.8%) and evening (40.3%). On average, the highest proportion (34.4%) of respondents reported to listen to radio/watch the television for 7 days and mainly broadcast in English (71.0%) and Juba Arabic (64.0%). Conservation messages should be aired during the morning and evening hours to target majority of the household listenership. Due to gender roles where women have heavy workload and are usually engaged in household chores in the mornings and evenings, an early afternoon schedule for a radio programme would be suitable. Such a program would target the women who constitute a big proportion of the food production sector. The conservation messages can be run throughout the week using English and Juba Arabic.
According to findings, majority (75.2%) of the respondents had never participated in meetings/conferences on natural resources. Out of those that had participated in natural resource meetings and conferences, Magwi at county level had the highest proportion (40.8%) of household’s. Most respondents (56.6%) in the study had never seen any posters or message/materials or even advertisements (75.8%) about conservation of natural resources as shown in the figure below.
Figure 16: Awareness of Natural Resource Information
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3.5 Physical Access to Amenities The survey looked into the physical accessibility of the amenities such as health centers, markets, schools and banking institutions. Up to 84.1 % of the respondents indicated that they access health centers, markets, shops and the nearest main road on foot while 40.7% of the children go to school on foot. Other means of travel mentioned was public transport by road (taxi) and boat 11.7% and private transport (4.1%). The reason many walk to access the different amenities is because the amenities are nearby, less than 3 km in all counties, some households still walk 3-10 km to access the schools.
Most (80%) do not visit financial institutions like the banks, nearest semi-formal institution (MFIs, SACCO etc. and nearest informal financial institution (money lenders, savings club) because the household members do not see the use of it. The financial institutions are also very far away from the households, more than 50kms away.
3.6 Awareness of natural resource information About 63.0 % of the respondents, who had received materials about conservation of natural resources, could recall what the conservation message(s) were about. The main reported messages by the households were about forest and wildlife conservation, the importance and knowledge on environmental conservation and the need for planting of two more trees for each one tree cut down. The conservation messages were mainly written or aired in English (68.4%) and Acholi (21.1%).
It was interesting to know that the majority of the respondents recognize the importance of conservation; 87.6 % of the respondents said it was important to conserve natural resources with Magwi and Ikotos having the highest proportions of households (96.0% and 85.4% respectively) however as previously observed households were not willing to give land to conservation; 55.9 % of the sampled households do not want to give the land to conservation especially among households from Torit (70.8%) and Ikotos (56.3%). Only 29.9 % mentioned to have had a member from the conservation group come to speak to their households/community in the last 12 months. The purpose of the visit according to the members was mainly to raise awareness on the conservation of natural resources.
Interventions should include education and sensitization of the population on why the importance of natural resources, natural resource benefits and hence the need for their conservation. Majority of the households reported the importance of natural resources as being a source of food (38%) for future generation use (38%) as shown in the figure below.
Figure17: Importance of natural Resources
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3.7 Community Based Natural Resources Management The study found limited knowledge of the existence of organized conservation groups. Slightly above three quarter (76.4 %) respondents have ever heard of community conservation groups. Of those who had known about the groups, 51.4% were registered members of the conservation groups. Majority of respondents (74.5%) are willing to join a conservation groups given an opportunity. Only 36.6% respondents have participated in community based natural resource conservation activities. 90.0% of the community conservation groups were reported to be dominated by female members.
The gender distribution in the community groups gives an average of 14 females to 1 male member. The study also brought out the fact that there are conservation areas /restricted wildlife land that is beneficial to the majority of the households (53%). The benefits of conservancies include income provision from the sale of forest products, the water provision from the Kinyeti River and protecting of wild animals. The highest number of the households (86.6%) in the counties indicated that the Imatong forest was of benefit to their households and their community at large. The results indicate a strong need for projects that support co-existing of the natural resources and the settlements.
Figure 18: A study of household’s perceptions of would be benefits from Conservancies
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70
60
50
40 Frequency 30
20
10
0 Provide Provide services Increase Protect animals employment (water) tourism
The survey looked at households perceptions of would be benefits of area designated for the protection both of the land and its wildlife and their habitants. The households perceived possible benefits in form of employment from government, water provision, and protection wild animals. Based on the respondents’ perceptions it was clear that the communities were optimistic about the growth of the tourism sector within their communities.
