4 3D z 2- IORC Ub. Agriculture and Crop Genetic Resources

Editors K.W. RILEY, N. MATEO, G.C. HAWTIN and R. YADAV

OXFORD & IBH PUBLISHING CO. PVT. LTD. New Delhi Bombay INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP on MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURE AND CROP GENETIC RESOURCES (February 16-191987, Kathmandu, Nepal)

Organised by:

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, HMG NEPAL INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE (IDRC) and INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT (ICIMOD) ©1990 INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE

ISBN 81-204-0472-6

Published by Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 66 Janpath, New Delhi 110001, typeset at Scanset and printed at Rajbandhu Industrial Co., New Delhi. 1-N9-10 FOREWORD

The fundamental characteristic of mountain agriculture in each mountain system throughout the world is its extreme internal variability and complex- ity, with a multiplicity of highly localised micro eco-systems providing the habitats for many unique crop varieties and animal species. This precious diversity of genetic resources, now threatened by a combination of pressures, is clearly one of the key factors in the long-term sustainability of mountain agriculture on marginal lands is often the most difficult and intractable environments. This valuable and vulnerable biological diversity in mountain eco-systems has constituted over the centuries the essential natural asset on which mountain communities have depended for their very survival. This present volume of papers presented by the scientists who participated in a unique International Workshop on Mountain Agriculture and Crop Genetic Resources, held in Kathmandu in February 1987, may be regarded as an important but certainly initial exploration of these highly significant issues in the much-neglected subject of mountain farming systems. Though the Workshop concentrated on these issues in the vast -Himalaya , participation by agricultural scientists from the Mountain in and from the mountain systems of and Southeast was a most important, and indeed unique feature of the Workshop discussions which is well reflected in both in the earlier Workshop Summary Report and in this volume providing the full and edited versions of the Workshop papers. The Workshop on which the volume is based was jointly organised by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the International Development Research Centre of (IDRC) and by the Ministry of Agriculture of His Majesty's Government of Nepal. From this modest but exciting beginning, major new and very promising initiatives in the field of mountain agriculture are already becoming firmly established. With major funding support from the Asian Development Bank and the Ford Foundation, ICIMOD has been able to mobilise a large-scale international programme of research and policy analysis on mountain farming systems (with the study of crop genetic resources as a key component). This three-year programme is focused primarily on the diverse eco-systems of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya but will increasingly involve the systematic exchange of knowledge and expertise, and desirably of genetic resources, with fellow vi

scientists in South America, Africa and . IDRC and ICIMOD have already been able to continue this knowledge exchange, begun at this Workshop, by organising a first study tour in the Andes by specialists on mountain agriculture from the , and supporting these participants at the Andean Crops Network meeting held in Quito, Ecuador in June 1988. It is to be hoped that these vital programmes of international research and information exchange on mountain farming systems will now be rapidly accelerated in the vital interests of mountain communities everywhere. In the meantime, on behalf of the joint sponsors of this most useful Workshop, I would like to express our thanks to all the contributors to this volume of scientific papers - and to all those, most notably to Ken Riley of IDRC Canada, who have worked so hard both in the organisation of the Workshop and in the arduous but rewarding tasks associated with the editing and publication of the papers which are here presented.

Colin Rosser Director, ICIMOD PREFACE

This book contains the proceedings of a workshop organised in Kathmandu in February 1987, which brought together agricultural scientists working in mountain around the world - from the Andes, the Himalaya, and highland areas in , and the , as well as Thailand. The idea of the meeting developed as a result of HMG of Nepal, ICIMOD, and IDRC's interest and experience in mountain agriculture. In the past, IDRC has supported several research and development projects in the high Andes, the Himalayas and . At present, this support is being maintained and even expanded to some extent. ICIMOD's mandate is clearly geared to a better understanding and sustained development of mountain regions. HMG of Nepal is dedicating considerable efforts to the conservation and increased productivity of the vast hill areas of the country. The Workshop opened with descriptions of the broad geographic features and farming systems of each mountain region, then proceeded to the crop genetic resources of a given region and their importance in sustainable and productive mountain farming systems. Tremendous diversity in micro-environments and farming systems, as well as in crops, land races, and varieties grown by farmers in each mountain region was evident. Nevertheless, striking similarities were noted when the various regions were compared. For example, there are many common components in the traditional and originally sustainable farming systems that are now coming under increased pressure due to population growth and land use. The great diversity of crop genetic resources in these mountain regions was recognised as a primary means for improving production and sustainable agricultural systems in mountain regions. The workshop stressed that improved methods of describing these environ- ments, in order to better understand crop adaptation, and more efficient mechanisms of exchanging crop genetic resources, were essential first steps toward effective collaboration among scientists and farmers in these different regions. A step in this direction was taken in June 1988, when a group of Himalayan agricultural scientists participated in the Andean Crops Work- shop in Quito, Ecuador and saw for themselves some of the Andean agricul- tural systems. This book is divided into four sections:

1. The physical features and the farming systems in each of the mountain regions represented. 2. Description of crop genetic resources. 3. Comparison of aspects of Andean, Himalayan and Ethiopian highland agriculture. 4. Summary of discussions and recommendations.

Two papers that could not be presented at the workshop are included in this book: 'Potatoes, Genetic Resources and Farmers Strategies' by R.F. Rhoades, and 'Konso Agriculture and Its Plant Genetic Resources' by J.M. Engels. We hope this book will be of use not only to those scientists who attended the workshop, but to all those interested in a more productive and sustainable mountain agriculture. Our deep appreciation is extended to His Excellency Rajouri, Minister of Agriculture, His Majesty's Government, Nepal, for opening the workshop. We are most grateful to Drs. Collin Rosser and colleagues and staff at ICIMOD for developing the workshop schedule and making the excellent arrange- ments for the workshop itself. Dr. Tej Partap of ICIMOD, and Dr. Ken Mackay of IDRC greatly assisted in technical editing.

K.W. Riley N. Mateo G. C. Hawtin R. Yadav CONTENTS

Foreword : Colin Rosser v Preface vii Introduction : G.C. Hawtin and N. Mateo 1

PART 1: MOUNTAIN PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS AND FARMING SYSTEMS

Chapter 1 Environmental Diversity and Its Influence on 9 Farming Systems in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas P.L. Maharajan, B. Bhadra, P. Roy, R.P. Yadav and Zhang Rongsu hapter 2 Agricultural Systems of Xizang 3 Cheng Hong Chapter 3 Mountain Farming Systems in Nepal 51 M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam Chapter 4 69 D.R. Ghalley Chapter 5 High Mountain Environment and Farming Systems 75 in the Andean Region of N. Mateo and M. Tapia Chapter 6 Tropical African Mountains and Their Farming 105 Systems Amare Getahun Chapter 7 Mountain Environments and Farming Systems 125 in West Asia and North Africa G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin

PART 2: MOUNTAIN CROP GENETIC RESOURCES

hapter 8 Indigenous Cereal Crop Genetic Resources 47 in Mountain Areas of Pakistan Rashid Anwar and M.S. Bhatti x

Chapter 9 Fruit Crop Genetic Resources in the Northern 153 Mountains of Pakistan : Collection and Conservation M.S. Bhatti and Rashid Anwar Chapter 10 Status of Finger in the Mountain 159 Agricultural System of , Surinder K. Mann and Inderjeet Singh Chapter 11 Exploring Under-exploited Crops of the 165 Himalayan Mountain Agriculture : Chenopods Tej Partap

Chapter 12 Crop Genetic Resources of the Nepalese 185 Mountains A.N. Bhattarai, B.R. Adhikary and K.L. Manandhar

Chapter 13 Mountain and Upland Agriculture and Genetic 201 Resources in Thailand Chantaboon Sutthi Chapter 14 Konso Agriculture and Its Plant Genetic 217 Resources J.M.M. Engels Chapter 15 Native Andean Crops in the High Mountain 227 Agriculture of Ecuador J. Tola Cevallos, C. Nieto, E. Parolta and R. Castillo Chapter 16 Andean Phytogenetic and Zoogenetic Resources 235 M. Tapia and N. Mateo Chapter 17 An Evaluation of Andean Root and Tuber Crops: 255 Genetic Resources for Mountain Environments Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer Chapter 18 Role of NBPGR in Exploration, Characterisation 273 and Exchange of Mountain Crop Genetic Resources R.S. Paroda and B.D.Joshi

PART 3: COMPARISONS OF MOUNTAIN REGIONS

Chapter 19 Potatoes: Genetic Resources and Farmer 293 Strategies: Comparison of the Peruvian Andes and Nepali Himalayas Robert E. Rhoades xi

Chapter 20 Wild and Cultivated Barleys in the Himalayas 305 Shao Quiquan, Zhou Jeqi and Li Ansheng Chapter 21 Degree of Similarity in Cultivated Crops 311 between the Andean Mountains and East African (Ethiopia) Mountains Amare Getahun Conclusions and Recommendations 313 General Index 319 Index of Scientific Names 329 Mountain Agriculture and Crop Genetic Resources

INTRODUCTION

Mountain Agriculture and Crop Genetic Resources

G.C. Hawtin and N. Mateo

Up to 10% of the world's population and a far higher percentage of the world's poverty-stricken, live in mountain regions. For example, in the Andean and regions of , between 30 and 50 million people live in mountain areas that provide almost half their staple foods. In the Andean countries, mountain farming accounts for about 35%0 of the land area. In alone, 1.6 million ha are under cultivation at altitudes exceeding 2,000 m. In addition to those living in mountain areas, another 30% of the world's population is affected by, or dependent on, mountain resources. Rivers such as the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mekong, and , which flow from the Himalaya-- mountain complex, provide irrigation and drinking water for a large percentage of the vast population of South and Southeast Asia. In most countries, mountain areas are the poorest and least developed. In Peru, for example, 40% of the population live in the mountains but account for only about 16% of the GNP. In the High of , infant morality is about 50% greater than the national average. In developing countries, mountain people are predominantly rural and depend on agricul- ture for subsistence, although in some areas forestry, mining and tourism are important. Historically, mountain communities have been comparatively isolated but self-reliant. Some do, however, have trade links, either with other mountain communities or with lowland areas. Strong social cohesion and organisation have been prerequisites for successful farming. But in recent years improved communication, migration to the cities and increased social mobility have 2 Mountain Agriculture weakened and disrupted traditional social structures. For example, mountain terraces and irrigation systems that have been maintained for hundreds or even thousands of years are falling into disrepair in many parts of the world. Simultaneously, expanding mountain populations are increasing the pressure on already fragile ecosystems in many countries. For a variety of reasons, mountain agriculture has remained by and large a subsistence activity. Opportunities for increasing cash income are usually limited to commodities that keep well, are highly valued, or are easily trans- ported. holdings tend to be small and fragmented. Fields, normally small and often terraced, are expensive to maintain and offer only limited possibili- ties for the use of animal power or machinery. Individual farmers often have widely dispersed fields at different altitudes, enabling them to produce a wide range of crops and animals and to spread the workland over time. In addition to their own holdings, mountain farmers gen- erally have access to communal pastures and sometimes to communal crop- lands. In many countries such as Afghanistan, farmers may work the lower hills in winter, but move to temporary dwellings at higher altitudes in summer to raise crops and graze their animals. Mean temperature drops with increasing altitude and poses special prob- lems for mountain agriculture. It has been estimated in Nepal that maturity of and is delayed by about five days for each 100 m rise in elevation. In addition, the occurrence of regular frosts at certain altitudes limits crop production. Land above this frost line is normally used only for grazing, although seasonal crop production is possible in some areas. The problems of cold are often exacerbated by strong . Of almost equal significance to low minimum temperatures are the large swings in temperature between day and night (diurnal variations). In parts of the Andes, for example, diurnal variation in air temperature is regularly as much as 30°C. The extent of seasonal temperature variation depends greatly on and distance from the . Near the , seasonal changes are minimal compared with farther north or south. For instance, in parts of northern , which is in the same latitude as central , monthly mean temperatures can exceed 30°C in summer but may plummet to a chilling -50°C in winter. The transfer of agricultural technologies from low-elevation temperate regions to high-altitude tropical ones with the same mean temperatures, often is not possible because of extreme diurnal changes. In addition, daylength re- quirements of temperate plant species are often not met in the , even if temperature regimes are acceptable. Other factors affecting mountain agriculture include higher levels of solar radiation and lower atmospheric pressures. The consequences of these are not well understood. Brassica oilcrops in the mid-hills of Nepal (Courtesy : Nicholas Mateo).

Hillside terraces have been prepared for and finger millet, Nepal

(Courtesy : Nicholas Mateo). Intensive valley-bottom cultivation. The wheat crop is often followed by maize and vegetables (Courtesy : Nicholas Mateo).

Compost being applied to terraced maize fields. A winter cereal (wheat) is in the background (Courtesy : Nicholas Mateo). G.C. Hawtin and N. Mateo 3

Mountain soils are highly variable, and frequently stony and thin. Soil maps are usually inadequate; indeed, more attention should be paid to producing maps that would assist in land-use planning. Furthermore, many of the inter- national soil classification systems currently in use are of limited value. It might be useful for agriculturalists to pay more attention to the often highly developed classification systems of indigenous peoples. Farmers in mountain areas have had to develop soil management systems adapted to highly variable weather and topography. Their livelihood depends on them. and Soil erosion is possibly the single most important hurdle to the present future agricultural exploitation of many mountain regions. Terracing has made it possible to cultivate steep slopes, and the development of ingenious water management systems for temperature control, irrigation and drainage, such as "gochas" and "huarus" of the Andes, has enabled farmers to grow crops in otherwise impossible locations. Population pressures have led to widespread clearing of forests for fuel and for agriculture, and increasing numbers of animals have overgrazed many areas. Both deforestation and overgrazing have increased soil erosion. Actual measurements of erosion losses are scarce. The direct effects of different factors (such as soil type, agricultural practices, animal species, and crop cover) on erosion in the world's mountain areas are still only poorly understood. What is known, is that the downstream effects of erosion- namely, silt deposition, severe flooding in the wet seasons, and lower-than- normal water levels in the dry seasons-are sometimes more serious than the deal effects of erosion on agriculture in the mountains per se. Clearly, a great of research on this aspect is still needed. One promising avenue is agroforestry. Greater attention to the beneficial role and potential of trees in mountain environments could have important and far-reaching consequences. Typical of mountain agricultural systems is the diversity of crops grown. It has been reported, for example, that in one village in Nepal, more than 150 distinct crop species and varieties are under cultivation. In small plots in the high Andes of Peru, as many as 12 different species and varieties of potatoes can be found. This diversity of crops, both within and between species, is partly explained by the multitude of elevation and aspect-related ecological niches in and around mountain villages. In Nepal and Peru, it is not uncommon for villagers to have fields spanning an altitudinal range of more than 1,000 m. Crop diversity is also one of the farmer's strategies for reducing risk in the face of a harsh and highly variable . Many unique crops and animals have been selected in, and for mountain conditions. In areas where meat and milk were historically scarce, the domes- tication of grains with a superior protein content made for a well nourished population. Crops such as , kaniwa, tarwi, oca, ullucu, and mashua 4 Mountain Agriculture

improved the daily diet of the Andean people. In Nepal, wheat, naked barley, buckwheat, finger millet, amaranthus, lathyrus, soybeans, peas and lentils are widespread. Certain livestock species and breeds are also well adapted to mountain conditions. The Ilama and alpaca are camelids that graze in the Andes at altitudes of up to 5,000 m. The hardy yak is widely distributed in mountain areas of Tibet and surrounding countries. Unfortunately, much of this diversity is rapidly being lost. The reasons include growing population pressures, increasing demand for crops for the urban market, and competition from high-yielding modern cultivars. Indeed, the situation in many areas is considered grave. Urgent measures are being taken by various organisations to ensure these irreplaceable genetic resources are collected and maintained. Over thousands of years, mountain farmers have developed technologies uniquely suited to their environment. The farming systems of the Andes, for example, are among the world's most complex. But many traditional technolo- gies are now in danger of being lost because of social change. They were originally efficient and able to support the existing population densities, but today, unfortunately, they cannot sustain the larger populations. However, the possibility of using selected inputs, as well as the introduction of new crop and livestock species and breeds, are creating new agricultural opportunities in mountain regions. The agricultural research community has generally neglected mountain areas in favour of the plains, which offer greater food production potential and are often more densely populated, richer, and politically more influential. Training has followed a similar pattern, emphasising intensive flatlands production strategies, including the use of machinery and high-input tech- nologies. The result has been more steady economic progress in the plains than in the mountains. In recent years, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada, as well as many national and international institutions and donor agencies have provided increased support to research and training in moun- tain areas. IDRC support has gone to the Andes, Ethiopia, the Nepalese mountains and the highlands of northwestern Thailand. The work of an informal network of projects supported by the IDRC in the Andes, has helped to improve the lot of farmers in several areas by making available higher- yielding and less disease-prone cultivars of crops, such as quinoa and pota- toes. Although the work is still in the initial stage, it has shown national gov- ernments that their research and development strategies in mountain regions need to be re-examined. At the international level, there is an increasing recognition of the need for more research. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Develop- ment (ICIMOD) has been established, for example, to address the complex de- velopment needs of the vast Himalayan region. Although scattered around the globe, mountain ecosystems have many G.C. Hawtin and N. Mateo 5 features in common. An exchange of information and technologies among them could prove highly beneficial. With this in mind, the Ministry of Agricul- ture of Nepal and the ICIMOD hosted a workshop in Kathmandu in early 1987, under the aegis of IDRC, which concentrated on two issues: characteristics of mountain farming systems and mountain crop genetic resources. By limiting discussion to just these two issues, it was hoped that a concrete exchange of information and of germ plasm would result. The present book is primarily a record of the presentations and recommendations of that workshop, although some information not presented in Kathmandu is also included. To outline the characteristics of farming systems in select mountain areas is a comparatively straight-forward task. But to define and classify these systems to enable a meaningful comparison between the various mountain systems throughout the world, presents a challenge. Nevertheless, the organisers of the workshop felt that such an endeavor would provide the background necessary to a better understanding of the implications and possibilities for crop germplasm exchange. In discussing mountain crop genetic resources, special attention was given to the fragility of the environments involved and the genetic diversity found in high mountain regions. The organisers of the workshop therefore focussed in particular on the following questions and solicited strategies for their resolution, which are presented in this book:

1) What are the characteristics of specific crops cultivated in various high mountain environments? 2) Could some of these crops be sucessfully adapted, and accepted, in other areas? 3) What are the appropriate ways and means of achieving a relevant and organised germplasm exchange?*

*Much of the information presented here was published earlier; see: G. Hawtin and N. Mateo, 1987, Farming on high, IDRC Reports, 16, 1, 4-5.

The 'Quisikancha' community with their bitter potato harvest at altitude 4200 m in Cusco highlands of Peruvian Andes (Courtesy : Tej Partap).

A communidad near Huncarani in Cusco highlands of Peru. The Andean farmers practice several traditional systems of farmland classification and one of them is according to topography (Courtesy : Tej Partap). Quinoa varieties being screened under Quinoa development programme at Santa Catalvia Agriculture Research Station Quito, Ecuador (Courtesy : Tej Partap).

jicama (Polymnia sonchifolia) a native underexploited crop of Ecuador, with tubers as sweet as sugarbeet, is being evaluated at Santa Catalina Agricul- ture Research Station, Quito, Ecuador (Courtesy : Tej Partap). PART 1 Mountain Physical Environments and Farming Systems

CHAPTER 1 Environmental Diversity and Its Influence on Farming Systems in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas

P.L. Maharajan, B. Bhadra, P. Roy, R.P. Yadav and Zhang Rongsu

INTRODUCTION

The Hindu Kush-Himalaya region, stretching from Afghanistan through Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and into Burma, represents a vast variation in altitude-from Mount Everest at 8,884 m above level to Adying in the Turpan Basin at 154 m below sea level. The average altitude exceeds 4,000 m for the entire range, which comprises the following ranges: Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Himalaya, , Hengduan, Misimi, Naga, Khasi, Chin, Siwaliks, Sulaiman, Kirthar and Tobla Kakar_ The entire Hindu Kush-Himalaya region is drained by three major rivers-the Indus, Ganges and Tshangpo-Brahmaputra- and their tributaries. The great vari- ation in climate, flora, fauna and soil could be said to represent global diversity within a small area. Climatically, the highest tropical rainfall, up to 5,000 mm per annum, occurs on the southern slope of the Himalayas (e.g., Cherapunji in Meghalaya), While the and and semi-, cold trans-Himalaya receives scant annual precipita- tion (e.g., Leh with 37 mm) and the frigid Tibetan Plateau just slightly more (less than 200 mm). In the and and semi-arid hot mountains of Afghanistan and the and hot, -like hills and plains of Baluchistan the temperature varies sharply with altitude (vertical zonation) as well as horizontally (longi- tudinal and latitudinal) in macro-scale. The moisture distribution varies with aspect, the southern slopes appearing drier and less vegetated than the northern slopes. In addition, the distribution of snow, ice, glaciers and location of isolated peaks, , and valleys further modify the local climate. 10 Mountain Agriculture

Such a complexity of land forms and climate have produced an equally diverse fauna, vegetation and genetic make-up in cultivated plants. This diversity affects farming systems at the site specific level and constitutes a capital endowment of vital importance for all the humanity. It is imperative that such diversity be preserved. The present paper attempts an assessment of the degree of complexity of the climate, vegetation and human interaction, particularly the complexity repre- sented by the farming systems and agro-ecological zones within the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region.

ENVIRONMENT OF THE HINDU KUSH-HIMALAYA REGION

Geology Studies done on the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) plateau indicate that the Hima- laya did not form until the Middle , intense uplift did not begin until the Quaternary period, and that the plateau is still rising at the rate of 5 mm per annum (Gansser, 1981). Thus, the geologically young age of the Himalaya, together with residual stresses, their high relief and their ruggedness make them highly susceptible to weathering, erosion, landslides and damage by seismic activity (Raina et al., 1978). The Himalaya Mountain System consists of a number of longitudinal structural and orogenic belts that are separated by fault lines (Figure 1.1). They are:

1). Tethys Himalaya or Trans-Himalaya 2) High Himalaya 3) Lesser Himalaya 4) Sub-Himalaya (Siwaliks)

Raina and his colleagues (1978) and Burman (1981) have stated that the central axis or backbone of the Himalayas is the High Himalaya, consisting of crystalline rocks-granites, gneisses and metasediments of Precambrian to Miocene age. Structurally, it is an allochthonous zone. It has an impressive chain of giant Himalayan peaks with an average altitude of 6,100 m. The Tethys"Himalaya or Trans-Himalaya lies to the north. The Tethys sediment consists of piles of sedimentary, rocks of Cambrian to Eocene age with well-preserved flora and fauna deposited in shallow marine . Mor- phologically, it consists of land with a series of high valleys and ranges running from NW to SE, e.g., , Dolpo, Mustang and Manang. The average altitude ranges from 3,600 to 4,300 m and 4,000 to 4,500 m in southern Tibet. South of the crystalline axis is the Lesser Himalaya, comprising mixed sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, which are highly folded and faulted but not fossiliferous. Structurally, it is a para-allochthonous zone, varying in width from 60 to 70 km and rising, on the average, to 3,000 m. This zone is dissected Major Structure units of the Himalayg Indus Sulphur Zone, Mainly Basics M Tethys Himalaya ® Higher Himalaya Crystollines M Lesser Himalaya Q Sub-Himaloya;(Siwoliks) A, of Main Boundary Thrust ( MBT) e a 0 Main Central Thrust (MCT) . Counter Thrust

e Localities

1. Nangaparbot 2. Srinagar 3 Leh 9 Kailas 4. Simla 10 Dhoulogiri 5. Chaur II Kathmandu 6 Dehra Dun 12 Mt. Everest 500 KM 7 Noinital 13 Gongtok 8. Nanda Devi 14 Kongdu

Figure 1.1: Sketch'of the Himalayan Orogenic Belt (Combined from Gansser, 1964, 1974; Valdia, 1973; Raina, 1978) taken from Schwan, 1981. 12 Mountain Agriculture by profuse tangled masses of ranges and valleys with major rivers crossing deep gorges at places. Farther south lies the Sub-Himalaya or Siwaliks with conspicuous synclinal valleys known as 'doons'. It consists of an allochthonous zone of Tertiary mollasic deposits characterised by some vertebrate fauna. These rocks are slightly consolidated sandstone, shale, conglomerates and marl, which are often compressed, folded, faulted and thrust northward. The average altitude of the Siwaliks is about 900 m. The Indo-Gangetic plain of India lies south of this range. The geology of the Hindu Kush is not yet well understood. The Karakoram and the southern part of the Tibetan Plateau are basically Tethys sediment or Tethys Himalaya. The are currently under study. The Sulaiman, Kirthar and Tobla Kakar ranges of Baluchistan are known as Murre deposits, while the Misimi, Naga, Khasi and Chin Hills are considered equiva- lent to the Siwalik Hills.

Geomorphology and Climate The Hindu Kush-Himalayas can be divided into seven major zones geomor- phologicaliy (Butman,1981):

1) Hindu Kush - comprising NW Afghanistan and the western part of the Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan 2) Baluchistan - consisting of the mountain ranges of SW Pakistan 3) Western Himalaya - eastern part of the Northwest Frontier Province, Jammu and and Himachal Pradesh 4) Central Himalaya - Uttar Pradesh and Nepal 5) Eastern Himalaya - formed by Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland and Manipur 6) Tibetan Plateau 7) Hengduan Mountain

The Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau act as substantial barriers to atmospheric circulation. They create the coldness and dryness of the northern plateau and intensify the on the southern slope of the Himalayas. On a macro-scale, the climate varies from partial Mediterranean to and desert in Afghanistan and Baluchistan; and and semi-arid cold in Western Himalaya; moist monsoon in Central Himalaya; wet monsoon in Eastern Himalaya; and Plateau monsoon in Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau and dry valleys in the Hengduan Mountains. The distribution of rainfall during the monsoon, post-monsoon and winter, together with the occurrence of the highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded across the Himalaya (east to west), are given in Table 1.1. As expected, the distribution of monsoon is highest in the Eastern Himalaya, moderate in the Central Himalaya and lowest in the Western P.L. Maharajan et al. 13

Himalaya. Precipitation in the form of winter snow is well marked in the Central and Western Himalaya. One peculiar feature is that around 76°E winter rainfall is highest and, by a strange coincidence, the post-monsoon and winter rainfalls together are more than the monsoon precipitation in these areas. The annual precipitation of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya is given in Figure 1.2 (from M. Wyss,1987, personal communication).

HINDU KUSH AREA Hindu Kush is a rugged mountain.crossing Afghanistan NE to SW with occasional peaks of 7,600 m. Of the total area (655,000 km2), 80% is mountain- ous and hilly and 60% of the country's 21.9 million population live in the mountain region. There are and plains in the SW. In Kabul the mean tempera- ture in July is about 25°C and in January 0°C and the annual rainfall 300 mm. Rainfall ranges from 10 mm in the southern to 750 mm on the northern slopes. Precipitation occurs in winter months (October to April) and the rest of the year is dry. Northern Afghanistan receives rainfall from the and the rest of the country from the . Baluchistan, comprising the Sulaiman, Kirthar and Tobla Kakar ranges, is essentially a barren mountain with desert and stony plains at about 300 to 900 masl. Its total area is about 351,000 km2 and consists of an and plateau, the and Makram coast and tangled mountains NE, contiguous with Afghani- stan. This area lies outside the influence of the monsoon and hence often has extremes of heat and cold and scant rainfall (not more than 250 mm per annum). In Quetta (about 1,675 masl, an innermost basin) the mean tempera- ture varies from 42.2°C in July to -25.4°C in January. The mean diurnal range is about 10 to 15°C with, occasionally, a 45°C change in 24 hours. Strong winds blow from the NW. Scorching heat prevails in summer and biting cold in win- ter. Rainfall is irregular and never exceeds 250 mm. Vegetation is xerophytic and scant (Mani, 1974).

HIMALAYAS Western Himalaya comprises the Nanga Parbat and Zaskar range in the north and the Pir Panjal range in the south with a series of parallel ranges giving the impression of a giant staircase. The Himalayas are broadest in this region. A series of uplifts and large-scale glaciation have left a number of valley terraces at different levels, broad U-shaped valleys, moraines, cirques and picturesque waterfalls. The foothills here rise-from the Indo-Gangetic plain abutted by a considerable portion of the terai and bhabar. Kalka, Kangra, Udhampur and Kolti valleys lie behind the Western Himalaya. The climate in this region is semi-arid or arid. Rainfall varies from 1,000 to 2,000 mm on the southern slope of the middle Himalaya with less in the Siwaliks and far less in the inner Himalaya (e.g., 73 mm in Leh, 32 mm in Gilgit). The mean temperatures in July vary from 21 ° to 26.5°C in the Indus valley, 21.0 Table 1.1: Rainfall and temperature (highest and lowest ever recorded) distribution from East to West in the Himalayan region (from Rao, 1978)

Latitude Longitude Height Precipitation, mm (%) Temperature, ° C N E above masl Monsoon Post- Winter Annual Highest Lowest monsoon (Oct-Nov) Kalingpong 27° 04' 88° 28' 1,209 37.2 2,262.2 E, MH (1.2) (100) Darjeeling 27° 03' 88 16' 2,127 2,226.2 130.3 53.4 2,758.4 16.7 -5.0 E, MH (81) (4) (2) (100) Kathmandu 27° 42' 85° 12' 1,324 1,102.0 48.9 45.4 1,394.0 37.8 -2.8 C, MH (79) (4) (3) (100) Mukteswar 29° 28' 79° 39' 2,311 1,009.7 83.1 136.8 1,359.4 30.6 -7.8 C, MH (74) (6) (10) (100) Simla 31° 06' 77° 10' 2,202 1,292.0 52.1 136.5 1,480.6 30.6 -10.6 W, MH (87) (4) (9) (100) Dalhousie 32° 32' 75° 58' 1,959 1,650.6 104.7 444.5 2,493.4 35.5 -5.0 W, MH (66) (4) (18) (100) Leh 34° 09' 77° 34' 3,514 51.7 10.0 28.4 115.0 33.9 -28.3 W, TH (45) (9) (24.6) (100) Kargil 34 34' 76° 08' 2,682 33.7 9.1 263.7 306.5 43.3 -32.8 W, GH (11) (3) (86) (100) Dras 34° 26' 75° 46' 3,066 65.5 40.7 312.7 756.9 33.9 -45.0 W, GH (9) (5) (41) (100) Srinagar 34° 05' 74° 50' 1,586 191.2 46.2 181.0 664.0 38.3 -20.0 W, MH

E = Eastern, C = Central, W = Western, MH = Middle Himalaya, GH = Great Himalaya, TH = Trans-Himalaya. e

Figure 1.2 16 Mountain Agriculture to 21.5°C to'less than 21 °C in the and 26.5 to 29.5°C in Kalka and Kolti valleys. The mean temperature in January is less than 4.5°C in the Inner Himalaya. Central Himalaya: The great Himalaya range forms a continuous belt here with numerous high peaks over 7,000 m. Rivers flow through deep gorges between the massive mountains, the major ones N-S, then E-W for some distance and finally south, gouging the Mahabharat Range. The Siwaliks here are broader, well defined, with broad longitudinal'doons', such as Dehra Dun, Dang, Chitwan, etc., in between. The Central Himalaya is wetter than the Western Himalaya and becomes progressively wetter towards the east. Annual rainfall is above 2,000 mm and at places more than 2,5000 mm. Vegetation is similarly transitional between the eastern wet forest and the western dry forest. The presence of the Ma- habharat range is also peculiar to Nepal. The mean temperature in July varies from less than 21°C in the high Himalaya, 21.0 to 26.5°C in the middle Himalaya and 26.5 to 29.5°C in the Siwaliks. The mean temperature in January is less than 4.5°C in Uttar Pradesh and western Nepal and 4.0 to 15°C in eastern Nepal. Eastern Himalaya: The middle or lesser Himalaya is narrower and continu- ous with the high Himalayas. The characteristics of uplift and glaciation so conspicuous in the Western Himalaya are totally absent here. Due to lack of settlement sites, villages are perched on steep hill slopes several thousand feet above the river valleys. The middle Himalaya is narrower here than elsewhere. The morphology is also quite different. River valleys of major rivers are young and V-shaped with beds abut 600 m wide. Valley slopes are long, concave and seem to rise straight up to 3,600 to 4,300 m in one sweep. There is no Siwalik (foothill) belt in Sikkim and eastern Bhutan but a narrow belt appears in western Bhutan and continues on to Arunachal Pradesh. The drainage system here flows N-S, starting from the crest of the Himalayas and emptying into the Brahmaputra River. Because of these N-S valleys, this region has a warm monsoonal climate right up to the foot of the Great Himalayas. In many places precipitation reaches 5,000 mm with more than 2,500 mm falling in a heavy downpour. The mean temperature in July is 21.0 to 26.5°C in the middle Himalaya and ranges in January from 4.0 to 15°C.

TIBETAN PLATEAU Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, uplifted to about 3,000 to 4,000 m since the Late Pliocene, is the highest yet youngest and most giantic plateau. Most of it lies in China, starting from the Kulum mountains in the north to the Himalayas in the south, Karakoram in the west to the Hengduan mountains in the east; it covers 2.4 million sq km or about one-fourth of China's territory. Stratigraphi- cally, the Xizang region is separated by three deep faults running parallel with the latitude, creating four divisions. Two of these divisions-the Himalayan region and Tanggula-Hengduan mountain region-are closely associated with the Himalayas. P.L. Maharajan et al. 17

The Tibet Himalayan region is further sub-divided into: (1) southern sub- region of Tethys-Himalaya (northern slope of the Himalayas) with a sedimen- tary,belt of relatively stable type consisting of shallow sea deposits-clastic rocks, quartz, sandstone or other elastics-rich in fossils; and (2) northern sub- region of Tethys-Himalaya (area around Yarlung-Tsangpo River) with a sedimentary belt of relatively active type comprising deposits yielding rare fossils-graywacke, flysche, and siliceous rocks-all of which are more or less metamorphosed (Shi-Xuan,1981). Climatically, this region varies from sub-humid temperature plateau to semi-arid east to west. In Tibet, the rainfall is caused by the plateau monsoon, which is quite different from the Indian monsoon, although seasonal variation is the same as in India. Rainfall commences in summer on the eastern plateau but in winter tin the western plateau. The overall rainfall is far less, with the eastern plateau receiving about 400 to 600 mm and the western plateau less than 250 mm per annum (Mao-cang and Zhi-bao, 1981). Hengduan Mountains: The northern part of the Hengduan Mountains comes under the Qamdo sub-region of the Tibetan Plateau, comprising a sedimentary belt of the relatively stable type, similar to the north slope of the Himalaya. The Hengduan Mountains are also known as the Meridional Range, with three great gorges in the east traversed by the Salween, Mekong and Yangtze- Kiang Rivers. Climatically, this area comes under the plateau temperate humid region, but because the mountains are very rugged, with extreme elevation differences between river valley floors (e.g., Dadu River at 1,250 m) and mountain tops (Gongga Shan at 7,556 m), there are dry valleys as well (Messerli and Ives, 1984).

Climatic Diversity and Vegetational Change The climate and soil of the various geomorphic zones support many types of vegetation characteristic of tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, alpine, hot and cold desert and semi-desert conditions across the Hindu Kush-Himalaya. A French team completed an ecological map of Nepal Himalaya at 1:250,000 scale in ten sheets published between 1973 and 1978. They mapped the potential dominant vegetation into lower tropical, upper tropical, collinean, montane, sub-alpine, alpine and nival. The 83°E longitude happens to be the break line for climate as well as vegetation. Regional vegetation layers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya are shown in Figure 1.3. Gruber (1983), on the basis of climate, has zoned the vegetation of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya in three directions:

1) Longitudinally, from Assam forest SE to desert valleys of north- ern Pakistan. 2) Latitudinally, from tropical forests in the lowlands of the south to alpine pastures in the highlands of Tibet. 18 Mountain Agriculture

3) Altitudinally, from lowlands to high mountain region where vegeta- tion zones do not follow the morphometric structure of the mountains.

At the macro-level vegetation across the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region can be differentiated as follows:

1) By temperature, changing N-S according to elevation breaks. For ex- ample, tropical rain forest or wet sal below 2,000 m, followed by montane forest below 3,000 m, conifers below 3,900 m and alpine shrub and meadow below 4,500 m. Permanent at 4,900 m in the East and Central Himalaya. 2) By moisture, changing E-W. For example, the forest changes into dry sal and even thorny and desert from the Central to the Western Himalaya below about 2,000 m. But due to the and climate, a narrow forest belt of trees occurs near the glacier in the Kashmir Himalaya.

At the micro-level, vegetation changes with aspect. The southern slope of these mountains are drier, with less vegetation than the northern aspect. This difference with aspect is minimal in the Siwaliks, moderate in the middle mountains and maximum in the high. Cultivation may not be possible on the northern aspect of the Inner Himalaya because of extreme cold. Some micro- variation also occurs due to exposure to strong winds, particularly in the high mountains, which may affect the flowering of apple, peach, plum, etc. Micro- variation in vegetation also occurs due to groundwater sources, for example, springs and irrigation. Some drastic change in both micro- and macro-vegeta- tion may be effected by man and animals, such as deforestation, overgrazing and plantation of exotic species. Wide climatic and geomorphic diversity offers many opportunities for cultivation of food crops, fibres, fruit, medicinal plants, fodder and fuel-wood trees in the extensive valleys, terraced hill and mountain slopes, and cultivable mountain tops of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region. The moist tropical hills of NE Himalaya have been subjected to shifting cultivation. The valley, floodplains and river terraces are cultivated with various food crops. Hill terraces are generally rainfed. 'The primitive agricul- tural system of raising crops under stress has generated much variability, particularly adaptive traits (Mehra and Arora, 1978). In addition, tribals and various ethnic groups (even in isolated hill pockets) have preferred cultivars of various crops. Through deliberate processes, or otherwise, better genetic varieties of crops have evolved and grown with the passage of time. Some diverse plant species have been brought in through various migration routes, e.g., from Afghanistan (fruits), Tibet (buckwheat, barley), Burma (maize, winged bean) etc. (Mehra and Arora,1978). Himalayan traders have addition- ally contributed to some extent to the exchange and diffusion of different varieties of agricultural and horticultural plants in the mountains. P.L. Maharajan et al. 19

Wt51 HIMALAYA C_. HIMALAYA tAJI HIMALATA

Alt rn INDUS-HIMALAYA -HIMALAYA GARHWAL-HIMALAYA SIKKIM-HIMALAYA ASSAM-HIMALAYA t-

e 5000 m SL 500 . 5000m. SL 4900 SL 49 SL 4800 4600 q6 M 460 ALPINE Sl 4400. 4 00 ALPINE SCRUB ALPINE SCRUB AND MEADOWS AND MEADOWS 430Q 5 3 ALPINE SCRUB UBALPME KRUMMHOLZ 4200 AND MEADOWS 4200 4200 Salix hastataV/// ALPINESCRUBAND SUSALPMEKRUMMHOL US LF KRUMMHOLZ 4000 m FL-11--4000 MEADOWS // (RhodadmW SOO 4000- BETULP FOREST 3900 m 3B F L 39 00 FL300 U L%NE KRUM H 2 (BetUla uh 5) SUBAL%NE KRUMMHOLZ L (B ula,Rhodg entl3 6o0 0n WET CONIFEROUS WET CONIFEROUS 3650 BETULAFORESTFW4ogv,e 0 RHODODENDRON FOREST RHODODEN DRONFOREST BET ULA FORES7 3500 MOIST CONIFEROUS 3400 FOREST MOISTF (Abi-j-9a, Taxus) (Abias,Tsuga,Taxus) FOREST Ou.sami- (Abies W%e8a,Betula) MOIST carp'rlolin 3000 m. (PinuSexc¢ISa, 30000o0 000 000 3000.. Pima Mormda P,ceaJ b,es Ab,es Weobiana) MOIST CONIFEROAK- CONIFER- u TROPICAL EVERGREEN TROPICAL EVERGREEN 27 FOREST w .)u.tliatata UPPER UPPER MONTANE FOREST y05TEPPE OAK MONTANE a ,n FOREST Y l-.o 4w,o.a1'u.) O (Qwrcus,Acer, (O uercus , Abies , Picra y D---"G-L-V-PY FOFEST Ou. iota na (OUercus,Acer, CastinoD Y STEPPE OFARTEMISIA V Codrus Deodora,AOe)IM Rhododendron arbereum, Rhododendron arborau ( Artemisia maritima)Y Hydrangea,Bambus) Magnolia) 2000 m. 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000- Y V V Y Y Y 1900 Y VV I PINE-FOREST TROPICAL EVERGREEN TROPICAL EVER GREEN LOWER MONTANE YYY DESERT STE7y,,YV PINE FOREST (Pious Roxburghii) Y Y Y Y 1 600 LOWERMONTANE FOREST (CaDparisspinosa,} Y FOREST DSis, CalotroPis Dro ccfur (Pines Ro),burghii) SUBTROPICAL (QUefNS, Cestm,o } Y (pu¢rcu5,Ca5tano ps i s, Pistacia,Salsola) V V DECIDUOUS FOREST *55a Phorbe) phoebe) 1100 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 1000M. 7000 1000 (7rss.i 100 0 1000m, RGREEN al Forest) TROPICAL TROPICAL EVERGREEN FSCLEROPHYLLpU5 FOR6T DECIDUOUS FOREST RAIN FOREST (WET SAL FOREST) Y PICAL Y ( Cln -TEPPE Y (Sn Phofb , Y Y Term,nalin, (Shored obusta,Masa, pandanus) , Zizyphus) v Anoyeiuus, Dawergia) Pantlanes) 0 m. v Om.

Subalpin Subnival Semi-arid -SL- SnoW Line Forest Line rrr - FL- Smub Pioneer Y Y r Belts

( =R*.,z) Vegetation

Figure 13: Regional vegetation layers in the Himalaya (Quelle C. Troll. H. Uhig, taken from Gruber, 1983). 20 Mountain Agriculture

Land/Soil, Vegetation and Land-use Interrelations The best land for forestry, pasturage, agriculture and livestock production, is found on alluvial plains and fan and river terraces at or near the valley floor. Next are the terraced lower hill slopes and contour terraces above and broad hill spurs. Floodplains and river terraces at the bottom of valleys (if not gravelly, stony or inundated) provide a suitable soil environment for forest, fuel wood and fodder, for grazing, and for production of major cereal and vegetable crops. Sufficient moisture content (through irrigation and/or groundwater) in the valleys and lower terraces, which also tend to have a warmer climate, make them suitable for high biomass production. During the monsoon, silt in irrigation water often enriches the soil. The terraced hill slopes occupy an intermediate position, with land poten- tial declining from lower to upper terraces. When soil conditions are right and irrigation facilities available, terraced slopes can be as productive as valley lowlands. If rainfed, they are only as good as upland, suitable for maize, mustard, millet or potato and barley production. In general, contour terraces which are rainfed and subject to erosion, soil wash, land slip and mass wasting, offer marginal productivity and support only such marginal crops as buckwheat and millet or degraded forest, shrubs or pasture.