3.8 Conflict The findings showed land (82.6%) as a basis for many conflicts in the area. Community and cultural related conflicts were at (24.4%), family related conflicts were at (20.1%) and clan conflicts at 13.1%, cattle rustling 10.9%, pasture 8.7% and fishing 4.4%. Interesting to note is that there was no mention of water related conflicts and 14.0% of the households were not aware of any conflicts.
The qualitative studies reported about wildlife related conflicts, which included situations where wild animals attack people and/or destroy their crops. Such wildlife related conflicts were characterised by monkey attacks on crops with over 98.0% in Ikotos and Torit. FGDs reported presence of leopards, hyenas and bush rats in Torit. Animal attacks were not a common occurrence for households knew of only one (1) death in the past 12 months. The leopard in Himodonge payam in Torit which attacked the human being was hunted down by the community members. In order to safe guard against such attacks households fence the gardens and keep livestock in kraals.
Additionally, money- related conflicts were reported by household members in Ikotos and Torit. FGDs reported land as one of the common causes of inter-tribal conflict. It was revealed that land conflicts happen when there is encroachment of foreign clans on, the fishing, farming and hunting grounds of particular clans. Most of these conflicts however, had occurred more than a year ago.
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Table 25: Conflicts in the past 12 months Benefits % Land 82.6 Community & Culture 24.4 Family 20 Do not Know 14 Clan 13.1 Cattle rustling(mainly in Ikotos) 10.9 Pasture 8.7 Fishing area 4.4 Water 0
Surprisingly, there was no mention of conflict over water in the area, while Cattle rustling related conflict accounted for 10.9% in Ikotos. Furthermore FGDs reported forest fires as one of the common causes of conflict. These fires which end up destroy property; huts, granaries, plantations are setup by hunters, gardeners sand children during bush clearing and burning of rubbish. Children set up fires during play and sometimes fail to put them off.
3.8.1 Conflict Resolution Mechanisms The most commonly used means of handling disputes in the area is by use of clan meetings and discussions, followed by use of the law of land possession and lastly by the improved regulations. The most problematic animals in causing human-wildlife conflicts in the community was reported to be monkeys at 100 % mainly in Ikotos and Torit, followed by hyenas (61.0%) mainly in Magwi and Torit, then elephants especially in Magwi, and the least reported were traditional domestic animals (the cattle/sheep/goats and pigs).
The survey further found out through the discussions with the households that community structures were the best means to resolve conflicts in the communities. Mainly by the use of cultural discussions (24.0%) improved regulations on the use of resources (23.0%), democracy in the community and use of formal law enforcement mechanisms had the same scores (18.0%). Other means of conflict resolution between the wild and human included killing of wildlife (12.0%) and restriction of land usage (5%).
Figure 19: Ways of Reducing Conflicts
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4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1 Conclusion
This survey report analyses information collected in the SES of Imatong Mountains and Kinyeti Watershed. Specifically, it has provided baseline values for indicators in a wide range of areas including: socio-economic and demographic characteristics; social development; economic characteristics; agricultural production; household vulnerability; access to media and publicity; physical access to amenities; community-based natural resource management and knowledge; conflict and conflict resolution mechanisms. The findings from this survey are expected to guide the AWF implement and/or design effective programs, monitor success and adapt efficient and effective programs.
The survey findings established that majority of residents within Imatong Basin and Kinyeti Watershed have settled lifestyle since they have resided in the area for a period of over 16 years. This trend is a characteristic of stability within household settlements. It can therefore be concluded that the households appreciate the environmental challenges threatening the area, have built resilience to these challenges but will readily support improvement programs that will be introduced.
The baseline survey further shows that the majority of the households are headed by men aged between 24 to 70 years. The majority of the households live in nuclear families, most people are married. It was reported that the marriage institution is respected by the community. While the survey did not establish the population within the employment age, it is evident that over half of the population in the area were unemployed. There is a likelihood therefore that the unemployed populace will resort to utilization of the scanty natural resources such as forests for their survival. This occurrence will most definitely threaten the sustainability of the watershed. Reducing this unemployment gap therefore should continue to be a pressing priority for future environmental interventions.
The population live in deplorable conditions with majority living in grass thatched mud huts usually in homesteads. The roads and pathways are almost non-existant. This state coupled with the harsh weather conditions makes most of the areas inaccessible. The poor road network affects the ability of this agricultural community to transport produce for sale. This in turn affects the incomes of the farmers who largely depend on agriculture for most of their livelihood. As an alternative the household members resort to the cutting down trees along the steep slopes of the mountains to compliment the income from sale of agriculture produce. It was concluded that although the people are aware of the environment challenges, there are limited survival options and since there is scanty improved agriculture information, they continue to run down the dwindling natural resources.
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Subsistence farming was the main occupation of households in the sampled area. The main crops grown were maize, cassava, ground nuts, millet and sorghum. The findings showed that although women (90%) dominate agricultural production, men still control the income from the sale of agriculture produce. Inadequate capital, labor, infertile soils, limited agricultural inputs, and lack of improved agricultural practices were reported as factors that limited agriculture production. Findings revealed that the agricultural sector has been characterised by low yields, hence the level of vulnerability to food insecurity is high. Men, especially the youth see agriculture as an unprofitable profession and are interested in trades that generate quick income. The implication is that communities around the forest reserves will inevitably continue to encroach on the protected areas through timber cutting, charcoal burning unless appropriate interventions are introduced to raise the yields within the agricultural sector. Interventions should not simply require expansion of agricultural production alone but should include provision of sustainable solutions to food shortages such as improvements in farmers’ post-harvest systems.
The findings revealed that the communities were financially non- literate. It was reported that there is poor saving culture and inadequate access to credit and financial services. Although some households revealed that small loans were available, it was revealed that the population mainly rely on relatives, friends, NGOs and government for financial assistance. The findings showed that of the loans that were taken the biggest % of the money catered to food, school fees and health. It is concluded that with low income and poor saving culture, and unavailability of financial institutions, farmers remain financially non literate and unable to expand agriculture production.
The findings showed that the sampled communities lacked diversity of income generating activities. Trades such as wage labor, remittances, fishing, brick making, bamboo sales and stone quarrying only involve small proportions of the populations. The findings showed that both male-headed and female- headed households derived income from similar sources. It is concluded that the income of households in the area is low due to the limited prospects for alternative income generation.
The findings showed that people within the surveyed counties of EES claimed to owned land. Although the responses that were given with regards to land title deeds and disaggregate ownership based on males and females were inconclusive. It was interesting to note that women are allowed to inherit and own property a positive indicator that should be exploited to empower women. This finding however could not be validated with actual statistics of women actually inheriting or owning land because the women were not willing to disclose any information.
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The findings showed that most of the diseases that affected the people from the target areas where waterborne. Although Malaria is the commonest disease several households reported cases of typhoid, and diarrhoea. Although household members appreciated and utilised services from the health facilities, it can be concluded that residents still face the challenges associated with sanitation. The findings from the sampled counties show that the level of basic literacy (read and write) is relatively low. This status quo negatively influences the communication flow within the area. The findings show that both girls and boys are given equal opportunity to go to school. It is conclude that the young literate population can’t significantly influence changes in communal attitudes.
The findings showed that there were conflicts within the survey area. Respondents revealed that land, community, wildlife and tribal disputes characterised the major sources of conflict in the survey area. Conflicts were resolved through traditional means under the leadership of tribal chiefs. It can be concluded therefore that since chiefs in these counties play the role of being the customary judges, they should be encouraged to participate in any possible interventions.
Lastly, the institutional and policy framework of South Sudan showed the government of EES is in the process of adopting some policies, laws and institutions to deal with environment and wildlife issues. The SSDP advocates for sustainable use of resources and conducting of Environmental Impact assessments (EIA). It can be concluded therefore that both the National and State Transition Constitution recognise the importance of environment and land for development projects.
4.2 Recommendations
Pursuing forest conservation and management activities in the survey area should take on board the social economic characteristics of the communities presented in this report. Several intervention programs and actions for improving the situation of the surveyed communities have been identified following the analyses provided. They are summarized below:
The weak/non-existent environmental protection policies that have been in effect are evident in the quality of land, water and natural habitant that exists in the survey area. Due to this environmental degradation, natural resources policies should therefore be developed and implemented within clear focus areas such as; vegetation, soils, climate, soil degradation, land management and fire management. This in turn will rejuvenate the water quality in the rivers and reduce soil erosion ultimately restoring the lost biodiversity.
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With regards to the general management of the food security intervention, it is essential to promote diversification of income, as focusing on agriculture alone to improve access to food will not be sufficient. Additionally since total farm output and productivity are low; it is necessary to identify the key constraints affecting agricultural performance in the target areas and look at improved crop growing techniques as well as sustainability of post-harvest handing and management systems. Agricultural training agencies should train the farmers on increase of crop yield, effective post-harvest handing through timely harvest, appropriate drying and storage techniques, value addition, price information and marketing.