BIOCLIMATIC REGIONS, AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE HINDU KUSH-HIMALAYA REGION

Socio-economic Background The people who inhabit the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region are culturally very diverse. While in general they adapt to the agro-climatic zones, each culture brings with it certain traits-food crops, cooking habits, architecture, religion and settlement patterns. Despite the relative inaccessibility of the Himalayan region, the search for greener pastures by the Aryans and later the Mongols, led to penetration via passes of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya by various cultures. Conquerors like Alexander the Great left behind many Greek cultural traits. Since time immemorial the Himalayas have been under Hindu and Buddhist influence and thus many monasteries, temples and places of pil- grimage occur in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region. Concomitant with Asoka's consolidation of the sub-, Buddhists penetrated from the west through Swat and Afghanistan in pre-Christian times. The result of seve-al millenia of cultural transition in these remote hill and mountain regions is marked cultural diversity. Over-layering of cultures occurred with each new political conquest bringing in new traits to the eco- zones. Due largely to the intrinsic cultural differences and the ruggedness and relative inaccessibility of the terrain, over-layering of cultures did not neces- sarily lead to amalgamation. Although the Himalayas have allowed cultural interaction within and among the various ethnic groups, this region has not P.L. Maharajan et al. 21

acted as a 'melting pot' to forge strong ethnic identities. A look at the genetic resources reveals that many crop and livestock species have been brought into the Himalayas from remote parts of the world and become rooted as firmly as the staple foods of the region. The people, though highly diverse in cultures and religion, exhibit dynamic changes in character and attitudes due to new opportunities and constraints. In his study of Himalayan traders, Furer (1975) has emphasised the major cognitive and behavioural dichotomy, based on ethnicity, between the 'cau- tious cultivators' and the adventurous traders. He relates this dichotomy to the cultural and physical axis that characterises the entire region. The cautious cultivators, largely Hindu, inhabiting the middle ranges and terai, constitute the pessimistic zero-sum game of the conservative stay-at-home type; the ad- venturous traders, largely Buddhist, inhabiting the high valleys represent the optimistic positive-sum game of the expansive and cosmopolitan type. The implication is that, despite remoteness and inaccessibility, many parts of the northern Himalayas acquire new agricultural and horticultural species (and also technologies) through their adventurous traders. Hence it is not unusual to find apple orchards of the Red Delicious cultivar in areas such as Jomsom and Tuckche on the Mustang trading axis in Nepal. The.inherent ethnic diversity and variation in societal response to external stimuli by these mountain societies, has given rise to romantic, mystic and Shangri-La notions about them. The population of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region has been estimated at about 125 million according to the latest census data available. Population has grown rapidly over the last few decades; a hundred years ago it may not have been much more than 20 or 30 million. Estimates of growth from 1901 to 2001 for the Western and Eastern Himalayas in India are quite alarming-from 5.7 to 27.1 million in the Western Himalayas and 2.3 to 18.9 million in the Eastern Himalayas, i.e., 500 to 800%. This trend cannot be sustained, and there is recent evidence of fairly substantial selective male migration away from the hills in search of better job opportunities in cities. For the purposes of this discussion the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region has been divided into only five broad geographical locations or eco-zones and the populations of each region is given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Population of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya broad geographic regions (million)

1. Hindu Kush 24.7 2. Western Himalayas 22.3 3. Central Himalayas 19.8 4. Eastern Himalayas 14.4 5. Tibetan Plateau (and Hengduan Mountains) 44.3

Total 125.5 22 Mountain Agriculture

The Hindu Kush geographic zone consists of Afghanistan and Baluchistan excluding the coastal districts and the federally administered tribal areas (FATA) in the Sulaiman Range. This Afghan-Baluchi area has a number of tribes with partially settled and partially nomadic cultures. Western Afghani- stan is more and and is culturally different. The Pathans, who constitute the majority in eastern Afghanistan, spread over the Khyber pass and now constitute a large proportion of the population of the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan. The Baluchistan confederacy belongs to a different cultural and language group. Geographically and agriculturally, western Afghanistan and Baluchistan are more arid, with little settled crop-farming. Fruits and nuts and nomadic sheep-raising is the main economy. Eastern Afghanistan has deeper valleys and the rainfall and rivers permit some crop cultivation along with livestock- rearing. The Western Himalayan geographic climatic zone is a combination of NWFP, Jammu Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh; (the Ladakh part of Kashmir and Lahaul and Spiti of Himachal should really belong to the Tibetan Plateau ). The people of the NWFP are mainly Pathans who are Pushtoo-speaking and share a common culture with eastern Afghanistan. The state of Jammu is mainly settled by the Dogras. The Swat, Gilgit and Kashmir valleys are again culturally different. Himachal Pradesh is a combination of various multi-caste princely kingdoms. Lahaul, Spiti and Ladakh are trans-Himalayan Tibetan cultures with very scattered cultivated areas and settlements. Hence what has often been classified as the Western Himalayan climatic zone has a variety of cultural groups with various language, religions and ethnic strains still living in relative cultural isolation. This zone has had settled agriculture and although the rainfall is low, it is endowed with variations of poor to good forest cover. Wheat, maize and are the main crops but today, with better water management, even is grown as a cash crop in the summer along with maize. This area has also become a temperate fruit growing region: apples, apricots, plums, walnut and almonds. The relative advantage of this dry climate accompanied by food- grain surpluses in the plains and market transport linkages, could dictate a rapid change from grain to fruit production. Livestock-rearing in the higher al- titudes will probably remain an important enterprise and progressively be- come more specialised. The Central Himalayan zone comprises the Uttar Pradesh hill area and Nepal, with a total of about 20 million people. Culturally, this is a mixed multi- caste area and is the upper catchment and drainage of the major tributaries of the Ganges. These cultures have very definite highland-lowland linkages and have clearly penetrated the hill valleys from the lower plains. The upper'_iills and mountains were initially settled by religious institutions and religious pilgrims but progressively, over the centuries, the more fertile valleys were settled by seculars. P.L. Maharajan et al. 23

Crops vary from rice in the lowest terraced valleys followed by wheat, mustard and other oil seeds, and maize and millet in the upper terraces along with winter wheat or barley. Fruit trees and some nuts have now demonstrated clear economic and climatic advantages but since transport linkages have been slow to develop, they have yet to become dominant in the economy. The Eastern Himalayas comprise Arunachal, Bhutan, the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Darjeeling, the N-E hill states, Sikkim and upper Burma, totalling a population of little more than 14 million. Culturally, this area is very varied and has, in general, maintained the cultural integrity of the varied ethnic groups. Political problems have also contributed to cultural solidarity in some areas. The Sikkim to Arunachal area was predominantly of Tibetan Lamaistic Buddhist culture with well-endowed forest areas that were rela- tively isolated. The N-E have had both Hindu and lately Christian influences and have modernised more rapidly. The CHT are culturally similar to upper Burma and Mizoram. The Eastern Himalayas have a very high annual rainfall, varying from about 3,000 mm to 10,000 mm in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Meghalaya. The tree cover- age is dense and the run-off very high. During the monsoon the Brahmaputra and Meghna become massive rivers. Rice is a major crop and can be grown in the hills on terraces up to 2,000 m in Bhutan or Nagaland. Barley, maize, millet, potato and now wheat are also grown as staple foods. For the last 100 years tea plantations have been established in Assam, Darjeeling and Meghalaya along with cardamom. The over exploitation of forests and the traditional practice of shifting cultivation has made these high rainfall hill areas vulnerable to severe erosion. Downstream effects of entire Himalayan erosion have accumulated to a large extent in Bangladesh, which has alluvial soils to depths of 300 to 400 m. The Tibetan Plateau zone (including the Hengduan Mountains) comprises the Autonomous Region of Tibet, the mountain countries of Sichuan Province and the whole of Province with a population of over 44 million. Most of the people of Tibet and the mountain of Sichuan belong to the Tibetan culture. The inclusion of the whole of Yunnan in this eco-zone is questionable, although the three deep upper valleys of the Salween, Mekong and Yangtze are dry, the climate is not the same as that in the Tibetan zone. The economy of the Tibetan Plateau included some cultivation in the valleys of the Indus and Tshangpo river livestock-raising (sheep and yaks) is the main source of livelihood.

Bioclimatic Regions and Agro-ecological Zones Using a multi-disciplinary approach, Baig and Qamar (1986) attempted to delineate the ecological zones of Pakistan by integrating information on vegetation, climate, physiography and soils. They identified three ecological territories at the top of the hierarchy using lithological and geomorphological history, climatic personality, hydrological conditions, soil characteristics, flora and fauna, even mineralogical resources, as well as cultural and socio-eco- 24 Mountain Agriculture nomic aspects. These are: (1) Highland Territory, (2) Lowland Territory, and (3) Coastland Territory. These three ecological territories have been subdivided into 18 bioclimatic regions on the basis of vegetation and indicated climate, with 12 categories under the Highland and three each under the Lowland and Coastland. In turn, these 18 bioclimatic regions are divided into 36 vegetation ecologi- cal zones using physiography and soils as criteria. Thus the Highland Territory of Pakistan comprises 12 bioclimatic regions and 21 vegetation ecological zones, of which 7 and 11, respectively, occur in the Hindu Kush and Western Himalaya Region. Earlier, Ali and his colleagues (1981), referring to a study conducted by the Punjab Economic Research Institute, had identified nine agroclimatic zones in Pakistan and described two (accessible vs isolated sites) in detail. However, Swarup and Sikka (1983) have classified Himachal Pradesh into three agro- ecological zones that correspond more or less to the Outer Himalaya (Siwaliks), Middle Himalaya and Inner Himalaya. They furthermore indicate that the conceptual model of the farm production system prevalent in the hilly state of Himachal Pradesh is similar to that of the hills of Nepal. While studying the Nepalese hill farming system for the purpose of live- stock development, Rajbhandary and Pradhan (1981) classified the hills in three vertical zones based on major crops:

a) Rice or lower mid-hill belt (500 to 1,800 m); b) Maize and millet zone or upper mid-hill belt (1,800 to 2,500 in); and c) Potato, barley and buckwheat belt (above 3,500 m).

In the rice or lower mid-hill belt the hill farmer's economy is oriented more toward crop production with livestock secondary, in the maize and millet belt the two are of equal importance, while in the potato and barely belt livestock production is primary and crops a secondary occupation. The valley plainlands have a very deep, heavy soil texture and poor drainage, i.e., conditions suitable for lowland paddy. In contrast, the mountain slopes tend to have a shallower soil depth, coarse texture and good drainage conditions suitable for upland maize and potato. But these slopes are suitable for paddy where the soil texture and depth is about right and irrigation water available. Otherwise the slopes are mostly suitable for maize, millet and mustard. All three-mountain slope, plateau and plain-happen to lie in similar agroclimatic zones (sub-tropical to warm-temperate) at different altitudes; thus the same or similar cultivars of paddy, wheat and maize can be grown. Indeed, specific types of crops suitable for different altitudes have already been evolved in the past, which makes agro-ecological zonation based on specific crops rather untenable. The cold, high-altitude mountain areas of Tibet are noted for animal production and husbandry, with farming in Lhasa valley and the middle P.L. Maharajan et al. 25 reaches of the Yaluzangbujiang-Tshangpo River. Because of the cold sub- humid to semi-arid or and climate, the Yaluzangbujiang-Tshangpo area is noted for production of Quingke barley and wheat with agro-pastoral and trans-humance herding (Chang, 1981). In contrast, due to a humid tropical, sub-tropical or temperate climate, which contributes to luxuriant vegetation, the NE Himalaya region is subject to shifting cultivation, known as 'jhum- ming'. This involves a slash-and-burn technique in which forests are cleared and crops grown on the cleared land in a 20- to 30-year cycle. But due to population growth, the jhum cycle has now been reduced to every three to six years, making the system unsustainable. Thus the Hindu Kush-Himalaya Region boasts a great variety of bioclimatic regions and agroclimatic zones. We have attempted to describe the present- day agricultural farming system of each but, to obtain a regional perspective, have linked these systems to the next higher hierarchy, namely, geomorphic- geologic divisions.

Farming Systems

WESTERN HIMALAYA A study of the hill farming systems in two areas in northern Pakistan revealed that a number of these systems evolved as a result of the varied and distinctive ecological conditions of the hilly and montane terrain of northern Pakistan. Nine agroclimatic regions were identified, of which two are detailed here (Ali et al., 1981). A comparison of two agroclimatic zones at different altitudes indicated that better access, better land type, lower altitude (sub-tropical) and irrigation facilities, make a tremendous difference to costs, cropping intensity, produc- tion marketing and off-farm employment opportunities available in the two zones. For example, cultivation of paddy, maize and wheat, with partial irrigation, high cropping intensity and high rate of employment prevail in the lower zone, versus rainfed cultivation of maize, lower cropping intensity and lower employment in the higher zone. The income of the people in these two zones differs markedly. Income from various business activities dominates the economy of the lower altitude zone versus a basically subsistence type economy in the higher. Western Sub-Himalayas: Mittal and co-authors (1986) have reported a similar traditional farming system for the Siwalik foothills of Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh. Unfortunately, due to the fragility of the Siwalik terrain, the area is often affected by drought, flood and sedimentation problems.

CENTRAL HIMALAYA The complexity and diversity of the environment in the Hindu Kush- Himalaya Region and farmer endeavours to cope with them are better ex- 26 Mountain Agriculture plained by a few illustrations of land systems vis-a-vis farming systems practised in various physiographic or geographic regions of the Central Hima- laya. The five main physiographic regions of the Central Himalaya, in which the Siwaliks are narrower in the east and the high mountains merge impercep- tibly with the Himalayas in Central Nepal, are illustrated in Figure 1.4. Four farming systems have been recognised in these physiographic regions (Zonneveld et al., 1986): Main Terai Farming System and Upper Terai Farming System in the Terai and Siwaliks; Middle Mountain Farming System in the middle mountains; and High Mountain Farming System in the high moun- tains and inner Himalaya valleys. Two farming systems prevail in the Siwaliks: Main Terai Farming System- predominantly rice fallow or wheat cropping practices on lacustrine terrace and floodplains, and Upper Terai Farming System-predominantly maize/ mustard cropping on alluvial terraces (see Figures 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7). The main difference between these two systems is that long-term soil fertility is thought to be stable in the former but not in the latter. Since paddy is cultivated under flooded conditions, the land receives an annual increment of silt together with some organic matter, and hence is considered sustainable. However, with intensification of cropping, more fertiliser or organic matter will need to be applied. In contrast, the Upper Terai Farming System is practised under upper upland conditions (locally known as Bhabar) and the crops com- prise maize, mustard and millet. These areas have recently opened and their fertility is not considered sustainable in the long run. Fertility drops signifi- cantly within a few years of forest clearance due to the transformation of the ecosystem from forest to agriculture. Livestock is an inherent part of these farming systems. Cattle and goats are grazed on stubble in the Main Terai Farming System where forest areas are not significant, but grazed in the forest in the Upper Terai Farming System. The two farming systems overlap in the 'doons' of the Siwaliks. The Middle Mountain Farming System is typical of hill farming areas where farmers cultivate a combination of land types (alluvial soils, ancient river terraces and terraced hill slopes) (Figure 1.8). Rice is usually followed by wheat in irrigated terraces, while maize, mustard or millet are principal crops on non- irrigated terraces. In addition, fruits such as oranges, peach, pear and to some extent apple, banana, jackfruit and others are grown. Productivity here is highly influenced by micro-climatic variations resulting from the effects of elevation, aspect, pattern, cloud packing and rainshadow. This great climatic diversity permits a wide range of crops over a relatively small area which, together with difficult access, tends to encourage the current subsis- tence type of agriculture (Figure 1.9). However, if access conditions could be improved within the region, this diversity could be turned to great advantage since the wide variety of products produced within this limited geographic area would become marketable. Hence the great genetic diversity of plants in SW NE

Terai Siwaliks Middle Mountain High Mountain High Himol

Mid-Western 5000 Development Thakurii Lekh Sinjo Khol Region Katti Kholo Jumla 3000 Baboi Kholo Surkhet 1000 Gularia MBF t ` SCALE

Horijantal I: 8000000 Central Development Region Tharopot Vertical F4000000 ` K a th man d u Vo lle y ` \ Birgunj Hetaudd / /; MBF

Eastern Development i Yang Region

MBF

Figure 1.4: Cross-sections of physiographic region, Nepal (from Carson, Shah and Maharajan, 1986). N 00

(Depth to bed rock not known )

Semi-consolidated Tertiary Sediments Lacustrine 1 Sediments Alluvial Sediments = AIIUvial Fan And Terrace Sediments

Figure 1.5: Schematic cross-section of land systems in the Siwaliks, Nepal (from Carson, Shah and Maharajan, 1986). 48 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 Weeks 12 Minor and Garden Type Crops 90 Finger Millet

W Maize

70

Percent Pulses of 50-

total area Paddy 40

Wheat Khet

20 Maize or Potato

Double Paddy

Week O=Apr. 15 N Figure L6: Main terai farming system, Nepal (from Zonneveld et at., 1986). Weeks 0 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48

Gordon and Minor Crops

Percent

of total area

Wheat Khet

Week O=Apr. 15 Pulses

Figure 1.7: Upper terai farming system, Nepal (from Zonneveld et al., 1986). - 2000 m i Non-Irrigated (Upper limit Terraced Cultivation I of sin le rice I maize, mustard __ cropping) Degraded

forest I

sal I -1000 m 1 , (Upper limit of double rice cropping)

I

Quartzite

Old alluvium (Tar) Soprolite

Phyl lice Colluvium

Figure 1.8: Schematic cross-section of land-use system in the middle mountain region, Nepal (from Carson, Shah and Maharajan, 1986). w NW Weeks O 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48

Garden and Minor Crops 90 Finger Millet 80 Barley

701

60 Percent Maize of 50 Wheat Pak total area 40

30

20 Paddy Wheat Wheat 10- (Khet)

Week O=Apr. 15

Figure 1.9: Middle mountain farming system, Nepal (from Zonneveld et al., 1986). P.L. Maharajan et al. 33 the middle mountains should be sustained and explored. Pests and crop diseases are not likely to be widespread in these mountain areas. A conceptual model of a hill farm production system in Nepal is presented in Figure 1.10. The same system is applicable to the hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh (Swarup and Sikka, 1983) with minor modifications. Livestock produce the required draught power as well as nutrient recycling by grazing on public lands. Collection of fodder and litter from the forest for composting is common. Unfortunately, this practice has gradually converted accessible forest lands to degraded scrub conditions; thus their potential for fodder, fuel wood and timber is far below that of a properly managed forest (Zonneveld et al., 1986). This system of farming has gradually overtaxed the land base and is no longer considered functional on a sustained. basis (ibid.). The population growth in the middle mountains is currently sustained by mining soil and forestry resources, which are being depleted beyond recovery; thus the region is becoming more and more dependent on outside resources. The High Mountain Farming System is associated with major mountain valley bottom and slope cultivation similar to that of the Middle Mountain System, but on a miniature scale. These areas are climatically more suitable for temperate fruit crops. However, paddy is cultivated on irrigated terraces up to 2,700 m with a tight rotation of irrigated barley or wheat, which are harvested as fodder if unripe at the time of planting rice. Potato is also cultivated in these areas. The High Mountain Farming System is generally found in association with trans-humance in areas above 3,000 m. The aspect, wind pattern and cold winter often permit only one summer crop. The main crop is barley alternated with buckwheat and potato. Due to severe transportation problems, farmers tend to cultivate cereal crops for their subsistence (Figures 1.11 and 1.12).

TRANS-HUMANCE IN THE HIGH Livestock is of major importance to this farming system. Because of fodder constraints, farmers tend to concentrate manure on relatively small cultivated patches. The animals provide chhurpi (a dried cheese), wool and meat. Yak, sheep and horses are used as pack animals for trading in both Tibet and the middle mountains. These trading enterprises provide the bulk of subsistence income together with grains supplied from outside for people living in the area. Livestock is maintained by migratory grazing in the alpine meadows of Nepal and Tibet in summer and forest grazing and utilisation of crop residues at lower elevations in winter (Figure 1.13). Trade primarily consists of tradi- tional barter on the Tibetan border (salt for barley) and in the Middle Hima- layas (barley or rice for salt). The population in the area has been controlled by harsh living onditions, the practice of fraternal polyandry and monastic life (celibacy). Religious life often prescribes mores-do's and don'ts-that govern to some extent the need "Community" owned W produc- .P tion resources Farm resources Off-form interactions

f irewood Homestead Home area industry Marketed goods forest compost land and sere ices.10

feed ` Fodder R,anure Upland ` &

Purchased goods livestock r and services 4 grazing land Lowland paddy

Figure 1.10: Conceptual model of a Nepali hill farm production system (from Hardwood, 1976). - SOUTH Monsoon grazing

I

I

i I

I I

I I UPPe li mit of - cultivation I +

-3000 M. loping I I Blue pine terraces forest + Blue pine forest) - + jNQFlat terraces I I + I

Glacial till Shallow colluvium mi..A r,;th -11-i- I / over bedrock -2500 m. + I + + Shallow colluvium I Irri g ated I over b e d roc k terraces (Alluv i a l ma t er i a ls ) }

Imaize,wheot i + I Irrigated rice +

-2000 M.

Figure 1.11: Schematic cross-section of land systems in the high mountain region, Nepal (from Carson, Shah and Maharajan, 1986). `'i Weeks 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48

Gordon and Tree Crops

80 Minor Crop Mixtures 70

Finger Millet Percent

of Maize total area

Wheat 1 1 Wheat

504

20 Barley / / Paddy Barley

10

Fallow Fallow

Figure 1.12: High mountain valley farming system, Nepal (from Zonneveld et al., 1986). -SOUTH

Figure 1.13: Schematic cross-section of land systems in the high Himalayan region, Nepal w (from Carson, Shah and Maharajan, 1986). V 38 Mountain Agriculture

for environmental preservation and/or conservation. For example, hunting is not allowed near She Gomba or Tyonghoche area and no lopping of trees for fodder near village shrines, springs and landslide prone areas. However, with a decline in trade across the Himalayan frontier, the people of the region are experiencing difficulties. The Sherpas of Solukhumbu areas are lucky in having accepted trekking and mountaineering as a secondary occupation, one that has recently flourished and is providing employment to many of the young people outside the region. Their remittances home and the emergence of numerous tea shops, lodges and restaurants along the trekking routes have helped to boost the local economy. Trade and tourism are more stable than the pack-animal trade (Sacherer,1981). The Bhotias of Dolpo, Mugu and Humla have faced many difficulties following the disruption of trade with Tibet in 1959 and the poor road system between India and the Middle Himalayas; their profits from the salt trade have been drastically reduced. Only those with large flocks of livestock have been able to accumulate sufficient grain through barter for their subsistence (Furer, 1981). On the other hand, Molnar (1981) has reported that the Kham Magar of Thabang, Labang, Taka and Maikot (south of the Dhaulagiri range) raise livestock by trans-migratory methods with very little business involved except for the purchase of grain from outside and sales of wool and carpets. Wherever they pen their flocks the owner of the field provides them with food in return for manuring the field.

CONCLUSION

The classification of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region presented in this paper has taken into account such factors as geography, geomorphology, climate, botany, soil types and crops. All too often, classification has been attempted within the narrow confines of a single discipline or a particular scientific perspective, glossing over any irregularities which, of course, require yet another set of 'discriminating factors' to explain them. In the context of integrated mountain development, to realise sound eco- logical and economical objectives, classifications must be oriented towards planning and management of water and biotic resources. Thus a classification must consider proper utilisation of natural resources, land management and maintenance of the genetic diversity in these mountains. All too often, eco- nomic optimisation leads to over-emphasis on the 'most productive' genes at the cost of 'less productive' ones. However, it is well known that over- optimised systems have lower resilience and can fail catastrophically. In our opinion, therefore, single-factor based ecological classifications do not adequately address micro-level ecological diversification in this region. For example, climatic zonations are often macro-biased and very seldom deal with micro-climate within a specific macro-climatic zone. Temperature and precipitation regimes, based on cross-sectional and temporal averages, are FARMING SYSTEM PHYSICAL ASPECTS CLIMATE VEGETATION Sri LAND USE

Geomorphology Altitude Climate Belts a Resources Macro-Level Geology and Latitude Regions Forest Temperature and } Pasture Topography )-Longitude Precipitation Zone I Cultivated Lands 1 Aspect Micro-Climatic Speciatian Agro-Ecological Variations a Location Lt* Zones Max. or Min. Genetic Diversity of Temp. Precip. Genetic Potential and Variability

Soils a Socio- 0 Moisture Economic AI Regime Factors

Figure 1.14: Factors generating ecological diversity. w 40 Mountain Agriculture often unsuitable from the point of view of identifying the most suitable species of a plant or crop. Similarly, botanical classifications are either based on predominant crops or on the predominant forest vegetation. Forest vegetation, human use and conservation may have drastically influenced existing tree species. Indeed, deforestation and/or degradation often prevail, making silvicultural classification quite unsatisfactory. Similarly, because of certain cultural affinities for specific crops (such as paddy), classification of ecological areas in terms of crop zones, such as 'paddy zones' becomes self-contradictory . given as 'high-altitude paddy'. Classification based on physical factors such as soil types and land capabil- ity alone, are equally unsatisfactory because they are too limited in terms of examining biotic diversity, climatic variables, resource use and the activity patterns of man. A better ecological classification, particularly suitable for planned mountain development and planned preservation of genetic diver- sity and gene pool reserves, should follow a scheme that incorporates such critical elements as climate, soil, botany and farming (Figure 1.14).

REFERENCES

Ali, M., H. Rahman, M. Sawar and B. Lockwood.1981. Hill farming systems in Azad, Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, pp. 190-198. In: Nepal's Experience in Hill Agricultural Development. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, HMG, Kathmandu. Baig M.S. and A. Qamar.1986. Vegetation Ecological Zones of Pakistan. Paper presented at XII International Forum on Soil Taxonomy and Agrotechnol- ogy Transfer, October 9-23, Lahore and Islamabad. Bhat, 1978. Livestock resources in the Himalaya region, pp. 230-238. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Resources Development and Environment in the Himalayan Region. National Committee on Environmental Planning and Cooperation, New Delhi. Burman, S.G. 1981. Physical systems, pp. 27-41. In: Development of Himalayan Resources. Studies on Cooperation for Development in . Country Study for India. Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi. Carson, B., P.B. Shah and P.L. Maharajan. 1986. Land system report, p.140 In: The Soil of Nepal. Land Resource Mapping Project. Kenting Sciences Ltd., Kathmandu. Chang, T.Y.1981. Developing agricultural production in Tibet, China,, pp.147- 152. In: Nepal's Experience in Hill Agricultural Development. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, HMG, Kathmandu. Cheng-fa, and P. Yu-shen.1981. A brief discussion on the tectonic evolution of Qinghai-Xizang plateau, pp. 1-18. In: Geologicel and Ecological Studies of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, vol. L Geology, Geological History and Origin of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Proceedings of Symposium of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, Beijing, China. Furer, Haimendorf. 1975. Himalayan Traders. London. P.L. Maharajan et al. 41

Furer, Haimendorf. 1981. Social structure and spatial mobility among the Thakalis of western Nepal, pp-1-19. In: Asian Highland societies in Anthropo- logical Perspective. Ed: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. in the Gansser, A. 1981. The timing and significance of orogenic events Himalaya, pp. 23-30. In: Geological and Ecological Studies of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, vol. 1, Geology, Geological History and Origin of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Proceedings of Symposium of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, Beijing, China. Gruber, G. 1983. Ecological endurance limits of mountain regions and current dangers through tourism, pp. 57-67. In: Deutscher Alpenvenein Dav Berg-und Skischule Gmbh Deutsche Himalaya. Stefting, Munich. Gupta, R.K. 1983. The Living Himalayas, Vol. I, Aspects of Environment and Resource Ecology of Gariwal, Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, 400 pp. Hardwood, R.R. 1976. Small Farm Development. Understanding and Improving Farming Systems in the Humid Tropics. Westview Press, Boulder, , 160pp. Mani, M.S. 1974. Ecology and Biogeography in India. Dr. W. Junk Publ., The Hague. Mao-cang, T. and S. Zhi-bao.1981. Some basic characteristics of the climate of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, pp. 1563-1568. In: Geological and Ecological Studies of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, vol. II, Environmental ecology of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Proceedings of Symposium on Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, Bei- jing, China. Mehra, K.L. and R.K. Arora. 1978. Plant genetic resources of the Himalayan region, pp. 121-132. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Resources Devel- opment and Environment in the Himalayan Region. National Committee on En- vironmental Planning and Cooperation, New Delhi. Messerli, B. and J.D. Ives. 1984. Gongga Shan (7,556 m) and Yulongxue Shan (5,596 m). In: Geo-ecological Observations in the Henqduan Mountains of South- western China. Mittal, S.P., P. Singh and A.D. Sud.1986. A new farming system in the Siwalik foothills, pp. 73-78. In: Soil Conservation in India. Eds. R.K. Gupta and M.L. Khuri. Jugal Kishore & Co., Dehra Dun. Molnar, A. 1981. Economic strategies and economic constraints: Cases of the Kham Magar of northwest Nepal, pp. 20-51. In: Asian Highland Societies in Anthropological Perspective. Ed.: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pfeiffer, P.1986. The Himalayas: The pressure is on, Development Forum, vol.14 (July-August), pp. 29-32. FRG. Raina, B.N., B.M. Hukku and R.V. Chalapati Rao.1978. Geological features of the Himalaya region, with special reference to their impact on environ- mental appreciation and environmental management, pp. 1-19. In: Proceed- ings of the National Seminar on Resources Development and Environment in the 42 Mountain Agriculture

Himalayan Region. National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co- operation, New Delhi. Rajbhandary, H.B. and S.M.S. Pradhan. 1981. Appropriate technology for livestock development in hill farming systems. Seminar on Appropriate Technology for Hill Farming Systems, Kathmandu (mimeographed). Rao, Y.P. 1978. The Himalayas-their climate, pp. 20-29. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Resources Development and Environment in the Himalayan Region. National Committee on Environmental Planning and Cooperation, New Delhi. Rao, Y.P. and K.S. Ramamurti.1983. . General climatology, pp. 5-46. In: Contributions to Indian Geography, vol. IV. Ed. V.P. Subrahmanyan. Heritage Publishers, New Delhi. Sacherer, J. 1981. The recent social and economic impact of tourism in the Sherpa community, pp. 157-167. In: Asian Highland Societies in Anthropologi- cal Perspective. Ed.: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Schwan, W. 1981. Key structures of minor tectonic forms and shortening kinematics in the Himalaya, pp. 13-20. In: Contemporary Geoscientific Re- searches in Himalaya, vol. 1. Ed. S.K. Suba. Singh and Singh Publishers, Dehra Dun, India. Shi-Xuan, W. 1981. Sedimentary development and formation of stratigraphic region in Xizang, pp. 119-130. In: Geological and Ecological Studies of Qinghai- Xizang Plateau, vol. I, Environmental Ecology of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Proceedings of Symposium on Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, Beijing, China. Swarup, R. and B.K. Sikka. 1983. Agricultural Development in Himachal Pradesh. Agricole Publishing Academy, 156pp. Zonneveld, J.M. et al. 1986. Land utilisation report, p.114. In: The Soil Landscapes of Nepal. Land Resource Mapping Project. Kenting Earth Sciences Ltd., Kath- mandu, Nepal. CHAPTER 2

Agricultural Systems of Xizang*

Cheng Hong

The agricultural systems of Xizang are influenced by three principal factors: elevation, remote geographic location and sparse population. These factors result in multiple agricultural systems.

HIGH ELEVATION

Xizang is a vast area situated at a high elevation. It is estimated that the land above 4,500 m represents 77.7% of the entire region, the land between 4,000 and 4,500 m 8.4%, and that lower than 4,000 m only 13.0%0. Almost all of the eastern part is over 4,200 m, and the western and middle parts are over 4,500 m. The climate is cold and severe; the mean temperature in the warmest month is lower than 10°C, which is too low for crops to ripen. Most of the land is covered by natural grasslands. Some areas at lower altitudes have a temperature suitable for cultivation; however there are limiting factors such as relief, soil conditions and water availability. Only a small area of valley and basin land can be cultivated, while most of the land in the mountains and uplands are used for pasturage. Forests are found in the more humid and semi-humid mountains of the eastern and southern parts, where elevations are lower than 4,200 m. According to the data of the Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Bureau of Xizang, the usable natural grassland makes up about 43.3% of the total area of Xizang, forests 5.1 %, and cultivated land only 0.2%. The rest of the land cannot be used for agriculture because it is covered by glaciers, snow, rocks, desert or

Formerly Tibet 44 Mountain Agriculture

water. A land-use survey has shown that the area of usable natural grassland is 233 times greater than the cultivated land; however, the output per unit area in the cultivated land is about 200 times higher than in the grassland. Variation in altitude in Xizang is the highest of any region in the world. From the highest peaks to the lowest valley floors, variation in elevation is more than 8,700 m. From the valleys of several of the main rivers, such as the Yaluzang- buijiang, Nunjiang, Lancang, and jinshajiang, to the dividing ridges between these rivers, the altitude may vary from 2,000 to 3,000 m. Such tremendous altitude differences are responsible for wide changes in temperature and have an enormous impact on animal husbandry and crop production. The relation- ship between elevation, temperature and type of agriculture that can be practised, is shown in Table 2.1.

REMOTE GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

Xizang is located in the extreme west of China. The fact that there are no railway connections between it and the rest of the country, makes the area very remote. From Lhasa to the nearest railway stations to the east the distances are: 1,200 km to Golmud, 1,800 km to Liuquan and 2,200 km to Chengde. From these stations to Beijing the distances are 3,000, 1,880 and 2,048 km, respec- tively. From Shiquanzhe of Ngari Prefecture to Urumchi of Xinjiang, the distance is 2,900 km by highway and on to Beijing by rail another 3,774 km- a total distance of 6,674 km. Even within Xizang long distances and inconven- ient transport systems make travel from city to city and from county to county extremely difficult. To transport agricultural products in bulk into or out of the region, even within it in fact, is next to impossible. Such isolation explains why crop and animal husbandry systems have been based to the present day on regional self-sufficiency, with interaction limited almost solely to nearby areas.

SPARSE POPULATION RESULTS IN EXTENDED MANAGEMENT

Xizang is a vast, thinly populated territory in which industry is at the infant stage and the infrastructure and supporting technical services for crop and animal husbandry negligible. Extended (over-extended) management and low productivity characterise the agriculture of Xizang, as is clearly shown in the data presented in Table 2.2. Agricultural productivity per labourer is about two-thirds of the national average. Even though the number of livestock per capita is 15 times greater than the national average, the value of per capita animal production is only 2.8 times that for all of China, and the average crop output per capita only 0.7 times the national average (Table 2.2). In the past neither crop nor animal products were exported to other regions aside from some fur, leather and wool. There were very few processing industries and natural conditions and virtual Table 2.1: Different thermal conditions and agricultural significance in Xizang

Thermal condition Severe cold Cold Mild Warm Warm/hot

Meteorologic station Tumaingola Amdo Nagqu Tingri Dengqen Lhasa Qamdo Zayu

Elevation (m) 4,930 4,800 4,500 4,300 3,800 3,658 3,240 1,590 Annual mean temperature (°C) -5.6 -3.0 -1.9 0.7 3.2 7.5 7.6 15.8 Mean temp. of warmest month(°C) 5.2 7.9 8.9 10.9 12.2 15.5 16.3 21.6 Period of 5°C (days) 18 83 104 137 159 210 210 365 51C accumulated temp. (°C) 103 610 830 1,287 1,637 2,649 2,715 5,780 Period of 10°C (days) 1 1 6 36 60 154 145 260

10°C accumulated temp. (°C) 11 1 80 398 727 2,177 2,108 4,736

Agricultural Summer Year-round Spring crop Winter or Double significance grazing grazing One harvest spring crop cropping One harvest Rough altitude (m) West & middle part 5,000 4,500-5,000 4,000-4,500 <4,000 - East part 4,700 4,200-4,700 3,700-4,200 3,000-3,700 3,000

Source: Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Bureau of Xizang. 46 Mountain Agriculture

Table 2.2: Management level of agriculture and animal husbandry production in Xizang (1984)

Items Unit Xizang All China Xizang compared with all China (%)

Farmland in rural areas ha/person 0.13 0.14 93 Livestock in rural heads/person 13.42 0.85 1579 areas Mean crop output in ruralareas Yuan/person 121 278 44 Mean animal output in rural areas Yuan/person 193 68 284 Mean output per labourer in rural areas Yuan/person 945 1399 68 Mean cereal production in rural area kg/person 565.5 1131.5 50 Mean meat production in rural areas kg/person 71 43 166 Mean crop output of 1 ha of farmland Yuan/ha 1470 2.235 66

Source: Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Bureau of Xizang. 1 US$ = 7 Yuan isolation inhibited the growth of an agricultural economy, resulting in Xizang's economic backwardness. The agricultural systems of Xizang can be divided into two categories:

1) Animal husbandry or a combination of animal husbandry and crop production 2) Crop production as the major activity.

The first category can be further divided into three types:

1) Regions where animal husbandry predominates. These regions are mainly distributed in norther Xizang and upland southern Xizang. A few are scattered in the high mountains near cropped areas. Villages are generally located at an altitude of 4,500 to 4,800 m, with the lowest at about 4,200 m and the highest at 5,500 m. Because of the cold and severe conditions, the land in these villages is generally not cultivated. The only activity possible is animal husbandry. In eastern Xizang, below 4,200 m, and in western Xizang, below 4,500 m, the climate is warmer; these areas represent the upper limits of cropping. To meet their requirements for cereals and animal fodder, the local people plant small plots with spring barley on the leeward side of Cheng Hong 47

the southern slopes where irrigation is available. Crop production accounts for about 10% of the total agricultural output in these villages, but in some places reaches 20% or more. Of the 2,065 administrative villages of Xizang, 33%o fall in this category. 2) Transitional regions of animal husbandry-cropping. These are mainly located on the periphery of cropped areas. Villages of this type are generally situated at an elevation between 4,000 and 4,200 m. In the west, however, some maybe found up to 4,500 m. The limited cultivable lands are surrounded by extensive pastures and suitable for the simul- taneous development of cropping and animal husbandry. The per capita cultivated land is about 0.17 to 0.40 ha and the live-stock per capita about 10 to 20 sheep. The higher the elevation, the higher the proportion of animals. Cereal production is mostly for subsistences and marketing limited. The temperature in these regions is low, with only two to four frost-free months. Mean temperatures of more than 50C are recorded for only 120 to 150 days per year. Low temperatures and frost endanger the survival of crops and lower productivity. Villages located in this type of region constitute 31% of the total villages of Xizang. 3) Regions where cropping predominates. These regions are found mainly in the plains of the lower reaches of the Yaluzangbujiang River. Villages, constituting about 36% of the total in Xizang, are located at altitudes of 3,800 to 4,000 m. Those near the highlands or alpine meadows tend to have more livestock, and the proportion of families for which animal husbandry is the major activity is high. Villages near the centre of the agricultural area or in forest regions own fewer animals. The basins of the five large rivers, as well as those of smaller rivers (Yaluzangbujiang, Lhasa He, Nyang Qu and Parlungzabu) are important for cereal production. The land here is well situated geo- graphically, of gentle relief, with fertile soil, and irrigation possible. About 25% of all the livestock of Xizang is found in this type of region. The second category, characterised mainly by crop production can also be divided into three types: 1) Single spring-sown crop: This type is suitable for a mild climate. Most crops are sown in May and harvested in September. Barley, wheat, peas and rape are the four main crops of the highlands and occupy 95% of the total area under cultivation. Because of the Tibetan preference for cereals, highland barley is the most important crop in Xizang and occupies 60 to 80% of the area sown. Highland barley can withstand low temperatures and hence the higher the elevation, the higher its relative proportion in the cropping system. For example, in Nagarze district at an elevation of about 4,300 to 4,400 m the area under highland barley in 1984 constituted 94% of the total crop area. 2) Single winter-sown crop: This practice prevails in warmer areas and the range of crops sown is greater. Cereals, rape, some sugarbeet, vege- 48 Mountain Agriculture

tables and green manure ary cultivated. Both wheat and highland barley are able to survive the winter in these regions. Winter wheat is sown in late September and harvested in early September of the following year. Winter highland barley can be harvested earlier than winter wheat. Because winter crops have a higher yield than those sown in spring, the area sown with winter crops has increased since the 1970s. Winter wheat in the main farming region of the middle reaches of the Yaluzangbujiang River occupies 30 to 50% of the total area. If winter highland barley is also considered, then winter crops constitute a majority. Some spring crops are also sown in these regions, such as spring highland barley, peas, faba bean and rape.. In the higher regions, where irrigation cannot be provided, crops are mostly spring-sown. Double cropping cannot be done after harvesting the winter wheat and winter highland barley, even though there are 15 to 30 days in late October to early November when the temperature stabilises at 10°C, because it drops very rapidly thereafter to below 5°C. 3) Double cropping: In the deep dissected river valleys of southeastern Xizang, cultivable land is scarce and the climate warm to hot. Mean temperatures exceed 10°C for more than eight months of the year. The spring-sown crops of the plateau are winter-sown crops here. After harvesting in early summer, another crop can be sown for autumn harvest. Maize and buckwheat are the most common crops but rice is also planted. A double-cropping system is followed in the valleys of some districts of southeastern Xizang, such as Medong, Zayu, Zogang and Markam. But as irrigation and fertiliser facilities are poor, only a small area is placed under double cropping. The primary agricultural systems of Xizang are summarised in Table 2.3. Table 2.3: Agricultural systems of Xizang

Regional systems Agricultural production systems Main features Other characteristics

Solely animal husbandry (animal output Grassland grazing: yaks, sheep, No cropping value 100% of total apricultural output) goats Regions where pastures predominate Animal husbandry predominates (ani- Grassland grazing: yaks, sheep, Local cropping of highland mal output value > 70% of total) goats barley

Transitional regions of Springsowingof one crop with extensive Spring-sown single crop: high- Grassland grazing: yaks, pastoral-cropping pasture (crop output value 30 to 70% of land barley, wheat, rape, peas sheep, goats total)

Spring-sown/winter-sown single crop Spring- or winter-sown single Artificial feeding: yaks, cattle, (crop output value 70% of total) crop: highland barley, wheat, sheep, goats, pigs Regions where cropping the rape, peas, faba beans major activity Double cropping (crop output value 80% Double cropping: wheat, maize, Artificial feeding and grazing: of total) rice, buckwheat cattle, goats, pigs

CHAPTER 3

Mountain Farming Systems in Nepal

M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam

INTRODUCTION

Nepal is a beautiful country of interesting paradoxes. Though relatively small in area, it is the largest Himalayan country possessing most of the highest mountains in the world. Snuggled into the lap of the mighty Himalayas, this landlocked country is economically poor but potentially rich in natural re- sources. The complex agro-ecology created by rugged diversified topography has compounded the problem of development. Within a short span of width, averaging 193 km, the elevation changes from 60 masl in the southern plains of the terai to more than 8,000 m in the northern region, which results in a change from sub-tropical to climate. There is a close relagonship be- tween elevation, agroclimate, natural vegetation and land use (Figure 3.1). About 77%0 of the total area is mountainous and here 56% of the population toils hard for bare subsistence. The Nepalese economy is agriculturally based, which results in a direct correlation between agricultural production and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG/N) has laid major empha- sis on the development of the agricultural sector. However, production has not been able to keep pace with the population growth of 2.7% per year. The projection of food balance presents a grim picture (Table 3.1). Low productivity, the very slow rate of technological dissemination and its limited impact on production, have confounded policy makers, planners and agriculturists. The low productivity has been attributed to the lack of environ- ment-specific technologies, limited use of production inputs (irrigation, fertil- iser and good quality seed) and extension of cultivation to marginal land. Land-use data show that 18% (2.653 million ha) of the total area is under MEAN MEAN N ANNUAL SOIL ANNUAL - AIR TEMPERATURE SOIL NATURAL LAND USE ELEVATION(m) CLIMATIC ZONE TEMP. REGIME TEMP.. VEGETATION

upper limit of cultivation in High Himalayas upper limit of forest

upper limit of cultivation on South side of Himalayas

Figure 3.1: Relationship between elevation, climatic zone, mean annual air and soil temperature, vegetation and land-use limits for Nepal (from LRMP, 1986). M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam 53 cultivation (Table 3.2). Only 13%0 of the cultivated area has assured supply of water. The average application of nutrients through chemical fertilisers is estimated as only 17 kg/ha and most farmers use their own seeds.

Table 3.1: Food balance projection in Nepal ('000 tonne)

Year Estimated Estimated Food balance gross gross requirement production

1985 4,484 3,950 -534 1990 5,211 4,179 -1,032 1995 6,311 4,323 -1,988 2000 7,638 4,477 -3,206 2005 9,406 4,641 -4,765

Source: DFAMS, 1986.

Table 3.2: Land use in Nepal

Land-use type Area (sq km) Percentage

Agriculture 26,533 18.0 Forest 55,334 37.6 Snow 22,463 15.3 Pasture 19,785 13.4 Water 4,000 2.7 Settlement and Roads 1,033 0.7 Others 18,033 12.3

Total 147,181 100.0

Source: National Planning Commission, Kathmandu.