To achieve soil and water conservation, there is need for pro-active training and capacity building programs on improved agronomic practices. This can be achieved by working with local government and using extension workers and community based organizations for sustainability.
There is a need to improve community sanitation and medical services, including capacities for diagnosis and treatment, as well as creating community awareness in preventative measures for malaria, diarrhea, and other water borne diseases. Preventive measures to restrict malaria transmission such as mosquito nets, treatment/drying up of breeding sites and spraying should be introduced.
To improve the income of the target area, interventions on market linkages and price information systems for small scale farmers needs to be carried out. Additionally strategies proposed by the household such as sell of gum Arabic, bee keeping, craft making should be implemented to reduce the pressure on the forest exploitation.
There is need to do a further gender study in the area on the gender roles, relationship, decision making and ownership of property, to analyze and establish the actual practices over ownership of and access to productive assets, the different gender roles and decision making of the area.
There is need to carry out extension services and interventions of saving and loan associations, trainings on how to start businesses, as well as making the credit facilities accessible. This is crucial for the households as they will be able to access alternative livelihood options and increase their household incomes. Most of the members interviewed had invested their proceeds into household productive assets, food, medical care, school fees and scholastic materials.
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Education programs should be supported to increase the literacy level in the area. Literacy will be of significant influence in changing the communal attitudes on natural resource management and conservation.
The projects developed should work through the existing community structures such as the chiefs, community, payam and boma leaders to deliver the program. The research established that the communities have their own mechanisms of how to handle conflict. This in effect strengthens the sustainability mechanisms by creating a link pin between communities and their leaders by fostering social accountability, good governance and transparency. Program delivery through local structures also ensures community led program monitoring, evaluation.
Messages on conservation of the natural resources should be aired during the morning and evening hours to target the majority of the households. However due to gender roles where women have heavy workload and are usually engaged with household chores in the mornings and evenings, an early afternoon schedule for a radio program would be suitable. This time is especially important as it targets the women who account for 90% of the food production and hence are essential in addressing the soil/water conservation concerns. The conservation messages can be run throughout the week using English, Lotuko, Acholi and Juba Arabic.
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Assal, M. (2006), Whose Rights Count? National and International Responses to the Rights of IDPs in Atil, M. (2009), Expanding the Provision and Impact of Microfinance in Southern Sudan. Juba: World Bank Southern Sudan Office. Food and Agricultural Organisation &World Food Program: (2011) Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission to Southern Sudan’. Rome. Food and Agricultural Organization, World Food Programme (2010).Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission to South Sudan’. Rome. International Organisation for Migration.(2013) Village Assessment Survey Country Profile for Eastern Equatoria, 2012-2013. Land Resource Division (1977).28 Forest Development Prospects in the Imatong central Forest Reserve (Vol. vol 1): Southern Sudan. Matta, A. (1960). Educational Planning in a Developing Country: The Sudan International Review of Education 6 OXFAM. (2013). Country Profile: South Sudan: Oxfam Publications Red Cross (2010). Sudan: Floods: International federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies Slaymaker, T.(2004). Water and Sanitation Project Review: Save the Children UK South Sudan Programme: London: WPP, ODI. South Sudan Centre for Census (2010) Statistics and Evaluation : Food and Nutrition. Juba. South Sudan Centre for Census, Statistics and Evaluation. (2010) Poverty in Southern Sudan: Estimates from the National Baseline Household Survey 2009. Juba. South Sudan Development Plan (2011-2013) Realising freedom, equality, justice, Peace and prosperity for all. Southern Sudan Centre for Census: Statistics and Evaluation (2010). Key Indicators for South Sudan. Juba. Statistical Yearbook for Southern Sudan (2010) Southern Sudan Centre for Census Statistics and Evaluation. Sudan Government: Forests Act, Supplement No. 1 Cong. Rec. (1989). Sudan Population and Housing Census by National Bureau of Statistics (2008) South Sudan. the Sudan’. Khartoum: University of Khartoum. The wildlife Service Act: Laws of Southern Sudan, 2 Cong. Rec. (2011) United Nations Development Programme. (2011) Seeds for Development: Sudan in action’. Juba. United Nations Environment Programme (1997) Sudan post conflict assessment.
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United States Agency for International Development (2006). Livelihoods Analysis Forum, South Sudan. Washington, DC. Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) (2010) Conservation Landscape for Peace: Sustaining Wildlife and Community Livelihoods in the Southern Sudan-Northern Uganda Institutional websites searched Chronic Poverty Research Centre (http://www.chronicpoverty.org/page/publications) FAO (http://www.fao.org) http://ssnbs.org/storage/key-indicators-for--sudan/Key%20Indicators_93.pdf http://www.avsi-usa.org/africa/sudan.html FeinsteinInternationalCenter (http://www.fireproxy.com/wikis.uit.tufts.edu/confluence/display/FIC/FeinsteinInternationalCenter) IFPRI (www.ifpri.org) ILO (www.ilo.org) UNICEF (http://www.unicef.org) UNDP (www.undp.org) UNDP Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery World Food Programme (WFP) (http://www.wfp.org)
Academic and publisher databases searched
Tufts Catalogue
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ANNEXS Annex A: Names of the Key informant Interviewees for the Survey Annex B: Names of FGD Members Annex C: Administration units covered by the Survey Annex D: County Profiles Annex E: Household Questionnaire Annex F: FGD Guide for Community Leaders & Households Annex G: M&E Monitoring Framework
Annex A: Names of the Key informant Interviewees for the Survey
SN Names Orgnaisation/Department 01 Telican Alphonse Director General, State Ministry of Local Government, Law enforcement and Wildlife conservation 02 John Esur Youth Leader-Torit County 03 Simon Director of Admin/Finance, State Ministry of Youth and Sports 04 Achayo Christine Community Member, Hai Inkas 05 Betty Imoya Community Member, Hai Lotuko 06 Alau Martine State Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Under Directorate of forestry 07 Taban James Under Directorate of Wildlife Conservation, State Ministry of Local Government, Law enforcement and Wildlife conservation 08 Ohisa Julius Community Member, Hai Corton 09 Agnes Mesiku Community Member, Hai Murani
10 Julius Omiana Community Member, Hai Murani 11 Hon. Dr Margaret Itto Minister of Health, State Ministry of Health & State Ministry of Education 12 Martine Moi Directorate of Environment, State Ministry of Local Government, Law enforcement and Wildlife conservation 13 Duku Boita Acting Director General, State Ministry of Agriculture 14 Dr. Isaac Oromo NGO CARTAS – Torit 15 Alfred Kayuba Togul Director General, State Ministry of Finance & Economic Planning 16 Okech Simon Under Directorate of Forestry, State Ministry of Agriculture
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Annex B: Names of FGD members
MAGWII FGD TORIT FGDs 01 Opio Jeffrey 22 Ohisa James 02 Viola Paska 23 Lokinga Patrick 03 Okech Simon 24 Oruni Marcelo 04 Ochen Sam 25 Iko John 05 Oleng Moses 26 Ohide Julius 06 Olinga James 27 Ensure James 07 Opeta Daudi. 28 Lomuta Agabito 08 Hellen Ayaa 29 Opeyok Ben 09 Okongo Ceasar 30 Ihisa Jane 10 Lokang Charles 31 Ifita Susan 11 Susan Apio 32 Onomi Sikodo 12 Adong Flora 33 Oyaka Robert 13 Auma Grace 34 Oromo Simon 14 Abonga Dennis 35 Lolito Charles 15 Ayoo Patrick 36 Ichang Paska 16 Opira James 39 Lojana Bosco 17 Lokeng Peter 40 Cladio Silman 18 Ben Kingston 41 Ewoth Isaac 19 Ochala Benjamin 42 Bibiana Nakurus 20 Cosmas Otim 43 Cipiriano Orumo 21 Oroma Bosco 44 Amanya James
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Annex C Table 1: Administration units covered by the Survey County Payam Boma Moti Ifwotur Gunyoro Torit Hillieu Himodonge Eorohore Magwi Magwi Miika Magwi Palvari Lobonye Pasok Katire Katire Imilai Ikotos Humadongi Imatong Hiniso
Annex D: COUNTY PROFILES
TORIT, EASTERN EQUATORIA
Table A; showing the Bomas and Payans in Torit County
Payam Boma Number of Villages Autak 2 Bolore 2 Bur Hitobok 5 Owodo 5 Imatari 4 Murahatiha 4 Hiyalla Nyibira 3 Tirangore 4 Tuhubak 3 Forohore 6 Homodonge Hilleu 4 Keberek 3
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Otose 4 Gunyoro 3 Iholong 5 Ifwotur Imokoru 5 Moti 8 Central Imurok 4 Chuful 5 Imurok Ifoho 4 Isaloro 5 Achimoro 4 Barbal 4 Lyire Hafai 4 Haramorok 5 Nyara 5 Hutiala 3 Lofiriha 3 Kudo Loulang 4
Lowoi North 4 Lowoi South 4
IKOTOS, EASTERN EQUATORIA
Figure B; showing the Bomas and Payams in Ikoto County