Agriculture in Nepal is characterised by mixed farming systems in which crops and livestock play symbiotic and interdependent roles. Nepalese farm- ers have been following integrated crop-livestock-based farming systems for centuries. Depending upon the agro-ecology and their household needs and priorities, they grow different crops and raise different livestock as enterprises complementary to each other. In general, crop production dominates the Nepalese farming systems and contributes about 75% of the agricultural output. In order of importance, rice ranks first followed by maize and wheat. The other cereals are millets and barley. These five crops occupy 90% of the total cropped area under major crops. The important cash crops are oilseeds, potato, tobacco and , with some jute and tea. The productivity of most crops is very low. To date, research emphasis has been mainly on rice, maize and wheat. The terai has benefited more from technological innovations than have the mountains. 54 Mountain Agriculture

The livestock sector contributes about 25% of the agricultural GDP. The livestock enterprise is an indispensable component of the farming systems. Nepal outnumbers many other countries in livestock population per unit of land. The average number of livestock per household is estimated to be 5.8. The commonly raised livestock types are cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry. Farmers keep livestock for financial security and farm operations. They generate cash income by providing milk, dehydrated butter, meat, eggs, hide, and wool. Large ruminants also provide most of the draught power and manure for the maintenance of soil fertility. Dung is also used for fuel. However, the great contribution made by livestock is not fully realised and ap- preciated. The main problem concerning livestock is their low productivity and their feed. The major sources of feed are rangeland, cropland (crop residues and by-products) and forest, which are estimated to supply 34,28 and 23% of the total feed respectively. Dependence on livestock increases from south to north in the country. Crop-oriented research has resulted in large increases in yield under good growing conditions but does not necessarily lead to increases in production in the farmers' fields. Farmers have to balance their own limited resources with socio-economic conditions. Since they have to manage more complex farming systems than simple monoculture, they often judge new technology by more than just the simple yields of one crop. Consequently, many small farmers do not adopt the technologies which look so promising at research stations. Therefore, there has been a growing awareness in many developing countries, such as Nepal, that the traditional disciplinary and commodity-based research system alone, though necessary, does not suffice to address the problems of small land holders. In addition, a need is being felt to develop a complemen- tary farmer-oriented system to facilitate the identification of technologies that have better chances of adoption. In view of the above background, the initiation of the Cropping Systems Programme (CSP) by the Department of Agriculture (DOA) in 1977 was a major evolutionary step in the right direction. The valuable experience gained from the CSP encouraged the programme to expand into a farming systems perspective. The new approach takes into consideration the interrelated com- ponents of farming and their interactions with biophysical, cultural and socio- economic factors which determine farmers' decision making. Therefore, it is essential to have a good understanding of farming systems under different agro-ecological conditions before developing strategies to improve them.

MOUNTAIN FARMING SYSTEMS

Broadly speaking, Nepal can be divided into three major agro-ecological regions, namely, Terai, Hills (also called Middle mountains) and Mountains (also called High Mountains). The Hills and Mountains are included in the present discussion. M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam 55

Hill Farming Systems The agro-ecological zone of the Hills extends from 500 masl in the south to about 2,400 masl in the north. The hilly belt contributes about 43% of the total area and occupies 41 % of the cultivated land. Nearly 48% of the population live in the Hills. The population pressure on cultivated land is 6.5 persons/ha (Table 3.3). The average size of the farm and household is 0.71 ha and 6.3 persons, respectively. The climate is mainly warm temperate in most of the area but sub-tropical in low river valleys and cool temperate on high ridges. The annual average temperature is about 18°C and the total rainfall per year ranges from 1512 mm in the east to 1,424 min in the west. About 80% of the rainfall occurs during the monsoon period of five months (June-September). There are several pockets with a wide range of micro-climatic variations which make generalisation very difficult. As a result of diverse topography and parent materials (metamorphic and sedimentary rocks), there is greater variation in soil types, generally of light to medium texture, moderately to strongly acidic, fertility varying from low to medium. Hill farming systems are limited to river valleys and terraced slopes. The Land Resource and Mapping Project (LRMP) has estimated that hill slopes and valley cultivation occupy 43.3% and 12.7% of the total cultivated area. It is amazing to see the terracing of the slopes from the foothills to the mountain tops. Broadly, the Hills comprise two land types, khet land and bari land..Khet land refers to lowland which is bunded and can be flooded to grow rice. Bari land is unbunded upland where rain-fed crops are grown. In area, bari land far exceeds khet land (Figure 3.2). Generally, khet land has better production potentials than bari land. Maize is the most important crop followed by rice, wheat and millet. In bari land, popular cropping patterns are maize-based. Finger millet is often relayed with maize. In khet land and valleys rice-based patterns predominate (Table 3.4). The other important crops are mustard and potato. Soybeans and black

Table 3.3: Cultivated area and population pressure on cultivated land by ecological region

Terai Hills Mountains

Cultivated area' '000 ha 1,375 1,098 180 % 51.8 41.4 6.8 Population pressure' persons/ha 4.8 6.5 7.2

'From DFAMS/CBS, 1985 'Recalculated from CBS population census 1981, cultivated area from DFAMS/CBS, 1985 High Himal Total Terai Slwalik5 Middle mountain High Mountain

-23-1. 14-1. 14,748.5 Total ('000ha) 2,1220 ;879-0 4,3503 2,900.2 3,497.0

Figure 3.2: Relative proportions of land-use types in each physiographic region in Nepal M (from LRMP, 1986). M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam 57 gram are grown on rice bunds. In bari land, soybean is also intercropped with maize. Cropping intensity is estimated to be 153%. Farming is commonly done with traditional practices and crop varieties, except for wheat, are mostly local. Some new and improved varieties of rice (Khumal-3, NR 10067, NR 10068, NR 10078 and IR 15579) and maize (Arun 2 and 4 and Manakamana 1 and 2) have performed well in some areas. In wheat, the old RR 21 is still the most popular, but it has become susceptible to loose smut and other diseases. Land is prepared primarily with a bullock drawn wooden plough, followed by harrowing with a wooden plank. Rice and finger millet are mostly trans- planted. Maize is grown by planting behind the plough. Potato is planted after working the soil with a shovel, either on flat land or on ridges. The other crops are sown by broadcasting. Weeding and harvesting are done by hand with shovel and sickle. Threshing is done by hand or bullock, followed by winnow- ing by hand. The use of chemical fertilisers is limited and the chief source of nutrients is compost. Dung, crop residues and forest litter are all used in compost making. Comparatively, the Hills have a better economic advantage for promoting horticulture. Because of wide micro-climatic variation there is a high potential for the development of fruits. Both tropical and temperate fruits can be successfully grown. The commonly grown fruits are banana, orange, lime, lemon, pear, peach, plum and some mango and papaya. The HMG/N has given priority to citrus fruits in central and eastern hills. There is also potential for growing high value vegetable seeds in some pockets. The horticulture enterprise offers encouraging prospects for generating employment and in- come. The chief characteristics of the Hill farming systems are prevalence of subsistence agriculture with chronic food deficit, tendency to be self-support- ing for basic requirements, intensive utilisation of arable land and heavy dependence on livestock and forest inputs. Members of the farm household are the major source of labour for farming activities. Livestock plays a very crucial and decisive role in the Hill farming systems of Nepal. Crop-livestock integration is not only common but also inseparable. The largest number of livestock population is found in the Hills (Table 3.5) and the average number of animals kept per farm is 6.3. Compost, which is the major source of nutrients and organic matter, comes from cattle and buffaloes. Livestock is also responsible for the transfer of nutrients from forest and pasture areas to cultivated land. There is a close interrelationship between crops, livestock and forestry (Figure 3.3). Farming is very much influenced by forest land, which supplies livestock fodder, litter, firewood and timber. In addition to keeping animals for farm operations, financial security and gener- ating cash income, the edible products from livestock also constitute an impor- tant part of daily diet. A survey at two farming systems research sites in Pumdi Bhumdi (western hills) and Khandbari (eastern hills) indicated that livestock number correlated positively with farm size but that the relation between farm 58 Mountain Agriculture

Table 3.4: Important cropping patterns in two ecological regions of the Nepalese Mountains

Ecological region Important cropping patterns

1. Hills a) Rain-fed (Bari land) 1) Maize-Fallow-Fallow 2) Maize/Finger millet-Wheat 3) Maize/Finger millet-Fallow 4) Maize+Soybean-Mustard 5) Maize/Soybean-Mustard or 6) Maize/Upland Rice-Fallow

b) Irrigated (Khet land) 1) Rice-Wheat-Fallow 2) Rice-Rice-Maize 3) Rice-Wheat-Maize

2. Mountains a) Rain-fed (Bari land) 1) Maize-Wheat-Finger millet (2-year pattern) 2) Potato-Wheat-Finger millet (2-year pattern)

b) Irrigated (Khet land) 1) Rice-Wheat 2) Rice-Barley (including naked barley) 3) Buckwheat-Barley (including naked barley) 4) Potato-Barley (including naked barley)

Table 3.5: Livestock population by species and belt

Terai Hills Mountains Total 000's 000's 000's 000's

Cattle 2,317 3,239 801 6,357 Buffalo 852 1,707 281 2,839 Sheep 97 336 352 785 Goats 1,328 2,799 755 4,882 Pigs 122 268 52 442

Source: DFAMS, ASD, 1985, ref. 46

size and number varied with type of animal. Similar findings were reported in a farm management study. Livestock is a labour-intensive enterprise in the Hills mainly because much time is spent on the collection of fodder and on grazing supervision. Shortage of feed has encouraged overgrazing which, in turn, has contributed to soil erosion. Tree fodder and grass are the main source of feed which is partly supplemented by crop residues. Hill farmers depend on fodder trees for their livestock. Relatively better quality feeds containing grains and concentrates are fed to female animals during calving and milking periods and to draught M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam 59

GRAZING LANDS J

a b 0 b Q E 0 U

CROPPED i LIVESTOCK Manure, draught FIELDS

Feed t 1

Figure 3.3: Agriculture, forestry and livestock interrelationship (from LRMP, 1986). animals during farming operations. A national farm management study of the Hills carried out by the Department of Food and Agricultural Marketing. Services (DFAMS) indicates that major cereals contribute the highest percent- age of total gross margin followed by livestock.

Mountain Farming Systems The altitude of the Mountain zone ranges from about 2,400 masl to more than 8,000 masl. This zone contributes more than 33% of the total area but less than 7% of the cultivated area. Because of inhospitable climatic and physical environments, only 8.7% of the population lives in the Mountains. However, the average population pressure on cultivated land is 7.2 persons/ ha which is more than estimated in the Terai and Hills. The very small farm size of about 0.5 ha is cultivated by an average household of 5.5 members. The climate is generally cool temperate to sub-alpine up to an elevation of 4,000 m and above 4,000 m varies from alpine to arctic where a perpetual snow cover prevails. Depending upon elevation, the mean annual temperature is about 3-10°C, falling far below freezing point in winter. The yearly rainfall varies from 590 mm and 843 mm in -western and mid- to 2208 mm in the central mountains. The soils are characterised by shallow depth, stones and rocks and derived mostly from igneous and metamorphic rocks. The soil pH is strongly to moderately acidic. Cultivation is limited to lower slopes and relatively fertile patches in narrow-bottomed valleys along rivers where maize, rice, wheat, millet, barley 60 Mountain Agriculture

(including naked barley), buckwheat and potatoes are grown. The maximum area is occupied by maize followed by wheat and rice. The common cropping patterns at lower elevations are rico-wheat and maize-wheat. At higher elevations, the buckwheat-naked barley pattern is followed. Khet land is very limited in the mountains. In some areas, two year patterns are also practised. Potato is grown at higher altitudes. For high mountain people, potato is the . The growing of winter crops is of much longer duration. At still higher elevations it is too cold for winter crops and the land has to be left fallow. Above 4000 m no crop can be grown successfully. The average cropping intensity is only 110%. Because of high transport cost, the use of chemical fertilisers is greatly limited. The agroclimate of the mountains is conducive to temperate fruits such as apple, peach, plum, apricot, etc. Apple orchards have become very common in the Mustang district in the western mountain region. Fruits are planted on slopes and intercropped with traditional food crops. Because of transport and marketing problems, farmers in some areas have learned to make brandy from these fruits. Apple brandy from Mustang is gaining in popularity. This practice should be encouraged because it will partly save foodgrains from being commonly used for making whisky. Since food deficit is a serious problem, the grains should be better utilised in direct consumption. Fruit cultivation has better potential in areas where tourism has flourished. Besides fruits, growing vegetables such as radish, carrot, cauliflower, cabbage, etc. for seed production can be a very renumerative business. Though comparatively few in total number, livestock dominate the moun- tain farming systems. The average number of animals per farm is estimated to be 6.8, the highest in all the ecological regions. The sheep population is also highest in the mountains. Apparently, the limitation of cultivated land and a less efficient crop production system have compelled farmers to be more dependent on livestock to supplement their income. They are considered the sole property for generating cash. Crop farming has to depend almost entirely on livestock measure. According to farm management data, the maximum gross margin is contributed by livestock. Because of the inaccessible topography, horses, mules, and even sheep and goats are used as pack animals for the transport of goods. Mules are humour- ously called 'trucks of the mountains'. Horses are also used by people for travelling. In the alpine mountains region yak (male), nak (female) and chauri (yak X cattle cross) are the main sources of income for mountain populations. They are raised for milk, butter, cheese, meat, hair and hide. Yak cheese has been very popular in Nepal. The chauri is a female and the male born sterile. Castrated males are used for ploughing and transportation. It is estimated that the period of largest feed deficit occurs from November to February when grazing land is covered with snow. The interesting part of livestock keeping in the mountains is the trans-humance type system. The animals are on the move for grazing for nearly half of the year in summer when M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam 61 the feed is relatively abundant. It is estimated that nearly 45% of the total digestible nutrient (TDN) is supplied by grazing. However, the feed deficit always exits.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE TYPE OF FARMING SYSTEMS

It is not an easy exercise to understand and explain the intricate interactions of various factors that eventually determine the type of farming systems within an agro-ecological zone. Our experience, which is still inadequate, suggests that factors such as farmers' socio-economic conditions, agroclimate, ethnic composition, availability of technology and inputs, proximity to motorable road, marketing facilities etc. greatly influence farming systems. Farm moni- toring is one of the valuable tools to understand them. Some useful informa- tion recorded from monitoring is briefly presented here. Farm monitoring was done in 1984/85 at one of the research sites, Pumdi Bhumdi (western hills) to develop better understanding of the interrelation- ships between different farm enterprises. Monitoring involved 12 in 3 different size classes (0.5-1.0 ha, 1.0-1.5 ha and 1.5-2.0 ha). Six of these farms were 'intervention farms' where on-farm research in crops was concentrated and six were control farms where trials were not conducted. Only 5 of the 12 farms monitored actually sold any crop produce. The total sales of all farms represented only 3%0 of the total produce. This indicates the subsistent type of farming where the produce is used for household consump- tion. Farmers hardly use any fertiliser, even though it is readily available indicat- ing their reluctance to bear investment risk against crop failure. Crop damage by hail is common in the area. Also, crops are grown under rain-fed conditions. Farmers need early rice varieties to reduce the chance of hail damage, which explains why they prefer Khumal-3 (an early rice cultivar). Farmers raise livestock mainly for compost making, to provide draught power (bullock) for land preparation and for milk production (buffalo) to obtain cash income. The most striking aspect of the livestock number is the high turnover of the stock in more than 50% during the monitored period. Buffaloes were mainly bought and sold, although some were taken or given on share and in two cases simply exchanged. It seems probable that livestock were sold to raise money for social and financial needs and repurchased when feasible. Farmers con- trived to keep at least one lactating buffalo on the farm. The labour requirement for grazing supervision, is high, an average of 155 days per year per farm. About half of the total time is spent by adult males and about a quarter by adult females. Fodder collection also is a very labour- intensive activity, with about 160 days/ year per farm expended on this work, which is mainly done by women although the contribution from men is almost as great (87 days and 73 days respectively). Fodder collection time increases during the monsoon compared to the dry months. 62 Mountain Agriculture

Data on milk collection indicate that the average buffalo in Pumdi Bhumdi produces about 450 L milk/year, of which about half is sold. Calving takes place almost exclusively between June and December, presumably to coincide with greater fodder availability. Thus, peak milk collection in the village takes place in October to December. Some farmers have responded to oat cultivation in winter in a rice-oat- fallow pattern to obtain green fodder in dry months. Feeding of oats has shown promising results in milk production. It was recorded that oat feeding at the rate of 6-8 kg/day per buffalo increased the average milk output by approxi- mately 300-400 mL/day. The village in Pumdi Bhumdi is situated alongside a motorable road. The milk collection centre in the village and easy access to nearby Pokhara town have made it possible for the farmers to take up livestock enterprise for milk production. This type of farming may not be feasible if the farm is situated in a remote area within the same agro-ecological zone. Ten of the twelve moni- tored farmers belonged to the high Brahmin. caste, who do not like to keep 'unholy' animals such as pigs and poultry. An economic analysis revealed that the average net benefit/ha was 36% higher for the intervention farms compared to the control farms. Farmers in the village are very interdependent. Share-cropping and labour, animal draught power and credit exchange are very prominent. A number of important resources for animal feed are community owned or depend on community decisions. Farm monitoring provided a much better understanding of the interactions and whole farm aspects in the village. A descriptive model of one of the monitored farms is illustrated in Figure 3.4. A survey carried out earlier (1980) to study the role of livestock in Pumdi Bhumdi and other research sites in Khandbari (eastern hills) showed some variations between the two sites. For example, crop and livestock enterprises contributed 46% and 27% of the total household income respectively in Pumdi Bhumdi. The remaining 27% was derived from off-farm sources. In Khand- bari, on the other hand, household income was greater from crop production (64%) and less from livestock (20%) and off-farm sources (16%). The results support the earlier observation that physical proximity to an urban area is an important factor influencing the type of farming system. The study also revealed that farmers would like to keep more livestock but shortage of fodder, grassland and labour are the main constraints.

STRATEGIES AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPING MOUNTAIN FARMING SYSTEMS

The establishment of crop commodity programmes in 1972, although acceler- ating the exploitation of improved technologies, tended to favour monocul- ture. It should be admitted that institutional intervention in the past to promote agriculture in the Terai has undermined the need for technological LABOUR EXCHANGE

OFF FARM CROPS E M PLOY M ENT -K HET(0 7 ha ) r' R-F-F G R-F-M lp. CO LOTH ES PERSONS RW-M SOCIAL -BART(0.2ha) REPAYMENT M/Fm W LIVE MILK CREDIT M Fm-F STOCK ANIMAL 2 BUFF SALEM-p- ROUGH 2 GOOXAT ANIMAL PURCHASE PASTURE(O.2)

COMPOST,

BULLOCK POWER ANIMAL EXCHANGE EXCHANGE

Figure 3.4: Material, labour, and cash flows on a typical Pumdi Bhumdi Farm. Legend: Crops = rice, F = fallow, Fm = -R finger millet, M = maize, W = wheat. Cropping systems - Hyphen(-) = followed by and diagonal (/) = relayed with. F, 64 Mountain Agriculture innovations in mountain regions. Similarly, most of the scarce resources were mobilised to develop major cereals at the cost of relatively minor crops and other important and interrelated components of agriculture including live- stock and agroforestry. As a result, the small and resource-poor farmers could not benefit much from the research programmes. With the above realisation in mind, the research system has been re- organised to include the Farming Systems Research and Development Divi- sion (FSRDD) as one of its new components. The uniqueness and credibility of farming systems lie in the holistic approach of this organisation. The govern- ing concept is to implement a well-coordinated and multi-disciplinary pro- gramme to integrate major elements of Nepalese farming systems, including crops, livestock, horticulture and agroforestry, with a view to addressing farmer felt-needs on a whole farm basis. The Division's main thrust is toward developing mountain farming systems. At present, there are six farming systems research sites, of which four are located in the hills (Figure 3.5). Depending upon the availability of manpower, new sites will be established in high mountain areas also. The success of a farming systems approach largely depends on the strength of commodity and disciplinary programmes as the source of the basic tech- nologies for on-farm testing and verification. The farming systems pro- gramme then tailors these technologies to best suit the farmers' systems. Farming systems is a complementary programme to achieve a common goal. It is necessary to consider the following constraints and suggestions in order to develop farming systems in which the objective is to raise the production and income level of farmers in the mountains. Recommendations in the past tended to be general and did not serve the environment-specificneeds of farmers. Released varieties were usually tested under ideal conditions where high inputs were applied. Farmers grew them under their own physical and socio-economic limitations and thus could not realise the high yield potential of such varieties. To alleviate this problem, one of the strategies should be to conduct on-farm research under rain-fed and low fertility conditions, for the purpose of optimising the yield in marginal areas also. Since Nepal produces no fertiliser, an attempt should be made to improve the quality and increase the quantity of compost application, particularly in the hilly areas. The possibility of using biofertilisers should also be tested and vigorously promoted. If successful, this approach would reduce the burden of importing more tonnage of chemical fertilisers. The farmers should be per- suaded to include pulses in their cropping patterns, partly to maintain soil fertility and partly to supply protein in their protein-deficient diet. Since there is no dependable research base for the mountains, the research stations located in hilly regions should be made more effective to enable adaptive research in their command areas. At present, they are low-keyed due to insufficient funds and lack of incentives for scientists to work under difficult r FAR WESTERN NEPAL l CHINA 1 ID-WESTERN Lii/ //// //

': \ 1 `a 1Chauri Jahari ^c+ ',^ SURKHET,

ARA _ \ L, S ENTRAL 8,84 8 (M t.Everest) Pumdi Bhumdi \\ \^r ` `` Nagarkot EASTERN/ \ \ \\+ . \-Kathmandu / yrY?7T7%' 1 Rainanagar v 'i7tir /

INDIA K hand bars Farsa ` \\ r \ \ 1 \ \ _ _

"'BIRATNAGAR

Figure 35: Three major ecological zones and locations of farming systems sites. 66 Mountain Agriculture

physical conditions. The farming systems programme should establish a close liaison with the research stations. Irrigation water is a precious commodity in Nepalese agriculture but its management is poor. More attention should be given to water management study to increase water use efficiency. This aspect is very important because water management is also related to the efficient use of other inputs. The agricultural implements used in Nepal are mostly hand operated or bullock drawn. No useful research has been done either to improve their efficiency or to introduce new tools. Work on this aspect is necessary since it would expedite farm operations and reduce the problem of labour shortage. Since a deficit in livestock feed is a serious problem, especially in dry winter months, the introduction and extension of fodder crops, fodder grass and fodder trees should be campaigned for. Research should be done to improve the quality of feed including crop residues. An assured supply of feed would encourage stall feeding and thus minimise the problem of overgrazing and check soil erosion to some extent. The depletion of forest and grassland is the chief cause of soil erosion and poor fertility. The Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) has estimated that rainfall erosion removed 1.6 mm of topsoil each year from sloping terraces and 600 kg organic matter, 30 kg nitrogen and 20 kg phosphorus /ha per year. It is also estimated that nearly 240 million cubic metres of soil is transported to India by swelling rivers. From a farming systems perspective, development of agroforestry should be a part of the research programme to make tree fodder and firewood easily available. Generally, farmers would like to keep more livestock on their farms but fodder shortage is the main constraint. In view of this background, the strategy should be to improve the quality and performance of livestock and not try to increase the number of less productive animals. Therefore, it is necessary to breed and to distribute livestock with higher production potentials. The improvement of feed and fodder should be tied in with feed requirements of improved breeds. Crop-livestock integrated research should focus on the potential of increasing productivity of both the enterprises by exploiting the interdependent relationship. Women are actively involved in various farm operations. They also play a crucial role in the decision-making process of the farm household. However, their contribution is not yet seriously recognised in the dissemination of technology. It is, therefore, important to consider their involvement in the development of a farming systems programme. Technology generation alone will not suffice to actually develop farming systems in the mountains; it must be concomitantly backed up by production support services including marketing. Inadequate support limits the chances of technology adoption. A preliminary agricultural development network has been established but its effectiveness in terms of results is lacking. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen and effectively mobilise the existing institutions for delivery of better services. M.P. Panth and J.C. Gautam 67

CONCLUSIONS

Some concluding suggestions have been drawn from the foregoing discussion. Institutional care should be taken to develop and balance agricultural research in the mountains with that of the Terai. More attention should be focussed on developing mountain agriculture with systems perspective. The farming systems programme should originate with and end with farmers. Farmers, including women, should be mobilised for active par- ticipation in every step of research planning, implementation, technology identification and adoption. Special attention should be given to develop hill crops, livestock and horticulture in the mountain farming systems. Promotion of agroforestry is likewise urgently needed. The input delivery system in the mountains should be strengthened to make it more efficient and dependable. Similarly, a marketing system should be developed to ensure an outlet for increased production. Since inter-disciplinary coordination is an essential prerequisite for the success of a farming systems programme, it is vital to maintain a close working relationship with other programmes related to research, exten- sion and production. A linkage should be established with related international organisations to develop suitable methodology to conduct integrated farming systems research in the mountains.

It is everyone's duty to feel concerned about the relatively under-privileged areas of the mountains where poverty is the rule and even two square meals a day an exception. Therefore, sincere efforts should be made to ensure that the concern of the participants be reflected in our collaborative action in order to achieve a more favourable impact on mountain farming systems.

REFERENCES

Bhattarai, A.N. 1985. Cropping systems research in Nepal, pp. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Monitoring Tour, Crop-Livestock systems Research, Nepal and In- donesia organised by the International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, . Central Bureau of Statistics. 1981. National Census of Agriculture, Kath- mandu, Nepal. Department of Food and Agricultural Marketing Servies (DFAMS).1983-1985. National Farm Management Study, Kathmandu, Nepal. DFAMS. 1985. Report on Food Production and Water Use at the Farm Level, Kathmandu, Nepal. 68 Mountain Agriculture

DFAMS. 1986. Area and Production of Major Crops, Kathmandu, Nepal. DFAMS. 1986. Handbook of Agricultural Statistics of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. DFAMS.1986. Main Report on National Farm Management Study, 1983-1985, Kathmandu, Nepal. Gautam, J.C. 1985. Farming Systems Development in Nepal. Paper presented at Expert Consultation Meeting organised by the FAO, Bangkok, Thailand. Integrated Cereals Project (ICP).1985. Integration of Research and Extension in Farmers' Fields. Terminal report of the Integrated Cereals Project, De- partment of Agriculture, Kathmandu, Nepal. Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP).1986. Agriculture/ Forestry Report, Kathmandu, Nepal. LRMP. 1986. Land Utilisation Report, Kathmandu, Nepal. LRMP.1986. Summary Report, Kathmandu, Nepal. Mathema, S.B. and M.G. Van der Veen. The Role of Livestock in the Farming Systems in Two-Cropping Systems Sites. Cropping Systems Programme, Technical Report, Kathmandu, Nepal. National Planning Commission. 1985. The Seventh Plan Document (1985- 1990), Kathmandu, Nepal. Ong, S.E., ed. 1981. Nepal's Experience in Hill Agricultural Development: A Seminar Summary. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Kathmandu, Nepal. Panth, M.P. 1986. Concept of Farming Systems Research and Development in Nepal. 13th Summer Crops Workshop, Janakpur, Nepal. Panth, M.P. 1986. Farming Systems Programme of Nepal. Farming Systems Pre-production Monitoring tour, Nepal and Bangaladesh organised by the International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines. Panth, M.P. and R.C. Hawkins. 1986. Collaborative Research on Cropping Systems in Nepal. Agricultural Research and production Project, Kath- mandu, Nepal. Poudyal, S.P. 1985. Contribution of livestock in Nepalese farming systems, pp. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Monitoring tour, Crop-Livestock Systems Research, Nepal and Indonesia organised by the International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines. Rajbhandari, H.B. and S.G. Shah. 1981. Trends and projections of livestock production in the hills, pp. In: Nepal's Experience in Hill Agricultural Devel- opment. Ed.: S.E. Ong. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Kathmandu, Nepal. Singh, B.K. and Y.P. Gautam. 1985. Oat cultivation and its use as a green fodder for increasing buffalo milk production, pp. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Monitoring Tour, Crop-Livestock Systems Research, Nepal and Indone- sia organised by the International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines. CHAPTER 4

Agriculture in Bhutan

D.R. Ghalley

INTRODUCTION

Bhutan is a mountainous country located between 26.5° and 29.5°N and 88.5° and 92.5°E. It is primarily an agrarian country with 94% of the labour force employed in agriculture. The total area of the country is 46,500 km2, of which about 74% is under forest, 5% under cultivable land and the rest either under alpine shrub or pasture or snow cover. Geographically, the country can be divided into three distinct zones-the southern foothills, the inner Himalayas and the higher Himalayas. The south- ern foothills rise from the plains to heights of about 1,500 m and extend northward about 20 km inside Bhutan. The middle part of the kingdom, consisting of the inner Himalayas, rises -somewhat more gradually to about 3,000 m. This region contains the main economic and cultural heartland of the Kingdom. The northern region of the Kingdom comprises the main Hima- layan range which, although less high than the western Himalayas, neverthe- less rises to a height of over 7,000 m. The country is divided into 18 districts (Dzonkhags). The four Dzongkhags of Gelegphug, Chirang, Samchi and Samdrupdzongkhar lie in the foothills, while Bumthang, Tongsa, Shemgang, Tashigang, Pemagatshel, Mongar, Lhuntshi, Wangdiphodrang, Dagana, Punakha, Thimphu, Paro, Haa and Gasa he in the inner Himalayas. Most of the fertile valleys lie in this latter region. The climate of the country can be divided into three zones. The foothills hjave a hot, humid climate with temperatures remaining fairly constant be- tween 15°C and 30°C throughout the year. Precipitation is highest in this region, at 2,500 mm to 5,000 mm in some areas. The middle inner Himalayas 70 Mountain Agriculture

have a cool, temperate climate with an annual rainfall of about 1,000 mm with the western part receiving comparatively more. The higher zone to the north has a severe alpine climate with an annual precipitation of about 400 mm. Although no detailed soil survey has been carried out in Bhutan, sandy loam and clayey loam predominate in most parts of the country. In general, the soils in most cultivable areas are deficient in phosphorus and nitrogen and are acidic.

LAND CATEGORIES

There are five basic categories of agricultural land in Bhutan: wetland, dry- land, tsheri land (shifting cultivation), orchard land, and kitchen garden land. The area under each category is given below:

Area (ha) Percentage

Wetland 29,721 23.5 Dryland 65,638 51.8 Tsheri land 11,830 9.3 Orchard land 18,216 14.4 Kitchen garden 1,280 1.0

Total: 126,685 100.0

Wetland Cultivation Paddy is the main crop in the wetlands. Currently over 98% of the wetland area is under local varieties of rice. Some of the local varieties grown in the western part of the country are 'Dumja,' 'Kuchum' (white varieties), 'Jynap,' 'Jyanak,' 'Jyakap,' 'Gemja' and Juchum' (red varieties). These varieties are successfully grown at altitudes ranging from 1,900 to 2,600 masl. Varieties grown in low-altitude areas, from 1,400 to 1,900 masl, are 'Botoli; 'Jamja,' Jakha' and 'Tantshering' (white seeded varieties). The Bhutanese people generally prefer red varieties to white for home consumption. So far, the only improved varieties released to farmers have been IR-36 and Pusa-33 in the sub- tropical areas, and paddy No. 11 in the cool sub-temperate areas. As agricul- tural research in Bhutan is in an infant stage, not much has been done in rice research. Recently, the International Rice Research Institute and International Development Research Centre (IRRI-IDRC) have helped us start rice research through the Rice Research Farming Systems Project. The National Research Centre for Agricultural Research and Development (CARD) is conducting on- station trials of the varieties received from IRRI and the South Asian Associa- tion for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) member countries. However, it will take yet another two years to test conclusively the adaptability of these varieties. D.R. Ghalley 71

Wheat is the second most important crop in wetland areas. It is grown in about 4,858 ha of wetland following paddy. Adaptive research in wheat has also not progressed very far in Bhutan. Presently, two popular improved varieties grown in the country are 'Son- alika' and 'Kalyansona; which have been sown for more than 10 years in Bhutan. However, as these varieties are very susceptible to 'rust' diseases, it has become quite difficult to continue with them. CARD is now testing some of the varieties received from CIMMYT and SAARC countries. But it will be some years before a recommendation can be made to farmers. The Department of Agriculture has initiated some talks with CIMMYT to formulate a collabo- ration project for improving wheat cultivation in Bhutan. Maize is another crop that follows paddy. However, the area under maize cultivation in wetland areas is very little. Potato and other vegetables are also sown after paddy in limited areas. One of the constraints we face in inducing farmers to double-crop wheat in wetland areas is their practice of grazing cattle here in winter. Cattle nre an integral part of a mixed farming system in Bhutan. However, the high average cattle head of 10-12 per household makes it difficult for farmers to feed cattle in winter and so they are grazed in wetland areas, which results in damage to the winter crop. Dryland Cultivation Maize is the main crop grown in dryland areas. Presently, most of the dryland is under local varieties of maize, namely, 'Seti and 'Paheli . Attempts by the Department of Agriculture to introduce hybrid maize (hybrid Pioneer) have not been very successful. Farmers are reluctant to use these varieties mainly for these reasons:

1) High cost of hybrid seed which must be bought every year, whereas the farmer can use his own seed from local varieties. 2) Short height makes the hybrids susceptible to damage from wild animals, mainly jackal. 3) Taste of hybrids differs from that of the traditional varieties. Except for multiplication of hybrid maize seed in one government farm, no effort has been made to date to conduct adaptive research on maize, even though it occupies about 40% of the area under annual crops. Wheat and barley are the second major crops in highland dryland areas. No research has been done to improve the productivity of dryland wheat and barley. Potato is commonly grown in dryland areas throughout Bhutan, especially in Bumthang and highland areas of the Tongsa, Wangdiphodrang, Thimphu, Paro and Haa Dzongkhags. The area under potato is about 4,048 ha. Seeking to expand this crop, the Royal government of Bhutan is implementing the Bhutan National Potato Programme (BNPP) with financial assistance from 72 Mountain Agriculture

Helvetas (Swiss Aid) and technical assistance from the International Potato Centre (CIP). We have found that 'Kufri Jyoti; 'Swiss Red' and 'Desiree' cultivars are quite adaptable to our situation. More work on screening potato varieties is jointly underway by CIP and BNPP scientists. Millet is another crop grown after maize. Two common species are finger millet and foxtail millet. White millet is sown after maize in southern and in part of central Bhutan and is often cultivated in eastern Bhutan. Buckwheat is grown in both highland and mid-altitude areas. Two spe- cies-bitter buckwheat and sweet buckwheat-are grown, the former in Bumthang and Haa Dzongkhags, and the latter in parts of Chirang, Gelegphug, Dagana and Samchi. Mustard is another crop commonly grown in dryland areas. Local varieties of Brassica campestris var. toria predominate. However, the improved variety M-27 is doing well in the foothills. Soybean (all traditional varieties) and phaseolus beans are intercropped with maize in eastern Bhutan and on wetland bunds in the southern foothills.

Tsheri Land Cultivation Bhutan presently has about 12,000 ha under shifting cultivation locally termed 'tsheri' and 'pangshing'. Tsheri cultivation is quite extensive on slopes ranging from 20'-70°and thus subject to soil erosion. Tsheri land is cultivated in a cycle ranging from 5 to 12 years. The main crops grown after burning fallen trees/bushes, are highland paddy, maize, foxtail millet, barley and buck- wheat. Although the Royal Government is trying to curtail tsheri cultivation, especially in eastern and central dzongkhags, on slopes greater than 450, the task is difficult without special research to improve productivity in dryland areas. A proposal was recently submitted to the FAO for assistance in the development of tsheri cultivation. A multi-discipline committee may also be formed to look into the problems of tsheri cultivation.

Orchard and Plantation Land Presently, the main horticultural crops of Bhutan are apple, orange and cardamom. Some of the main varieties of apple are 'Red Delicious; 'Golden Delicious; 'Royal Delicious' and 'Jonathan'. Apple is mainly grown above 2,000 m in the Paro, Thimphu, Haa and Bumthang Dzongkhags. Tissue culture, mainly on apple, plum and peach, is being conducted at Bonday Farm, Paro, to produce quality seedlings. Mandarin orange is grown in the southern sub-tropical areas of Chirang, Gelegphug, Dagana and Samchi. Large cardamom ('Ramsai and 'Golsai') is also grown in these warmer regions. Although cardamom is a good cash crop and a high foreign-exchange earner, no effort has been made to improve crop yield. D.R. Ghalley 73

Kitchen Garden Land Only about 1,280 ha of land is under kitchen gardens. Some of the vegetables grown are cabbage, cauliflower, chilli, tomato and radish. Except for the distribution of vegetable seeds at subsidised rates; no programme has been set up to improve the production of vegetables, except for a pilot vegetable project recently initiated at Punakha to increase the supply to Thimphu market.

CHAPTER 5

High Mountain Environment and Farming Systems in the Andean Region of Latin America

N. Mateo and M. Tapia

INTRODUCTION

Most mountain agricultural systems include valley floors and high plains, as well as steep hillsides. Individual farmers and farm communities may have access to either just one situation, e.g., high plains or steep slopes, or more often to two or more altitudinal levels encompassing different ecological conditions. Therefore, a clear-cut definition of high mountain agriculture is not easy. The government of Peru defines high mountain environments as those located above 2,000 masl, regardless of topographic and ecological considerations. In Ecuador, the definition is related to those particular altitudes (around 2,800 masl) where there is a clear differentiation between a 'modern' type of agriculture and the traditional agriculture practiced by Andean farm communities (Tola, pers. commn.) The steep slopes and highlands of tropical America run like a backbone. The Andean range alone covers nearly 5,800 km throughout Latin America. This volcanic mountain chain was chosen by the original settlers as their home and the flourishing native cultures evolved along it. During the sixteenth century, the Spaniards followed this same route and conquered the highland people; they imposed a new social order and with it a new method of land use (Novoa and Posnec, 1981). 76 Mountain Agriculture

In Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole, approximately 52%, of the land area is classified as mountains (more than 8% slope). The impor- tance of mountain areas in selected countries of the region is presented in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 based on data by Posner and McPherson (1981).

Table 5.1: Area arable land, population and agricultural output in mountain regions of Latin America (based on Posner and Mc Pherson,1981)

Population Country % of the Arable % of the % of the % of total total land, national populat- agricultu- area populat- ion in ral output ion agricul- ture

Mexico 45 20 15 45 - Guatemala 75 30 40 65 24 Colombia 40 25 15 50 26 Ecuador 65 25 25 40 33 Peru 50 25 25 50 21

Annual crops only

Table SM Percentage contribution of mountain areas to production of selected agricultural products (based on Posner and McPherson,1981)

Guatemala Peru Ecuador Colombia

Wheat 50 60 30 50 Barley - 80 70 70 Potatoes 75 50 70 70

Sheep & goats - 100 100 -

THE ENVIRONMENT Natural Vegetation The natural vegetation of the Andes is-very diversified due to topography, climate, and exposure. It has also been greatly modified by man.

WESTERN SLOPE In the humid zone stretching from Colombia to northern Peru, a succession of mountain forests starts around 1,700 to 1,900 m and extends with a reduction in number and diameter of trees, towards herbaceous vegetation, the 'Para- mos' from about 3,000 m to the limit of perennial snow at about 4,000 m. This natural vegetation has been almost completely destroyed by man, except in the most humid locations. The western slopes of the Central and Southern Andes (from 40°S) are semi-arid and become progressively drier toward the Chilean desert. Here N. Mateo and M. Tapia 77 the natural vegetation is composed largely of xerophytic plants (Frere et al. 1975).

EASTERN SLOPE This slope, above 1,800 m, is more uniform because of its higher . From Venezuela to there is a succession of forest mountain levels with a complex floral composition. Man's influence on the Andean vegetation has been considerable due to human inhabitation for at least 10,000 years. While contributing greatly to the destruction of the original vegetation, man has likewise helped to establish a new through the introduction at the end of the nineteenth century of new plants, such as eucalyptus and kikuyu grass (Frere et al., 1975).

Soils of the Andean Region The Andes is a complex mountain chain extending from Venezuela to in . Soil formation processes are characterised by intense erosion and sedimentation. In general, the soils are not well developed. In the northern, humid Andes many inter-Andean valleys enjoy a drier climate. Soils on the western slope are volcanic in origin while those on the eastern slope are generally sedimentary. The Andean '' is a high mountain basin situated at an altitude of over 3,500 m. It was probably produced by block faulting during the uplift of the Andes and is now floored with sediments of shrunken or extinct lakes (Frere et al., 1975). Lithosols predominate (41 %) on the mountain slopes and highlands of the Andean countries. The estimated percentage of poor and good soils is 36 and 23, respectively (Novoa and Posner,1981) (Table 5.3). countries Table 5.3: Distribution of soils in mountain slopes and highlands of selected Good soils Poor soils Lithosols. Deep Deep Shallow

Venezuela km2 101.610 308.520 31.050 56.610 % 21 62 6 11 141.210 Colombia km' 66.240 146.841 133.560 % 14 30 27 29 65.790 Ecuador kmz 55.790 55.204 0 % 32 31 0 37 0 470.250 Peru km' 101.520 78.753 % 16 12 0 72 196.065 Bolivia km' 184.860 57.600 0 % 42 13 0 45 0 Guatemala km' 31.680 12.420 45.513 % 35 14 51 0 929.925 Total km' 541.700 659.338 210.123 % 23 27 9 41 78 Mountain Agriculture

Generally, soil classification and soil maps of mountain regions are inade- quate and more attention could usefully be paid to producing maps to assist in land-use planning. Many of the international classification systems pres- ently in use are inadequate, and it might be beneficial to rely more on the often highly developed and practical indigenous classification system (Hawtin and Mateo, 1987). One well-documented local soil classification system is that of Quechua-speaking communities located in the highlands of the Department of Cusco (Rozas,1985). Soils are characterised by means of indicator plants and according to topographic, climatic and various other factors and characteris- tics. Farmers have thus developed an applied system which is based on experience and observations and suits their needs well. A few examples, with titles in Quechua, the native language of the Inca Empire, are provided below for illustration:

Classification by indicator plants: - Liapha pasto (a Gramineae); Good growth indicates very poor soil; yields will be low. - Layo (Trifolium peruvianum): Grows only in compacted and stony soil; soil preparation will be an important limitation. - Philli pilli (Hypochaeris sp.): Grows well in wet and swampy soils; not appropriate for farming. - Salvia (Salvia officinales): Indicates high quality and fertile soil, well pro- tected from frost.

Classification by location: Puna allpa: Lands located at Puna altitudes and very prone to night frosts. Yunga allpa: Warmer lands, not prone to frost.

Classification by climate: - Chiri allpa: Lands appropriate for dry farming on which the 'laymis' system (rotational cropping) is practiced. - Qoni allpa: Irrigated lands used for annual cropping, normally without a fallow period.

Classification by topography: - Waygo allpa: Lands found in deep valleys. - Pampa allpa: Flatlands. - Qhara allpa: Gentle slopes. - Mogo allpa: Hilly lands. - Phukru allpa: Steep slopes. The system also provides very precise and detailed classifications by irrigation, humidity, texture and soil compaction. The system is widely used N. Mateo and M. Tapia 79 for land assignment to community members on the basis of their social status, marital status and age. Population pressures have led to a widespread removal of forests for fuel and for agriculture and in many areas the increased number of animals has resulted in overgrazing. Deforestation and overgrazing together have exacer- bated the problem of soil erosion. This is probably the single most important problem confronting the exploitation of many mountain regions. In the Central Andes, for example, it is estimated that between 50 and 60% of the agricultural area is affected by erosion to a greater or lesser degree. Although gulley erosion is widespread and spectacular, sheet erosion is generally considered responsible for even greater soil losses, amounting to many million of tonnes of montane topsoil annually (Hawtin and Mateo, 1987). Apart from the immediate and long-term,effects of erosion on the agricul- ture of the mountains per se, downstream effects such as silt deposition, more severe flooding in the wet seasons and lower water levels in the dry seasons, can be even more serious. However, at present, there are few measurements of erosion losses. The direct effects of different soil types, agricultural practices, animal species, crops cover, etc. on erosion in mountain areas are still poorly under- stood. While actual estimates of erosion are sometimes within acceptable levels for sustainable agriculture, the downstream effects of soil losses of this magnitude are largely unknown. Clearly, much more research is needed in this area (Hawtin and Mateo, 1987).

Climate Harshly variable climate leads to erratic food supplies, thus contributing to malnutrition and an ever-present threat of famine in much of the world (Back et al., 1981). High mountains are obviously not free from climatic hazards and, in fact, some climatic factors especially frost, hail, floods, drought and winds, are often exacerbated in high mountain environments.

AIR AND SOIL TEMPERATURE The altitudinal air temperature gradient is about 0.6°C per 100 m. In the northern Andes, with limited seasonal temperature variation, agriculture extends to about 3,500 m. In the other zones, water and temperature limitations may shorten the growth period but during the warm season agriculture may be found up to 4,200 m (Frere et al., 1975). The diurnal range between maximum and minimum temperatures is also important and varies with altitude. This range is larger in tropical areas away from the equator and may be associated with frost. Variation in average temperatures from one season to another is mainly due to variation in minimum temperatures; maximum temperatures generally tend to be more steady throughout the year. 80 Mountain Agriculture

Frost in the Andes has two origins: 'white frost' caused by a local cooling of the air above the ground to values below 0`C, accounts for some 80%0 of the frost occurrence, and 'black frost', caused by the penetration of cold air masses from the south, consisting of air at below freezing temperatures (Frere et al., 1975). The transfer of agricultural technologies from low elevation temperature regions to high altitude tropical ones, having the same mean temperatures, is often not possible because of extreme diurnal changes. In addition, daylength requirements of temperate species are often not met in the tropics, even if temperature regimes are acceptable (Hawtin and Mateo, 1987). Ellemberg and Ruthsatz (1977) define five thermic regions for the Andean region and list predominant plant species (Table 5.4)

Table 5.4: Thermic regions of the Andean zone

Regional Mean Agricultural temperature temperature, activity °C

Freezing 2.5 Natural pastures Extremely cold 5 Grazing Very cold 7.5 Grazing-cultivated pastures Cold 10 Grazing-crops (potato, barley, quinoa) Moderately cold 13 Crops (maize)-cultivated pastures

A representation of the main agro-ecological zones of the southern Andes in Peru is shown in Figure 5.1. The thermic and altitudinal differences combine to explain the high genetic variability encountered in the area. Mean monthly temperatures from five sites in the Andes are shown in Figure 5.2. Minimum temperatures are of major significance for the cropping cycle. This is illustrated for three sites of the Peruvian Andes in Figure 5.3. The mean minimum (MMT), extreme minimum (EMT), mean maximum (MMaxT) and extreme maximum (EMaxT) temperatures, as well as the number of days with frost, are shown for Patacamaya, Bolivia (3,800 masl) in Table 5.5. Under these conditions, bitter potatoes and barley (when rainfall is adequate) and quinoa (even in years of low rainfall) are the best adapted species and the main components of the population's daily diet.

RAINFALL AND WATER AVAILABILITY Rainfall and water availability are generally adequate in the equatorial zone falling between 8'S and the equator. Southwards, rainfed agriculture is limited to one season, which shortens with increasing latitude. In general, problems of water deficiency are common above 2,000 to 2,500 m. 4200 3800 3600 LAKE TITICACA

2800

EASTERN SLOPES

AMAZONS

0

WESTERN INTER ANDEAN HIGHLAND VALLEY Figure 5.1: Agro-ecological zones in the Southern Andes of Peru. 00 N Co

20 r

15

OO 0-O"O O 00 000 000000 00 cilu-0 0000p0000p; O

10 eeeeeeeeee e 00 0 e 090 0*00000000*0e00 5 1 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

0437 N - BOGOTA 2560m. 1202 S - HUANCAYO-..._.._..3300'M 0015 S 7 QUITO 0 0 0 02818 M. 1550 S - PUNO(GR.SALC.)3852m. 0613 S - CHACHAPOYAS___2425m. 1902 S- SUCRE e A e e e e e 2750m. Figure 5.2: Mean monthly temperatures in five Andean sites. PUNO CAILLOMA ------CHUQUIBAMBILLA t+++++tt CO 20 f +.+++ ++.+

10

0 r X J( / ' X /

r

x x Xx 1;.+ -10 P. + + +t +- V,

A S 0 N D J F M A M J J sites Figure 53: Variation of maximum, minimum and mean temperatures in three of the Peruvian Andes. 84 Mountain Agriculture

Table 5.5: Temperature CQ and number of days with frost in Patacamaya, Bolivia

Agricultural MMT EMT MMaxT EMaxT Days with season frost

1980-1981 -0.3 -5.4 17.7 20.6 151 1981-1982 -2.9 -6.2 18.0 21.2 162 1982-1983 -1.0 -3.5 19.6 22.6 151 1983-1984 0.9 -7.3 18.1 21.4 161

Rainfall is the major determinant of Andean agriculture. Although the region is now well covered by meteorological stations, long-term data are scarce. Other forms of precipitation also occur in this region. Snow is of indirect interest because it falls outside the growing season or outside the cropped areas. Nevertheless, it does contribute to groundwater storage. Hail may occur in the lowlands but is increasingly met at elevations exceeding 3,000 m.

WATER BALANCE Evapo-transpiration data combined with rainfall data are very important for the calculation of the length of a growing season and determination of the extent to which crop water requirements are satisfied (Frere et al., 1975). This aspect is illustrated in Figure 5.4, using Huancayo, Peru; as an example. There are a number of disadvantages in using mean rainfall data for agricultural purposes. In those areas where long-term and reliable informa- tion is available, meteorologists prefer to use the concept of rainfall probabil- ity. One such case is illustrated in Figure 5.5 for La Paz, Bolivia, using a 50-year span (Frare et al., 1975). The climatic variations found in the agro-ecological zones depicted in Figure 5.1 are presented in Table 5.6. The influence of these factors has been measured for various crops. When rainfall exceeds 800 mm, yields of Andean grains diminish considerably in the Suni area, i.e., 300 to 400 kg/ha. In a season with about 500 mm of rainfall, well distributed throughout the growth cycle, yields may reach 2,000 kg/ha in the same area. Yields of potatoes and bitter potatoes likewise vary between 1.5 and 10.0 t/ha, depending on total amount of rainfall and presence of hailstorms and dry spells. Variations in maize yields are also considerable and closely related not only to climatic factors, but also to soil conditions; a yield range of 300 to 4,000 kg/ha is not unusual.

LIGHT: DAYLENGTH Duration of. daylength varies little. Nevertheless, it may be noted that the difference between the equator and latitude 201S may be about two hours (Frere et al., 1975). mm HUANCAYO, PERU, 3300 MASL. RAINFALL POTENTIAL EVT 120 . EVT.

100 0-

80 M.

60 .

40 . Water restitution to soil

Water deficiencies 20 . Soil water use

O t i 1 1 J J A S 0 N D J

Figure 5.4: Water balance in Huancayo, Peru. Ul mm

180 LA PAZ Monthly rainfall 160 80 years 3400 m.a.s.l 140

120

!00

80L

60

I-

H

1 J S 0 N Q J F M A

Figure 5.5: Expected rainfall in La Paz, Boliva, 3,400 masl. N. Mateo and M. Tapia 87

Table 5.6: Climatic variations in the agro-ecological zones of the southern Andes of Peru

Factor West Quechua Puna Suni Lake Eastern valley shores slopes

Rainfall, mm 200-380 600-900 400-1100 500-900 500-800 600-900 Presence of

frost x x x xx x x Presence of dry spells x x x xx x x Hailstorms x x x xx xx x x - little; xx = severe

AIR HUMIDITY Although this parameter is generally considered secondary and has not been dealt with in previous surveys, some characteristics of air humidity merit emphasis, especially in mountain areas. The air humidity gradient is similar to that of air temperature and about 0.52 mb/100 m. The controlling factor of air humidity seems to be the saturation vapour pressure corresponding to the minimum daily temperature. The saturation deficit seems to be relatively constant at all altitudes.

GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE Atmospheric circulation is characterised by the presence of high pressure zones in the tropics and Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), fluctuating according to the seasons, near the equator. At altitudes up to 1,000 m, the limited movement of the ITCZ generates, in most cases, a monomodal system of rainfall distribution with a'reduction in intensity of rainfall in the middle of the rainy season. In the highlands, however, much of the moisture of the large air masses passing across the Andes is condensed at lower levels and rainfall is mainly due to local convection, with a clear bimodal pattern at sites near the equator (Frere et al., 1975).

RADIATION AND SUNSHINE In view of the geographical position of the region and its altitude, the radiation received remains important throughout the year. Altitude also causes large infrared radiation losses and low air temperatures. The radiation balance changes with altitude and latitude. Two sets of stations situated at different altitudes for equatorial and tropical latitudes have been compared. Effective radiation may have values as low as 15 to 20% in equatorial lowlands and as high as 30 to 40% of the total radiation in the 88 Mountain Agriculture highlands. In addition, the annual total radiation varies with altitude, showing an increase in the tropical highlands (Frere et al., 1975).

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Atmospheric pressure decreases by about 10.2 mb for each 100 in increase in altitude. The altiplano of the Central Andes, for example, has an atmos- pheric reduction of about 30 to 50% compared to sea level (Frere et al., 1975). The significance of reduced partial Oz and C02 pressures is not well under- stood. However, as some plants are known to have increased growth rates with increased partial pressure of C021 the opposite may well occur with decreased partial pressure (Hawtin and Mateo, 1987).

DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS

The total population of the Andes before the arrival of the Spaniards has been estimated at 16 to 18 million (Horkheimer, 1973). The number decreased drastically after the conquest, but at present is estimated at 17 million (Little, 1984). A partial breakdown of the actual population, using in some cases selected historic series, is presented for some of the Andes countries. A comparison of the population of three selected Departments of Colombia, located predomi- nantly in the Andes, is presented in Table 5.7 (Colombia, 1985). A similar set of data is given in Table 5.8 for all Departments of Peru located totally or partially in the high Andes (World Bank, 1981).

Table 5.7: Comparison of the population of three Andean departments of Colombia in 1938 and 1986

Department Population Population % Increase in 1938 in 1986

Boyaca 710,082 1,097,600 54 Cundinamarca 819,071 1,382,400 69 Narino 465,868 1,019,100 119

Total 1,995,021 3,499,100 75

Even though the population of all the Peruvian Departments located in the Andes has increased in absolute terms and in percentage, the greatest incre- ment has been in Lima, the capital city, where for the same period of time the population increased 320% largely as a result of out-migration from the high Andes. The proportion of urban and rural population has also changed; the percentage of rural population was 65, 53, and 41 for 1940, 1961 and 1972 respectively. N. Mateo and M. Tapia 89

Table 5.8: Comparison of the population in various Andean departments of Peru from 1940 to 1972

Department % in High 1940 1961 1972 % Increase, Andes 1940-1972

Apurimac 100 258,094 28,223 307,805 19 Arequipa 33 86,815 128,330 175,074 101 Ayacucho 100 358,991 410,772 459,747 28 Cajamarca 100 494,412 746,938 916,331 85 Cusco 66 321,150 40,391 470,525 46 Huancavelica 100 244,595 302,817 331,155 35 Huanuco 66 154,455 217,086 277,704 80 Junin 100 428,855 521,210 691,130 61 Moquegua 50 17,076 25,807 37,280 118 Pasco 100 - 138,369 176,750 27 Puno 100 548,371 686,260 779,594 42

Total 2,912,814 3,506,203 4,623,095 59

Estimated by authors

The total population of Bolivia in 1984 was, 6,252,721 and almost 80% lived in the highlands (Yearbook, 1985). A comparison of the population in the'- Andean Provinces of Ecuador from 1974 to 1982 is presented in Table 5.9. During this period, although the rural population decreased from 58 to 50% (Banco Central del Ecuador, 1986), it nevertheless increased by 21 % compared to 24% for the entire country.

Table 5.9: Comparison of the population of the Andean Provinces of Ecuador (1974-1982)

Population % Increase, Province 1974 1982 1974-1982

Azuay 367,324 442,019 20 Bolivar 144,593 145,949 0 Canar 146,570 174,510 19 Carchi 120,857 127,779 6 Cotopaxi 236,313 277,678 17 Chimborazo 304,316 316,948 4 Imbabura 216,027 247,2$7 14 Loja 342,339 360,767 5 Pichincha 988,306 1,382,125 40 Tungurahua 279,920 326,777 17

Total of Andes 3,146,565 3,801,839 21

Total of Country 6,521,710 8,060,712 24 90 Mountain Agriculture

The population of the high Andes has grown steadily. The implications for development and research need to be carefully evaluated. The protection of the environment as well as the need for an increased agricultural output present a difficult challenge.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION

Around 1500 A.D. in the Inca State, or 'Tawantinsuyu', two systems of production could be found: the State's and that of the ethnic local groups. The State established and managed productive lands to generate income for itself and for religious purposes. In some cases the State either supported productive lands or imposed heavy taxes on highly productive local groups. Despite this, around the year 1500 the Inca State decided not to interfere in the capability of the local ethnic groups to feed themselves and support their domestic units of production. Murra (1975), concludes that both the State and the ethnic groups were significant political and economic forces. The local groups practiced reciprocal obligations by means of which all members participated in land preparation, planting and harvest of crops without remuneration. These obligations included the provision of a new house, built with everyone's effort, for newly weds and free support for old people, orphans, widows and the physically impaired. One of the most outstanding characteristics of the State and the ethnic groups was the control of a number of vertical ecological levels, permitting access to diverse materials and foodstuffs. A well-documented example is that of the powerful groups of the Aymara-speaking Lupaka, composed of up to 150,000 people. One nuclear group of Lupakas lived close to lake Titicaca at 3,900 masl and had access to the Pacific coast towards the west and 'coca' plantations and wood to the east (Murra, 1975). The situation, nowadays, for the majority of the Andean communities is one in which access to different ecological levels is still the norm but in a much more limited range, e.g., normally a maximum 1,000 m for a particular community, and often less. Comparatively speaking, communities are char- acterised by a more obvious isolation and self-reliance today, even though trading links may exist between them or with other mountain and lowland communities. During the Tawantinsuyu, strong social cohesion and organisation was a prerequisite for the development of much of the infrastructure on which mountain agriculture has traditionally depended. In recent years, a variety of factors such as improved communications, alternative work in the cities and plantations, and an increasing social mobility have led to the weakening and disruption of mar.y of the traditional social structures. In some areas of the Andes, for example in the terraces, irrigation systems that may have been maintained for hundreds of years, are now falling into disrepair (Hawtin and Mateo, 1987). N. Mateo and M. Tapia 91

ANDEAN FARMING SYSTEMS

It is difficult to imagine the development and successful evolution of perma- nent settlements in the harsh conditions of the Andes especially above 3,000 masl. A number of factors and specific characteristics have allowed the proliferation of these communities, among which the following are possibly the most relevant (Tapia, 1986):

The Andean region is an important centre of domestication of crop and animal species. Ingenious modifications and conservation of the terrain to enable the construction of terraces, irrigation systems, and land preparation based on the regulation of temperature and water, e.g., 'wuarus' and 'gochas'. Attempt to predict climate for the upcoming cropping season based on natural indicators, e.g., behaviour of animals and flowering of certain species. This may have lead to a better understanding of the relationship between agriculture and the environment. Post-production systems of crop and animal products. The prevalence of only one cropping season in the year and the variability of climatic conditions made necessary the development of food conservation systems. Examples include drying and salting of meat ('charqui ); freez- ing, squeezing and drying of tubers and potatoes ('chunno'); and freez- ing, washing, squeezing and drying of tubers and potatoes ('tunta or moraya'). Storage, transportation and accounting systems. Various chronicles give testimony to the enormous food supplies stocked at the time of Spanish arrival. Estimates state that there were 2,000'golgas' (large silos made of rocks) built in the central highlands of Peru. The Inca main routes, plus secondary byways foot paths, constituted an intricate and efficient system for the transport by 'llamas' or by foot, of products and informa- tion to all of Tawantinsuyu. To implement this superb organisation, an efficient accounting system based on knots ('kipu') had also been devel- oped.

Community farm families have access to individual micro-plots (up to 35 in many cases) at different altitudes, spanning from 200 to 1,000 m, and also to communal cropping and grazing lands at various elevations. Communal lands are generally administered by local councils and serve the purpose of providing extra resources to community members and for generating the resources needed for infrastructural, cultural, ceremonial and recreational activities. These characteristics, plus the climatic limitations imposed mainly by altitude and water availability, have defined various altitudinal Homogene- 92 Mountain Agriculture ous Zones of Production (HZP) in which specific crops, pasture lands, and crop rotations predominate. The main Andean sub-regions and important HZP in each sub-region are illustrated in Figure 5.6. For the same agro-ecological areas depicted in Figure 5.1 and qualitative indication of the importance of various crops, pastures, and animals, is presented in Tables 5.10 and 5.11.

Table 5.10: Presence and relative importance of crops in various agro-ecological zones

Crop West Valley Quechua Puna Suni Lake Eastern Yunga Alta shores slope

Potato x xx xx(a) x xx xx Maize xx xxx x Faba beans xx xx x xx x Barley x xx xx xx x x Quinoa x x - xx xxx x Kaniwa x xx Peas x xx x x x Tubers x x x xx x xx Tarwi - xx - - x Fruits xx x x

(a) Bitter potato species (S. juzepzukii, S. curtilobum) .

Table 5.11: Presence and relative importance of animals and pastures in various agro-ecological areas

West valley Quechua Puna Suni Lake Eastern shores slopes

Forage Annual crop x xx x xx xx x Perennial crop xx xx x xx xx x Pasture lands Agricultural by-products x xxx x xx x Aquatic species x xx Animal species Sheep x x x xxx x x Goats xx x Cattle xx xx x xx xxx x Alpaca xxx x Llama x xx x xx x xx pigs xx xx - x x x

Key to Tables 5.10 and 5.11: x = Unimportant, less than 5% of total area xx = Important, 5-10% of total area xxx = Very important, 10-40% of total area Source : M. Tapia, 1986, INIPA, Peru. N. Mateo and M. Tapia 93

Figure 5.6: Andean sub-regions and homogeneous zones of production in the Peruvian Andes.

1. Northern, 2. Central, 3. South Central, 4. Dry South West, 5. Humid Oriental Slope, and 6. Titicaca High Plateau.

HZPs: 1. Inter-Andean Valleys Foothills. 'Talca' (humid grazing areas) 2. Semi-humid inter-Andean Valleys, 'Altina' (dry slopes); 'Puna' (semi-humid grazing areas). 3. Dry Inter-Andean Valleys High Plateaus, 'Puna' (dry grazing areas). 4. Very dry inter-Andean Valleys; Terraced valleys, 'Puna' (very dry grazing areas). 5. 'Yungas' (very humid and cloudy valley areas). 6. Lake Shores, 'Suni (grazing semi-humid plains); 'Cordillera' (extensive, dry, poor, high grazing areas) 94 Mountain Agriculture

Three main HZP have been documented in selected communities of the Department of Cusco, Peru (Cosio et al., 1981).

Maize HZP These zones are located between 3,400 and 3,600 masl. Mean temperatures vary between 10 and 12°C; slopes are generally from 10 to 20%, in some cases terraced; and irrigation is usually available. Maize predominates in approxi- mately 90% of all plots (Table 5.12) and 83% of all the maize plots are surrounded by one or more rows of quinoa or tarwi-to provide an extra source of food and to protect the maize against domestic animals. The rotations given in Table 5.12 could probably be improved by a greater frequency of legumes.

Table 5.12: Main crop rotations in maize HZP (adapted from Cosio et al., 1981)

Years

1 2 3 4 Irrigation Frequency, %

Maize Maize Maize Potato Yes 40 Maize Maize Potato Yes 25 Potato or barley Faba Maize Maize Yes 20 Maize Wheat Faba Maize No 15

Potato, Cereals and Legumes HZP Located between 3,600 and 3,800 masl, where mean temperature ranges from 8 to 10°C and slopes vary between 15 and 20%. Irrigation is available, especially for those rotations that include potatoes. Quinoa is also used to surround plots and on occasion is transplanted in irrigated areas. Tarwi is also used in a manner similar to quinoa. The main crop rotations are shown in Table 5.13.

Table 5.13: Main crop rotations in potato, cereal, legumes HZP (adapted from Cosio et al., 1981)

Years

1 2 3 4 Irrigation Frequency, %

Potato Wheat Faba Barley Yes (partially) 25 Potato Wheat Peas Barley No 45 Potato or quinoa Barley Peas Fallow Yes (Partially) 10 Tarwi Barley Faba Fallow No 20 N. Mateo and M. Tapia 95

Potato, 'Muyuys' and Range HZP These are lands above 3,800 masl, where mean temperatures are always below 8°C. These areas are extensive and plots are allocated by the community council ('Muyuys'). Bitter potatoes predominate together with other Andean tubers, such as oca, Lizas and anu. Long fallow periods are very common. Most of the land not used for crops, is characterised by the presence of natural pastures. The main rotations are listed in Table 5.14.

Table 5.14: Main rotations in potato,'Muyuys' and range HZP (adapted from Cosio et al., 1981)

Years

1 2 3 4 Fallow years Frequency, %

Bitter Oca/ Lizas/ Barley 4 10 potatoes lizas anu Bitter Oca/ Lizas/ Barley 5 30 potatoes lizas anu Bitter , Oca/ Lizas/ Barley 6 40 potatoes lizas anu Bitter Fallow Fallow Barley 6-7 20 potatoes

The characteristics of two communities, Luquina Grande and Camacani, located in the Lake Titicaca plateau in Puno are described below (Lescano et al., 1982). The altitudinal span is only 300 m in Luquina and 250 m in Camacani. However, three distinct ecological conditions exist: the flatlands, foothills, and upper hills. The most important crops are barley, potatoes, faba beans and quinoa (Table 5.15). Irrigation is not readily available. Flatlands: More humid and cold area (in terms of number of days with frost); slope not more than 5%. Area extends from Lake Titicaca to about 3,900 masl. Foothills: Area better protected from frost; slope may reach 60% and such land is preferred for cropping. Area extends from about 3,900 to 4,000 masl.

Table 5.15: Distribution of plots per crop in the three altitudinal levels of Camacani and Luquina Grande

Camacani Luquina Grande Crop Flatlands Hills Upper hills Flatlands Hills Upper hills

Barley 360 468 107 63 245 379 Potato 273 486 68 50 189 145 Quinoa 152 91 17 33 47 10

Faba 75 147 - 19 132 68 Others 54 208 11 10 87 121

Total 914 1,400 203 175 700 723

% 36.3 55.6 8.1 11.0 44.0 45.0 96 Mountain Agriculture

Upper hills: Area also frost-prone and characterised by poor and stony soils. In addition to natural pastures, bitter potatoes and kaniwa are able to with- stand these conditions. Barley is also quite common in the Luquina community due to the thermo-regulatory effects of Lake Titicaca. Area extends above 4,100 m. The main and secondary crops are arranged in various rotations and intercropping systems depending on soil characteristics and availability of organic and inorganic fertilisers. These aspects also determine the length of the fallow period. A few examples are shown in Table 5.16.

Table 5.16: Crop rotations in two communities of Puno

1 2 3 4 5 Fallow Community

P B Q New Cycle No Luquina P Q B F New Cycle No Camacani B P F P Q No Luquina P OCA B Fallow 3 Camacani P Q B Fallow 2-3 Luquina P ISANO Q B F 2-5 Camacani

P = Potato B = barley Q = quinoa F = faba beans Source: Lescano et al., 1982.

Another well documented site in a different HZP is that of Coporaque in the Department of Arequipa (Zvietcovich et al., 1985). Coporaque falls within the Colca River Basin System, which is a dry inter-Andean valley on the west side of the southern Andes. Rainfall is a major limitation, with only 349 mm/year. Mean annual temperature is 10.4'C. (12.3'C) in December, 3.2'C in April. Animal and crop production is mainly for subsistence with limited marketing or product exchange. Farmers own from 0.25 to 7.0 ha, usually with plots at different altitudes. All family members participate in farm work. Three distinct HZP have been identified:

River floor: 3,350 to 3,450 masl. Soils are allutial, highly fertile (mostly sandy loams). Maize is the predominant crop. Barley and faba beans are less common. Plains: 3,450 to 3,600 masl. Soils are deep and fertile (mostly clay loams with little or moderate slope). Terraces are. common. The main crop is barley. Other important crops include faba beans and quinoa. Important rotations are: barley-faba beans-quinoa-potatoes, and potatoes-barley- faba beans-quinoa-potatoes. Slopes: 3,600 to 3,750 masl. Terraces prevail. The most important activity is animal production. Alfalfa is the predominant cultivated species but a N. Mateo and M. Tapia 97

few barley and faba beans plots are found. Rotations include faba beans- barley and potatoes-faba beans. for In general, the terraces are irrigated. This technology has existed centuries as an answer to limited rainfall. market The widespread use of barley is possibly due to the guaranteed that prices offered by the malt factories. Alfalfa is important for those farmers migrate temporarily because it thrives well under low management. span for In the Department of Ayacucho, topography makes the attitudinal and agricultural activities even more dramatic. Members of the San Jose Qasangay communities have access to lands between 3,100 and 4,100 masl and three altitudinal HZP are well differentiated (Figure 5.7). with Maize HZP: Extends from 3,100 to 3,400 masl. Maize intercropped quinoa, peas or squash are the predominant cropping patterns. crops Potato and cereal HZP: Extends from 3,400 to 3,800 masl. Important faba include potato and barley as monocrops, with crop associations such as beans and quinoa. Natural pastures HZP: Predominates from 3,800 to 4,100 masl. Animals graze de in such areas, particularly during the rainy season (Universidad Nacional San Cristobal, de Nuamanga,1982). Farm communities located in the Central highlands of Bolivia have a more limited altitudinal span and therefore the HZP are not as well differentiated as in the case of Peru (Universidad Nacional de San Cristobal, de Nuamanga, 1982). by the A recent characterisation of the Pomani community in Bolivia Instituto Boliviano de Tecnologia Agropecuaria (IBTA, 1985) shows that the key crops are barley, potato, quinoa and wheat, with an average family area on the of 1.57, 0.62, 0.58 and 0.3 ha of each respectively. Each family also owns, average, 3.5 cattle, 29.4 sheep and 4.2 chickens. The average family size is six (2 males and 2 females older than 12 and 2 children younger than 12). Any person above 12 assumes full responsibility in agricultural production. Youngsters and children under 12 participate mostly in cattle upkeep. Sharing labour is a very common by means of 'Ayni on (exchange of labour on an individual basis) or 'Minka' (exchange of labour a group basis). Land available to an individual family can be differentiated in three ways: 'Sayanas' or land where the family lives and has a few crops and pastures (about 30%) 'ayonca', lands distributed annually or cultivated communally but utilised individually; and community lands used mostly for grazing.

CASE STUDY OF A PEASANT COMMUNITY IN THE SOUTHERN ANDES: AMARU, CUSCO, PERU

The HZP of the Amaru community have already been described. Other aspects of this community are given here to illustrate biological and socio-economic characteristics and interactions (Cosio et al., 1981; Tapia,1986). m.as. I m.a. s.1 00

4100 4000

3900

3800

3400 3 400

3200

3100

3000 SAN JOSE COMMUNITY QASANCAY COMMUNITY

Figure 5.7: Homogeneous zones of production (HZP) in the Ayacucho area, Peru. N. Mateo and M. Tapia 99

The spatial distribution of family plots in the three HZP (Table 5.17) dem- onstrates the diversity of attitudinal levels and cropping patterns. Of the 1,610 total plots, 75% are monocropped and 25% intercropped. Of the total families residing here, 44% have between 21 and 30 plots in the various HZP, 30% - 11 to 20 plots and 15%0-31 plots or more. On the average, each family has 1.1 ha under cultivation, 1.5 to 2.0 ha fallow and retains 0.2 ha for individual grazing in addition to the community grazing fields. A typical family holding is depicted in Figure 5.8. The main areas, yields and production of each crop per family are sum- marised in Table 5.18. Obviously tubers, as well as barley and faba beans are the main dietary components. An animal inventory for the entire community and animal production per family are given in Table 5.19. In absolute numbers, sheep and guinea pigs are by far the most important. Of the 130 kg of meat available per year per family, about 60% is sold and 40%o consumed, especially on ceremonial occasions and holidays.

Table 5.17: Spatial distribution of family plots in the Amaru community, Cusco, Peru

HZP - Low and middle HZP - High No. plots Irrigated Upland Area, ha No. plots Area, ha

Maize 23 2.75 Intercropped maize 177 - 21.19 - - Potato - 58 15.31 163 37.42 Potato/barley 63 - 15.21 - - Potato + tubers 1 0.34 Barley 313 35.06 Faba beans 27 159 17.62 - - Intercropped faba beans 2 8 1.07 - - Wheat 33 159 17.14 - - Tarwi - 54 4.88 - - Intercropped tarwi 1 - 0.03 - - Peas 24 53 6.52 - - Intercropped peas 2 5 1.07 - - Quinoa 14 - 1.36 - - Intercropped quinoa 1 - 0.15 - - Oca - 4 0.14 56 8.28 Intercropped oca - 1 0.02 - - Lizas - 4 0.22 66 8.97 Intercropped lizas - - 0.07 32 4.83 Intercropped anu - - 66 6.38 Vegetables 15 - 1.43 3 0.17

Pastures 21 1 1.50 - -

Total 403 820 143.07 386 66.05

Source: Cosio et al., 1981. 0 m.a.S.1.

4300 ':

Hi g h Puno (potato,tubers,grozings areas)

- Loymis ' E 3800 't r Sun (potalo, tubers, foba x d :.. beans)

3600

areas Kkwhua) (maize, potato, maguay

3280

Figure 5.8: Homogeneous zones of production (HZP) in the Cusco area, Peru. N. Mateo and M. Tapia 101

consumption Table 5.18: Crop area, yields, and availability for family Average Availability Crop Area, mz Yields range kg/ha kg/ha kg/family/year

6,500 2,300 Potato 3,580 5,000 -15,000 950 108 Maize 1,140 400- 1,400 1,336 290 Barley 2,160 600- 1,500 1,450 160 Faba beans 960 700 - 1,600 1,050 9 3 Wheat 880 500- 1,200 640 17 Tarwi 270 400- 800 600 780 2 9 Peas 380 280- 1 7 185 500 - 1,200 930 Quinoa 650 440 12,000 - 16,000 14,800 Oca 890 660 11,000 -15,000 13,500 Lizas 580 Anu 415 11,000 -16,000 14,200

Total area 11,010

Source: Cosio et al., 1981. Cusso, Peru Table 5.19: Animal inventory for the Amaru community,

Average no./ Range Community production Species r family total Meat 60 3 0-6 579 Cattle 17 13 0-40 2509 Sheep 25 Camelids 3 0-12 578 193 Horses 1 0-2 - 24 Pigs 3 0-4 580 Guinea pigs 11 7-13 2123 4 Poultry 4 0-6 772 2

Source: Cosio et al., 1981. year; if the It is estimated that the family income in Amaru is $994 US per income is foodstuffs consumed by the family are added, the gross family of Ap- $1,646 per year. Comparatively, the gross income in the community (which specialised in animal production-average 80 sheep) is only $910. Andes, The above data, and the experience of several research groups in the a more suggest that a family with access to more HZP not only receives risk. balanced diet but also increases its income substantially while reducing reduced Families with access only to the higher HZP have a significantly the fact income (sometimes as low as 6% of the total of other families), given that grazing, plus growing of bitter potatoes and barley, are the only possible enterprises. CONCLUSIONS

The high Andes mountains of Latin America present an impressive diversity centre of in terms of environment, climate and people. This region is the 102 Mountain Agriculture

domestication of important crops and animals that allowed the development of the Inca Empire. After a sharp decline in the total population upon arrival of the Spaniards, the region's population is no" w back to about the level of 1500 A.D. and is still growing steadily. This, coupled with environmental deterio- ration due to the destruction of forests, overgrazing and erosion, poses an immediate challenge to the Andean governments and people. Research and development efforts must address this new reality and develop together with the local farm communities, sustainable farming systems adapted to the local conditions.

REFERENCES

Back, W.J., J. Pankrath and S.H. Schneider, eds. 1981.Food-Climate Interactions. Proceedings of an Inter-institutional workshop Held in Berlin (West). D. Reidel Publishing Co, England, p. 21. Banco Central Del Ecuador. 1986. Boletfn Anuario 9, Quito, Ecuador, p. 167 Colombia: Censo 1985 (Censos anteriores 1938-1973). 1986. DANE, Bogota, Colombia, p. 10 and 31. Cosio, P. et al. 1981. Diagn6stico Agropecuario y Socio-econ6mico de las comunidades de Amaru, Paru Paru, Sacaca y. Cuyo Crande. Proyecto PISCA/IICA/CIID, Lima Peru, 121 pp. Ellemberg S., and B. Ruthestz.1977. In: Pastoreo y Pastizales de los Andes del Sur del Peru, p. 64. Eds, M. Tapia and J.A. Flores. INIPA/Programa Rumiantes Menores. Lima, Peru, 1984. Frere, M., J. Rea and J.Q. Rijks.1975. Estudio Agroclimatologico de la Zone Andina (Informe Tecnico). Proyecto Interistitucional FAO/UNESCO/OMM. FAO, Rome, 375 pp. Hawtin, G. and N. Mateo. 1987. Farming on high, The IDRC Reports, 16, 1,4-5. Horkheimer, H. 1973. Alimentaci6n y obtenci6n de los alimentos en el Peru prehispdnico. Editorial Universidad de San Marcos, Lima, Peru Instituto Boliviano de Tecnologfa Agropecuaria GBTA). 1985. Estudio de Sis- temas de Producci6n Basado en el Cultivo de Quinoa y Otros. Convenio IBTA/CIID. La Paz, Bolivia, 63 pp. Lescano, J.L. et al. 1982. Diagn6stico Tecnico Agropecuario y Socioecon6mico de las Comunidades de Camacani y Luquina Crande-Chucuito, Platerfa, Puno, Peru. Proyecto PISCA/IICA/CIID. Lima, Peru, 153 pp. Little M.A., ed. 1984. Informe Sobre los Conocimientos Actuales de los Ecosistemas Andinos, vo. I. Una Vision General de la Region Andina. UNESCO/PNUMA. Rostlac, Uruguay, p. 89. Murra, J.V. 1975. Formaciones Econ6micas y Polfticas del Mundo Andino. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima, Peru, 339 pp. Novoa, A. and J.L. Posner, eds. 1981. Agricultura de Ladera en America Tropical. CATIE/ Rockefeller Foundation, Turrialba, Costa Rica, 203 pp. N. Mateo and M. Tapia 103

Posner, J.L. and M.F. McPherson. 1981. Las areas de landera de , Centroamerica, E1 Caribe y los paises andinos; Sistema actual y perspectiva para el ano 2.000, pp. 91-107. In: Agricultura de Ladera en America Tropical. Eds. A. Novoa and J.L. Posner. CATIE/Rockefeller Foundation, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Rozas, J.W. 1985. El Sistema Agricola Andino de la C.C. de Amaru. Unpub- lished B.S. Thesis. University of Cusco, Peru. Proyecto PISCA/IICA/CIID, Lima, Peru, 62 pp. Taipa, M.E. 1962. El Medio, los Cultivos y los Sistemas Agricolas en los Andes del Sur del Peru. Proyecto PISCA/IICA/CIID. Lima, Peru, 79 pp. Taipa, M.E. 1986. Guia Metodol6gica para la Caracterizaci6n de la Agricultura Andina. IICA/CIID/Universidedes de Arequipa, Cusco y Puno. Lima, Peru, 118 pp. Tapia, M. and J.A. Flores, eds. 1984. Pastoreo y Pastizales de los Andes del Sur del Peru. INIPA/Programa Rumiantes Menores. Lima, Peru, p. 65. The World Bank. 1981. Peru: Major Development Policy Issues and Recom- mendations. , D.C., USA. Universidad Nacional de San Crist6bal de Huamanga. 1982. Experiencias y Resultados del Trabajo Agricola Experimental en dos Communidades Campesinas Alto Andinas (3,100-4,100 msnm) de Ayacucho. Proyecto PISA/IICA/CIID. Lima, Pe16,126 pp. Yearbook (Europa). 1985. Bolivia: Statistical Survey, p.1235. Zvitcovich, G. et al. 1985. Diagn6stico Agroecon6mico del Distrito de Copo- raque-Valle del Colca. Proyecto PISCA/IICA/CIDD. Lima, Peru, 105 pp.

CHAPTER 6

Tropical African Mountains and Their Farming Systems

Amare Getahun

THE AFRICAN MOUNTAINS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS

Definition and Extent topogra- The African mountain environment is taken to mean and include and often phically raised land masses and massifs above 1,500 m elevation within the above the 500 mm rainfall isohyte. Only those mountains 'mountain' latitudes of 23°N and 23°S are included in this review. The terms in local and 'highland' are used interchangeably even though they differ topography. more The tropical African mountain environments are estimated to cover mass of the continent (ILCA, than 1 million kmz, less than 4% of the total land and their 1986) or 4.5% of sub-Saharan Africa. Table 6.1 lists the countries these mountain systems and Figure 6.1 shows the geographical distribution of the 'back- major mountain systems, which extend longitudinally and form of Ma- bone' of the continent. There are 20 countries, including the islands alone dagascar and Reunion with mountain environments. Of these, Ethiopia Kenya contributes nearly 43% (or 489, 520 kM2) followed by Tanzania (16.5%0), of (9.6%), Angola (8%) and Zaire (5.2%). Countries with a high percentage Ethiopia mountain environment include Rwanda (84.4%), Burundi (45.8%), (18.9%), Malawi (40.1%), Reunion Islands (21.9%), Tanzania (20.2%), Kenya Ethiopia and (7.0%) and Uganda (6:2%). Thus, the mountains and highlands of more those in Eastern Africa lying within 17°N and 10°S together constitute than 76% of the total. These land masses are very complex in physiogeogrpahy, cut and drained by numerous rivers and may be separated by hot valleys. 106 Mountain Agriculture

Table 6.1: Sub- African highlands/mountains' agro-physiogeographic regions

Sub-region and Agro-physiogeographic Area (kmz) countries region' Highlands' Total country(s) A) NE AFRICA

1. Ethiopia 510,850 4,387,370 489,700 1,221,900 Central highlands 86,520 Arsi-Bale massifs 34,080 Harar highlands 14,320 NE highland valleys 8,080 Lake Tana basin 11,020 Degraded high altitude Northern Highland 68,060 NE Valley escarpments and low plateau 94,320 Southern Rift Valley floor 36,080 Highlands east of Rift (Sidamo) 23,240 Highlands west of the Rift 9,080 Wolaite-Guraghe-Gogfa highlands 25,440 2. 11,600 637,657 Barma-Hargeisa 6,600 Medijorrtine 5,000 3. 5,050 22,000 4. 5,200 2,505,813 SW Plateau (Darfour) 4,750 Boma (Eastern) mountain highlands 200 Etbai Mths (NE) 250 Achole/Imatong mountain highlands - B) E. AFRICA

5. Tanzania 365,000 1,820,000 190,000 939,701 Ngorongoro Mblu, Arusha Kilimanjaro & Usambara mts 97,750 Northwestern highlands 9,100 Southern highlands 83,150

6. Kenya 110,000 583,000 Western highlands 21,060 Rift Valley floor 58,315 E highlands & Aberdare mts. 16,250 Mount Kenya region 11,500 Mt. Elgon and Kenya-Uganda border highlands 2,875

7. Uganda 30,000 243,000 Mt. Elgon & Uganda-Kenya border highlands 6,560 Highlands of southwestern (Kigezi) Uganda 23,440 8. Rwanda 26,338 NW mountain range 22,250 Rwanda plateau Lake Kivu region A. Getahun 107

Table 6.1 (Contd.)

Sub-region and Agro-physiogeographic Area (km') countries region' Highlands' Total country(s)

9. Burundi 12,750 27,834 Western mountain range Burundi plateau

C) 12,800 4,082,500

10. Zaire 59,600 2,345,409 Mitumba and-Ruwenzori mts. 9,500

11. Cameroon 3,300 475,442 Amadaoua range 750 (Bamenda) 2,250 Mt. Cameroon (Buea area) 300

D) 1,900 7,420,000

12. Chad 43,500 1,284,000 Tibesti 43,500 1,284,000

13. Nigeria 1,650 923,767 Jose Central Nigeria plateau 400 Gotel mountain highlands 1,250

14. Guinea 250 245,857 Mt. Nimba 250 Futa Djalon

E) 117,375 2,117,153

15. Angola 92,825 1,246,700

16. Malawi 8,250 -

17. Mozambique 250 118,484

18. Zambia 16,250 752,614

F) ISLANDS 33,050 592,510

19. 32,500 590,000

20. Reunion Island 550 2,510

Includes only, which extends about 23 ° ' on either side of the Equator. Regional Units other than those for Ethiopia are only suggestive while those for Ethiopia are development zones. Highland area for each country other than for Ethiopia is derived by plantimetering small-scale topographic maps (atlas) and error margin is bound to be high. ' Includes only areas 150 m and above in altitude. 108 Mountain Agriculture

orocco

Libya Egypt 2no ------

Mauritania ie Gambia )ibouti Guinea Bissau

,- Central 1 Ethiopia Siety Leone African Republic

Somalia Kenya

Malawi

bique Zimbabwe Namibia F Botswana

Figure 6.1: Highlands of Sub-Saharan Africa. A. Getahun 109

Physical and Biological Environments

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS With the exception of some humid coasts, the mountains/ highlands of tropical Africa are the main areas of human habitation. They are agriculturally important from the standpoint of both crop and livestock production and for their expanses of forests and grasslands. The soils are usually fertile as they are often of volcanic origin and formed under a good rainfall regime. These areas have ideal and are often free of the major tropical human and livestock diseases.

INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY AND LATITUDE The mountains closer to the equator are more productive because they are warmer, have a longer growing season and receive more rainfall than similar elevations of mountains farther away from the equator. This is best illustrated by the Ethiopian mountain systems where the northern and, to a lesser extent the eastern massifs (6°-17°N latitude) generally have a short growing season (one wet season from March-September, with two maxima in April and August), low rainfall, cooler temperatures (especially night temperatures), and the local topography is often rugged and dissected by V-shaped valleys (Table 6.2). On the other hand, the massifs in South and SW Ethiopia, which lie between 4°-6° N latitude, have a long growing season (nearly 10 months) high rainfall, usually mild temperatures, and the local topography is usually undulating with bowl-shaped valleys, some with large shallow lakes, e.g., Alemaya, Ashnge, Ardibo and Wonchi. (Atkins n.d., Getahun,1978a and b). The massifs and highlands of Eastern Africa (Kenya, N. Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, E. Zaire, and WS Sudan) and the Cameroon Mountains belong to the latter type. The tropical mountains of southern Africa are less significant. The influence of the on the continental massifs is minimal and the eastern and northeastern slopes are often drier, indicating that the main moisture-bearing front is the intertropical conversion zone (ITCZ) from the southwest (Brown, 1973; Brown and Cochame, 1968). The dry season in the higher altitudes is made drier by the from the north and northeast. Inland lakes, such as Lake , affect precipitation and weather in the East African mountains. Since these mountains /highlands are closer to the equator they are doubly affected by the ITCZ. Rainfall patterns therefore tend to be bimodal near the equator (0-4°N and S) but the gap is negligible at the equator, where the two wet seasons tend to merge. 110 Mountain Agriculture

Table 6.2: Characteristics of Ethiopian mountain environments and their classifications: An example

Characteristics Region I Region II

II A- II B 'Equatorial humid Sub-equatorial, Sub-tropical, humid, sub-humid sub-humid S, SW SE, E C, N

1. Land form Highly dissected Dissected Highly dissected

2. Altitude (dominant) 2000-2500 m 1800-2500 m 1800-3000 in

3. Soils fertility Good Average Moderate to poor

4. Hydrology Very good Good Moderate to poor 5. Growing season Long Intermediate Short 6. Agricultural system Horticulture/ Horticulture/ Cereal-pulses/ livestock livestock or/ oil crops/ and cereal/ livestock livestock

. Prospects Tree crops/ Agro-industry Livestock, livestock. because of good tourism Potential high market due to fertile soils. Good hydrological cycle.

. Constraints More human & cological ame constraints livestock disease. repairs' reduce as in II A, but Crop pests, land use more severe diseases also pressure. potentially Improved severe. production Development of technology. infrastructures poor

Source: Amare Getahun, 1984.

Ecological repairs include campaigns to increase terracing erosion control, water catchment and reforestation.

EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE AND PHYSIOGEOGRAPHY Climate (temperature and rainfall) of mountains is closely related to changes in altitude, with direction of slope having a secondary effect on the amount of precipitation. Altitude for altitude, the western and southwestern declines receive more rainfall. Daily and seasonal temperature regimes are also largely governed by altitude. A. Getahun 111

Thus, traditional land use and inherent land productivity is altitude- dependent where cold temperatures above 3,500 m and moisture (rainfall) below 1,800 m elevation become the limiting factors for traditional rainfed ag- riculture, while the large area bound by these two extremes is highly produc- tive and has a near-ideal climate for human habitation. The Ethiopians have developed a useful climatic zonation based on alti- tude, which is summarised in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Classification of mountain enviroriments in Ethiopia ,

Climate (Altitudinal Zones)

Characteristics Kolla Woinadega Dega Woorch 'hot' 'warm' 'cool' 'cold'

1. Altitude range (m) 1500-1800 1800-2400 2400-3500 >3500

2. Topography Rugged Undulating Undulating Rugged to rugged

3. Temperatures (°C) 20-29 16-20(22) 10-1605) <10

4. Growing season Short Moderately Long Short long

5. Rainfall (mm/year) 500-800 750-2000 1000-1500 800-1200

6. Natural vegetation Woodlands Forest Forest, Afro-alpine savanna grassland

7. Dominant crops Sorghum, Wide range Barley, Barley, maize, of cereals, wheat, oats, millet tea, pulses, dairy pulses

Source : Amare Getahun, 1984.