Payam Boma Number of Villages Imilai 5 Katire Isuhak 6 Katire Central 6 Ifune 8 Lonyori 4 Ikwoto Losihet 4 Lotada 3 Tanama 3 Lokirya 4 Imatong Hiniso 4 Humadongi 4
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Ifose 4 Ingoi 6 Lopii 4 Lobulo 6 Lodwara Mura 7 Lomohidang Lodwara Talla 5 North Mak 6
Okorohore 7 Ramula 7 Chahari 5 Hiriafit 3 Ibunyak 4 Lomohidang Isohe 7 South Lobira 2 Mangala 4 Woroworo 4 Ateda 3 Lofus 3 Losite Lotome 2 Nakoringole 3 Napeyese 5
Areas targeted for the Survey
MAGWI COUNTY, EASTERN EQUATORIA
Figure C; showing the Bomas and Payans in Magwi County
Payam Boma Number of Villages Pasok Lobone –(7 Boma) (6-7) Palwari Magwi Magwi-(9 Bomas) (6-7) Miika Mugale 6 (6-7) Nimule 4 (6-7) Pageri 5 (6-7)
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Pajok 5 (6-7)
Areas targeted for the Survey
Annex E-Household questionnaire (Is attached separately to the report)
Annex F T103: FGD Guide for Community Leaders on Conservation of Natural Resources
READ THE FOLLOWING TO THE RESPONDENT BEFORE PROCEEDING. The goal of this survey is to gather initial information and opinions about the socio-economic conditions in the Imatong Forest and Kinyeti Watershed in South Sudan, to help plan implementation of the Africa Wildlife Forest (AWF) conservation project. This survey is part of an overall project for the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) whose aim is to ensure that the key protected areas are functionally connected. It also aims at supporting the communities living within the dispersal areas to realize higher socio-economic achievements.
The information obtained here will be held in the strictest confidentiality. Neither your name nor household details will be used in any document based on this survey.
1. Are you aware of the Natural Resources in your community? [Kindly identify them] ______2. Do you think it is important to conserve Natural Resources in your Community? [ Provide reasons for your response] ______3. In your opinion, what role should the local community members play in the conservation of Natural Resources in your area? The role by The role by The role by community The role by Men women leaders children
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4. How important are protected areas like Imatong forest and Nimule national park to you and your community? ______5. In what ways have you benefited from these conservation areas as a household or community in general? If not how should they benefit you? ______6. Has anyone from these conservation areas/government come to speak with you or your household/ community on the importance of conserving the natural resources in your community? How important is there involvement with the community in the conservation of Natural Resources? ______7. Do members of this community experience conflict with forests and wildlife? 8. What kinds of conflicts/problems do community members/households experience with wildlife and forests in this area? ______9. Who is most affected by such conflicts and why? ______10. How does the community resolve such conflicts? ______11. What should the government/authorities do to help resolve these conflicts? ______12. In your opinion, what should the government and other conservation agencies/NGOs do to help the community participate in the conservation and Management of Natural Resources? ______13. In your opinion, what are the most economic activities of the people of this community? Explain your answers. ______14. What are the key cash and food crops grown in this community or area? Explain your answers. 15. Are there any common or shared resources used by households in this village for their livelihoods? Examples: common fishing grounds, common grazing areas, forests etc. How do you manage these common resources? How important are these for livelihoods or food security? Is access to these resources changing? Are these resources becoming less productive? ______16. Do you think your own household is getting poorer or richer year by year? Explain your answers. ______17. Do any of you ever have problems finding enough food for your households to eat? What are the most difficult times of year for you when food is short? How do you overcome food
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problems of shortages? Explain your answers. ______18. What are the common natural disasters in this area? How do you cope or deal with natural disasters?