WATER AND FOREST RESOURCES Water is perhaps the most valuable source of the African mountain environ- ments. It is within, and elsewhere downstream, for agriculture, settlements and the generation of hydro-electric power. This water harvest is made possible largely through forested catchments. The disappearance of forest cover through agricultural expansion, overgrazing and exploitation for timber has been unprecedented in all the African mountain environments. Popula- tion growth, food demand and urbanisation are negatively affecting the agri- cultural and resource base. Deforestation for agricultural land use and over- 112 Mountain Agriculture

grazing have already caused widespread erosion and environmental degrada- tion. Firewood scarcity has reached critical dimensions in many African mountain environments and as a consequence, the quality of life in these mountains has dramatically declined over recent years. Recent reports from Tanzania indicate that the considerable irregularities in the Tanga water supply are a direct consequence of the deforestation of the Usambara Mountains (East and West) which have lost 75% of their forest cover in the last 30 years, of which 30% has been lost in the last 10 years. Agricultural and forest exploitation are the major causes but agriculture, including grazing, is by far the main factor in reducing the rugged steep terrain to an unproduc- tive state. Effective afforestation efforts and mass awareness programmes for envi- ronmental conservation has been introduced in Kenya. But slowing down environmental degradation and providing effective protection for the major water catchments (e.g., Elgon, Mt. Kenya, the Aberdares.) have yet to be satisfactorily achieved. The destruction of these mountain catchments is also making investments in hydropower and tourism less attractive.' Kenya's forest cover is currently less than 3% of the total land, i.e., only 1.5 million ha. Under low level exploitation, these environments are relatively stable and self-contained and able to vitalise adjacent valleys and pastoral lowlands through their regulated water resources. However, in the absence of effective policy and planned development, and under increasing rural population, most of these environments have reached a stage where reversing the condi- tion is both expensive and difficult and certainly beyond the means of the peasant farmer. Such a poor state of the environment and resource base, inasmuch as it is a man-induced phenomenon, correlates with land-use intensity. It is modified by: (a) the age and pattern of human settlement, (b) farming methods, (c) types of crops and livestock, and (d) local topography, soil and climate.

The scale of this environmental degradation in Kenya can be illustrated by the following specific cases:

(a) The Massinga Dam, deriving its water from Mount Kenya and the Aberdares Mts. catchments receives 5-7 million tonnes of silt annually from the Tana River, thus threat- ening to foreshorten by 40% the economic life span of the dam. (b) The receives 4.5 million tonnes of silt annually from the Tana and Athi Rivers, causing the Ocean to retreat at the rate of 1 m/year, which in turn threatens the tourism and fishery industries of the coast. (t) The Kerio River is said to have an annual silt load of 9 million tonnes, thus threatening the newly planned hydropower investment. A. Getahun 113

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY

Importance to National Economy The agricultural economy and farming systems of the mountains/high- lands are closely related to the diversity of the physical and natural environ- ment. However, with few exceptions (e.g., large-scale commercial farming in. Kenya and Tanzania) they are characterised by small-holder, mixed rainfed cropping and a predominantly subsistence economy. In all these mountain environments, mixed crop and livestock production dominate the land use system but to various degrees. These mountains /highlands dominate the national economy of several countries, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. In Ethiopia, the highlands/ mountains support some 35 million people (88% of the total population), 27 million cattle and 34 million sheep and goats (ILCA, 1986). These environments are also responsible for nearly all of the country's food crops and most of the cash crops, such as coffee, chat (Catha edulis), oil and pulses (Amare Getahun, 1978b), accounting for nearly 95% of the country's cropped lands (Constable, 1985). These mountain/ highland systems also greatly influence the economy of the associated lowlands and foothills. In Kenya, the highlands/mountains constitute less than 20% of the land mass but account for nearly 80% of the population and dominate both the com- mercial and traditional agricultural sectors. Export crops such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum, horticulture, and food crops such as maize, beans, potato and bananas are largely produced in these highlands. Dairy farming is also significant. The highlands/ mountains of the Great Lake Region (Rwanda, Burundi, Kivu Province of Zaire) and South and Southwestern Uganda also dominate the region's economy and are the habitat of a large population. The population of the mountains /highlands of the Great Lake Region with an area of only 93,000 kmz, account, for more than 12 million people and for much of the agriculture of the region. Cash crops such as coffee, tea and cinchona, and food crops such as sorghum, beans, maize, peas, and banana, are important (Jones and Egli, 1984). Similarly, in Tanzania, the Arusha, Kilimanjaro and Usambara mountains in the north, the Mbeya highlands in the South and the Ukuguru/Uluguru mountain highlands in Central Tanzania dominate much of the agriculture of the country and host a high density of settled agrarian population. The Chaga agricultural economy of the Kilimanjaro region is particularly significant in the Tanzanian agricultural economy. Export and food crops produced in these regions are similar to those in Kenya.

Emerging Trends All mountain/ highland economies are under great stress and some are collapsing, such as the Central and Northern Ethiopian mountains highlands. 114 Mountain Agriculture

Out-migration into less productive semi-arid lands or into urban centres is common. In several instances governments have been compelled to embark on costly resettlement programmes such as in Ethiopia and Kenya. Excessive run-off and erosion from higher and steep mountain faces have frequently resulted in swampy valley bottoms and basin lakes. These hydro- morphic valley bottoms and in several cases, highland fresh-water lakes, are generally agriculturally under-developed. Only Kenya can be said to have a good programme of valley-bottom and swamp reclamation for its western region, including the lake Victoria Basin. Some tea estates in Rwanda and limited dairy and vegetable gardening in Kigezi, SW Uganda, are the result of swampy valley reclamation. Irrigated agriculture in most African mountain/ highland environments is still insignificant but the potential is good. Irrigated rice, coffee and vegetable farms are evident in the lower elevation highlands of Central Kenya; the Chaga farmers of Arusha/Kilimanjaro area also practice small-scale irrigated farm- ing. The development of 'mini-hydros' is possible for both energy generation and use in irrigated agriculture. Windmills for pumping water and other uses are likewise plausible. Prospects for horticultural and forestry development, without displacing food crop farming, are good. Growing small but intensive wood groves is also being encouraged on many areas. Present day cattle farms in the Western and Central highlands of Kenya and eucalyptus groves in Ethiopia and Rwanda are good examples.

FARMING SYSTEMS AND CROP GENETIC DIVERSITY Farming Systems There are two major types of continental mountain environments in sub- Saharan Africa, each with a characteristic farming system, namely: 1) The equatorial mountainslhighlands: The highlands lie mainly near the equator, 4°N and 4°S but often extended to 6°N and 6°S, with a more intensive agricultural system. This region is characterised by: (a) dispersed homestead settlements, (b) horticulture (trees, root and tuber crops, vegetables), (c) long growing seasons, and (d) cultivation done v ith hoe where livestock density is medium to low. This landmass is estimated to be 400,900 km2 (Getahun,1978a), with Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania contributing the major share of hectarage. 2) Sub-tropical mountainslhighlands: These highlands lie largely away from the equator (usually 8-20° N and 8-20°S) and manifest a disintegrated and ex- tensive agricultural system resulting from: (a) old, medium to high population density with highly nucleated villages, (b) highly rugged local topography and often high altitudes, (c) intensive summer , (d) agriculture that is cereal-dominated using the plough (oxen) and sometimes tractor, and (e) growing season short and total rainfall lower than in (1) above. This region comprises about 353,400 km2. A. Getahun 115

These two basic types of mountain environments are profiled in Table 6.4. Within their corresponding agricultural systems lie transition types or inter- mediate types, which tend however to (2) above, such as the Ethiopian southeastern (i.e., Chilalo, Bale, Harar) mountains and southern Tanzania (Mbeya) highlands (Tables 6.5 and 6.6). For instance, the Chilalo Mts. of SE Ethiopia typically show the dominance of cereals (barley, wheat and tef.) followed by pulses and oil crops, much like the typical cereal-based highlands, but the level of ox-ploughing is less significant (Table 6.5) and tractorisation or mechanised farming important. The eastern zone (highlands), on the other hand, practices both intensive and extensive farming and hoeing predominate. Agricultural crops are also a mixture of both cereal and horticultural crops (Table 6.6).

Table 6.4: Comparison of agriculture and rural economy of northern Ethiopian and Kenyan mountain ecosystem

Characteristics Equatorial Mts. Sub-tropical (Kenya) mountain/ highlands (N. Ethiopian)

1. Cash crops Important (tea, No cash crops, coffee, livestock used pyrethrum) as cash source. 2. Food crops grain Root & tuber, Cereals, pulses, oil 3. Cropping system Mixed monoculture 4. Livestock Dairying meat All classes for meat 5. Animal traction None or minimal Significant 6. Hired farm labour Important Insignificant 7. Produce-marketed Important (55%) Insignificant (10-15%) 8. Forestry, game reserve, Highly developed Insignificant tourism 9. Non-farm income Important (50%) None 10. Development Well developed Poorly developed infrastructure 11. Land improvement efforts/ High None Tech. Programme

12. Total income/farmer High Very low 13. Prod. efficiency High Low (energy return/land/ labour) 116 Mountain Agriculture

Table 6.5: Major crops and their areas in Chilalo, SE Ethiopia

Crops '000 ha %

Cereals

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) 7.93 40 Wheat (Triticum spp) 5.09 26 Tef (Eragrostis tef) 0.76 4 Maize Vea mays) 1.76 9

Pulses

Faba beans (Vicia faba) 0.67 3 Peas Wisum sativium) 0.61 3 Haricot beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) 0.11 Chickpeas (Cicer aretinum) 0.03

Oil crops

Flax (Linum usitatisimum) 2.53 13

Others 0.26 1

Source: Linder, 1976.

Table 6.6: Relative importance of agricultural crops in eastern mountains/highlands: Example of intermediate type farming system

Crop Contribution to farmers' income

Chat (Catha edulis) 49.0 Vegetables 32.0 Sorghum 14.0 Maize 3.0 Barley 1.0 Wheat 0.5 Others (coffee, fruits, etc.) 0.5

Source: Gebre-Michael, 1970.

The above two types of environments and their corresponding agricultural systems are best illustrated in these three geographical mountain/ highland farming systems: A. Getahun 117

Type I - Cereal-plough (oxen) agriculture of central and northern Ethiopia mountains: IA a) High potential central highlands IA b) Low potential northern and escarpment highlands Type IB-Cereal-horticultural or hoe-plough mixed agriculture of moun- tains/highlands of SE Ethiopia, southern Tanzania, and central Burundi, namely: IB a) Harar highlands-SE Ethiopia IB b) Chilalo Bale highlands-S, SE Ethiopia IB c) The Mbeya highlands-Tanzania IB d) Achole-Imatong mountains/highlands-S Sudan IB e) Central Burundi

Type II-Horticultural-hoe dominated agriculture of S, SW Ethiopian mountains/highlands, and the E African mountains/highlands (N Tanzania, Kenya, S, SW Uganda) and the Great Lake region (E Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi), namely:

Type IIA-Enset culture S Ethiopia

Type IIB-Root and tuber crops/livestock complex of S, SW Ethiopia. Type IIC-East Africa high-potential, mixed-farming highlands. IIC a) Central highlands (Kenya) IIC b) Kisii and western highlands (Kenya) IIC c) Lake Basin highlands IIC d) Arusha-Kilimanjaro region (Tanzania) IIC e) Taita/Taveta highlands (Kenya) Type IID-Great Lake region and adjacent highlands-traditional mixed farming. IID a) Kigezi highlands IID b) Great Lake region In all these major types of farming systems and their geographical sub- types, there are typically altitudinal-based differences in crop farming and livestock production. Typically, the colder or alpine high mountains are devoted to forest catchments with both natural and planted forests and with very little crop cultivation. This zone is followed by barley/oats/faba beans cultivation and equine farming in the cereal-dominated Ethiopian mountains or the tea zone in much of East Africa. Below this zone is the more productive, well-watered warm highland zone dominated by the coffee/maize/beans/ banana/potato growing belt in East Africa or the mixed farming (cereal/ pulse/oil crops)-livestock zone of central and northern Ethiopia. The lower end of the mountain/ highland environment is largely dominated by sor- ghum/beans and millets. 118 Mountain Agriculture

Genetic Diversity The diversity of the crops grown for food, cash or for other economic purposes is high in the mountain/ highland environments particularly in the Ethiopian mountains, and to a lesser extent in the Arusha-Kilimanjaro region of northern Tanzania. The Ethiopian mountains/ highlands are one of the eight primary centres of origin for many cereal, pulse and oil crops such as wheat, barley, sorghum, tef, niger seed, chickpea, enset, chat, and some root/tuber crops, etc. Amare Getahun (1977) has reported that a total of 169 types of crops are cultivated by farmers in the Harar highlands of E. Ethiopia consisting of 13 cereals, 12 oil crops, 42 fruits, 5 beverage crops, 6 fibre crops, 17 grain legumes, 30 vegetables, 13 bulbous starchy roots and tubers, 20 spices and condiments, and 5 drug plants. Such a high degree of diversification of cultivated crops in just one mountain region, inasmuch as it is a common feature of peasant agriculture, is due to the diverse cultures and diversified mountain environ- ments based on altitudinal range and matched by a wide range of ecotypes and sub-species (Table 6.7). Fernandes et al. (1985) and Oktingati et al. (1985) had reported a total of 111 crops cultivated by the Chagas of Arusha/Kilimanjaro region of Tanzania, of which 53 were trees, 29 food crops, 21 non-woody economic plants and 8 weed species used by farmers. Some of the cultivated food crops are restricted to a given mountain, particularly those from Ethiopia, and are less known and not grown elsewhere in the world. An illustrative list of these is given in Table 6.8. Some of these crops are nationally and regionally important such as tef (Eragrostis abyssinica), Lathyrus, Guizotia abyssinica, Ensete ventricosum, Coleus edulis, Coccinia abyss- inica, Catha edulis and Carthamus tinctorius. The genetic diversity of these and other traditional crops is very wide. Linder (1976) reported 30 types of cultivated by farmers of Chilalo Mountains (SE Ethiopia) and the Chaga farmers of N. Tanzania are reported to be growing 15 types of bananas (Fernandes et al., 1985). But all is not well with this genetic resource; it has been subject to severe genetic erosion through recurrent droughts and replacement of many of the traditional cultivars with improved, often introduced, varieties and hybrids.

STATE OF TROPICAL AFRICAN MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT AND FARMING SYSTEMS

General Despite the economic and ecological importance (biological resource base) of these mountain systems, and despite the near total dependence of these countries on these environments, historically there has been a lack of effective national and regional land-use policies. On the other hand, these environ- ments have continued to attract more settlers and a higher birth rate, resulting in unprecedented land-use pressure. A. Getahun 119

Table 6.7: Some of the main crops grown in /mountains' and their altitudinal ranges

Range of altitude (m)

Minimum Optimum Maximum Average yield kg/ha

Cereal crops Barley' 1,600 1,800-4,000 4,000 800 Maize 500-2,000 2,200 1,070 Sorghum 500-2,000 2,500 860 Tef 1,500 1,700-2,200 2,400 610 Wheat 1,600 1,800-2,300 2,500 760

Oil crops Linseed 1,600 1,800-2,500 2,700 520 Niger seed 1,500 1.700-2,300 2,400 640 Safflower 1,600 1,700-2,150 2,250 550 Castor bean 1,500-2,100 2,300 - Tuber crops Enset 1,200 1,600-2,000 3,000 2,400 Galla potato 1,600 2,000-3,000 3,100 Irish potato - 1,800 2,000-2,600 2,800 5,300 Sweet potato 500-2,000 2,100 500 Yam 500-1,800 2,000 4,270

Pulse crops Chickpea 1,600 1,700-2,000 2,200 630 Common bean 500-2,000 2,100 770 Cowpea 500-1,700 - Faba bean 1,800 2,000-2,500 3,200 960 Lentils 1,600 1,700-2,350 2,700 610 Lupine 1,900 2,000-2,500 2,750 Pea - 1,700 2,000-2,500 2,200 940 Stimulants Coffee 1,250 1,500-2,000 2,200 270 Chat 900 1,500-2,100 2,400 990

1 Source: Adapted from Wesphal (1977). 2 Cultivation over such a wide ecological range is made possible by using a wide range of cultivars and ecotypes of crops. 120 Mountain Agriculture

Table 6.8: Less known cultivated crops from the Ethiopian mountain/highlands

Region grown in and relative importance

Crops Central/ Northern SE South SW

Cereals Triticum dicoccum XXX' X X (emer) Eragrostis (tef) XXX X X X

Pulses/Grain Legumes Canavalia ensiformis x C. vivosa x Lathyrus sativus XX Lupinus albus XX Mucuna pruriens x X Phaseolus coccineus x X

P. radiatus x X P.lunatus x X Phosphocarpus palustri X

Semi-wild Sphenostylis stenocarpa X Trigonella foenum-graecum x X X

Oil Crops Guizotia abyssinica XXX X Carthamus tinctorius X

Root/Tuber and Bulbing Ensete ventricosum x XX XXX Coleus edulis XX Coccinia abyssinica XX Eriosema cordifolnim x Sphenostylis stenocarpa x Amorphophallus abyssinica x Sauromatum venosum x

Horticultural and Drugs Catha edulis XXX XXX X Moringa stenocarpa X

XXX = Very important in the farming system XX = Common X = Rare A. Getahun 121

In East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania) these environments attracted white settlers and; in, many cases, they were exclusively reserved for them. These were referred to as 'the white highlands' in Kenya. The white settlers, using modern farming methods and the African as a farm-labour resource, introduced large-scale and commercial agriculture, including ranching and dairying. The products from these large farms were destined for export or supported national agro-industrial developments. Since Independence, many of these large farms have been subdivided but the farming systems have generally changed little. Thus in East Africa today, large-scale commercial and smallholder farming systems co-exist and both, compared to Ethiopia, Rwanda or Brundi, exhibit modern features of agriculture such as row plant- ing, the use of improved seeds including hybrids, a wide use of fertilisers, appropriate post-harvest technologies and industrial food processing. In contrast, the farming systems in Ethiopia and other East African high- lands/mountains have remained almost unchanged, particularly the cereal- based farming systems. These are now unable to sustain the ever-increasing population, often culminating in regional famines such as those seen in central and northern Ethiopia. These cereal-based farming systems, despite the in- creased need-and demand for food and energy, remain extensive compared to the non-cereal areas, which are generally more intensive and are able to support larger populations, such as those of southern Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and Burundi.

Current State of Mountain Environments and Resource Base Changes taking place now and in the recent past in mountain environments are largely negative and have not been planned. Few steps are being taken to correct these trends and often these come too late or in response to a crisis, such as the Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Programme and the development plans being drawn up for the Great Lakes highlands (E. Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi). Degradation of natural resources, defined as the reduction in their longer term productivity, is manifested most seriously in these environments by soil erosion induced by water, and associated biological degradation. The largest and most severely degraded environments are found in Ethiopia (estimated at 270,000 km2), with Rwanda, Burundi and SW Uganda showing similar trends. In all these cases, the degradation process has begun with the removal of natural vegetation for agriculture, and grazing and felling of trees for fuel and construction. About 80% of the erosion in these environments occurs from croplands and most of the rest from overgrazing (Constable, 1985). Thus, cereal agriculture as practised in Ethiopia (without effective soil conservation measures) is more erosive than land use based on perennial tree crops. Table 6.9 contrasts and compares these two systems. The enset-based agriculture in S and SW Ethiopia, with one of the highest rural densities in tropical Africa, is productive and stable. Similarly, the Banana Hills of Central Kenya, and the 122 Mountain Agriculture

Arusha-Kilimanjaro Chaga farms exhibit similar features of productive and sustainable agriculture. While efforts to combat environmental degradation need to be mounted in those areas and regions severely affected already, effective measures to prevent erosion elsewhere must also be implemented. The essential features of the more sustainable traditional and modified farming systems must be incorporated into new and improved farming systems. In warmer and wetter mountains /highlands, agroforestry systems of land use must be introduced and widely adopted. Growing more root and tuber crops and. livestock production under zero grazing appear to be more effective and hold promise, as does irrigated farming.

Table 6.9: Comparison of stability/instability between two farming systems and environments

Region I Region II Parameter E. Africa (equatorial) Cent./ N. Ethiopia (disinte- (adapted agric. system) grated agric. systems (= hort/hoe farming) (= cereal/oxen plough farming)

1. Settlement: age/ Young/dispersed Old/nucleated village pattern

2. Human/livestock Moderate to high High density

3. Local topography/ Undulating, rugged/good Rugged/poor drainage

4. Climate/rains Warm/contiguous Cool/intense summer rains

5. Agriculture Horticulture Cereal (grain)

6. Cultivation Hoe/fire Plough (oxen)

7. Cropping Mixed (intercropped) Monoculture /crop rotation (cereal/pulse/oil crops) 8. Grazing intensity Normal Very intense

9. Fallows Long Short

10. Land use (R-value) % > 50% < 50%

11. Deforestation/ erosion Slight Complete

12. Farmer rural economy Adequate Poverty-stricken

Source: Amare Getahun, 1984. A. Getahun 123

REFERENCES

Atkins, W.S. (n.d.). Geography of Ethiopia. SIAD Printing, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 32 pp. Brown, L.H. 1973. Conservation for Survival. Ethiopia's Choice. HSID Press, Addis Ababa, 26 pp. Brown, L.H. and J. Cochame. 1968. A Study of Agroclimatology of the Highlands of Eastern Africa. FAO, Rome 330 pp. Clyma, W. 1966. Rainfall intensities for small watershed hydrologic designs in Ethiopia, Eth-Geog. Journ., 4, 2, 30-36. Constable, M. 1985. Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study. Ministry of Agriculture (Ethiopia) and FAO/UN. Working Paper No. 24, Summary, 34 pp. Fernandes, E.C., M. Fernandes, A. Oktagati and J.A. Magheube. 1985. The Chagga Home Gardens. A Multistoried Agroforestry Cropping System on Mt. Kilimanjaro (Northern Tanzania), Agroforestry Systems 2, 73-86. Gebre-Michael, D. 1970. Kotu group tarming: A case study of a cooperative project, p. 12 (mimeographed). Getahun, Amare. 1977. Raising the productivity of peasant farmers in Ethiopia, AAASA Journ., 4, 1, 27-40. Getahun, Amare. 1978a. Zonation of highlands of tropical Africa. In: The Ethiopian-Highlands (Working Document). ILCA/ES/115/10.78,142 PP. Getahun, Amare. 1978b. Agricultural systems in Ethiopia, Agric. Systems Journ., 3, pp. 281-293. Getahun, Amare, 1980. Agro-climate and agricultural systems in Ethiopia, Agric. Systems. Journ., 5, 1, 35-50. Getahun, Amare. 1984. Stability and instability of mountain ecosystems in Ethiopia, Mountain Research and Development, 4, 1, 39-44. Jones, W.I. and R. Egli. 1984. Farming Systems in Africa: The Great Lakes Highlands of Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi. World Bank Technical Paper. no. 27. The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA. ILCA.1986. ILCA Annual Report 1985/86: Serving African Agriculture. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 88 pp. Linder, H. 1976. Crop production improvement: Activities in Chilalo agricul- tural development unit in Ethiopia, 1966-1970. In: Rural Development Studies, no. 5. Swedish University of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medi- cine, Int. Rural Dev. Div., Stockholm, . Okigbo, B.N. 1978. Cropping systems and Related Research in Africa, AAASA, Occasional Public. Series, OT-1, 81 pp. Oktingati, A., J.A. Maghembe, E.G.M. Fernandes and G.M. Weaver. 1985. Plant Species in the Kilimanjaro Agroforestry System. Agroforestry Systems 2,73-86. Sisaye, Seleshi. 1980. Agricultural systems in Ethiopia: A review, Agric. Sys- tems Journ., 5, 1, 29-38. 124 Mountain Agriculture

Turner, B.L. 1980. Agricultural Development in Eastern Africa: Classification and Distribution: A First Approximation. Eastern Africa Regional Studies, Regional Paper no. 1, 20 pp. Westphal, E.1974. Agricultural Systems in Ethiopia. Agric. Res. Report no. 826. College of Agriculture, Haile Sellassie I, University and Agriculture Univer- sity, Centre for Agricultural Publication and Documentation, 72 pp. Westphal, E. 1977. Ethiopia: Peasant agriculture's rich potentials, SPANMag., vol. 20, no. 3. CHAPTER 7

Mountain Environments and Farming Systems in West Asia and North Africa

G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin

INTRODUCTION

Mountains account for a significant portion of the agricultural land of West Asia and North Africa. It has been estimated, for example, that mountain areas having a growing season in excess of 75 days constitute about 14% of the West Asian region. As elsewhere in the world, the development of agriculture in these areas faces particular problems such as steep terrain, fragile soils, inaccessibility, small and fragmented farms, etc. This paper looks first at the general geographic and climatic features of the various mountain complexes, then briefly describes their dominant agricultural systems. This is followed by a more detailed description of two contrasting areas: the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and the Yemeni Mountains.

MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS OF THE REGION

The region covered in this paper extends from Morocco in the west to Afghanistan in the east and includes the . It covers a latitude range from about 13°N in Yemen to 42°N in Turkey. The major mountain massifs of the region include the Atlas Mountains spanning Morocco, , and ; the Taurus and Pontine mountains of Turkey; the Zagros Moun- tains which start at the Turkish, Iraqi and Iranian border and run along the western side of Iran; the Elburz Mountains of northern Iran; the Hindu Kush complex in Afghanistan; and the Yemeni Mountains of southwestern Saudi Arabia and the Yemen Arab Republic. The major part of this region has a Mediterranean climate, with precipita- tion falling almost exclusively in the winter and early spring months. The 126 Mountain Agriculture

summers are hot and dry. At higher elevations, especially in the more north- erly latitudes, much of the precipitation falls as snow. As a result, growing seasons for rainfed crops in the mountain areas are often very short; many of the crops can only be planted when temperatures warm up in the spring and are harvested in early summer when high temperatures and lack of water force an early termination of the season. For those crops such as winter wheat, which can be planted in the autumn and can tolerate the cold, the season is longer but there is a protracted period during the winter when little or no growth occurs. The only major mountain complex in the region which has a substantially different climatic pattern is the 'Yemeni Mountains. These have a strongly bimodal rainfall with the main peak in the summer, from June to September, and a minor one in March to April.

Atlas Mountains The Atlas Mountain system dominates the physical geography of north- western Africa (Figure 7.1). It is the result of the uplifting of sediments beneath the ancestral and thus limestones and sandstones are particularly widespread. Running southwest to northeast, these mountains continue to be geologically unstable, as evidenced by the 1960 earthquake at the port of Agadir of Morocco, and the 1954 and 1980 earthquakes at El Asnam in Algeria. The Atlas mountains show four distinct massifs: a) The Atlas, which forms an arc along the Mediterranean coast in northern Morocco. The mountains rise steeply to over 2,200 m. b) The Middle Atlas, which forms a broad barrier between Morocco and Algeria and rises to over 3,000 m. Much of it consists of limestone plateau dissected by river gorges and with occasional volcanic craters and lava flows. c) The High Atlas, south of and parallel to the Middle Atlas range, is heavily snow-covered in winter and rises to more than 4,000 m. It loses altitude to the east, becoming the Sahara Atlas and Tell Atlas in Algeria and extends into northern Tunisia. This range consists of crystalline rock with sharp peaks and steep-sided valleys, especially in the west, but still with extensive areas of limestone and sandstone. d) The Anti-Atlas is the lowest and most southerly of the Atlas massifs, and consists mainly of crystalline rock with deep valleys. It is also the driest of the Atlas massifs and much of its limited agriculture is dependent on irrigation (Anon, 1981).

Turkish Mountains Broadly speaking, Turkey comprises a number of old plateau blocks, against which younger, mainly sedimentary rock series have been squeezed to form a series of fold ranges running in different directions. In general outline, Turkey consists of a ring of mountains enclosing a series of high inland MEDITERRANEAN SEA

...... : ?'Atla. :...... Y

.::...... :..... ::Mic1t]l Sahara ...... ATLANTIC h Atlas ...:. . . v TUNISIA OCEAN ig \\ ; tx ,A4FOCC4 ALGERIA

T

N Figure 7.1 : The Atlas mountains of North Africa. v 128 Mountain Agriculture plateaus with the highest peaks being in the east, near the borders of the USSR and Iran (Figure 7.2). Here the highlands merge with the northern end of the Zagors and western end of the Elburg ranges and include the highest peak in Turkey, Mount Ararat, at 5,165 m. The other main ranges in Turkey are the along the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, with peaks up to 3,700 m and the Pontine Mountains in the northeast of the country, along the , which rise to about 4,000 m. Rainfall in the Pontine Mountains can reach 2,500 mm/ year, but elsewhere precipitation is generally less than half this, and in some areas, e.g., in the southeast, may be less than 600 mm. Temperatures can be extreme, with minimum winter temperatures in the eastern highlands as low as -40°C, and with 120 days of snow cover each year. Mean summer temperatures are frequently as high as 35°C and can even exceed 40°C.

Zagros Mountains From the northwest of Iran, the begin as alternating high tablelands and lowland basins but build to a series of parallel hog's-back ridges reaching over 4,000 m in altitude as the range sweeps south and east to Khuzistan and the (Figure 7.2). The range is about 1,000 km long and 200 km wide. The mountains are composed predominantly of limestone and have high pH, clayey or loamy soils. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 100 mm to over 500 mm, with much of this received as snow in the higher elevations. Minimum winter temperatures can be as low as -20°C while mean maximum temperatures in the summer can exceed 40°C (Rafiq, 1976).

Elburz Mountains The other major Iranian range is the Elburz Mountains, which also start in the northwest of the country and run eastward for about 600 km along the southern edge of the Caspian Sea (Figure 7.2). The highest peak is 5,600 masl. The climate is generally more extreme than the Zagros Mountains, and much of the area is under natural forest vegetation. The frost-free season is short, but the summer is sufficiently warm and the winters sufficiently mild, for winter wheat to be grown in the valleys. Strong winds and wide tempera- ture swings make much of Iran unsuitable for supporting large populations. The most densely populated area is along the Caspian coast, in the northern piedmont of the Elburz Mountains, where annual precipitation can reach 2,000 mm, producing conditions similar to those of the lower Himalayas (Rafiq, 1976).

Hindu Kush This major mountain complex dominates the centre and northeast of Afghanistan, and rises eastwards to join the main Himalaya range (Figure 7.2). The highest peaks in the east exceed 6,000 m with Isotoro Nal, on the border with Pakistan, rising to 7,455 m above sea level. The slopes are generally very BLACK SEA

RED \ I SEA

Figure 7.2: Major mountain systems of West Asia. 130 Mountain Agriculture steep with narrow intermontane valleys. The climate is semi-arid Mediterra- nean with a mean annual precipitation ranging from about 250-400 mm falling mostly in the winter and early spring, both as snowfall and as rain. At elevations above 3,000 m, the rainfall may exceed 400 mm; -such areas are mostly under natural forest. Temperatures are extreme with summer tempera- tures in the lowlands going as high as 49°C. Although maximum temperatures lower with increasing altitude, even in the capital Kabul, at an elevation of 1,800 m, summer temperatures can go as high as 40°C. The January mean temperature in Kabul is -4°C, with a minimum of about -20°C. The Hindu Kush has been pushed up in a series of folds by the northern movement of large plates, notably the massif forming the . The folds are mostly composed of limestones and sandstones with frequent metamorphosis to schists and gneisses. Disturbances of the crust still occur and in many areas lava flows and other evidence of recent volcanic activity are widespread. In these places the soft volcanic debris can add considerably to soil fertility.

Yemeni Mountains This range runs along the southwest edge of the Arabian Peninsula, primarily in the Yemen Arab Republic. It is the southernmost range in the region, and rises to elevations higher than 3,000 m. A more detailed description of this mountain complex and its agriculture is given later.

MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN AREAS WITH A MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

The agricultural systems of the region can be classed in two broad categories: a) the Mediterranean climate systems, which comprise the majority of the region's mountain complexes, including the Atlas, Turkish, Iranian and Afghan mountains and which extend from about 30°N to 40°N latitude, and; b) the Yemeni Mountains of southwest Saudi Arabia and the Yemen Arab Republic, which extend from about 13° to 20°N. A broad overview of the agricultural systems in areas with a Mediterra- nean climate will be given in this section, followed by a more detailed description of one representative example, the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. Throughout the winter rainfall region, both rainfed and irrigated crop production is practised. On unterraced slopes, or in other areas where irrigation is not possible, cropping is confined to the winter, spring and early summer months with a single crop grown annually. In areas with a low rainfall, the land is often fallowed. This may be as frequent as every other year, or even two of three years in very dry areas. On irrigated terraces or on level valley bottoms where there is a good water supply, irrigation, generally by gravity, is common. The water is either used as a supplement G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 131

for the winter crops or for growing summer crops. At lower altitudes, or in more southern latitudes where growing seasons are longer, the availability of irrigation water can enable farmers to grow a second crop during the summer. By far the most important crop throughout the region is wheat, with both bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) and durum wheat (T. durum) grown in areas having a rainfall in excess of about 450-500 mm /year, or where it is possible to provide supplementary irrigation. In some areas barley (Hordeum vulgate) is more important. This is especially so in the lower rainfall zones or where seasons are very short. Barley is often grown both for human and animal consumption. Other rainfed crops are often grown in rotation with cereals, generally in a two- or three-year rotation. Of these, the most important are the food legumes (chickpea, Cicer arietinum; lentil, Lens culinaris; pea, Pisum sativum; faba bean, Vicia faba; and grass pea, Lathyrus sativus), and potato (Solanum tuberosum). In most parts of the region these crops are grown as a monoculture, although occasionally faba bean is grown in mixtures with pea and/or grass pea. Where irrigation is possible, maize (Zea mays) is often grown during the summer, although the overall area sown with maize is much less than that sown with temperate cereals. Large white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are also widespread in the region and are often grown in mixed stands with maize. In the eastern mountain complexes, especially in Iran and Afghanistan, rice (Oryza sativa) and occasionally cotton (Gossypium spp.) are grown in the summer on the valley bottoms and lower irrigated terraces. Other short- season summer crops, such as mung bean (Vigna radiata), and sesame (Ses- amum indicum), can also be found in some areas, as can a wide variety of indigenous and introduced vegetables. In many areas fruit trees are also very important in the agricultural systems. At higher elevations temperate fruits, such as apples, pears, and cherries, predominate while lower down other fruits, such as olives, grapes, pomegran- ates, and figs are common. Nuts such as pistachios, almond's, hazelnuts, walnuts, and chestnuts are also frequently grown on the lower and mid- altitude slopes, especially in Turkey and Iran. The region as a whole is extremely rich in crop genetic resources, especially the montane areas. It is the centre of origin of many of the world's major crops including, among others; wheat, barley, oat, rye, pea, lentil, chickpea, faba bean, linseed, rapeseed, carrot, onion, alfalfa, sanfoin, grape, fig, pomegranate, cherry, almond, and pistachio. Many primitive land races, wild forms, and related wild species of these crops are still found in the region. It is reported, for example, that primitive wheats such as einkorn (T. monococcum) and emmer (T. dicoccum) are still cultivated in some isolated montane areas in eastern Turkey and northwest Iran (Purseglove,1975). Livestock are also a common feature of the mountain agricultural systems of North Africa and West Asia. Sheep and goats in particular are widespread and are believed to have been first domesticated in this region. They are often 132 Mountain Agriculture kept on the high pastures during summer, grazing extensive communal lands, and brought down to lower slopes during winter and may be kept indoors and fed straw and other crop residues and feeds. Cattle, although less numerous than the small ruminants, may also be taken to high grazing lands during summer, but are more commonly maintained in valleys where better quality feed is available. Irrigated forages, especially alfalfa and sometimes sanfoin, berseem, vetches, or oats are grown in some areas for cattle. Horses, donkeys, or mules are also common in many mountain regions, being important both for transport and working the land.

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN THE MOROCCAN ATLAS MOUNTAINS

Most of the information in this section is based on Abdella and Hda (in press), Meshing (1985), and Bourbouze (1984). Environment The mountain regions of Morocco cover a total area of about 12.4 million ha, divided as follows: Rif Atlas 3.3 million ha Middle Atlas 2.6 million ha High and Anti-Atlas 6.5 million ha Precipitation varies from about 400 to 1,200 mm, with 60 to 100 rainy days per year. Almost all rain falls in the winter and early spring, with November- December and March-April being the wettest months. At higher altitudes much of the precipitation falls as snow. The mountains are the country's primary source of water and provide for about 800,000 ha of irrigated land. The coldest months are December-January and the hottest July-August. Apart from those areas in the central and western High Atlas and Anti-Atlas which have crystalline bedrock, most of the soils are derived from limestone or sandstones. They are frequently stony and thin and vary from slightly acidic red soils to brown calcareous ones, sometimes with a pH in excess of 8.5. Of the total mountain area, only abut 1.8 million ha (14%) are planted with crops or fruit trees while abut 5.1 million ha (41 %) are forested, 1.7 million ha (14%) are under natural pasture, and about 4.2 million ha (31%) are barren and unused.

People It is estimated that about 3,540,000 people live in the Moroccan mountains, representing about 20% of the country's total population. This percentage is divided approximately as follows: Rif Atlas 2,100,000 Middle Atlas 560,000 High and Anti Atlas 880,000 G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 133

The majority of the mountain population throughout Morocco are of Berber origin. These are descendants of the original inhabitants of North Africa, while the Arabs are concentrated in the lowlands (Anon, 1981). In many areas, such as the Rif Atlas and the western High Atlas, the majority of the mountain population is sedentary and lives in isolated, sometimes fortified, villages. In other areas, such as the western Middle Atlas and the central and eastern High Atlas, there is a larger proportion of semi-nomadic people. Since the early 1950s Morocco has experienced rapid population growth with an average annual increase of about 3.0%. Although in the mountains the growth rate has been less, between 1.0% and 2.0%, even this has resulted in over-population in many areas, with consequent severe pressures on the environment. In some areas of the High Atlas there are, for example, as many as 15 persons/ha of cultivated land. In many mountain areas local food pro- duction is insufficient and medical and other services are inadequate, resulting in infant mortality rates of up to 150 or even 200 per 1,000 children (Bencherifa, 1983). The average farm size in the mountains is small compared to the national average. More than 70% of the farm holdings are less than 5 ha, with an average farm size of only 1.6 ha divided into 5.5 small plots. About 85% of the farms are individually owned, while the remaining land is farmed collectively. The state-owned lands are mostly under forest.

Cropping Systems Table 7.1 shows the area under different crops in the mountain regions of Morocco. It is clear that temperate cereals, especially barley, durum wheat and bread wheat are by far the most important crops, and together constitute over 50% of the cropped area. Barley is the most important cereal in the High and Rif Atlas, accounting for 74% and 40% of the cereal areas respectively. Durum wheat is the most important cereal in the Middle Atlas. Only about 30% of the maize area is used for grain, the rest being used for livestock fodder. A large percentage of the area under oats is also grown as forage, often with an admixture of vetch. Forages and fallow are next in importance after cereals. Each accounts for about 17% of the cropped area. Of the total Moroccan production, 35% of the food legumes and 30% of the fruit come from the mountains (Abdella and Hda, in press). Most of the fallow land in the mountains is weedy, to provide a fodder source and to help prevent soil erosion. In level, dryer areas, however, and where there is adequate mechanisation, the farmers occasion- ally keep fallow land clean in order to conserve more moisture. The durum wheat and bread wheat produced in the Atlas is almost entirely used locally for food, aside from that part of the crop which is retained for seed. In the case of barley, however, only about 50% is used for local human consumption with the rest going to feed family livestock. Of the 134 Mountain Agriculture

Table 7.1: Area under different crops in the mountain regionts of Morocco (from Abdella and Hda, in press)

Crop Area ('000 ha)

Barley 514 Durum Wheat 372 Bread Wheat 142 Maize 62 Oats 58 Other Cereals 44 Faba Bean 92 Chickpea 28 Lentil 14 Pea 9 Alfalfa 68 Clover 33 Vetch/Oat 101 Other Forages 69 Vegetables 27 Olives 61 Almonds 43 Other Fruits 8 Fallow 377 food legumes, about 50% is consumed by the producing families, 15% is retained for seed, 10% is fed to livestock, and about 25% is sold, mainly to the lowland areas. Likewise a large percentage of the local fruit and nut production is sold for cash. The principal crop rotation is continuous temperate cereal production, with one crop per year, followed by a two-year cereal-fallow rotation. Cereal-food legume and cereal-forage rotations are also practised in many areas. The cultural practices, especially in the High Atlas, are still mostly tradi- tional. Animals are commonly used for ploughing, broadcasting seed aestomary and harvesting mostly done by hand. The use of fertilisers, improved varieties and tractors is still limited. Although 60% of the farmers in the Rif use fertilisers, only 19% in the Middle Atlas and 2% in the High Atlas use them. Only 7-8% of the farmers throughout the mountains use improved varieties while 18% of the farmers in the Rif, 30% in the Middle and 7% in the High Atlas use some type of machinery, mainly tractors for land preparation and haulage (Abdella and Hda, in press).

Livestock Systems As in most mountain systems, livestock are very important. In the Moroccan Atlas there are approximately 4.3 million sheep, 1.2 million goats G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 135 and 1.1 million cattle, accounting for 37%0, 26% and 45% respectively of the national herd. Horses, donkeys and mules are also widespread throughout the Atlas mountains. Two feeding systems are commonly practised: a) systems based predominantly on pastures, in which more than 50% of the feed is from natural grazing; and, b) systems based predominantly on by-products, especially straw and stubble, and in which pasture accounts for less than 20% of the feed. Natural grazing is more important in the Middle and High Atlas, while the use of crop-residues is more common in the Rif. In both systems, supplements of forages or grain are often provided. Although the majority of the livestock are of local breeds, some imported breeds of cattle are found in the valleys where forage crops (alfalfa, corn, clover) are raised under irrigation.

Case Study-The Western High Atlas The following brief description of a single valley, the Naffis Valley, in the western High Atlas, serves to illustrates some of the complexities and prob- lems of the Atlas Mountains as a whole. The information is mostly derived from Bencherifa (1983). The Naffis Valley, with an area of about 120 km2 is located at about 30°N, and has a dry climate, averaging about 400 mm rainfall per year at 1,500 m altitude. However, rainfall increases with altitude above 1,500 m at a rate of about 25 mm per 100 m rise in elevation. Four bioclimatic levels can be distinguished in the valley: a) a cool semi-arid area at about 1,200-1,500 m in the valley floor; b) a cold semi-arid belt from about 1,500-1,900 m with an annual rainfall of 400-500 mm; c) a cold to very-cold, sub-humid belt from about, 1,900-2,300 m, with an - annual rainfall of 500-700 mm. The natural vegetation in this area is oak and cypress; and, d) a high mountain belt above 2,000 m which experiences long and severely cold winters. The natural vegetation comprises xerophytic thorny species and grasslands. The sedentary population, currently comprising about 2,700 Berbers, has lived in the area for many centuries. The people are spread among about 20 villages ranging in size from 50 to 200 inhabitants. Wherever possible, irrigated terraces have been built, mostly alongside the main water courses. These are all privately owned, unlike the pastoral lands. They occupy a small total area (about 250 ha) and thus the average terrace- holding per household is only about 0.5 ha. Irrigation is essential for most crop production in this area. It is carried out through a network of graduated canals (targa) dug directly in the soil, which take water from small earth dams. 136 Mountain Agriculture

The traditional rotation is a two-year rotation of three crops; barley is the main winter crop although some wheat is also grown. Maize is the main summer crop. Food legumes and forages are also traditional crops in the valley. With increasing land pressure, it has now become common to produce two crops each year, and vegetables have been introduced. Very little artificial fertiliser is used, but an average of about 30 tonnes of manure/ha is applied annually, resulting in average yields of about two tonnes of barley and 1.8 tonnes of maize/ha. Labour is of critical importance for terrace construction and maintenance, for supervising the irrigation system, and for manure spreading and other crop-husbandry practices. The labour is almost exclusively familial and in- volves men, women, and children. In addition to crop production, raising livestock is the second main compo- nent of the peasant economy. Each household has an average of two beef cattle which are mainly kept in sheds and fed hay, straw, and green plants (weeds or fodder), or are taken to the vicinity of the river where grass is permanently available. They are almost never grazed extensively. The main animal produc- tion comes from sheep and goats, with about 1,000 and 5,000 head respectively. Extensive grazing provides about 95% of the food requirements of the flocks. They are kept moving every day and are only stationary when it snows. In the winter the flocks are kept mostly at lower altitudes, but are taken to high pastures in summer to graze the communally-owned lands. They are usually accompanied by a shepherd who takes the flocks of several households and spends the season in a small but called an azib. However, they are always within a day's journey of the village. With the growing population pressure, and the difficulty of expanding the cultivated area, there has been a tendency to increase the size of the flocks in recent years. This has put extreme pressure on the natural grazing lands of the Naffis Valley, as elsewhere in the Atlas complex. The situation is exacerbated by the low percentage of annual species in the pasture's flora (less than 20%) and fodder often has to be directly obtained from trees and bushes, especially for winter feed. Pastures near the villages at altitudes below 2,000 m are grazed the year round and the degradation of many of these areas is already very advanced.

YEMENI MOUNTAINS

The Yemeni Mountains are substantially different from the other mountain systems of West Asia and North Africa. They lie much farther south and have a monsoon-type climate rather than a Mediterranean one. This section pro- vides a brief description of the main environmental features of the Yemeni Mountains and their farming systems. It is based mainly on publications by ECWA/FAO (1984) and Tutwiler and Carapico (1981). G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 137

Environment The country can be divided into four main zones as follows (see Figure 7.3):

a) The Coastal Plains, which are less than 200 m in altitude and have 50-300 mm of rainfall annually. They cover about 2 million ha in a strip along the coast. b) The Eastern, Western and Southern Midlands, which cover about 3.5 million ha between the coastal plains and the highlands in the west, between the highlands and the lowlands in the east, and extend from the south of the highlands to the border with South Yemen. The altitude ranges from 200 to 1,500 m and annual rainfall is 300-500 mm. c) The Northern, Central and Southern Highlands, which form the back- bone of the country, cover an area of about 2.5 million ha. Rising to about 3,700 m, they have an annual rainfall of 600-800 mm. d) The Eastern Lowlands, which cover about 3 million ha, extend east- ward to the Saudi Arabian border. They lie at an altitude of less than 1,000 m, and have an annual rainfall of 200-400 mm. Almost all the agricultural production of the Yemen Arab Republic occurs in the Midland and Highland areas, and it is in these regions that the majority of the population lives. The whole mountain area experiences a tropical highland climate with an and to semi-arid/sub-humid moisture pattern. The rainfall is bimodal, with the main season in July to September and a minor one in March to April. Precipitation normally occurs in high intensity showers of short duration. The relative humidity is usually low (20-35%) except in July/August when it may reach 70-80% (Figure 7.4). The mean annual temperatures range from 14'C to about 27°C in mountain areas, depending upon the altitude and aspect of the land. The lowest tempera- tures occur in the high-mountain plains. Seasonal temperature variation is small, with less than 5'C difference in mean summer and winter temperatures, but the diurnal changes in temperature can be quite extreme (15-20°C). Frosts occur frequently in the mountain plains as cold air settles in depressions. The open pan evaporation, as measured at Ma'har and Rabat in the high plains, is about 2,400 mm/year. The main soils of the mountain areas are:

a) Very shallow soils with rocky outcrops-found mainly on the steep upper slopes, and are mostly bare in areas of low rainfall. b) Shallow and deep, stony and gravelly soils-mainly occupy the middle slopes of the mountains. Formed of colluvial material, these soils contain 30 to 80% stones or gravel with the remainder as sand and silt. The lime content is usually high and a zone of lime accumulation may occur in the sub-soil, especially in semi-arid areas. They offer limited possibilities for grazing and firewood. 138 Mountain Agriculture

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC PHYSIOGRAPHIC MAP N 0 50100150 200 k m I

\ TyFRN

-r, - EASTERN

4 LOWLANDS N fZ y)Z-)3 Q O ^m ( RIB ZSAN`A'- y i 'A r ,k AL HUDAYDAH N R 'LQS j VHAMA S SOUTHERN ABID I HIGHLANDS % *IB

TA'IZZ SOUTHERN MIDLANDS

1 `z j /

Sourc¢:Soil Survey and Suitability Land Classification for Dhamar Sample Area, Agri, Res. and Development Authority,Taiz (Gaweif al-Thor and Saif,1983)

Figure 73: Land classification map of Yemen Arab Republic (1983) G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 139

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE

T10 0 DEC JAN DEC JAN HUDAYDAH SAN'A' AL C MM r40 200

30 150

20 100

10 50

0 0 JAN DEC JAN TA'IZZ DEC DHAMAR - PRECIPITATION TEMPERATURE POTENTIAL EVAPOTRAN S PI RATION

I Source: Cornell Yemen Soil Survey Staff, 1981

Figure 7.4: Monthly rainfall and mean temperature in four locations of the Yemen Arab Republic (1981). 140 Mountain Agriculture

c) Shallow and deep loamy soils of terraced fields on mountain slopes- generally occur on the lower slopes, and are silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, or loam. The lime content is generally 8-15%. These soils are mostly terraced and can be very productive if the terraces are well maintained. d) Very deep loamy and clay soils of the lower slopes-resemble the previous soils and are very deep, but contain slightly less organic matter. They can be highly productive. e) Very deep loamy and clayey soils of mountain plains-formed by alluvial and loess deposits and inter-layered with lava deposits. They are moderately calcareous with a lime content of 10-20% and an organic matter of 0.6-1.2%. The clay fraction consists mostly of montmorillonite or smectite.

Cropping Systems Nearly 75% of the country is wasteland with little, if any, value for agricul- tural production. The rest of the country is either cultivated, marginal (cropped once every 4-5 years) or forested. The area which is actually cropped is about 1.5 million ha, of which only about 200,000 ha are irrigated and the rest is rainfed. Table 7.2 shows the production of the main agricultural commodities in Yemen for 1975-76 and 1982. In spite of a reduction in area over recent years, cereals remain the dominant crop. Sorghum and pearl millet account for about 83% of the total cereal area, and maize for a further 6%. The temperate cereals, wheat and barley, only cover about 11% of the total cereal area. The following cropping patterns are prevalent in the mountain areas: Rain fed cropping-mainly of cereals (sorghum, wheat, barley) but including some legumes (cowpea, lentils) intercropped with sorghum. Wheat and barley

Table 7.2: Production of important crops and livestock products in Yemen Arab Republic in 1975-76 and 1982

1975-76 1982 Crop (1,000 t) (1,000 t)

Cereals 940.0 760.0 Pulses 76.0 75.0 Vegetables 183.0 305.0 Fruit and grapes 107.0 152.0 Potatoes 76.0 150.0 Coffee 3.4 3.3 Cotton 13.5 6.5 Milk and dairy products 77.5 95.8 Meat 18.5 20.9 Hides and skins 3.8 4.2 Poultry 1.3 11.2 Eggs (million) 102.0 128.0 G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 141 are sown in June and harvested in August or September, while sorghum is sown in May and harvested in October. Rainfed sorghum yields range from about 0.5-3.0 tonnes/ha with a mean of about 1 tonne/ha. The percentage of farmers growing particular rainfed crops is shown in Table 7.3. No set crop rotation is followed, and large areas maybe fallowed, especially in low rainfall years. The land is prepared by hand or by bullocks using the local chisel-type cultivator for ploughing. Many farmers own only one animal, sharing it with others for cultivation. Manure is occasionally used. Sorghum is normally sown in furrows, then thinned and ridged at 30-45 cm height so that the crop escapes waterlogging in the heavy rains of July-August. At the grain-filling stage (70 days), all leaves except the top two to three are removed for livestock feed. Irrigated field crops-water from springs, wells, or perennial is used for irrigating alfalfa, maize, sorghum, wheat, and some vegetables (potatoes, tomatoes, onions, cabbage, and cucumbers). Small plots predominate and livestock manure is often applied to the vegetable crops. Irrigated perennial crops-coffee, banana, grapes and khat. Coffee and khat (a mild intoxicant, Catha edulis) are the most widely grown perennial crops, and they are often grown at higher elevations. The latter is now surpassing coffee because the income from it is 5-10 times more than that obtained from coffee. Grazing-the largest portion of the total land area is used for extensive grazing. Crop land, after harvest, is also grazed. Sheep and goats dominate but cattle, donkeys and camels are also common.

Table 7.3: Distribution of crop production in rainfed farms of Yemen Arab Republic (1980)

Crop Percent of farmers

Sorghum 88 Maize 67 Wheat 18 Barley 10 Vegetables 20 Khat 9

Grazing rights are held by tribes on a collective basis, such that every member of the tribe is permitted to graze his animals at any time. Some tribes practise a system of rotational grazing, locally known as the hema system. In one study area of Yemen, consisting of an area of 810 kmz, the animal population was: 20,481 cattle 28,892 sheep 41,170 goats 9,540 donkeys 424 camels 142 Mountain Agriculture

Extensive uncontrolled grazing has depleted much of the forage resources of the rangeland as useful vegetative cover has been replaced by thorny, xerophytic succulents and occasionally poisonous plants such as Citrulus colococynthis. Tree species are scattered throughout the grazing areas-mainly Acacia, Euphorbia and Ziziphus species with occasional Cordia, Tamarindus, Ficus and Brugieriae. Trees are primarily used for fuel, forage and timber. At an estimated per capita fuelwood consumption of 750 kg/ year, the forest area will continue to dwindle.

Socio-economic Factors Sixty-five percent of the agricultural holdings are totally owned by their operators, 11% are totally share-cropped, and the rest are a combination of operator-ownership and renting or share-cropping. In most rainfed share- cropping arrangements the tenant retains 66-75% of the produce. However, in many irrigated systems the tenant's share is less. In all share-cropping arrange- ments, the tenant is responsible for all costs of production (bullock, tractor, labour, seed, fertiliser, and harvesting) while the landowner pays the religious tax (zakat). In the tubewell irrigation systems however, the landowner also shares some of the pumping costs. Agricultural holdings are generally fragmented, with the total holdings seldom exceeding 1.0 ha, although a few large landlords own 10 ha or more.

Recent Trends In addition to the inevitable rural/urban migration of youth, the mountain areas in the northern Africa and region in general, and in Yemen in particular, have changed rapidly as a result of the oil wealth in the Arabian Peninsula since 1973. This change has affected all sectors of social and eco- nomic life. Twenty years ago the traditional tribal system of community organisation, dominated by ruling families, successfully managed a predomi- nantly subsistence agricultural economy. The system enabled the large land- owners to use the labour of the landless and poor farmers to build and maintain terraces that in turn enhanced soil fertility and enabled them to produce their main staple foods, sorghum and maize. However, the oil wealth, especially of neighbouring Saudi Arabia, has resulted in the Yemeni labour force becoming extremely mobile. The young tenants and landless farmers were the first to move away from the villages, but these were soon followed by small-scale farmers who often left the running of their farms to their wives. Returning farmers often invested their money in new businesses in the towns instead of returning to the villages. The resulting labour shortage in rural areas has made farming marginal land unprofitable and an increasing area of farmland is being abandoned each year. In addition, land productivity is adversely affected by soil erosion resulting from inade- quate maintenance of the bench terraces; fields below the eroding terraces are G.R. Potts and G.C. Hawtin 143 now often faced with gully erosion. The reduction in crop production on a national level is shown in Table 7.2, which clearly indicates the impact of these events on the mountain production systems. Yemen, a net exporter of cereals in 1960, now imports 500,000 tonnes each year. Due to very profitable returns, more and more of the best land is being planted to khat (Catha edulis). This crop now occupies many areas traditionally planted with coffee, grapes, and citrus. If this trend continues, the majority of irrigated fields will soon be put under khat.

CONCLUSIONS

Countries of West Asia and North Africa continue to experience a widening gap between demand for food and food production. Demand grew at an annual rate of 4.3% from the early 1970s to early 1980s, while food production growth was generally much lower. To bridge the widening gap between domestic food production and de- mand, most countries have had to increase imports, and for many this has included food aid. Several countries have now become net importers of food on a large scale. In 1970, total wheat imports to the Arab countries alone was 4.9 million tonnes (323 million USD). In 1983,16.7 million tonnes (3,237 million USD) were imported. It is estimated that by the year 2000, 48.5 million tonnes of food will have to be imported annually to meet the region's deficit in staple foods. These countries, many without major oil resource, must attempt to maxi- mise production from the existing arable land. For countries such as Morocco, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and Yemen with large mountain areas, the moun- tain farming systems must continue to be productive if the gap is to be effectively closed.

REFERENCES

Abdella, O. and El Baghati Hda (in press). Current status of the agriculture in the mountainous regions of Morocco. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Problems and Prospects of Winter Cereals and Food Legumes Production in High Elevation Areas of West and Southeast Asia and North Africa. ICARDA, Aleppo, . Anon, 1981. The Middle East and North Africa 1981-82. Europa Publications Ltd., 28th ed., London, England. Bencherifa, A. 1983. Land use and equilibrium of mountain ecosystems in the High Atlas of Western Morocco, Mountain Research and Development vol. 3, pp. 273-279. Bourbouze, A. 1983. Etude integree d'un systeme dans le Haut Atlas, Cahiers de la Recherche-Development, 163, 4, 19-29. ECWA/FAO. 1984. Integrated Development of Mountain Farming Areas of . 144 Mountain Agriculture

the ECWA Region: A Case Study of the Yemen Arab Republic. E/ECWA/ AGR/84/9, ECWA, Baghdad, Iraq. Menshing, H. 1975. Slope erosion and its control in the traditional farmland of the Rif-Atlas Mountains of Morocco, Stuttgarter Geographische Studien, vol. 105, pp. 31-37. Purseglove, J.W. 1975. Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons. Longman Publishers, London, England. Rafiq, M. 1976. Crop Ecological Zones of Nine Countries of the Region. FAO, Rome, Italy. Tutwiler, R. and S. Carapico.1981. Yemeni Agriculture and Economic Change. American Institute of Yemeni Studies, Yemen Development Series, no.l. Sana'a, Yemen Arab Republic. PART 2 Mountain Crop Genetic Resources

CHAPTER 8

Indigenous Cereal Crop Genetic Resources in Mountain Areas of Pakistan

Rashid Anwar and M.S. Bhatti

INTRODUCTION

With high-yielding improved varieties of cereals and other crop plants being adapted worldwide, varieties of many native crop plants and their wild relatives are being lost or threatened with extinction. To safeguard this valuable crop genetic diversity, a regional programme under an agency with whom such material could be deposited for long-term storage was considered essential. Hence, in 1974, a regional project on exploration, collection, preser- vation and evaluation of plant genetic resources in the Near East was devel- oped by the International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) and financed by the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) in six countries: Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria and Turkey. Izmir (Turkey) is the central germplasm bank for the benefit of the region. In this project national programmes were developed in the member countries so that system- atic exploration could be started and storage facilities established to provide a viable network under the regional programme. To provide counterpart contribution on behalf of the Government of Pakistan to assimilate regional efforts in this specialised field of activity, a national research programme, "Exploration, Collection, Conservation and Evaluation," was established under the Pakistan Agricultural Research Coun- cil in 1977. The Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) Laboratory was established in 1980, which included a gene bank, seed-drying room and work space for processing and packing germplasm samples for conservation/ distribution. IBPGR provided the necessary laboratory equipment and cooling units for the gene bank to assist the national research programme. 148 Mountain Agriculture

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Geographically, Pakistan lies between 23°- 38°N and 61°- 77°E, covering an area of 796,096 kmz, of which only 21% is cultivated. Province-wise distribution of the area is as follows: Baluchistan - 34.72 m ha; Punjab - 20.62 m ha; Sind -14.09 m ha; and NWFP -10.17 m ha. The provinces of Baluchistan and the Northwest Frontier (NWFP) are mountain regions and occupy more than 50% of the total area of the country. In the north there are towering mountain ranges compris- ing Karakoram and Hindu Kush. There are several peaks with an elevation more than 7,000 m, such as K-2 (8,611 m) and Trichi Mir peak (7,140 m). Somewhat west of these mountains is the Sufaid Koh. Further west are the Sulaiman range and low hills and plateaus of Ras Koh and Chagai, and still farther west the Muri Bugati range and other mountains of Baluchistan. Finally, in the extreme southwest are the Kalat mountains and Kirthar range. The plateau of Baluchistan merges gradually with the tableland of southeastern Iran.

EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES

Germplasm collections were made during the early 1970s through a co- ordinated research project on "Rice Germplasm, Its Collection and Evaluation in Pakistan". About 800 samples of rice land races were collected, mostly from Punjab and Sind Provinces. Since there was no proper storage facility in the country, the samples were stored at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines and at Izmir, Turkey. After the establishment of the Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory and gene bank, systematic explorations were conducted throughout the country. Primary attention was given to collection of cereal crop germplasms from the mountain regions of Baluchistan, NWFP, Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir through seven plant-collecting expedi- tions, which took place between 1981 and 1986.

MATERIAL COLLECTED AND VARIATION

A vast area of the mountain region was explored and 1,605 samples of different crops were collected from sites covering an altitudinal range of 800-2,500 m. Cereal crop germplasm constitutes over 70% of the total collection, as indi- cated in Table 8.1. Random population samples were drawn at each collecting site in order to capture maximum genetic variability in the crop species. Fifty to 100 plants per site were sampled depending on the breeding behaviour and magnitude of genetic variation in the crop species. Bennett (1970) and Allard (1970) recom- mend collecting 200-500 plants per population while Marshall and Brown (1975) favour collecting 50-100 plants per population. Collections were made in the area of expedition at varied intervals considering several factors, such as topography, edaphic and climatic conditions. When there were marked Rashid Anwar and M.S. Bhatti 149

Table 8.1: Crop germplasm collected during 1981-86 in the mountain regions of Pakistan

Crop 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Total

Wheat 285 50 2 11 95 433

Rice 4 15 19 65 100 - 203 Maize 60 65 24 45 - - 194 Barley 94 5 - 4 9 43 155

Sorghum 50 - 4 - 10 64 Millet 4 - - 1 9 - 14 Oat - - - - 6 6 Wild relatives 23 - - - - 38 61 of wheat Other crops, 274 1 32 27 61 70 465 legumes etc.

Total 794 136 79 144 200 252 1605

changes in altitude, collections were made at an interval of 2 km or at altitudinal changes of 100 m, as recommended by Hawkes (1980). Collection data were recorded in accordance with the general IBPGR collection form. There was an immense range in local names used for the indigenous varieties of rice in NWFP and Baluchistan regions. The names for local cultivars frequently change from one valley to another and from one ethnic group to the next. Only a small number of indigenous varieties of rice have adapted in the NWFP region due to cold weather conditions. Therefore, the material from this area can be considered cold-tolerant. On the other hand, the province of Baluchistan is and and dry with a very hot summer; therefore, rice cultivation is confined to certain pockets where irrigation facilities are available, through springs and seasonal streams. In the very dry area where evapotranspiration rates are very high, rice cultivation is bound to oases and intercropped with date palm. The indigenous rice cultivars in Baluchistan are highly diverse for several characters such as plant height, panicle length and type, kernel size and shape, husk colour, awnness and shattering tendency. Wheat is cultivated over a wide range and even in and area where rainfall is 100 mm or less per annum. The Northern Areas of Pakistan (Gilgit and ) and Baluchistan region are distinguished by hot and and climate with summer drought, fierce and persistent drying winds and a relatively severe winter. From one valley to another in Baluchistan and the Northern Areas, Triticum populations display differences in awning, pubescence, straw thickness and other traits which are associated with differences of aspect, altitude, soil moisture regime, cultural practices and social isolation. Ecologi- cal factors are virtually a major determinant of genetic variation. Cultivated plants no less than wild species, display ecotypic differentiation in response to habitats. Such agro-ecotypic plants are most clearly distinguished in primitive 150 Mountain Agriculture cultivars, however, which are habitually renewed from local seed, while ecotypics characteristic of modern cultivars are associated with their habit of origin. Climatic factors, such as maximum and minimum temperature, daily and annual temperature range, annual distribution of precipitation, light intensity and daylength etc. may vary from one valley to another in mountain regions. These factors are reflected in corresponding developmental charac- teristics in land races. In Baluchistan, the indigenous wheat varieties 'Khush- kaba : and 'Shorawaki are of special interest due to their salt-tolerant and drought-resistant characters. According to Swaminathan (1970), the.Triticum sphaerococcum from the NWFP and Baluchistan is extremely drought- resistant, a character that seemingly accounts for its survival in dry areas. The regions where different cereal species were collected are shown in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2: Distribution of species in the regions

Name of species Regions

Triticum aestivum (land Northern Areas, NWFP and races/ primitive cvs.) Baluchistan ssp. compactum Baluchistan and Chitral ssp. sphaerococcum Baluchistan T. turgidum Baluchistan T. durum/ polonicum Baluchistan and Azad Kashmir Aegilops squarrosa Baluchistan A. triuncilis Baluchistan Oryza sativa Baluchistan, NWFP and Azad Kashmir Hordeum vulgare Baluchistan, NWFP and Azad Kashmir H. spontaneun: Baluchistan Avena sativa Baluchistan and Northern Areas A. spontaneum Baluchistan

GENETIC EROSION

The introduction of improved varieties and changes in agricultural land use are considered major factors in the genetic erosion of indigenous cultivars. The rate of genetic erosion varied from one area to another. In Baluchistan, genetic erosion was slow in wheat varieties most probably due to non-availability of improved varieties suitable to and conditions. On the other hand, in Azad Kashmir and the NWFP, where irrigation facilities are available or where there is sufficient rainfall to support crop growth, indigenous varieties have been replaced by high-yielding varieties of wheat. In Azad Kashmir and NWFP, Triticum durum was found to be on the verge of extinction. The local rice varieties still occupy 60% area in the NWFP. The slow rate of erosion in indigenous rice varieties in the NWFP may be due to non-availabil- ity of high-yielding varieties (HYV) with a cold-tolerant character. In Baluchis- tan, 98% area has come under HYV during the past ten years, leaving only 2% Rashid Anwar and M.S. Bhatti 151 area for local varieties. These local varieties in Baluchistan are confined to certain remote pockets in the region. A shift from subsistence to commercial farming due to newly exploited irrigation sources in the area is considered a major cause of genetic erosion.

REFERENCES

Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan. 1985. Govt. of Pakistan. Ministry of Food and Agriculture (Planning Division), Islamabad. Allard, R.W. 1970. Population structure and sampling methods, pp. 97-107. In: Genetic Resources in Plants-Their Exploration and Conservation. Eds. O.H. Frankel and E. Bennett. IBP Hand book, No. 11. Bennett, E. 1970. Tactics in plant exploration, pp. 157-179. In: Genetic Resources in Plants-Their Exploration and Conservation. Eds. O.H..Frankel and E. Ben- nett. IBP Handbook, No. 11. Hawkes, J.G. 1980. Plant Genetic Resources Field Collection Manual. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources and EUCARPIA, pp. 1-37. Marshall, D.R. and A.H.D. Brown. 1975. Optimum sampling strategies in genetic conservation, pp. 53-80. In: Crop Genetic Resources for Today and Tomorrow. Eds. O.H. Frankel and J.G. Hawkes. IBP, No. 2, Cambridge. Swaminathan, M.S. 1970. The significance of polyploidy in the origin of species and species groups, pp. 87-99. In: Genetic Resources in Plants-Their Explora- tion and Conservation. Eds. O.H. Frankel and E. Bennett. IBP Handbook, No. 11.

CHAPTER 9

Fruit Crop Genetic Resources in the Northern Mountains of Pakistan: Collection and Conservation

M.S. Bhatti and Rashid Anwar

INTRODUCTION

In the past, collection and conservation of plant genetic resources in Pakistan by the National Plant Genetic Resources Programme of the Pakistan Agricul- tural Research Council (PARC) have concentrated on cereals, food legumes and pulses and other small grain crops. Until 1982-83, little attention was paid to the collection and conservation of fruit crops due to limited funds and other facilities. Fruit crops are grown on an area of 0.39 million ha in Pakistan (Agri- cultural Statistics of Pakistan, 1985). Tropical fruits such as mango, banana, guava and citrus are cultivated in the warmer plains. Temperate fruit crops are grown mainly in the mountain regions including Northern Areas (Gilgit and Baltistan), Kashmir, part of the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan. A short autumn in the region provides the shock necessary for dormancy and a long period of low temperatures during winter allows a full rest period for the fruit plants. A limited area of Baltistan in northern Pakistan was initially surveyed for fruit crop variability'during January, 1982. In the following year a wide range in the -Northern Area was explored for collection of indigenous fruit germplasm as well as the vallfys of Gilgit, Hunza and the remaining part of Baltistan. The material was tollected and Conserved as a clonal repository or living collections. Recently (1986) the region of NWFP and Kashmir were explored for fruit crop genetic diversity. 154 Mountain Agriculture

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

The northern mountains cf Pakistan have complex ecological and environ- mental conditions. Climate, vegetation and soils are extremely diverse, result- ing in an enormous wealth of indigenous horticultural crops. On the basis of vegetation and climate, the northern mountains can be divided into different regions.

Northern Area The valleys of Gilgit, Hunza, Yasin, Gupis, Chitral, Chilas and Skardu (Baltistan) constitute the Northern Area of Pakistan. In the northeast the great Karakoram range separates the region from the Chinese autonomous province of Sinkiang; to the east lies the Indian district of Ladakh and the Chinese autonomous regions of Tibet and in the northwest Afghanistan and the USSR. The region lies in a , isolated by higher mountains on all sides. Rainfall varies from 100 mm to 200 mm per annum. The minimum temperature varies from -7 to -20°C during winter and maximum from 25 to 33°C during summer.

Northwest Frontier Province This region includes the districts of Dir, Swat, Hazara and Kohistan. The minimum temperature ranges from 0 to -10°C and maximum 20 to 35°C. Rainfall is high, sometimes exceeding 1,000 mm per annum. However, the southern part of the region receives comparatively little rain.

COLLECTION AND CONSERVATION

Most temperate fruits are cultivated in the northern part of Pakistan. The following fruit crops are indigenous to the mountain regions of Pakistan: apple (Malus spp), pear (Pyrus spp.), sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.), sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.), apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), plum (Prunus spp.), grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), peach (Prunus persica L.), almond (Prunus amygdalus L.) and walnut (juglan regia). There are several problems in fruit crop collection which require special attention. Fruit trees are scattered over a wide area, some of which may not be accessible. Prior survey of the area is essential to record the pattern of variation and distribution of genera and species in the area under study. An even greater problem results from the very large number of accessions obtained by random sampling, which necessitates intensive collecting activity and, subsequently, a large area for conservation as a living collection or clonal repository. Bud- wood/scion-wood material can be collected in summer or winter depending upon facilities. A leafy cutting of fruit plants is very vulnerable to loss after collection during the summer season if proper storage or quick transportation are not available. On the other hand, dormant scion-wood/cuttings are less M.S. Bhatti and R. Anwar 155 liable to desiccation and have a longer natural viability, even under adverse conditions, than immature leafy cuttings. Therefore, the collection of fruit germplasm (scion-wood/cuttings) during dormancy is more effective than collection in summer (Bhatti et al., 1984). Sykes (1975) has detailed the practical problems associated with tree crop collection. The fruit collecting mission to the northern mountains during 1981 covered a small area in Baltistan. A total of 96 samples, comprising 14 crop species from several genera were collected from different sites spread over an altitude ranging from 2,150, to 2,450 m. (Table 1). The majority of the collections belong to Prunus and Malus genera. A great diversity in apricots was observed, resulting in the largest number of collections of any species. The genetic variability in fruit plants of the genus Prunus and other fruits found in the area, may be largely due to their propagation through seeds (Bhatti et al., 1982). The collecting mission of 1983 explored a vast area in the northern mountains and collected 227 samples of different fruit crops (see Table 9.1) at an altitude ranging from 1,350 to 2,450 m. Collections were made at varied intervals considering several factors. At each collecting site, collection data were

Table 9.1: Fruit germplasm collected during expeditions

S. No. Fruit crop Genus & species No. of samples collected during

1982 1983 1986

1. Apricot Prunus armeniaca 28 73 5 2. Peach Prunus persica 4 15 15 3. Plum Prunus spp. 10 6 8 4. Almond Prunus amygdalus 9 17 10 5. Cherry Prunus avium and P. cerasus 4 5 - 6. Apple Malus pumila and M. baccata 14 32 35 7. Grapes Vitis vinifera 8 37 - 8. Walnut Juglan regia 5 24 21 9. Pear Pyrus communis and P. pashia 3 5 43 10. Pomegrante Ponica spp. 1 6 - 11. Quince Cydonia spp. 2 - 12. Mulberry Morus alba 2 2 13. Fig Ficus spp. 1 2 14. Unidentified - 3 3 - 15. Ornamental Rosa and Jasminum 3 -

Total 97 227 137 recorded on the standard International Board of Plant Genetic Resources collection from random population. Samples were collected at most sites where a large number of fruit trees of a particular species were available. Biased sampling was practised in some cases where only a few trees of a species were available in the area, or where fruit plants possessed traits of particular interest, such as fruit quality or other specific characters. Hawkes (1980) and 156 Mountain Agriculture

Skyes (1975) recommend random population sampling together with biased sampling of specific and morphologically distinct genotypes. Temperate fruits-are considered recalcitrant and their conservation has, until recently, relied on the maintenance of field gene banks or clonal reposi- tories. Such collections are rarely representative of the wide spectrum of genetic variability which needs to be conserved. Ellis and Hong (1985) suggest that seeds of temperate fruit show orthodox behaviour and can be conserved for a long period; therefore, they can be preserved by seed storage, although this may pose practical problems for breeders. Vast areas in the NWFP and Kashmir regions were recently (summer 1986) explored for fruit genetic resources for the purpose of collecting seeds of fruit species for conservation and to mark plants for collection during the coming dormant season. The grafting material collected is to be supplied to the Agricultural Research Institutions in the country for utilisation in fruit-improvement programmes.

ADAPTATION AND VARIATION

Fruit genetic resources are unevenly distributed in different regions of Paki- stan. Fruit crops have been cultivated in the northern mountains since very ancient times. Because of limited means of transportation until a few decades ago, the people used to live on fruits and a small number of grain crops such as wheat and barley. Apricots and peaches have their primary centre of origin in western China (Watkins, 1976). Most probably, apricots and peaches entered the northern mountains of Pakistan through Sinkiang Province of China. Once introduced to the new areas, the fruits were exposed to evolution- ary forces and diversified in the new habitats. Experience in the northern area reveals that apricots are highly diverse for traits such as fruit size, fruit skin colour, taste and plant type. Fifteen distinct varieties of indigenous apricots were collected from the region. Some of the indigenous cultivars of apricots, such as 'Halman' and 'Marghulam', are of good to high quality. There is wide variation in fruit characteristics of almonds in the Northern Area. The local variety'Kaghzi is of very good quality. A considerable variation in Malus spp. was observed. It is generally believed that the primary centre of origin of both Malus and Pyrus lies in the region that includes Asia Minor, the , Soviet , Himalayan India and Pakistan (Wilcox, 1962). A more easterly origin, even as far as western China, is claimed by some. The genus Malus adapted to a variety of climates in Pakistan and is grown in the Northern Area, NWFP, Kashmir and Baluchistan. On the other hand, the genus Pyrus is restricted to a long belt from Kashmir to NWFP where a multitude of forms were recorded during expeditions. M.S. Bhatti and R. Anwar 157

GENETIC EROSION

The rate of genetic erosion in fruit species varies from one region to the next. The fruit genetic resources in the Northern Area are severely threatened with erosion for two principal reasons: cutting of fruit trees for fire wood and other purposes (there is no alternative to fire wood available in the region), and the introduction of improved fruit plants. The trend of planned commercial orchards is the major cause of genetic erosion in the NWFP. Government agencies annually distribute about one million grafted fruit seedlings for commercial cultivation throughout the country. This has severely threatened the indigenous varieties in different regions.

REFERENCES

Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan. 1985. Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives. Food and Agriculture Division (Plan- ning Unit), Islamabad. Bhatti, M.S., I. Haq, N.I. Hashmi and Z. Ahmad. 1982. Fruit collecting in Baltistan, Pakistan, Plant Genetic Resources Newsl., vol. 50, pp. 9-13. Bhatti, M.S., A.S. Mohmand, N.I. Hashmi and Z. Ahmad.1984. Fruit-vegetable collecting in Pakistan mountains, Plant Genetic Resources Newsl., vol. 59, pp. 12-15. Ellis, R.H. and T.D. Hong. 1985. Prunus seed germination and storage, pp. 1- 21. In: Long-Term Seed Storage of Major Temperate Fruits, IBPGR, Rome. Hawkes, J.G. 1980. Crop Genetic Resources Field Collection Manual. EUCARPIA, pp. 1-37. Sykes, J.T.1975. Tree crops, pp.123-137. In: Crop Genetic Resources for Today and Tomorrow. Eds. O.H. Frankel and J.G. Hawkes. IBP, no. 2, Cambridge. Watkins, Ray. 1976. Cherry, plum, peach, apricot and almond, pp. 242-247. In: Crop Evolution of Plants. Ed. N.W. Simmonds. Longman Publishers, Lon- don-New York. Wilcox, A.N. 1962. The apple,. pp. 637-645. In: I. Systematics: Handbuch der pflanzenzuchtung. Berlin, 2nd ed., vol. 6.

CHAPTER 10

Status of Finger Millet in the Mountain Agricultural System of

. Himachal Pradesh, India

Surinder K.'Mann and Inderjeet Singh

INTRODUCTION

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn.) is an important cereal in Africa and India. It is known by various names in India, such as: ragi, mandua, mandal, koda, kodra or nagli. The term Eleusine derives from Eleusis, the Greek goddess of cereals (Chalam and Venkateswarlu,1965) and Coracana from Kurukkan, the Shingth name for this crop. Among the millets of the world; finger millet ranks fourth after pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides), foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and proso millet (Panicum milaceum). It constitutes about 8% of the area cropped and 11% of all the millets grown worldwide. In India, finger millet ranks second after pearl millet, 4ccounting for about half the total annual production of all millets, and equal to the production of all other minor millets (Kampanna and Kavallapa, 1968; Rachie and Peters, 1977). However, 40-45% of the total world production of finger millet comes from Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh (India). In Himachal Pradesh, this crop is grown mainly in Mandi, , Kullu and Sirmaur districts. A certain percentage is also grown in Chamba and Kinnaur districts (Table 10.1).

CULTIVATION

In mountain agricultural systems, finger millet is grown as a kharif crop in terraced foothills, on steep slopes and up to an elevation of 1,000 to 3,000 masl. 160 Mountain Agriculture

It is one of the hardiest crops grown under dryland conditions and is widely adaptable to various agroclimatic regions. In mountain agricultural systems, mixed cropping is commonly practised by hill farmers. Finger millet is sown around May-June by broadcasting the seeds, often in a maize field (which may contain other crops such as French bean, soybean, rice bean, Amaranthus, Colocassia, foxtail millet and chenopods). Such mixtures are grown almost entirely as subsistence crops. Finger millet in monoculture is found in larger fields or marginal lands. The plants reach a height of 95 cm (range 40 cm to 112 cm) in about two to three months and are usually tillered at the base. The degree of tillering varies from one to six per plant among different popula- tions. The top of each tiller bears a whorl of digitate spikes or fingers. All fingers except one (the thumb) arise from a common base. The "thumb" or odd spike originates a few centimetres below the common base. The inflorescences of different accessions are highly variable in shape, size, curvature of earhead, number of digits per earhead, length of digits, presence or absence of the thumb, and grain-bearing area of the earhead (Mann and Sharma, 1982; Mann et al., 1982).

Table 10.1: Area and production of finger millet in Himachal Pradesh, by district. 1980-1984

1980-1981 1982-1983 1983-1984 A P A P A P

Chamba 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.07 0.21 0.13 Kinnaur 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.23 0.20 Kullu 1.60 0.70 - - - - Mandi 5.00 3.80 3.66 4.20 3.43 2.94 Shimla 3.80 3.50 3.62 1.24 3.53 3.32 Sirmaur 1.10 0.60 8.80 0.39 7.92 0.53

Total 12.0 9.00 16.48 6.09 15.53 7.12

A = Area in '000 hectares. P = Production in '000 tonnes. Source: Annual Season and Crop Report, Directorate of Land Records, Himachal Pradesh.

Four readily recognisable earhead shapes are: (a) straight, (b) incurved, (c) top- curved, and (d) closely fistulated. Grain colouration is highly variable, ranging from creamish-white, purplish-red and light brown to brown and dark brown. The crop generally matures by the end of September or mid-October but the heads often left unharvested. Only when other crops (soybean, rice bean, French bean and other mixed crops) have been harvested and the field prepared for the next sowing, are the culms of the finger millet cut and the grass stored as straw. In Himachal Pradesh in 1983-1984 the grain yield was estimated as 2.94 tonnes/ha in Mandi and 3.32 tonnes/ha in Shimla district. However, the actual average yields reported for Himachal Pradesh are much lower (see Table 10.2). Surinder K. Mann and Inderjeet Singh 161

PROCESSING AND UTILISATION

Earheads are first dried in the sun and then stored in small bags or earthen pots. Dehusking is done just before the grain is cooked by pounding the kernels with a thick iron or wooden pestle in wooden mortar. Winnowing is also done to remove the husk from the grain. A very valuable attribute of finger millet is its grain-keeping quality. Reportedly, it, remains in good condition even with storage for as long as 50 years (Ayyangar,1932). The grain is highly resistant to insect pests. Light-coloured grains are generally preferred to dark- coloured ones.

Table 10.2: Area under cultivation, production and yield per hectare of finger millet in Himachal Pradesh

Year Area Production Yield (in '000 ha) (in '000 tonnes) (in tonnes/ha) 1972-73 13.10 11.80 0.90 1973-74 12.70 12.40 0.98 1974-75 12.80 8.70 0.68 1975-76 12.20 9.40 0.77 1976-77 12.40 9.40 0.76 1977-78 11.30 9.20 0.78 1978-79 11.10 8.20 0.74 1979-80 13.40 7.50 0.56 1980-81 12.00 9.00 0.75 1981-82 - 5.91 - 1982-83 8.64 5.96 0.61 1983-84 8.22 7.12 0.71

Source: Annual Season and Crop Report, Directorate of Land Records, Himachal Pradesh.

The flour of malted grains is used as food for infants and invalids and is often given to diabetic patients (Bhatnagar, 1956). This flour is given to diabetics to lower the sugar contents of the blood and urine (Ramanathan and Gopalam, 1956). It is also used as. a prophylaxis for dysentery (Lemordant, 1967). In Himachal Pradesh, 'kodra' or finger-millet grains are ground into flour (mostly in water mills) and prepared as porridge or unleavened bread or cake, which may be steamed, baked or fried with condiments, or other foodstuffs. Green grains are also roasted and -eaten as a vegetable. Another favourite preparation is parching mature grains, then grinding and mixing the flour with some other foodstuff such as crude sugar (gur), salt, spices and butter- milk. Kodra flour is also used as a substitute for wheat flour in making chapatis, which are relished with Colocasia vegetable, curd and buttermilk. Native people of Himachal Pradesh are very fond of 'moori; a local prepara- tion made of roasted seeds of finger millet, rice, and bhang (Cannabis sativa) mixed with crude sugar. Seeds are also washed and boiled and eaten as a 162 Mountain Agriculture

substitute for rice, or sometimes cooked together with rice. The grains are also used in the preparation of beverages, including such alcoholic preparations as a distilled liquor called 'Araka'. or 'Arak'. Grains of finger millet and pearl millet are sometimes used in poultry farms in place of maize as broiler starter and finisher feeds (Abate and Gomez,1984). Finger millet is a very nutritious crop, rich in proteins, calcium and phospho- rus (Table 10.3). In the interior regions of the Himalayas, where

Table 10.3: Nutritional contents of different cultivars of finger millet collected from Himachal Pradesh (mean values)

Parameter Colour of grains Creamish Light Dark Purplish Reddish white (°/o) brown brown M M M (%)

Starch content 72 68 53 62 58 Total free 2.35 2.25 2.42 2.31 1.93 amino acids Proteins 14.95 14.25 13.50 12.25 10.98 Mineral contents Calcium (Ca) 0.65 0.45 0.35 0.38 0.35 Magnesium (Mg) 0.42 0.38 0.45 0.34 0.31 Phosphorus (P) 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.46 0.43 Potassium (K) 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.05 Iron (Fe) 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

under-nutrition and malnutrition prevail, a wider use of finger millet might help to combat these problems. In addition to the grain, the straw of finger millet is equally valued. It provides winter fodder for cattle and other ruminants at high elevations. This fodder is highly prized and hence a good source of income. Dried straw is also used as fuel, for thatching and for cattle bedding. Sometimes it is simply ploughed down as organic manure. The fibre from the straw is used in making rope and in knitting baskets and 'kiltas'. Table 10.1 shows the great variation in area and production of finger millet in Himachal Pradesh for different years and districts, while Table 10.2 reveals the long-term decrease in production of this crop. No doubt the availability of seeds of improved and high-yielding varieties of wheat, maize and other crops has encouraged farmers to increase the area of major cereals, resulting in a decline in area planted with traditional crops. Finger millet has been grown in Himachal Pradesh since time immemorial, yet only recently has any system- atic attempt been made to improve the status of this crop. Apparently, continuous genetic erosion of the crop is taking place, which could lead to its extinction in many areas. It is imperative that attention be paid to the conser- vation of biological diversity of traditional crops and to the development of improved forms suitable to local conditions. According to Nabhan (1985), Surinder K. Mann and Inderjeet Singh 163 diversity found in such traditional crops as finger millet is the result of farming practices adopted by the inhabitants of a given area and their use by the natives reflect the cultural history of the community. Such genetic resources should be conserved and perserved as a priority. Most of the finger millet crop is consumed within the region of its produc- tion, although it has a considerable industrial potential for malt extract and brewing. It is also an important poultry feed. However, these potential uses of finger millet are only possible if there is a wider recognition of'kodra' as a very useful commodity, with increased support for programmes of research and improvement of this cereal.

REFERENCES

Abate, A.N. and M. Gomez. 1984. Substitution of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and bulrush millet (Pennisetum typhoides) for maize in broiler feeds, Animal Feed Science and Technology, vol. 10, p. 4. Ayyangar, G.N.R. 1932. Inheritance of characters in Ragi, Madras Agric., vol. 20, pp. 1-9. Bhatnagar, S.S. 1952. The Wealth of India, III, pp. 160-166. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. Chalam, G.V. and J. Venkateswarlu.1965. Introduction to Agricultural Botany in India. Asia Publishing House, New Delhi. Kampanna, C. and B.N. Kavallappa. 1968. Quantitative assessment for nutri- tive quality of Eleusine coracana, Mysor. J. Agric. Sci., vol. 2, pp. 324-329. Lemordant, D. 1967. Ethnobotanique Institute Pasteur J. Ethiopie. Mann, S.K. and Anjana Sharma.1982. Impact of yellow leaf-spot disease on the physiomorphology and yield of Eleusine coracana, pp. 265-272. In: Improve- ment of Forest Biomes. Ed. P.K. Khosla. Mann, S.K., Virinder Kumar and Anand Maheshwari. 1982. Ragis of High Altitude: Performance of Local Germplasm Collected from Hills through an Expedition. Millet Workshop, Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore, 26-28 April, 1982. Nabhan, G.P. 1985. Native crop diversity in : Conservation of regional gene pools, Econ. Bot., vol. 39, pp. 387-399. Rachie, K.O. and L.V. Peters. 1977. 'The Eleusines': A Review of the World Literature. International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. Hyderabad, India. Ramanathan, M.K. and C. Gopalam.1956. Effect of different cereals on blood sugar levels, Indian J. Med. Res., 45, 2, 255-262.

CHAPTER 11

Exploring Under-exploited Crops of the Himalayan Mountain Agriculture: Chenopods

Tej Pra tap

INTRODUCTION A well-intentioned attempt to reform agriculture in the past encouraged farmers, particularly in developing countries, to abandon traditional crops in favour of high-yielding 'super crops', which would supposedly boost national economies. But over the years it has become clear that there is a considerable price to be paid for this 'modernisation' through the loss of diversity, both cultural and agricultural. This has brought about a change in the direction of reform towards preserving the earth's genetic resource diversity and selecting crops to local ecological and environmental conditions. Consequently, more attention is now focussing on the exploration and conser- vation for biological diversity and genetic resources of under-exploited crop plants (Partap,1986).