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Annex G Monitoring Indicators Monitoring Indicators for the Proposed Intervention in the Imatong Mountains and Kinyeti Watershed Projects Questions Monitoring Indicator Measurable parameters Timeframe . What are the main community institutions? Annually, Community . What the roles and functions of key community institutions? Mid-term participation and . . Mention the achievements of the main community institutions? and End ownership Assessing the community NRM institutions in terms of . What are key capacity challenges of these community institutions? Project their functions and capacities. . How do community institutions collaborate and work with formal institutions? . What are the major NRM related conflicts in the Mid-term and . Assessing mechanism and systems in place for conflict community/state/IRB/county/payam/boma? End Project resolution on NRM issues and identifying areas of . How does the community resolve NRM related conflicts? improvements. . How effective are these mechanisms? . What are challenges? . Understanding the role of women in NRM and analyzing . What is the role of women in NRM in the Mid-term and existing practices from a gender perspective. community/state/county/payam/boma? End Project . What roles do women play in the economic activities in the community? . What role does the woman play in the social affairs and well-being of the community? . Are there cultural and legal challenges that impede women’s
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participation in socio-economic affairs of the community? . Mention the factors that affect and limit women’s participation in socio-economic affairs of the community? . How are the problems being addressed?
. Who owns land and natural resources in the community? Annually, Mid- . Critically understand the issues of access and control over . Who uses land and natural resources in the community? term and End land resources and related relationships. . Who controls the use of land and natural resources? Project . Are women allowed to inherit or own land? If so how many women own or have inherited land? . Assess existing legal and traditional practices for . What are the existing legal and traditional practices in place for Annually, Mid- managing and resolving NRM-based conflicts and in managing natural resources, resolving NRM-based conflicts, term and End management of land, water and forests managing land, water and forests? Project Institutional legal and . Analysis of South Sudan policies on NRM that impact policy framework this region and community access. . Assess the capacity of the relevant ministries in implementing the NRM policies at state level, mapping staffing, staff capacities and systems.
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. How many child headed and female headed households exist? Annually, Mid- . What is the type and average size of the household? term and End . What is the number of Children per household? Project . What is the education level of head of households? Can he or she . Distribution of household heads by gender, age, year of read and write? Household Member formal education/literacy, occupation, marital status, . How many households are headed by people in formal characteristics disability, number of children, and period of stay in the employment? area. . What is the change in ethnic composition of the area? . How many people are married in the community? . What is the number of persons with disability in the area? . What is the average number of household members who are unemployed? . How many households have stayed for more than 10 years in the area? . Assessing the living conditions of households in terms of . How many households have permanent or semi-permanent Mid-term and Household Living type of material used for construction (walling, flooring houses brick walls and iron sheets roofing? End Project Conditions and roofing) of household dwelling houses, ownership of . Number of people who owns the dwelling disaggregated by dwelling houses by gender, type of energy sources for gender and age? lighting and cooking and places where household cook . What are changes in types of fuel used by households use for from. lighting and cooking? . Number of households who have separate huts for cooking? . How many households own wall clock/wrist, car, bicycle, radio, refrigerator or telephone?
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. What are the common agricultural tools owned and used in by household? . Who are bread winners for the household in terms of gender, occupation and age? . What are the main types of productive assets owned by Mid-term and household? End Project . What is the common type of land ownership? . Assessing types and forms of ownership of productive . How many households do not own land? Household Asset assets by households by age and gender, number of . How many women own or have inherited land? ownership and households leasing out land, size of the land owned by . What is the pre-dominant type of farm power used by the Control the households and sources of farm labour. household?
Social development . Assess the health of the people in terms of types of water . What are the common diseases in the area? Mid-term and related diseases and accessibility, ownership and quality . How many people accessed quality medical services? End Project Health & Hygiene of health services in terms of personnel, treatment and . Who owns the health centers in the area? distance. . What is the average number of trained health workers in terms of gender? Water . What is the source of safe drinking water? . How many households have access to safe drinking water? . Who fetches water for the household and what is the average distance of water sources? Toilet and Latrine . Types and sources of drinking water in terms of distance . Who normally goes to this source to collect water for the facilities and safety. household? . What do households do to make water safe for drinking?
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. During which months in the past year was water scarce? . Assess the sanitation in the area in terms of ownership . How many households own and how many share toilet facilities? and sharing of toilet facilities and waste disposal. . What is the common toilet facilities in the area? . What is the main method of solid waste disposal generally in the community?