UNDER-EXPLOITED CROPS

Many domesticated or semi-domesticated plants cultivated by indigenous people not only determine their agricultural system, but also influence their food habits and way of life. Such plants have received limited scientific attention and hence their full potential has not been realised. These plant species are included in the category of under-exploited crops. They are also known by various other names, such as'neglected crops','poor people's crops' or 'third-order crops'. More recently, they have been designated 'crops for future agriculture'. 166 Mountain Agriculture

Under-exploited crops have partially evolved under the influence of farm- ing systems of particular cultures (Nabhan,1985), leading to a direct interre- lation between the biological diversity of these plant resources and the cultural diversity and history of the peoples nurturing them. Therefore, the signifi- cance of an under-exploited crop genetic resource, albeit minor and restricted in cultivation and use, can be seen in the cultural history of native communities (Partap,1982; Nabhan,1985; Partap and Kapoor, in press).

HIMALAYAN MOUNTAIN AGRO-ECOSYSTEM

Mountain agro-ecosystems retain a great biological diversity of crop genetic resources because the small hill farmer has for centuries employed an intricate farming system to accommodate such limiting factors as change in tempera- ture, rainfall, limited cultivable land area, low fertility, poor soil composition, lack of access to inputs and difficult marketing conditions. Mountain slopes and valleys of the Himalayan region resemble a patch- work quilt of small fields containing mixtures of under-exploited crops alongside, or mixed with, primary crops such as maize, rice and potatoes. Some of the under-exploited mountain crops from the northwest Himalayan region are listed in Table 11.1. Many of them will be discussed by other members of this Workshop. This article reviews only one under-exploited food crop of the Himalayan mountain agriculture, namely, grain chenopods.

THE HIMALAYAN GRAIN CHENOPODS

This grain has numerous local names (listed in Table 11.2), indicating that the crop has been an integral part of the food items in subsistence cultivation by mountain communities. Two couplets from old mountain folk songs, the cultural legacy of subsistence-farming families, reveal how important chenopods were once as a staple food item in the northwest Himalayan mountain region. l) I get to eat 'Phambra' [gruel made from chenopod grains] daily in the lunch, and all I can afford to eat in the dinner is 'Shetoo' [pieces of boiled pumpkin]; I am an illiterate poor villager. Please do not expect me to read your letter; its contents are Greek to me. 2) Dear children: The gruel of 'Taak' [a chenopod cultivar] is for the lunch, and for the dinner we must relish 'Kanzhi [a mixed preparation of chenopod grains, pulses buckwheat, foxtail millet and proso millet]. So, if you want to be rid of it [desire a change in diet], then happily go to school. T. Pratap 167

Table 11.1 : Some under-exploited food crops of the northwest Himalayan mountain agriculture

Crops Plant part/parts used General distribution in the NW Himalayas Grain, leaves a,b,c,d Chenopods Grain, leaves a,b,c Buckwheat Grain, leaves a,b,c,d,e,f Foxtail millet Grain a,b,c,d H° (Proso) millet Grain a,b,c,d Finger millet ragi Grain a,b,c,d Barnyard millet Grain c,d Perilla sp. Grain - edible oil & condiment a,b,c,d Impatiens sp. Seed - edible oil, semi- or non-domesticated, b Cannabis sp. Seed - edible oil, eaten as such, a,b,c,d,e,f leaves - narcotic, stem - fibre, Hill soybean Seed b,c Colocasia yam Tuber a,b,c,d,e,f Naked barley Grain e,f Caraway seed Seed, semi- or non-demesticated plant b,c,f

Note: a: Jammu and Kashmir region b: Lesser Himalayan range, mountains and valleys of Himachal Pradesh c: Garhwal Himalayan region d: Kumaon hills e: Ladakh region of greater Himalayas f: Lahaul and Spiti region of Himachal Pradesh falling under greater Himalayas

Table 11.2: Vernacular names of the Himalayan grain chenopods

Vernacular names Area/valleys

1. Taak, Takoo, Takaa Manikaran valley, Malaria tribe, Rotee-ra-taak, Kala-taak Kinnaura tribes, Beas valley Bhauta-ra-taak, Laal-taak, Bhoora-taak (Upper Kullu), Satluj . 2. Bathu, Bithu Shimla hills, Satluj valley, Uhl valley, Bhangal tribes, Jonsar-Bawar tribes of Yamuna valley, Earthen cultivar of Manikaran valley. 3. Dhangar Laal dhangar, Bhoora dhangar Outer and Inner Seraj valleys. Kalaa dhangar 4. Sariari, Ratta Ravi valley (Bharmour tribes). 5. Bajr bhang Chenab valley, Doga and Udhampur districts of Jammu, Pangi tribes of Himachal Pradesh. 6. Mustakh Kashmir. 7. Gniu Non-domesticated, Ladakh. wild and weedy forms of Chenopodium sp. 8. Karaon - do - Chenopodium cultivation zone. 9. Chharathu - do - Seraj valley. 10. Emm - do - Spiti valley. 11. Err -do- Lahaul tribes. 12. Bathu, Bithu - do - Mountain areas not cultivating chenopods, North Indian plains and other parts of India.

Note: In many mountain areas of the Himalayan region 'Bathu' also refers to Amaranth. 168 Mountain Agriculture

Since people were sustained mainly on a chenopod diet, the high nutritive value of the grain is self-evident, providing the strength necessary for hard physical labour at high altitudes. This crop is a close relative of quinoa, the 'mother grain' of the Andes, which was a staple food of the Inca Empire (Tapia et al., 1979). Although the Himalayan grain chenopods have a long history of existence, as evidenced in folk culture (Partap,1982), documentation of their cultivation dates back to just over one hundred years ago (Roxburgh, 1832; Thomson, 1852; Hooker, 1952; Duthie, 1915). In a most informative account, Stewart (1869) has reported the extensive cultivation of two probable Chenopodium species in the mountains and valleys of most of the northwest Himalayas. The unsuccessful introduction of quinoa (C. quinoa) into India is also mentioned. A preliminary analysis of the nutritive value of these grains was published slightly later, first by Church (1886) and then by Watt (1893). Subsequently, the crop was neglected until several recent attempts to understand its role in Himalayan agriculture (Singh and Thomas, 1978; Partap, 1982; Partap and Kapoor,1985a, b; 1987).

CULTIVATION AREAS

Available reports on the past cultivation of the chenopod crop in the Hima- layan mountains indicate its wide distribution on mountain slopes and val- leys, from Ladakh in the extreme west, to Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarkhand mountains, Teesta valley in Sikkim, Bhutan, and Khasia hills in northeastern India (Stewart, 1869; Thomson, 1852; Hooker, 1852; Atkinson, 1980; Partap, 1982). Evidence exists for the cultivation and con- sumption of chenopods in the mountain region of Formosa (Taiwan) during the nineteenth century. This indicates the possibility of isolated yet wide- spread and unrecorded cultivation of chenopods throughout the Asian mountain chain. Many reports may have misidentified the chenopod crop. Interestingly, official records, both old and new, describe the grain chenopods as a variety of Amaranthus anardana (Kangra, 1897; CIR, 1961, 1971, 1981). Such misidentifications might be due to confusion in vernacular names since several communities refer to both chenopods and Amaranth as 'Bathu'. Present-day cultivation of this crop is shown in Figure 11.1. It is commonly cultivated on high hills and in valleys between 1,500 and 3,000 masl in many isolated areas of northwest Himalayas, notably, the river valleys of Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj and Yamuna. In the eastern Himalayas, cultivation is reportedly limited to the Teesta valley and Khasia hills. The average tem- perature in most of the NW Himalayan chenopod cultivation zone varies between 5 and 30°C during the crop season, which is April-October. The average annual rainfall of this zone ranges between 400 and 1,200 mm. Frost is common during autumn months as the crop matures. T. Pratap 169

BOTANY

Chenopod plants are rarely branched, but have a slender or decumbent angled stem, which is commonly striped green, red or purple. Height varies from 2.0 to 4.0 in depending on the cultivar. There are extreme variations in leaf morphology in some cultivars and few such variations in others. A massive compound inflorescence (Figure 11.2) is borne on terminal shoots. An inflorescence of a normal plant contains about 20% hermaphrodite flowers and 80%o female flowers, which can be categorised into five types (Partap and Upadhya, 1986). Approximately 30% of the total flowers produce viable seeds, which may differ in size and colour. This results in a high degree of seed colour and size variation in some cultivar types (Partap and Kapoor, 1985b). The thousand seed weights of different cultivars range from 0.8 to 1.47 g. On the average, a healthy plant in the field would contain around 40,000 to 70,000 seeds. Past reports on the taxonomy of grain chenopods are rather confusing. Hooker (1885) and Collett (1902) considered them domesticated forms of Chenopodium album L., while Watt (1893) and Grierson and Long (1984) consider them domesticated forms of C. giganteum D. Don. It has also been suggested that the cultivated grain chenopods of the Himalayan region are C. quinoa that penetrated this region from the Andean mountains along with amaranth, maize, chillies and potatoes (Sauer, 1967). Partap and Kapoor (1985b) suggest that there are two species of domesticated chenopods in the Himalayan region. The first consists of three cultivars and is closer to C. album L. The other, represented by a single type, is closer to C. quinoa Wild., at least in seed characters. It is interesting, however, that all cultivated chenopods are tetraploid (2n = 36), like C. quinoa. The evolutionary sequence of morphologi- cal and physiological seed polymorphism in both the wild C. album L. seeds of this region in various domesticated forms, suggests an indigenous origin of these chenopods (Partap and Kapoor,1985b).

ETHNOBOTANY

As seen from the folk lore couplets given above, grain chenopods are closely associated with poor families. A recent study found that temperate agrocli- matic conditions, social conservatism, difficult access to the village, locality, or smaller farmlands correlated to some extent with chenopod cultivation and consumption (Partap and Kapoor, 1985a). People whose staple food was maize also gave place to chenopods while people preferring wheat or rice rarely did so. Whenever foxtail millet, proso millet, amaranth or buckwheat were consumed, chenopods also constituted an integral dietary component (Table 11.3). The crop and its various cultivars are grown for different purposes by different communities. For some communities the grain is a stable food, T H E H I M A L A Y A

W E

26 36 NL - 0 72 - 91 EL

-31f

J.R : JHELUM RIVER C.R : CHENAB RIVER R.R: RAVI RIVER PRESENT CULTIVATION B.R: BEAS RIVER X PAST CULTIVATION S.R : SATLUJ RIVER Y.R: YAMUNA RIVER P.R: PINDER RIVER T.R : TEESTA RIVER

Figure 11.1: Cultivation areas of grain chenopods in the Himalayan region. T. Pratap 171

Figure 11.2: Two representative inflorescences of Himalayan chenopods. 172 Mountain Agriculture

consumed in various ways, as shown in Figure 11.3. At present, it is sometimes cultivated solely for use in the preparation of a local fermented beverage called 'Soor' and a locally distilled alcoholic drink called 'Thara' or 'Chanti'. Chenopods also have a religious significance as well as marked commercial value in the Hindu-Dogra caste dominated region of Jammu. Here the Hindus consider the grain sacred and permissible to eat on days of religious fast, along with amaranth and buckwheat. Quite possibly, the preference for this grain maintains its price above that

Table 11.3: Survey of the northwest Himalayan chenopod cultivation zone

Part A: Association between consumption of chenopods and other dietary items

XZ % of families Food grains values D/F OC Total Maize 12.679* 80.6 10 90.6 Barley 31.006** 71.6 19.1 90.7 Finger millet 84.016** 37.5 31.5 69.0 Hog millet 23.449** 21.6 62.6 84.2 (Panicum miliaceum) Italian millet 23.449** 25.0 60.0 85.0 (Setaria italica) Amaranthus sp. 52.767** 67.5 28.3 95.8 Fagopyrum sp. 42.863** 30.8 49.2 80.0 Wheat 1.658 44'1 55.8 99.9 Rice 1.329 16.2 69.1 85.3 Chenopods - 30.8 49.2 80.0

Source: Partap and Kapoor (1985a). D/F = consuming daily or frequently; OC = consuming occasionally. * XZ - Probability of significance 0.05. **XZ- Probability of significance 0.01.

Part B: Uses of chenopods % of families

Chenopod grain consumption around 1960 100 Chenopod leaves, cultivated plants, used as pot herb 16 Chenopod leaves, wild and weedy forms, collected for food pr .feed 12 Chenopod grain, cultivated, used for alcoholic preparations 64 Chenopod plant, any part, used for any medicinal purpose - Chenopod dry stem used for fuel 3.3 Chenopod plants form a good secondary fodder 100 Chenopod crop, if improved in seed quality and-yield, will be cultivated more 85 Mixed cropping practice in use 94 Pure cropping of chenopod crop done 2.5 T. Pratap 173

* POT HERB

SALAD DRESSING IN RAITA

---> SECONDARY FODDER

LEAVES BREAD (ROTI) FUELS DRIED STEM WHOLE CHENOPOD PLANT

MILLING CATTLE FEED E-- WHOLE GRAIN TO MAKE FLOUR ADDED Ly TO LOCAL BEVERAGE MACHINE POUNDING HAND POUNDED OR > WASTE HUSK USED HAND POUNDING FOR WASHING CLOTHES

POUNDED GRAIN

GRUEL (SOUP) COOKED WITH PORRIDGE PUDDING BEVERAGES RICE (BHAT) & ALCOHOL

Figure 113: Preparation and utilization of Himalayan grain chenopods. of amaranth and buckwheat in the local markets. Although Muslim families of this area cultivate the crop, they sell almost the entire produce, rarely eating it, since the crop is associated with Hinduism. Surprisingly, although a sub- stantial quantity of this food grain is marketed in Jammu at one of the biggest regional markets of India, it is unknown as a religious or trade commodity to the Indian people elsewhere. Enquiries among the local wholesale traders revealed that its demand always exceeds supply, and they could offer no explanation why chenopods are not traded to other markets (outside Jammu), especially neighbouring ones. Both farmers and traders were very positive about the commercial scope for chenopod grains, if quality and yields were further improved. No past records are available to account for total land area under chenopod cultivation and gross annual production. A conservative rough estimate of present-day annual production in the Himalayan region is about 4,000 quin- tals, of which over 2,000 quintals find their way into local and regional markets. Computing values of average yield obtained by the farmers (Table 11.4) and 174 Mountain Agriculture estimated annual production, it appears that the chenopod crop is currently spread over an area of about 1,500 ha of mixed farming. But cultivation may 'have been many times higher until a few decades ago. For farmers cultivating chenopods as a commercial crop, it is a lucrative proposition. Rates range between Rs. 600 to 800 (US $ 50-70) per quintal at farm harvest level. Market prices for milled grain, called 'rice', are Rs.1,000 to 1,300/ quintal (US $ 80-110). Table 11.5 compares prices of chenopods with other local commodities, computed from a local market survey. These data

Table 11.4: Yield assessment of chenopod grains from farmers' fields Part A: Chenopodium and potato, mixed crop Area Chenopod grains Potato tubers

Density Yield Density Yield (plants/mz) (q/ha) (plants/mz) (q/ha)

Rashkar 3 4.3 5 123.6 Chirgaon 1 2.6 4 119.4 Jana 1 2.6 4 144.2 Kapree 1 3.4 4 154.1

Part B: Per plant yield of four chenopod cultivars in farmers' fields

Chenopod cultivars* Grain yield per plant (g) Range Mean

Black cultivar 20- 70 25 Brown cultivar 15- 90 35 Red cultivar 25 -105 39 Earthen cultivar 10 -126 46

* Chenopodium cultivars, from Partap and Kapoor (1985b). indicate that chenopods could be a good cash crop for mountain farmers. Current prices for quinoa grain, marketed by many food stores, are as high as US $ 660 per quintal, which reveals the tremendous commercial scope for this food crop. However, much scientific effort will be required to improve and raise the chenopod crop in the Himalayan region up to a level commensurate with that enjoyed by quinoa in the Andes.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE

The nutritional components of chenopods are compared with those of other food grains in Table 11.6. The data reveals that the Himalayan chenopod is similar in nutrient composition to the Andean quinoa. The absence of sapon- ins, tested both organolyptically and through biochemical analysis (Table 11.7) is an advantage compared with quinoa. The protein content is much higher T. Pratap 175

Table 11.5 : A market survey of farm harvest prices of local produce vis-a-vis chenopods (in 1986)

Crop Price range per quintal Mean value (Indian Rupees)

Rice 250 - 350 & 400 - 600 300 & 500 (high quality). (high quality) Wheat 180 - 250 215 Maize 150- 200 175 Barley 150- 190 170 Amaranth 425 - 475 450 Buckwheat 350 - 400 375 Chenopods (non-milled) 600 - 800 700 Chenopods (milled) 1000 -1300 1150 Gram 500 - 550 525 Rape 550 - 600 575 Mustard 550 - 600 575 Tobacco 350 - 400 375 Potatoes 100 - 250 (table potatoes) 175 Pea 350- 500 (green pea, off-season veg.) 425 Apple 200- 600 (mean of all varieties) 400 Finger millet 80 - 150 115 Naked barley 200 - 275 237 Cannabis seeds 400 - 450 425 Caraway seed 4000 -6000 than that of cereals such as corn, rice, barley and wheat. Even more important is the quality of the protein, exhibiting a good balance of amino acids. Chenopod grains, like quinoa, are exceptionally high in lysine content, a key essential amino acid that is not widely present in vegetables. These two grains are clearly superior in lysine compared to other cereal grains and comparable to major animal food sources. Both exhibit a better essential sulphur-bearing amino acid content being relatively higher in methionine and cysteine, which are particularly necessary for the largely vegetarian dietary habit of Indians, and complement their amino-acid deficient legume diets. Minerals such as phosphorus, calcium and iron are present in an appre- ciable quantity that is comparable to that of other food grains (Table 11.8). The goodly amount of high quality protein in the young shoots and leaves of the chenopod plant, makes it a promising leaf-protein crop (Carlsson, 1980; Carlsson et al., 1985). Chenopods hold exceptional promise as an inexpensive source food for weaning infants in the nutritionally deficient mountain areas. While no single food can be expected to supply all the essential life- sustaining nutrients, chenopods come closer to this ideal than any other item in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. This protein-rich food crop is greatly needed for mountain agriculture. 176 Mountain Agriculture

Table 11.6: Food value comparison of the Himalayan grain chenopods with other crops

Parameter Himalayan Quinoa Amaranth Wheat Barley Rice Maize Finger grain millet chenopods

Proteins, % 16.0 15.0 16.0 12.0 11.0 6.8 11.1 7.3 Carbohyd- rates, % 66.0 68.0 62.0 69.0 69.0 78.0 66.0 72.0 Lipids, % 7.0 5.0 8.0 1.7 1.3 0.5 3.6 1.3 Minerals, % 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.7 1.2 0.6 1.5 2.7 Energy, kcal/ 100 g 395 391 376 341 336 345 328 328 Amino acids, g/100 g protein Leucine 5.7 6.5 4.7 5.8 7.5 8.5 13.0 Isoleucine 3.3 5.8 3.0 3.3 4.0 4.5 4.1 Lysine 6.0 6.0 5.0 2.2 3.0 3.8 2.9 Arginine 6.9 6.7 6.6 3.6 3.8 3.7 2.9 Histidine 1.8 2.6 2.5 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.8 Methionine 2.2 2.2 4.0 2.1 3.2 3.0 3.4 Phenylalanine 4.1 3.2 6.4 4.2 8.2 8.4 6.4 Threonine 4.0 3.9 2.99 2.8 3.2 3.9 2.7 Valine 4.0 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.7 6.7 5.6 Tyrosine 3.2 3.2 6.4 8.6 8.2 9.1 4.6 Cysteine 1.2 1.5 4.0 3.7 3.7 3.0 3.4

Source : The Himalayan grain chenopods, Partap and Kapoor (1987) ; Quinoa, Cardozo and Tapia. In: Tapia et al. (1979), Wood (1985) ; Amaranth, Carlsson (1979); and Other crops of India, Gopalan and Balasubramanium (1966). Note: Dashes indicpte that no data could be found by the author although these nutrients may be present.

Table 11.7: Saponin and tannin content of the Himalayan grain chenopods

Chenopod cultivars Tannins, % tannic acid Saponins, mm

Mean S.D. Method-1 Method-2 Froth formation Haemolysis of RBC on (foam production) blood agar plate

Black chenopod cult. 0.544 ± 0.009 NIL NIL Brown chenopod cult. 0.529 ± 0.014 NIL NIL Red chenopod cult. 0.565 ± 0.010 NIL NIL Earthen chenopod cult. 0.437 ± 0.027 NIL NIL Standard of saponin 0.1% - 2 2.5 0.5% - 9 13 1.0%a - 22 30 T. Pratap 177

AGRONOMY

The Himalayan grain chenopods are intimately associated with mixed cropping, which is popular in mountain areas. They are cultivated with a variety of mixtures, as shown in Table 11.9, in various mixed cropping patterns such as multistorey cropping, strip cropping, companion cropping and standard mixed cropping. The seeds are generally broadcast after the primary crop has been sown in furrows. No extra care is given to the chenopod crop since hoeing and weeding of the major crop suffices.. Thinning of the chenopod is done when the plants are tender enough to use as a pot herb. At no other stage are the leaves plucked for consumption. Harvesting and post-harvesting processes have already been described by Partap and Kapoor (1985a). Chenopods are a summer crop and generally sown in April at higher altitudes and in May and June in the valleys. The cultivars differ in length of time taken to reach the anthesis stage-from 50 to 100 days. Similarly, days from planting to harvesting vary from 90 to 135. Planted side by side in experimental plots, the Himalayan grain chenopods were found to have a faster growth cycle than the Andean quinoa varieties. The germination behaviour of the Himalayan grain chenopod cultivars indicates good adaptation to a wide range of photo-thermoperiodic conditions (Figure 11.4). Because the non-dormant seeds germinate quickly and synchro- nously even at low temperatures (3-5°C), they are suited for mountain condi- tions. These seeds also germinated satisfactorily in salt concentrations below 0.1 molar. Himalyan grain chenopods exhibit a wide yield potential (Figure 11.5; also Table 11.4). Under marginal farmland conditions, the yield is low but can be increased tenfold on removing edaphic constraints. Table 11.4 and Figure 11.5 (as also Table 11.9.) reveal another noteworthy feature-the low chenopod plant density maintained by farmers; however, optimum yields were obtained at even lower densities under experimental conditions. This indicates the perfect adaptation of this crop for mixed farming, a fact farmers no doubt learned through experience. In marginal farmlands of the mountains the chenopod crop could give relatively better yields even under low nutrient conditions (Partap and Kapoor, in press). Mycorrhizal associations have been reported (Thakur, 1981), and may enable these plants to utilise soil phosphorus effectively. The foregoing agronomic features make chenopods one of the most appro- priate crops for mountain agriculture. Not only is this crop adaptable to various agroclimatic conditions, farming systems and land types, but it promises a solution to widespread malnutrition in mountain areas and their economic improvement. 178 Mountain Agriculture

Table 11.8: Comparative mineral values of selected cereals (mg/100 g)

Himalayan grain Quinoa Wheat Yellow White chenopods corn rice

Calcium 139.0 141.0 36.0 6.0 8.0 Phosphorus 452.0 449.0 224.0 207.0 143 Iron 6.5 6.6 4.6 3.7 1/m Copper 0.2 Zinc 0.2

Source : Except for the Himalayan grain chenopods, values are cited from Cusack (1984).

Table 11.9: A Survey of farmers' fields for chenopod associated common mixed-crop combinations in the northwest Himalayan region

Crop-1 Density, Crop-2 Density, Crop-3 Density, Crop-4 Density, per sq m per sq m per sq m per sq m

Chenopods 1 Finger 47' - - - - millet Chenopods 1 Potatoes 4 - - - - Chenopods 1.4 Maize 5.6 - - - - Chenopods 1.2 Upland rice 41' - - - - Chenopods 2 Finger millet' 45 Amaranth 1.8 - - Chenopods 1.2 Finger millet 46' Setaria 1.8 - - Chenopods 2.4 Upland rice' 511 Sesame2 1.5 - - Chenopods 1 Paddy rice' 29t Sesame 1 - - Chenopods 1 Upland rice 511 Soybean 0.6 - - Chenopods 1.4 Colocasia Yam 5.2 Setaria' 1.2 - - Chenopods 1.3 Maize 4.2 Amaranth 1.3 Cowpeal 3.3 Chenopods 1.8 Finger millet 40` Setaria 2.1 Black 2.5 grams Chenopods 25 (pure cropping) - - - - -

Note: t, includes tillers; 1, Eleusine coracana; 2, Sesamum indicum; 3, Setaria italica; 4, Vigna un- guiculata; 5, Phaseolus mungo; 6, grown in dry, sloping fields, not watered; 7, grown in watered fields.

GENETIC EROSION AND NEED FOR CONSERVATION

Information on the long history of chenopod cultivation and use, its signifi- cance to local people, its high nutritive value and its promising agronomic potential should draw the attention of researchers, funding agencies, national agriculture programmes and farmers, to this crop and to its conservation and development. The rapid ongoing decline in cultivation and use of this food crop is due not to any lack in food value or agronomic attributes, but is the result of wholesale changes in agricultural practices in farming communities. Chenopodium in the Himalayan region is essentially a crop of a subsistence- 100

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Figure 11.4: Germination behaviour of grain chenopods under various physical conditions, storage period, temperature, light and heat. 180 Mountain Agriculture

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agriculture system and its potential has yet to be harnessed as a suitable crop for the expanding commercial agriculture and urban-oriented food habits. The decline in chenopod cultivation and in the subsistence-agriculture system ap- pear synchronous. If the crop is to be retained and promoted for future agri- culture, a comprehensive programme of conservation and development, like the one proposed by Partap and Kapoor (1987), will have to be undertaken to bring grain chenopods in line with changing circumstances.

FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR CHENOPODS IN WORLD AGRICULTURE The chenopod crop is currently confined to the Andes in South America and, to a lesser degree, the Himalayas. Of the two Latin American species, C. quinoa Willd. and C. pallidicaule Aellen, the former is widely cultivated throughout the Andean region and its high nutritive value and promising crops potential is also very well documented (Tapia et al., 1979). In fact, the chenopod crop is only known to the world as quinoa and it is this species the IBPGR (1982) classified as a high regional priority crop. Another species, C. nuttaliae ('huauzontle'), was extensively grown by the Aztecs in Central America but has reportedly disappeared from present-day Mexican agriculture (Cusack,1984). Efforts are currently underway to develop and promote chenopods as a major food crop in the Andes (Tapia et al., 1979; Wood, 1985). Possibilities for introducing Chenopodium into British agriculture and into Scandinavian countries as food, feed or a leaf-protein crop are at various stages of exploration (Risi and Galway, 1984; Carmen, 1984; Carlsson, 1980). However, the most promising reports have come from the Quinoa Corporation and Sierra Blanca Associates of the United States. These two organisations are promoting chenopod grain as a future protein-rich food for urban societies both through imports and cultivation in the Colorado mountain area (Wood, 1985; Quinoa Corporation and Sierra Blanca Associates-personal communication).

REFERENCES

Atkinson, E.T. 1980. The Himalayan Gazetteer, vol. I, pt. II. Reprint by Cosmos Publ., New Delhi, 696 pp. Cardozo, A. and M. Tapia. 1979. Valor nutritivo, pp. 149-182. In: La Quinoa Y la Kaniwa : Cultivos Andinos. Eds. Mario Tapia, Humberto Gandarillas, Segundo Alandia, Armando Cardozo, Angel Mujica, Rene Ortiz, Victor Otazu, Julio Rea, Basilio Salas and Eulogi6 Zanabria. CIID and IICA, Bogota, Colombia. Carlsson, R. 1979. Quality and quantity of Amaranthus grain from plants in temperate, cold, hot and subtropical climates-a review. Proceedings of the Second Amaranth Conference, 1979. Rodale Press Inc., Emmaus, PA, USA. Carlsson, R. 1980. Quantity and quality of leaf protein concentrates from Atriplex hortensis L., Chenopodium quinoa Willd., and Amaranthus caudatus L., 182 Mountain Agriculture

grown in Southern Sweden, Acta Agric. Scandinavica, vol. 30, pp. 418-426. Carlsson, R., P. Hanczakowski, P. Kapoor, T. Partap, K.S. Mathew and Avr. Atul. 1985. Chenopodium in India, a food crop for the production of leaf protein concentrates. Proceedings of the International Conference of Leaf Protein Research. Nagoya Univ., Togocho, Japan, Aug. 22-24,1985. Carmen, M.L. 1984. Acclimatization of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and canihua (C. pallidicaule Aellen) to Finland, Ann. Agric. Fenn., vol. 23, pp. 135-144. Church, A.H. 1886. Food Grains of India. Science Hand Book, South Kensington Museum, London. CIR. 1961. Census of India Report-Himachal Pradesh, vol. XX, pt. VI, no. I. CIR. 1971. Census of India Report-Himachal Pradesh, vol. XX, pt. VI, no. I. CIR. 1981. Census of India Report-Himachal Pradesh, vol. XX, pt. VI, no. I. Collett, H. 1902. Flora Simalensis, 3rd ed., 1971. Reprinted by Bishen Singh- Mahendrapal Singh Publ., Dehra Dun, India, 416 pp. Cusack, D.F. 1984. Quinoa: Grain of the Incas, The Ecologist, vol. 14, pp. 21-31. Duthie, J.F. 1915. Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. Reeve, Kent, U.K. vol. III, pt. I, p.23. Gopalan, G. and S.C. Balasubramanium. 1966. The Nutritive Value of Indian Foods and the Planning of Satisfactory Diets. Special Report Series No. 42, 6th ed. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi. Grierson, A. J. C. and D.G. Long. 1984. Flora of the Bhutan, Including a Record of Plants from Sikkim. Royal Botanical Gardens, , vol. I, pt. II, pp. 217- 218. Hooker, J.D. 1852. Himalayan Journal, vol. I, p. 386. Hooker, J.D. 1885. The Flora of British India, vol. V. Reeve, Kent, UK. IBPGR. 1982. International Bureau for Plant Genetic Resources, Annual Reports. Rome. Kangra, D.G. 1897. Gazetteer of Kangra District: Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti, pt. II to IV. Punjab Government, Lahore, p. 84. Nabhan, G.P. 1985. Native crop diversity in Aridoamerica: Conservation of regional gene pools, Econ. Bot., vol. 39, pp. 387-399. Partap, T. 1982. Cultivated Grain Chenopods of Himachal Pradesh: Distribu- tion, Variations and Ethnobotany. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Biosciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India. Partap, T.1986. Conservation of under-exploited plant resources of hill agro- ecosystems of the Himalayas. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Biological Diversityand Genetic Resources of Under-Exploited Plants. Common- wealth Science Council, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Surrey, UK, Oct. 19- 24,1986. Partap, T. and P. Kapoor.1985a. The Himalayan grain chenopods.I. Distribu- tion and ethnobotany, Agric. Ecosystems Environ., vol. 14, pp. 185-199. Partap, T. and P. Kapoor. 1985b. The Himalayan grain chenopods. II. Com- parative morphology, Agric. Ecosystems Environ. vol. 14, pp. 201-220. T. Pratap 183

Partap, T. and P. Kapoor (in press). The Himalayan grain chenopods. III. Under-exploited food plants with promising potential, Agric. Ecosystems Environ. Partap, T. and P. Kapoor (in press). Using folk lore a tool in ethnobotanical investigations: A case study, Ethnobiol. Partap, T. and P. Kapoor (in press). The Himalayan grain chenopods. IV. Nutrient requirements, Agric. Ecosystems Environ. Partap, T. and M.D. Upadhya (in press). The Himalayan grain chenopods: Floral variations and their role in seed formation, Agric. Ecosystems Environ. Risi, J.C. and N.W. Galway. 1984. The Chenopodium grains of the Andes: Inca crops for modern agriculture, Adv. Appl. Biol., vol. 10, pp. 145-195. Roxburg, W. 1832. Flora Indica: Description of Indian Plants, vol. II, p. 58. Serampore, W. Thacker and Co., Calcutta with Allen and Co., London. Sauer, J.D. 1967. The grain Amaranthus and its relatives, a revised taxonomic and geographic survey, Ann. Bot. Garden, vol. 54, pp. 103-137. Singh, H. and T.A. Thomas. 1978. Grain Amaranthus, Buckwheat and Ch- enopods. Indian Coun. Agric. Res. Series, New Delhi. Stewart, J. L. 1869. Punjab Plants, p. 179. Reprint, 1969. Bishen Singh-Mahen- drapal Singh Publ., Dehra Dun, India. Tapia, M., H. Gandarillas, S. Alandia, A. Cardozo, A. Mujica, R. Ortiz, V. Otazu, J. Rea, B. Salas and E. Zanabria (eds.) 1979. La Quinoa y La Kanizua: Cultivos Andinos. CIID and IICA, Bogota, Colombia Thakur, K.C. 1981. Studies on the Mycorrhizal Association in the Chenopodium sp. M. Phil. Thesis, Biosciences Dept., HP Univ., Shimla, India. Thomson, T. 1852. Western Himalaya and Tibet, pp. 49-50. Reprint. Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Watt, J. 1893. Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Reprint. Today and Tomorrow Publ., New Delhi. Wood, R.T. 1985. Tale of the food survivor: Quinoa, East-West J., April, 1985, pp. 63-67.

CHAPTER 12

Crop Genetic Resources of the Nepalese Mountains

A.N. Bhattarai, B.R. Adhikary and K.L. Manandhar

INTRODUCTION

Crop genetic resources constitute one of the important gifts of nature to mankind. Today, plant scientists have understood the importance of this resource and collection, evaluation and use of land races of various crops are being carried out by national and international agencies in various parts of the world. Although Nepal is a small country, tremendous topographical variations have created numerous mini-environmentswithin the country. Various crops, namely, rice, maize, wheat, potato, finger millet, barley, buckwheat, amaran- thus and many types of legume crops are grown in Nepal. Considerable variation in several plant characters has been noted among the land races collected from some crops. However, a detailed collection of the local germplasm of the various crops grown throughout the country has yet to be done in Nepal. This must be done in the near future; otherwise we might lose the local genetic resources of some crops in which high yielding improved varieties are effectively replacing local varieties.

NEPALESE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT

Descriptions of mountain environments and farming systems in,Nepal have been, provided elsewhere in the present volume. However, some of the physical factors affecting crop adaptation and diversity in Nepal are briefly reviewed here. Just recently (1986) the country was divided into five physiographic regions (Land Resources Mapping Project), namely: High Himal, High Mountains, 186 Mountain Agriculture

Middle Mountains, Siwaliks and Terai. The first four regions comprise moun- tains and a thumbnail sketch of each is presented below. High Himal: This region comprises high Himalayan areas above 4,000 in, almost permanently covered with snow. Agriculture is not possible. High Mountains: This region is characterised by high mountains (below 4,000 m) with steep slopes and narrow valleys (over 2,000 m). Cultivation extends from the valley floor to 2,500 or 2,700 in in the less steeply sloping areas. Steeper areas are forested with some alpine pasture found above the , which is generally used for migratory summer grazing. The bedrock is highly metamorphosed and the soils widely variable. Most of the rivers are perennial and originate from glaciers. Low rainfall intensity has increased the demand for arable land and sustainable agricultural production. The latter is heavily concentrated in irrigated valleys and supported by nutrients obtained through compost collection and droppings of grazing cattle. The effects of micro-climatical variations related to aspect, elevation and shading are very pronounced in these areas. The climate in this region is cool temperate, with monthly mean minimum temperatures below freezing for five months of the year. Snow occurs in the winter months and persists on the mountain tops through winter. Precipita- tion is much lower than in the Middle Mountain region and concentrated in July, August and September. Humidity regime varies from semi-arid in the valley bottoms to humid in some of the highest areas. Middle Mountains: Areas within the Mahabharat range are included here and characterised by moderately high mountains (peaks of 1,500 to 2,500 m) and steep, narrow valleys. Geologically the region comprises moderately metamorphosed sedimentary materials. Soils are highly variable. Slopes of up to 30° are terraced using traditional methods. Most of the terrace systems are extremely old and have a strong effect on pedological development. Climate is warm temperate with occasional snow in the highest areas in winter. Frost occurs from the first week of December to the third week of February, causing severe damage to young crops and moderate to light damage to mature crops. Siwaliks: The outmost Himalayan foothills, paralleling the southern border of Nepal, are known as the Siwaliks, which reach an elevation of 1,800 in but in most places range from 300 to 1,500 in. Soils are shallow and drought prone; hence cultivation is very limited in this region.

Climate The climate in Nepal varies from sub-tropical to alpine within a short distance due to tremendous topographical variation in altitude (60 in to more than 8,000 masl). This factor together with direction of mountain slope and wind direction has created numerous mini-environments for crop growth. The average annual rainfall over the country is estimated as 1,600 mm, about 80% occurring during the June-September monsoon period. Mean A.N. Bhattarai et al. 187 annual precipitation varies from almost 200 mm in the rain shadow area near the Tibetan plateau to 4,500 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna range, with a maximum year-to-year variation within five years of 380 to 1810 mm in the same location. The southeast monsoon brings heavy precipitation, which reaches the foothills of eastern Nepal in early June and central and western Nepal progressively later. The initial monsoon rains are received in the far western part as late as July, with less overall precipitation. Winter rains enter Nepal from the western mountains and travel eastward. Most of the winter rainfall occurs from December to February. The snow line lies around 2,500 m during winter. Snow rarely falls below the 1,500 m level. It remains much longer on the shaded north slopes than on the south slopes. Farmers make use of this fact since irrigation water is released at a slow and steady pace. Many of the higher snow fields supply irrigation water to the lower agricultural land throughout most of the year. Maximum temperature during summer varies from 38°C in warm river valleys to 25°C in Mustang (3,705 masl) and Namche Bazaar (3,450 masl), with May the warmest month. Minimum temperatures vary from - 26°C in Mustang to almost freezing point in Surkhet (720 masl). The total number of rainy days varies from 28 in Mustang to 167 days in Lumle, with a year-to-year range of 24 to 181 days. The total annual hours of sunshine ranges from 922 hours at Kakani to 2,820 hours at Surkhet. Since most of the cultivated land (86%) is rainfed, the most important factor for agricultural production in Nepal is the rainfall. Both total precipitation and its distribution are important. Unfortunately, the monsoon is very erratic in Nepal, causing farmers great anxieties. For example, the annual rainfall at Tansen (1,345 masl) ranges from 380 to 1,810 mm.

Soils Sandy or boulder soils occur in the inner Terai, which support the forest near the Siwalik range. Soils originating from these weathered soft rocks are characterised by a high degree of porosity and poor slope stability is a common problem, especially in the Siwaliks. Soils of the Churia Range (elevation 300- 1,200 m) have developed on sedimentary rocks and cover moderately to strongly dissected hills, mostly under forest vegetation. Soils of the hill lands (elevation 300-1,500 m) have developed mainly on metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. In steep and very steep dissected areas the soils are usually eroded and stony. Soils of the river valleys (elevation 300- 1,400 m) have developed on a series of river terraces of alluvial deposits and lacustrine sediments. Lacustrine soil with top clay soil is the second most important type and found in Kathmandu and Pokhara valley. Soils of mountain lands (elevation 1,500-5,000 m) have developed primar- ily on igneous and metamorphosed rocks. These soils are shallow, stony and rocky. Most of the land is under forest and grasses. The glacial soil group is found in the Himalayan region. 188 Mountain Agriculture

Mountain soil is moderately to strongly acidic and its contents of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium vary from low to medium, representing low to medium soil fertility. Physical, demographic and agricultural data for the mountains of Nepal are summarised in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1: Physical, demographic and agricultural indicators for the Nepalese mountains (1979-1981)

Physical area (kmz) 109 ,410 Cultivable land ('000 ha) 1 ,635 Population (number) 8,460, 926 Population density (number/kmz) 77 Persons per hectare of cultivable land 5 Cereal grains production (tonnes) 936, 191 Cereal grains per capita (kg) 111 Edible food grain production (tonnes) 815 , 000 Requirement (tonnes) 1 , 146 ,000 Food balance (tonnes) H331 ,000 Consumption of fertiliser (tonnes) 26 , 096 Sale of improved seed (tonnes) 809 Sale pesticide (Rs*) 440,000 Sources: Nepal Agriculture Strategy Study 1982 ADB, Manila; Basic Statistics of Agricultural Inputs in Nepal, 1983, AIC, Nepal. * Nepalese rupees.

FOOD CROPS IN THE NEPALESE MOUNTAINS

The existence of numerous mini-environments, ranging from tropical to alpine, has enabled the farmers to grow many types of crops in the Nepalese mountains. Important food crops, their area in the mountains and in the country, percentage of mountain area and average crop yield in the country, are presented in Table 12.2. It can be seen from Table 12.2 that maize covers the maximum area in the mountains, followed by rice, wheat, finger millet, buckwheat, horse gram, soybean, potato, mustard And barley. Other important food crops covering a substantial area in the mountains are: amaranthus, black gram, lentil, ground- nut and sugar cane. Crops of the sub-tropical belt include rice, maize, finger millet, sugarcane, soybean and several pulses, with cultivars adapted up to 2,000 m. The uppermost altitude limits for various crops are presented in Table 12.3. Many crops, such as wheat, barley, potato, are grown even above 3,00 masl in the summer season. Since all the food crops grown at higher altitudes can be grown at lower altitudes in the winter, their lower altitude limits are not important, except for some fruit and vegetable crops and those for which chilling is a requirement for flowering. A.N. Bhattarai et al. 189

Buckwheat, soybean and finger millet are almost exclusively hill crops are rarely grown in the Terai. A very high percentage of hill area is placed under barley, potato and maize. Groundnut was strictly a hill crop in the past but

Table 12.2: Major food crops of Nepal (1984-1985 season )

Crop Total crop Area in hills % total crop Average area mountains area in hills crop yield ('000 ha) ('000 ha) and mountains (kg/ha)

Maize 579 450 77.88 1,421 Rice 1,377 327 18.50 2,016 Wheat 452 186 41.24 1,239 Finger millet 134 124 92.01 913 Buckwheat 43 43 100.00 540 Potato 49 37 75.56 5,164 Mustard 105 27 25.40 570 Barley 28 23 84.62 799 Horse gram 21 9 43.00 380 Soybean 18 18 100.00 550 Lentil 44 2 4.54 380 Groundnut 4 3 75.00 1,500 Black gram 16 8 50.00 370 Sugarcane 14 2 16.37 17,308 Chickpea 34 0.4 1.23 380 Pigeon pea 13 0.25 2.00 377 Field pea 11 3 27.27 383 Grass pea 49 0.6 1.00 380

Source: FAMSD, Nepal. 1986. Area and Production of Major Crops. K.O. Rachie and M.P. Bharati. 1985. A Consultancy Report on Improvement of Pulses in Nepal.

Table 12.3: Approximate uppermost altitude limit for various crops in Nepal

Crop Altitude (m)

Sugar cane 1,000 Groundnut 1,000 Lentil 1,400 Rice 2,300 Soybean 2,300 Horse gram 2.000 Black gram 2,000 Mustard 2,000 Amaranthus 2,000 Buckwheat 3,000 Finger millet 2,500 Wheat (Grown as a summer crop up to 3,5(10 m) Barley 3,500 Potato 3,500 190 Mountain Agriculture farmers in,some Terai districts have recently begun sowing groundnut as a cash crop for the Vegetable Ghee Factory. A lower percentage of hill area is devoted to wheat, mustard and lentil while; at present; chickpea, pigeon pea and grass pea are not important hill crops. Many other crops are grown for human consumption in the Nepalese mountains and these, together with their, uses, are listed in Table 12.4; fruits, spices and vegetables have been omitted because too numerous to include. Fruits Almost every type of fruit can be grown in the Nepalese mountains. Fruit crops have a great potential for improving the economy of hill farmers. Tropical fruits, such as mango, lichi, papaya, banana, citrus, jackfruit, guava and pineapple could be profitably grown in the warmer mountain areas. These crops would not only provide farmers with a cash income, but would also play an important role in soil conservation. Other fruit crops with a high potential are temperate fruits, such as peach, plum, pea and persimmon, which grow well in the middle hill zone. In altitudes above 2,000 masl, apple, walnut, apricot, peach, plum and pear are important fruit crops.