Education and . Assess the literature and level of education as well as . What are the school enrollment numbers by school type, Annually, Mid- Literacy levels access to education in the community in terms of school ethnicity, gender and age? term and End ownership, distance and enrollment by KM, gender, . How many household members can read and or write? Project ethnicity and age. . What is the rate of school drop out in the area? Economic . What %age of household members are employed by sector, form, Quarterly, Characteristics education, gender and age? Annually, Mid- Labour, Income . Assess the unemployed levels, income, expenditure and . What is the source and average household income and term and End generation and decision making in the community/household by gender, expenditure by gender, age and occupation? Project expenditure age, income and ethnicity. Agricultural . Number of farm plots owned by household heads or . What is the number of farm plots and average number of Annually, Mid- Production spouses of household heads agricultural land owned by each household by gender and age? term and End . Sizes of household farm plots. . What are the main crops grown and yields and for what purpose? Project . Types of crops grown by households . Who does the cultivation and digging of farmland by age and . Distribution of household plots by years of continuous gender? cropping. . What factors determine profitability in crop farming? . Crops that households have stopped growing, and the . Which crops have households stopped growing in the last 5 years? Household crop reasons. . What extension services or agriculture promotion programmes
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production activities . Total crop production by households. are available? . %age of produced crops sold by households. . Estimate of gross margins from crops produced. . Factors that determine profitability in crop farming. . Constraints inhibiting profitability in crop farming. . Sources and quantities of crop production inputs used by . What are the crop production inputs used by the household? Mid-term and Crop production households. . What is the predominant type of farm power used by the End Project inputs . Types of farm power used by households. household and what are the alternative types of farm power used? . Sources of farm credit. . What is the mode of transport used by the household? . Modes of transportation used by households. . Distribution of households by animal stock composition. . What and how many animals are owned by household? Mid-term and . Distribution of households by poultry stock composition. End Project Livestock Ownership . Total earnings from the sale of animals . What is the income from animals by type? and control . Factors that determine profitability in livestock farming. . Constraints to profitability in livestock farming. . Distribution of households by types of non-farming . What types and levels of non-farming employment is the Mid-term and employment. population engaged in? End Project Non-farming income . Distribution of households by the types of non-farming sources available to enterprises in which they engage. households . Estimate of household incomes from non-farming activities.
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. Consumption of own-produced food by households. . What is the type and source of food for households by quantity? Mid-term and Household food and . Consumption of purchased food by households. End Project nonfood expenditure . Distribution of food quantities consumed by households. and consumption . Distribution of non-food expenditure by households. Households food . How many meals do households usually have a day? Annually, Mid- security level and . Assess number of meals consumed daily by household . How do household cope with food shortage? term and End poverty status scarcity of food and copying mechanisms. Project . Assess availability, access, types and use of credit facilities . What types of credits can household access and from who? Mid-term and available in the area . What is the value and are the loans used for? End Project Household access to . %age of population who go for a loan and level of . Credit indebtedness . Assess level of training and capacity building in improved . What cultivation methods are used in the area? Mid-term and agricultural techniques and improvement of crop . How many people have been trained in and use improved End Project Training and capacity production by number, age, gender and ethnicity. agriculture techniques? building activities . Number of households practicing improved agricultural . What is the level of increase in crop production? improved farming techniques. . Level of knowledge of households of local livelihood programs in the locality. Household External . What are the common natural disasters, frequency and impact on Annually, Mid- shocks . Assess the disaster vulnerability by types and impact of the lives of people in the area? term and End disaster on the lives of the people in the area. . What mechanisms are in place to deal with natural disasters? Project Media and Access to . Assess the level of access to media and information and . How many people own or have access to radio, television or Mid-term and Information public awareness in the area newspaper? End Project
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. What are the main sources of information in the area? . What is the best way of passing information or reaching out to the people? . What social amenities are available and how accessible are they? Annua, mid- Physical Access to . Assess the availability and access to social amenities by term & end amenities the people in the area. project . What is the level of awareness of environmental degradation and Mid-term and conservation in the area? End Project . How many conservation groups have been established in the area Community based in the last 5 years? Natural resource . Are there environmental related conflicts and how are they management and . Assess level of awareness and support for environmental resolved? knowledge conservation and community conservation groups. . How many environmental related policies, laws and institutions have been developed and/or established in the last five years?
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