Other Crops In addition to the above-listed food and fruit crops, the Nepalese mountains are potential regions for the production of valuable medicinal plants. Some commercially important medicinal plants have already been cultivated in various herbal farms situated at different agroclimatic conditions. In temper- ate climates (1,000 to 3,300 masl) the following species can be grown: Digitalis purpurea, D. tantan, Atropa belladonna and Chrysanthemum ceneraiaefolium. In tropical or sub-tropical climates (less than 1,000 masl) the following are good candidates: Rauwolfia serpentina, Cympopogon winterianus, C. martinii, Mentha ariensis and Dioseorea floribunua.

GENETIC VARIABILITY IN CROPS

Considerable variability exists not only in terms of the larger number of crop species but also in specific land races, as confirmed through field surveys and evaluations of material collected by various experimental stations. In fact, many of the cultivated crop species may have originated in this part of the world (Table 12.5). Characterisation of germplasm from Nepal has mainly concentrated on morphogenetic or agronomic characters, such as plant height, yield compo- nents, growth duration and others. Based on these characters, many crops have been classified as early, medium or late maturing, tall, intermediate or short, and so forth. Indepth studies are seriously lacking. Furthermore, only a few of the important cereal crops-rice, maize, wheat, barley, finger millet- have received attention to date. A.N. Bhattarai et al. 191

Table 12.4: Food crops grown in the Nepalese mountains, their importance and uses

Common name Botanical name Importance Uses

CEREALS Rice, paddy Oryza sativa Main staple food Boiled generally, many other p reparations Maize Zea mays L. Main staple food Roasted, flours used for 'Dhido' and other food preparation Wheat Triticum aestivum Main staple food Roasted, bread, local beer and other preparations Finger millet Eleusine coracana Main staple food Bread, Dhido and local beer preparation Barley Hordeum Main staple food 'Sattu' local beer and vulgare L. in high altitude other religious uses Sorghum Sorghum Minor Roasted or bread bicolor L. preparation Barnyard Echinochlos Minor Eaten like rice and used millet colona in puddings Fcatail millet Setaria italica Important in some Used as food or in bread- Beauv. areas decoration making also in basket making job's tear millet Coix lachryma Minor Food and feed Hog millet Panicum Minor Eaten like rice Proso miliaceum L. or made into bread

PSEUDO CEREALS Buckwheat Fagopyrum Staple food Bread or Dhido esculentum and other food Moench preparations Tatary buck- Fagopyrum Important -do- wheat tataricum food above Gearth 2,000 m Amaranthus Amaranthus sp. Important Roasted and used in many sweet preparations TUBER CROPS Potato Solanum Staple food Boiled or curried tuberisum L. in higher altitude and other preparations

Sweet Potato Ipomea batatas Important in lower Boiled or roasted and Lam. altitude other preparations Coco yam Colocasia -do- Boiled or mixed antiquorum var in vegetables esculenta Schott Ginger Zingiber Important in Spice, medicine and officinale local consumption other food preparation Rose as well as for exports Greater yam Dioscorea Minor Boiled, fried and mixed alata L. in other vegetables. Wild edible Dioscorea sp. Minor -do- yam

(Contd.) 192 Mountain Agriculture

Table 12.4 (Contd.)

Common name Botanical name Importance Uses

Lesser yam Dioscorea Minor -do- esculenta Burkill Cush-cush Dioscorea Minor -do- deloidea Wall. Air potato Dioscorea Minor -do- bulbifera Palmated Dioscorea pen- Minor Eaten boiled or cooked leaved yam taphylla L.

PULSES Soybean Glycine max Important legumes in Dry and green pods boil- (L) Merr. hills up to 2,000 m ed curried, fried or roasted Black gram Vigna Main pulse crop in Pulse soup and mungo L. mountains up other preparations to 2,000 m Cowpea Vigna Important for vege- Pulse soup, vegetable unguiculata table purpose curry and other preparations Lentil Lens culin- Main pulse in Terai Pulse soup aris Medic and some parts of mountains Groundnut Arachis Important Kernels roasted sweet hypogaea L. ened , or salted and used for making vegetable 'ghee' Horse gram Dolichos biflorus L. Important pulse Pulse soup or boiled Faba beans Vicia faba L. Important in Used as vegetable, some parts dried beans roasted Rice bean Vigna umbellata Minor Pulse soup, bread, fried Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan, Important pulse crop Pulse soup Mill sp. for consumption point of view Green gram Vigna radiata Not much in Pulse soup, green beans mountains as vegetables, fried Chickpea Cicer -do- Pulse soup, curried or arietinum L. fried; flour used in pre- paration of chips, cutlets and pakoras; water- soaked gram seeds consumed directly Peas Pisum Minor Pulses soup, curried or sativum L. fried; consumed as green seeds Common field Phaseolus Important Mainly as green vege- bean vulgaris in all areas table mixed pulse soup or in curried Broad bean Vicia faba L. Minor Vegetable or curried var. minor Guras bean Phaseolus sp. Minor Pulse soup A.N. Bhattarai et al. 193

Table 12.4 (Contd.)

Common name Botanical name Importance Uses

OIL CROPS Indian rape Brassica campestris Main oil crop Used as main cooking oil var toria and spice Yellow sarson Brassica Important oil crop Cooking oil and spice campestris var dichotoma Watt. Indian Brassica -do- Seed used as spice in mustard juncea Czern. making and Coss. pickles Sesame Sesamum -do- Cooking and religious indicum L. purposes; used in various types of food and soup and in making cosmetics Linseed Linunt Minor Preferably used as usitatissimum L. luminant oil and for industrial purposes Niger Guizotia Important Oil used for cooking abyssinica, Coss. food to some extent and seed used in making pickles Perilla Perilla frutescens Minor Oil used domestically Britt. for cooking; seed used in making pickles. Butter fruit Madhuca Important in some Used as 'ghee' or mixed butyracea pockets with animal 'ghee'

Table 12.5: Crop species for which Himalayan mountain regions considered the centre of origin or centre of diversity

Rice Oryza sativa Buckwheat Fagopyrum tataricum Fenugreek Trigonella foenumgraecum Tea Camellia sinensis Citron lemon Citrus medica Mango Magnifera indiea Cucumber Cucumis sativus Cinnamon Cinnamonum zeglanicum Garden pea Pisum sativum Moth Vigna aconitifolia Green gram Vigna radiata

Rice Rice is not only the most important crop economically, but also genetically. It probably originated in eastern Nepal or adjacent areas in the eastern Hima- layas. Nearly 1,600 land races have been identified in Nepal. Although some are suspected duplicates, many more have yet to be collected. There may be roughly 2,000 different land races of rice existing in Nepal. These races exhibit 194 Mountain Agriculture a wide range of variability in terms of morphogenetic traits and adaptation to various environments. Some of the most important traits are as follows: Growth duration - Two to seven months Photoperiod - Non-sensitive to highly sensitive Plant height - Completely enclosed at maturity to fully exerted Grain type - Very fine to very coarse Rice has been adapted from the low tropical areas of the Terai to the temperate highlands (2,000 m) of western Nepal. While most of the rice is grown under lowland (wetland) conditions, many upland (dryland) types are found throughout the country. A broad spectrum of resistance to various diseases and insects has been observed in the rice varieties of Nepal, including resistance to bacterial blight, brown plant hopper and green leafhopper.

Maize Maize is the second most important crop in the country. Although a '' crop, maize has shown amazing adaptability in varying agro- ecological conditions and has influenced socio-economic aspects of the Nepalese people. Some archaeological evidence strongly indicates that this crop arrived in this region long before the European age of discovery (from 1500'A.D.). The history of the introduction and early cultivation of maize is not very clear. The stage of 75% silking varies in local collections from 55 to 70 days with an average of 61 to 65 days. The most common grain type is semi-flint (in 70% of the collections), followed by flint (25%) and semident (5%). Grain colour varies from yellow to white. Other characters, such as ear size and plant height, for example, likewise vary considerably.

Wheat This is the third most important food crop in Nepal (after rice and maize). Today most farmers use introduced improved cultivars and in many places the local land races have almost totally disappeared. But a significant area in the hills, particularly the western hills, is still covered with a variety of land races. Local land races are generally late maturing, low yielding and susceptible to diseases. Although attempts have been made to collect and study local land races, very little information is presently available on their relative perform- ance and diversity.

Barley Barley is an important cereal in the high hills of Nepal. Local barley varieties are mainly distinguished for spike characters. All collections show a spring A.N. Bhattarai et al. 195 growth habit. One notable characteristic of high hill varieties is the non- adhering. glume or huskless trait. Most varieties are six-rowed but there are also the so-called intermediate types in which the lateral kernels are markedly smaller than the central ones. Fluctuation in heading duration is notable when various varieties are exposed to differing environments. Height generally ranges from 70 cm to 115 cm. Most local barley collections mature very early and appear susceptible to stripe rust diseases.

Finger Millet Finger millet is grown throughout the hill areas of Nepal as an important cereal crop. Variations are observed in terms of spike characters (closed and open), days to panicle emergence (50 to 85 days), plant height, tillering ability, yield (from 1 to 5 tonnes/ha), grain colour, disease reactions, and others.

CONSERVATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES

The first major efforts in genetic exploration and conservation were under- taken in 1970 when the Department of Agriculture collected nearly 950 land races of rice from 55 districts in Nepal. The following year these were planted in Khumaltar, Parwanipur and Janakpur and studied for major morpho- agronomic characters, such as growth duration, plant characters and yield components. Further collections were then undertaken with the assistance of the International Rice Research institute (IRRI) in the Philippines. Rejuvena- tion studies are being conducted in Parwanipur (Nepal) under the National Rice Improvement Programme. The IRRI Gene Bank also maintains a set of collected Nepalese land races. Similar work is being done on other crops in Nepal, notably maize, wheat, finger millet and oilseeds. But these efforts of various national crop improvement programmes have included collections from only a few crops. An organised multi-crop collection project has been initiated under the aegis of the Agricultural Botany Division of the Agricul- ture Department since 1985. Collection of all the field crop seeds in Nepal has started, with a view to conservation as well as utilisation in varietal improve- ment activities. The Botany Department also intends to provide technical assistance and guidelines for similar activities to be undertaken by other agriculture research institutions in Nepal.

Exploration and Collection Various agro-ecological areas of Nepal have been surveyed for crop diver- sity as well as the threat of genetic erosion caused by the introduction of new crop varieties. Priorities are fixed each year for the collection of germplasm material from certain selected districts. The current official targets are four districts per year. Collection is done according to the standard format of the 196 Mountain Agriculture

International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). Some collections are carried out with the direct assistance of the IBPGR. Collection has concentrated on cereals, oilseed crops and vegetable crops. It has not been possible to collect plantation crops with vegetative propagation due to the problem of conservation.

Conservation Until recently, the various collecting institutions under the Agriculture Department rejuvenated their stock by planting every year. In addition to being expensive and laborious, this practice resulted in the loss of identifica- tion numbers several times. Now facilities exist in Khumaltar for the storage of 25,000 to 30,000 entries. A national accession number and accession data are assigned to each entry stored.

Characterisation Characterisation is the determination and listing of all those characters which are little influenced by environmental conditions. Area-specific char- acterisation is currently done by breeders, agronomists or persons utilising the material. This aspect of characterisation includes a large number of quan- titative characters and requires careful description of the locale, season and other environments together with plant data. This is being done for most crops, but a set of test sites, representative of each agro-ecological environment pre- vailing in the country, needs to be defined or established.

Utilisation/Breeding Programme The ultimate goal of conservation, characterisation and various other associated activities, is the utilisation of germplasm material for higher production of food, fibre and other necessities. The general objective of the breeding programmes set up in Nepal today is higher yield and better quality of products, combined with adaptations to adverse soil and climatic conditions and resistance to various insects and diseases. Local land races are likely to be the best sources of adaptation to the great variety of mini- environments in Nepal. Therefore, top priority must be given to selection within local materials. The Agriculture Department has established special programmes for the improvement of various important food crops and cash crops, such as rice, wheat, maize, finger millet, grain, legumes, potato, sugarcane, oilseeds, to- bacco and others. Although these programmes rely heavily on breeding materials introduced from international institutions, attempts are underway to utilise the local or indigenous gene base, to provide more adaptive and stable characteristics. Rice, wheat and maize programmes have used indige- nous varieties for many years. There are some promising advanced breeding lines for possible release in the near future. A.N. Rhattarai et al. 197

Some of the typical hill crops-finger millet, buckwheat, panicum millet, foxtail millet, barley, amaranthus=are under study by the Hill Crop Improve- ment Programme. Other crops, such as oilseeds, legumes, and vegetables are sent to various national programmes for evaluation and use. Seeds of the local land races in Nepal are provided free in limited quan- tities to any national or international scientist or research organisation upon request.

CURRENT AND POSSIBLE FUTURE ROLE FOR CROPS GROWN IN THE MOUNTAINS OF NEPAL

Rice, maize, wheat, finger millet, potato, barley, black gram, horse gram, cowpea and various types of beans are common staple foods in the Nepalese mountains. However, there is a food deficit of 330,000 million tonnes in this region. There is limited scope for increasing production in the mountains due to scarcity of cultivable land and a shortage of manure and compost. Further- more, the erosion problem is critical, with Nepal losing 250 billion m3 of fertile soil every year. But with good management, implementation of proper soil conservation methods, and use of chemical fertilisers, crop yield can definitely be aug- mented. Improved varieties of crops are going to play a very important role in the Nepalese mountains in the near future. But the above-listed crops alone will not greatly improve the life of these mountain people. Fruit and fodder trees and vegetable crops possess the potential for improv- ing the present mountain economy, by providing more income to the farmers. Almost every type of fruit and vegetable crop can be grown in the Nepalese mountains. However, many fruit crops perish easily and hence small indus- tries to handle various fruit products would have to be established. Produc- tion, establishment of fruit industries and marketing of fruits and fruit prod- ucts must be handled as an integrated project. Such a project would generate more work and income for the people in this belt. In altitudes above 2,000 m, apple, walnut, apricot, peach, plum and pear could play an important role in generating higher income. Very good quality apples are produced in the rain-shadow area of the western and far-western hills. Wherever there is scope for road facilities, apple should be encouraged. However, in areas where transport facilities are not feasible, high value, low weight and non-perishable crops, such as walnut and apricot, would be more practical. Various types of vegetables grow well in the Nepalese mountains, and could be grown in the off-season for the benefit of the farmers. Beans, tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, peas, onion, garlic and chillies are the most popular vegetables. 'Green vegetables could be canned when such are cheap in the market. 198 Mountain Agriculture

It has already been demonstrated that there is a vast potential for the vegetable seed industry in the hills. Many vegetable crops need cold climates for the production of seeds and Nepal offers many high-altitude areas ideal for this purpose. A properly established programme could enable the Nepalese mountain region to become a major source of seed for some parts of India and Bangladesh. Such a programme would be highly beneficial to the hill economy through the creation of job opportunities for farmers. An integrated programme of fruit orchard development, production of cereal and vegetable crops and a vegetable seed programme would make the Nepalese mountain farmers prosperous. A long-term integrated master plan with phase-wise programmes should be devised for each development area.

STRATEGIES FOR THE FUTURE

1) Collection of Local Germplasm Improved varieties of wheat, maize and rice have replaced the local varie- ties of these crops in about 90,30 and 30% of the crop area respectively. In other crops also improved varieties have slowly started to replace local land races. Local land races of various crops have to be collected and preserved before they are lost forever. This word is of top priority and a germplasm collection programme covering the entire country is urgently needed. The small germplasm unit in the Agriculture Botany Division has to be expanded and manpower, research facilities and sufficient money to run the programme provided to enable this unit to collect, evaluate, preserve and assist the crop development programme in utilising this germplasm wealth to develop high-yielding and better quality crop varieties in the future. Evaluation of the collected local germplasm has to be done in at least four locations: the Terai, sub-tropical hills, warm temperate middle hills and cool temperate mountain areas to enable scientists to know the response of the land races to various environments. The Crop Development Programme could utilise this collection of land races fof testing in hot spots for various diseases and insects. Some sets of this collection should be sent to various international institutes dealing with specific crops and other related centres for thorough evaluation of various characters of these land races. After thorough evaluation the land races could be categorised for possess- ing certain characters and preserved for future use.

2) Introduction of New Crops Crops with high economic values not grown in the Nepalese mountains should be introduced and evaluated for their various use. If these new crops A.N. Bhattarai et al. 199 show promise they should first be promoted in some suitable spots and then in similar environments. This is very important since we have already experi- enced how some new crops, such as maize, potato and finger millet, have already taken firm root in the mountains and become the most important crops here. High value, low weight and high labour-requiring crops should receive top priority.

3) Establishment of a Good Mountain Crops Research System A central mountain crops research station with land facilities representing sub-tropical to cool temperate climate should be established. Land should be categorised with altitude range. This station would be responsible for conduct- ing all types of research (adaptive, semi-basic and basic) for the mountain region. Other existing research stations in the mountain region would serve as sub-centres of this main station for conducting research and trials. This station would initiate and coordinate research with various national and international agencies.

4) Research on Farming System and Soil Conservation Agriculture is the way of life for mountain people and is based on an intricate farming system that depends upon the physiography, behaviour and habits of the people living in the area. Various farming systems have been established in accordance with the foregoing factors. Any change in one component should benefit the total farming system of the area. If this change disrupts the farming system or affects other components adversely, then it might not be very useful. The Himalayan ecosystem is very fragile and each new change should favourably improve or strengthen it. Thus all research and changes to be introduced in the mountains should give due consideration to these aspects.

5) International Cooperation on Mountain Research Information on research and development of mountain crops should be available to the scientists of various countries working on mountain agricul- ture. Cooperation and collaboration among scientists would produce desir- able quick results for the development of mountain agriculture. The following steps are important for such cooperation and collaboration: a) Exchange of germplasm and information: An information and seed exchange programme among various institutions and scientists working on mountain agriculture should be given due consideration and priority. ICIMOD should take the responsibility of publishing and distributing mountain research news and mountain research journals. Publication of these would improve dissemination of information among scientists and development workers. 200 Mountain Agriculture

ICIMOD could establish a small unit to facilitate a seed exchange pro- gramme among the mountain countries of the world. b) Mountain crop seminar: Gatherings of this type would enable scientists from various corners of the world to come into personal contact. Were such seminars organised every year of two, they would prove very beneficial to mountain crop research. c) Exchange visits: Scientists working in various mountain systems should exchange visits to facilitate indepth contact and to exchange ideas. CHAPTER 13 Mountain and Upland Agriculture Genetic Resources in Thailand

Chantaboon Sutthi

INTRODUCTION

This paper reviews the agricultural practices and crop genetic resources used in the mountains and uplands of Thailand. Information on some of the inhabitants is provided, indigenous farming systems are described, and an inventory of cultivated plants and the wide range of uses to which they are put is presented. It is my opinion that the contemporary impact of market forces and development projects combined with the diminishing availability of land have led to a type of agricultural impoverishment. Farmers are less able to find virgin forest to clear or to maintain fallow periods exceeding ten years. As a result, they have had to rely less on nutrients released from the biomass and more on labour-intensive methods. The move from subsistence to com- mercial farming has also been a move from complex multiple cropping systems to simple, if highly demanding, monocropping regimes. Conse- quently, the range of species cultivated has decreased. This move from diversification to specialisation of crops is also evident in the loss of varietal diversity. For example, fewer varieties of rice are grown today than in the past. Development of more commercial forms of farming has brought more work for farmers, greater dependence on markets over which they have no control, and a decline in the utilisation of domesticated genetic resources.

PEOPLES

The term 'chao khao' is used in Thailand to designate highland minorities, otherwise known as hill tribes, whose relatively isolated communities are 202 Mountain Agriculture

scattered over the north and northwest mountains of the country. The principal ethnic groups represented are the Karen, Meo, Lahu, Yao, Akha, Lisu, Htin, Lua and Khamu. Historians believe that among these minorities the Lua are indigenous to northern Thailand. They were well settled before the Thai set up kingdom in the 1200s. The Karen, apparently, were the first minority group to settle in any number in Thailand at the end of the Ayudhaya Era, about 2000 years ago. They entered Thailand from the west through Kanchanaburi Province. The Karen were followed over 100 years later by the Meo and Yao, who came from China via Vietnam and Laos. The Lahu, Akha and Lisu migrated from Burma. The Htin and Khamu have apparently been settled since time immemorial in the border strip between Laos and Thailand in Nan Province. The Lisu were the last group to enter Thailand, about 70 years ago. These people first settled in the montane border area between Thailand, Burma and Laos and gradually moved deeper into Thailand. The old village sites were reoccupied by those who followed. The eleven provinces in which 87% of the highlanders live are all in the north and northwest. The total hill tribe population figure compiled by the Tribal Research Institute up to 1986 is 530,299 persons. Among these, the Karen make up the largest and the Khamu the smallest group as shown in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1: Hill tribe population of Thailand in 1986

Tribe Population % of tribal population

Karen 265,611 50.09 Meo 80,082 15.10 Lahu 58,696 11.07 Yao 35,505 6.69 Akha 33,625 6.34 Lisu 24,013 4.53 Htin 16,219 3.06 Lua 8,566 1.62 Khamu 7,982 1.50

Source: Tribal Research Institute, Chiang'Mai.

The tribal peoples can be divided into two groups according to geo- graphic distribution. First, the low hill and high valley peoples comprise the Karen, Lua, Htin and Khamu. These groups have always preferred to establish their communities well below the 1,000 m contour in dry ever- green forest, an ecotype which thrives above the 400 m contour. Second, the real highlanders, who in the past preferred to live at higher altitudes of 1,000 to 1,500 m in hill evergreen forest, comprise the Meo, Yao, Lisu, Lahu and Akha. Chantaboon Sutthi 203

These two groups are distinguished by quite different methods of culti- vation. The highland group, who in the past relied on opium as their principal cash crop, have traditionally followed a form of shifting cultivation known as pioneer swiddening. The low hill and valley peoples maintain stable com- munities based mainly on cyclical swiddening. The Lua and Karen supple- ment this form of cultivation with irrigated rice terraces.

MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURE

High altitude agriculture is a type of slash and burn or swidden cultivation, an ancient form of farming widely practised by forest dwellers all over the world. There are many reasons why highlanders engage in this type of cultivation and experts deny neither its efficient use of labour and land nor the fact that under low population pressures it is an ecologically informed system of management. There are two quite distinct swidden systems used in the highlands of Thailand, namely, pioneer and cyclical.

Pioneer Swiddening This comprises slash and burn cultivation, primary forest swiddening, primary forest cultivation, shifting cultivation. This pattern of cultivation is conducted by felling and burning the primary forest and growing crops on the cleared land for as long as possible. The cultivation period may vary from one to twenty years, depending on fertility levels and soil composition. When the soil is exhausted, or weeds, disease or pests become a problem, a new area, preferably virgin forest, is sought. This type of cultivation makes it necessary to move on forever. Pioneer swiddening, as followed by the Meo, Yao, Akha, Lisu and Lahu, requires primary forest. In Thailand, between 15 and 20% of all highlanders grow opium as their main cash crop under pioneer swiddening. Opium is particularly suited to the cooler northern montane climate at about 1,000 m. The cultivated area covers the main watershed catchments, which give rise to the four most important tributaries of the Chao Phraya-Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan-which provide the principal source of irrigation for the central plains. It is feared that highlanders who practise shifting cultivation place the national catch- ment at risk. This fear, and the undesirable cultivation of opium, pushed the government to start development work in the 1960s. Development work was begun by the Department of Public Welfare, which falls under the administrative control of the Ministry of the Interior. The objectives of these early projects were to stop watershed destruction, to settle pioneer swiddeners on permanent sites and to promote a new model of cultivation, including extension of crops to replace opium. In 1965 the Royal Forestry Department started reforestation work which continues to this day. 204 Mountain Agriculture

Cyclical Swiddening This comprises secondary forest cultivation, secondary forest swiddening, bush fallowing, continuing cultivation, bush fallow rotation, recurrent cul- tivation, rotational bush fallow, cyclical bush fallow and land rotation. This form of cultivation is also a type of slash and burn which allows the vegetation to regenerate for subsequent clearing. This method provides a basis for the permanent settlement of communities of Karen, Lua, Htin and Khamu. These people move far less frequently than pioneer swiddeners. Some Karen, for instance, have occupied their village sites for over 200 years. The period for which land is used is largely determined by the cultural preferences of the occupying group. The Htin and Lua prefer to use fields for one year, after which they are abandoned to allow vegetation to regenerate. One sub-group of the Htin are forbidden by custom to cultivate the same plot of land for more than one year. The length of fallow depends not only on custom; soil fertility, how much land the community has available and the intensity of cultivation are also taken into account. However, high population densities may make it necessary to return and clear the land before the natural vegetation has regenerated a biomass and nutrient bank of sufficient magnitude to ensure healthy plant growth. There are three types of land tenure traditionally followed by cyclical swiddeners: communal estates, mixed public and private tenure, and private ownership. Communal estates: All farmland belongs to the community. No one may buy or sell it. At the beginning of each agricultural year all householders are consulted before a decision is taken about what farming activities will be undertaken and which areas will be cleared for cultivation. Sometimes one large area is cleared communally and subdivided into individual household lots. Sometimes two large areas are cleared. This pattern is followed by both the Lua and Karen. Land cleared under this system is preferably used for 1 year and left to fallow for about 10 years. Mixed private and public tenure: Under this type of tenure, some land belongs to individuals and some to the community. Both Lua and Karen use this dual system of tenure. Use of community land is decided by the village, while use of private land is decided by the owners. Households that hold outright ownership are able to sell without referring the matter to the community. Most of those who hold private land are descendants of late-comers to the village, who arrived after the best lands were already appropriated, and hence worked on a communal basis. These people did not easily fit into the existing reciprocal arrangements and were often constrained to work the leftover less fertile land. As the population increased and people became more aware of what lowland markets have to offer, land tenure arrangements became increas-. Chantaboon Sutthi 205 ingly complex. Generally, villages that use this system have one or two areas which remain under traditional tenure as communal estates. Fields are used for one year followed by a three- to six-year fallow. Private ownership: It is said that in some areas land has always been privately owned. The highland Lua usually do not recognise private ownership but this custom is either waived or ignored by groups that have settled more recently. Cultivation strategies are decided upon by the farm owner, who is not obliged to seek approval from fellow villagers. Owners may buy or sell at their own discretion. Under this system, Karen and Lua still use fields for one year and leave them to fallow for three to six. Htin and Khamu cultivate for two to five years and abandon fields to fallow for three to five.

INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY

Even though swidden cultivation as practised by highlanders is often called backward or even destructive of the natural resource base. Under normal conditions, the system is ecologically viable and well suited to the environment. The agricultural wisdom exercised by swiddeners is considerable. This knowledge governs a wide range of activities-from land selection through harvesting to seed selection for the next season. Traditional knowledge of the agricultural cycle is still pertinent to contemporary conditions and can be summarised as follows:

Site Selection Factors considered by farmers when selecting fields include location, aspect (orientation to solar radiation), wind, elevation, soil type, productive potential and slope. Farmers know where to grow early maturing varieties of rice which are adapted to quite specific ecological niches, such as hilltop sites where the soil is drier and less likely to become saturated. Medium varieties must be grown on the middle slopes where soil moisture is higher, while later varieties need much more moisture and must be grown on the gentle downhill slopes. Flatland on shoulders, beneath ridges and near large streams is generally more fertile but unsuitable for planting. Highlanders realise that if they sow in these places, plant maturation will be delayed, more weeds will grow and therefore more labour will be required to keep the garden clear. The opium latex of poppy grown on such sites is very viscous and easily lost because it does not congeal quickly and runs down branch stems from which it cannot be retrieved. Solar radiation is also considered of primary importance. Areas with too much shade are avoided. This is particularly critical for opium poppy plan- 206 Mountain Agriculture

tations which require intensive care and much labour over a limited harvesting period (about 10 days, plus or minus 3 days). Highland opium growers know that sunlight stimulates the release of latex from the pod. Much attention is therefore given to the influence of site conditions on the speed of opium poppy maturation. If there is enough land available, farmers will choose several plots from different places. Sites exposed to maximum sunlight are cultivated and planted first. This is called 'hot land' since here the poppies mature rapidly. The second plot is preferably on land on which sunlight falls later in the day. There is usually a 1- to 2-hour difference in duration of radiation between the first and second fields. This 'middle hot land' is cultivated, planted and harvested after the first. The third area is called 'cold land' and receives sunlight later it the clay than the other two fields, and thus 2 to 3 hours less sunshine per day than the 'hot land'. Maturing last, this field can be harvested quite comfortably. Differences in site selection and variations in planting times have led to some misunderstandings among those who study opium poppy cultivation in Thailand. The most widely accepted opinion is that there are three varieties of opium poppy when, in fact, there is only one. Wind is also an important factor. On exposed sites where the wind is strong, turbulence'is not only likely to damage young poppy plants but also makes it difficult to harvest the resin. Harvest losses result when pods are knocked together after incising to bleed the latex. Strong winds can cause the stalks to lodge, making harvesting difficult. Vegetation is also used as an indicator because it signals the presence of soil types specifically suited to various crops. The land on which Gigantochloa albociliata grows is considered 'lowland' hot and unsuitable for opium but good for rice. Here the clay content is always high. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii grows at about 1,000 m and thrives on loamy soils suitable for rice and fair to marginal for opium poppy. Litsea cubeba is an indicator of high altitude, good for poppy but unsuitable for rice. Plants such as the giant mountain fishtail palm, Caroyota obtusa or Dendrochide stimulans are good indicators of a high productive potential for opium latex, much higher than obtained on the same soil in the absence of this vegetation. Soil is another important factor. Many observers have reported that vege- tation is more important but highlanders themselves say that it is possible for a wide range of plants to grow on land to which they are not well adapted. Thus the key factor in any detailed consideration of where to establish fields is a careful examination of the soil itself. Each ethnic group has its own method of soil classification. Soils are classified principally by examining the colour, texture, structure, weight and composition of the parent material. Parent material is assessed by examining rocky outcrops in the vicinity. If limestone is found, the soil is classified as having a satisfactory clay fraction and, therefore, suitable for growing opium. Soil with sandstone is classified as, sandy or loam and suitable for growing rice. Local people not only do a visual Chantaboon Sutthi 207 check but also manipulate samples of soil. A soil with a high clay fraction becomes sticky and slippery when moisture is added and crumbles into small pieces when dried. Some groups, particularly Lisu, inspect the soil by digging a hole about 15-20 cm deep, removing a sample, squeezing it tightly in their palm then opening their hand. If the soil retains the shape of their palm, it is classified as clay. This test should be done during the winter season but not after recent rainfall. The Lahu also weigh soil. The Meo pull out a plant with a stem about 1 cm thick. If the soil adheres to the roots, it is classified as clay. After rain, the Lahu Sheleh check the underside of leaves to see if there is a deposit of soil particles thrown up by the explosive impact of raindrops. If there is a deposit, the soil is classified as light. The absence of a deposit indicates that the soil is heavy and has a high clay content. Frost is a hazard carefully avoided, especially for the opium poppy. Farm- ers always select steeper sloping land, away from valley floors where frost is likely to form. Distance from the village is also a consideration. Because bulky crops such as rice are difficult to transport and attract bird and animal scavengers, they are best located near the village. This is, not always possible and the post- harvest workload must be anticipated in planning the use of labour.

Field Preparation Cutting and felling of trees and other vegetation is the first operation. Generally speaking, pioneer swiddeners are more skillful at clearing pri- mary forest than cyclical swiddeners. Trees are cut to fall in a position whereby they will pose no danger when the rains come. Logs felled incorrectly may slide or roll downhill and injure both crops and people. Because clearing is a perilous activity, precise rules of conduct are followed. Trees are felled in sets rather than individually. To avoid accidents, cutting commences with axemen working uphill and abreast of each other on the same contour. Trees are so cut that they remain standing. When the axemen reach the top of the ridge they wait until their group is entirely accounted for and out from under the canopy before felling the ridge top trees. As these trees fall, their weight triggers a domino effect and the trees on the hill slope are crashed down.

Planting From long experience, hill people know how to space plants out in a manner appropriate to different soils. If the soil is very fertile, plants are widely spaced. For example, rice is spaced on the most fertile land 50 cm apart (distance between the elbow and the end of the middle finger); on the least fertile land, plant density is increased to 20 cm between plants (distance between the elbow and the wrist). 208 Mountain Agriculture

Cropping System Many types of rice are grown in the same field. A study of highland rice cultivation in the north and west of Thailand revealed one to five varieties in a typical field. Researchers have also discovered that single panicles often contain rice with a wide variety of characteristics. The traditional wisdom which regulates planting is closely articulated with the indigenous economic system. What farmers call 'rice fields' could more accurately be termed 'mixed cropping systems' since they generally contain vegetables (eggplant, coco yam, taro, chilli and so forth). Some plants are grown year-round in swidden fields. Pioneer swiddeners grow crops to eat for ten to eleven months. Cyclical swiddeners are less successful in this regard and obtain food directly from their fields for only seven to eight months. Pioneer swiddeners produce a wider variety of crops in greater quantities and are continually harvesting them in their rice, maize and opium poppy fields. Cyclical swiddeners have only their hill rice fields to draw on. The practice of mixed cropping in swiddens is remarkably efficient in use of labour for weeding. From an ecological point of view, a mixed cropping system has much to offer over the monocropping system preferred by de- velopment agents and agencies who promote cash crop extension work. Sequential and relay cropping systems are followed by pioneer swidden- ers who grow opium, maize and rice. In optimum conditions this sophis- ticated system is very efficient. Perhaps they practised this form of manage- ment about a hundred years ago when they started to grow opium, long before cropping systems courses were introduced into universities.

Labour It is often said that those who cultivate hill country use more energy than lowlanders because they walk up and down steep slopes and must constantly maintain their balance. It is assumed that this places a heavier energy drain on them than on lowland farmers. But there are many ways in which hill farmers optimise energy. When small family groups sow seed, they start at the bottom of the hill and work upward in a zigzag fashion, walking back and forth along the contour. Harvesting proceeds in the same fashion but from the top down. This is quite logical considering the nature of the work. If the work team is a large group organised under a system of reciprocal labour exchange, those planting move straight up the hill maintaining equidistance from each other. Once at the top they descend moving in lines parallel to their ascent. This enables them to optimise their use of labour in the most efficient way. When harvesting opium, a quite deliberate strategy is followed. The tap- pers keep incised poppies in their line of sight and sidestep backwards away from the pods as they cut. This is done to prevent the adherence of valuable latex to the clothes and body of the harvesters. Chantaboon Sutthi 209

Traditional knowledge of swidden agriculture as described above is an integral part of highland culture. It has been built up over the centuries on the basis of careful observation, trial and error experiments and by exchang- ing information with neighbours. When the Lahu (Lahu Nyi) tribe select rice for seed, they do not take it at random. They select only that rice which falls first during threshing. Other highlanders carefully collect the most perfect plants in their rice fields, tie these together in a bundle and thresh them before commencing the harvest proper.

CROP SPECIES

Highlanders are principally rice-based farmers whose first choice is cultiva- tion of rice for domestic consumption. The priority they give to self-sufficiency makes it necessary for them to grow a range of crops wide enough to minimise their dependence on lowland markets. The plants grown in the cropping system are primarily for domestic consumption. Supplementary food crops provide a crop insurance against possible rice crop failure. The opium poppy is not only the most important cash crop but one with considerable medicinal properties. Just as the opium derivative codeine is one of the world's most widely used drugs, so opium per se holds a prominent place in indigenous herbal and esoteric medicine. Hill people still grow a wide range of medicinal herbs. Other plants are grown for use in traditional ceremonies. Most rituals require the use of some plant material. The actual varieties used, however, differ from one ethnic group to another. Fibre- producing plants are used in weaving, dress-making and various types of containers. Pioneer swiddeners plant maize at the beginning of the rainy season and after harvesting it (September-October), sow poppy. This double cropping of maize and opium poppy is very appropriate. The cultivation of maize prior to opium poppy minimises the task of soil preparation and greatly reduces the need for weeding. Maize is also the principal source of fodder for pigs and chickens (frequently used as offerings to the spirits) and additionally used in making whisky. Examples of the crop diversity in swidden and non-swidden farming systems are given below.

Swidden Crops Primary crops: Rice is the most important staple in everyday use. The Meo, Yao, Akha, Lisu, Lahu, Karen and Lua tribes eat hill rice, while the Htin and Khamer eat glutinous rice. Forty-six species of kitchen plants are found in the normal diet of the hill peoples and many more have yet to be identified. Vegetables include, among others, Chinese mustard, radish, kale, chives, okra, tomato and the very young 210 Mountain Agriculture opium poppy. Root crops include Australian arrowroot, ginger and yam bean. Plants used in animal feed include non-glutinous maize, leaves of grain amaranth, sweet potato, banana, papaya and pigeon pea. Secondary crops: A number of crops supplement the primary or staple ones. These include herbs, spices and condiments such as garlic, lemon grass, fennel, basil and coriander. Fruits are used occasionally and include papaya, pine- apple, melon, bananas and peach. Secondary root crops comprise yams, sweet potato and cassava. Crops used occasionally for seed and grain include sunflower, millet sorghum, glutinous maize, Job's tears, pumpkin and sesame seed. The root crops and maize serve as substitutes when the rice crop fails. Oil crops include the opium poppy and sesame; their oil is used in cooking and in burning the opium-smoking lamp. Castor bean oil is occasionally used for lighting. Preserved foods include dried Chinese mustard and fermented soybean. Sugar is extracted from sugarcane and kaoliang (sweet sorghum). Non-food crops: A great variety of crops are grown for these purposes: fibre production, ceremonial, religious and decorative, medicinal, alcoholic or narcotic consumption, or as cash crops. Crops used for fibre include hemp and cotton, made into thread woven into cloth, and bottle gourds, which serve as water containers, receptacles for seed storage, and for fashioning into spoons and ladles. Religious beliefs dictate the planting of several crops. For example, the Akha grow shallot, taro and ginger in their swiddens before planting other crops to safeguard the field and the farmer from the influence of evil spirits. Karen and Lua plant cockscomb, globe-amaranth, cosmos flower and marigold for a rice spirit-calling ritual. The Yao believe that safflower is an ancestor of the opium poppy. They grow it in their opium gardens in the hope that their opium will mature properly without untoward interruption from supernatural beings. Yao of the Tung sub-clan use fermented Chinese mustard as an offering to their an- cestors, while Meo hold a pumpkin ritual. Akha still use the bottle gourd as a water ladle in a well ritual in which it is forbidden to use any other material. Almost every group uses rice (rice grains, cooked rice, pop rice) in offerings to the spirits. The Meo use maize and finger millet powder in a ritual to exorcise evil spirits. Sorghum is used in the form of pop sorghum for spirit offerings. Opium is used in the highest form of spirit worship conducted by the Lahu Sheleh. Sesame oil is an essential item in the Yao ceremony of ordination. Lahu and Yao use cow peas in the new-rice eating ritual and new year celebrations which require spirit offerings. Some ethnic minorities use plants from their swiddens for personal deco- ration. Akha women and children use the small bottle gourd as an ornament by threading a string through a hole drilled in its neck and hanging it from the waist. Karen use Job's tears (Coix lachryma-jobi L.) of the stenocarpa variety and Coix puellarum, which they sew on to their jackets or thread into a necklace Chantaboon Sutthi 211 or bracelet. Lisu men weave wheat straw into their jackets. Meo grow an herb called 'Foo' which they bleed by scraping the underside of the leaf. The discharge is smeared on their cheeks as a rouge. The most important cash crop of the Meo, Yao, Lahu, Lisu and Akha is the opium poppy. The Karen and Red Lahu are well known as chilli producers. Castor bean is grown even though it is not very profitable. The Pwo Karen grow sugarcane in small fields near their villages. The cane itself is not sold but crushed and boiled to make sweets that are sold. Siam cardamom is grown by the Pwo Karen of Uthai Thani Province. Many plants in the Gramineae family are grown for making alcohol. Rice, maize, sorghum, foxtail millet and finger millet are used for this purpose. Opium and tobacco are grown to supply habitual users but only opium is grown in substantial quantities. Highlanders grow many medicinal plants. Unfortunately, these have yet to be studied seriously, identified and chemically analysed. The scientific names of most of these plants are not yet known. The most effective of these medicinal plants are widely recognised and knowledge of their preparation and properties continually exchanged by the various groups. The medicinal usefulness of opium is known even to non-opium poppy growing people such as the Karen, Lua, Htin and Khamu. Other curative plants used widely include shallot, Indian spinach, lemon grass, ginger, cockscomb, pineapple, papaya, banana, peach, tobacco, paracress, sweet potato, castor bean, holy basil, cumin, fennel, Kaempferia sp., Curcuma domestica, and Cannabis sativa. Some Karen use the 'ivory' rice variety mixed with herbs to treat some health complaints. They believe that 'ivory' rice has the same curative properties as real ivory.

Non-Swidden Crops Many plant materials are cultivated outside swidden areas, for example, in household gardens, small orchards or plantations. Because of the nature of pioneer swiddening, there is less opportunity for the Meo, Yao, Akha, Lisu and Lahu to grow perennials. The only perennial that they grow in any quantity is the peach. This tree matures relatively quickly and is easy to care for; it is usually planted in swiddens that have become unprofitable to cultivate. Karen, Lua, Htin and Khamu, who practise cyclical swiddening centred on a permanent settlement, are more likely to grow perennials. Examples of plants grown in non-swidden systems follow. Either the scientific or common name is used. Primary use: Different parts of the plants are eaten such as the flower, fruit, trunks, shoots, leaves and young leaves. Any list should include Welsh onion, Cordyline fruticosa, Gymnema inodorum, Oroxylum indicum, Coccinia grandis, Sauropus androgynus; bamboo (Zizania latifolia), Hibiscus sabdariffa, Acacia pennata. ssp. insuavis, Leucaena, giant granadilla, Talinum paniculatum, Morinda 212 Mountain Agriculture citrifolia, citron, Solanum- indicum, tea, Asiatic penny-wort, hog plum, Lasia spinosa, wild spider flower, Ipomoea aquatica, sesbania, horseradish tree, and yellow dock. Highlanders such as Lahu, Karen, Akha, and Lisu chew betel nut. Karen and Lua grow both the betel palm and betel pepper. Hill people who maintain close relations with northern Thai also take fermented tea or miang. Tea is the only crop grown as a domestic beverage. Coffee is raised commercially and promoted by many development projects but is usually not brewed in the highlands. Secondary use: Fruit crops include Marian plum, mango, custard apple, sweet sop, carambola, durian, tamarind, star gooseberry, santol, jackfruit, mulberry, Malay apple, guava, pomegranate, coconut, giant granadilla, In- dian jujube, Indian bael, pomelo, oranges, longan, Thai sapodilla plum, and Baccaureua ramiflora. Herbs, spices and condiments include tamarind, garangal, citronella grass, Indian borage, roselle, lime, turmeric, Piper sarnentosum, Polygonum odoratum, Citrus hystrix, Solanum stramonifolium, Houttuynia cordata and Boesenbergia pandulata. Kapok is used as stuffing in mattresses and pillows. Stirculia guttata and three as yet unidentified species are used in making rope. Baphicacanthus cusia, indigo and turmeric are grown for dyes. Thirteen types of bamboo are widely used for construction purposes. Every type is used in household and agricultural tools. Bamboo is one of the most frequently used plant materials in daily life. Sida acuta and the sub-stems of the coconut palm fronds are used as brooms. The physic nut (jatropha curcas) is planted as a'live' fencing around houses. The soap nut tree (Sapindus rarak) is grown in well-established villages of the Karen and Lua. Used in soap and shampoo, it is gradually being displaced by commercially manufactured products as roads link villages with lowland markets. Only a few non-swidden species are used for religious and ceremonial purposes. These include Acacia rugata, Piper betel, Zingiber ottensii, Zingiber cassumunar and bamboo. Medicinal non-swidden crops include the following: tea, Coffea senna, tamarind, physic nut, clove, nutmeg, betel palm, lime, tobacco, guava, pome- granate, and cotton. Other useful spices are: Baphicacanthus cusia, Oroxylum indicum, Kalanchoe pinnata, Tinospora crispa, Tinospora glabra, Solanum indicum, Boesenbergia pandulata, Curcuma sp., Zingiber cassumanar, Zingiber ottensii, Talinum paniculatum, Strobilanthes sp., Bougainvillea spectabilis, Capparis sp., Garuga pinnata, Vibernum inopinatum, Piper chaba, Ixora sp., and Alpinia sp. The plants listed above indicate the richness of genetic resources in both swidden and non-swidden fields. As expected, food plants are more com- monly grown than any others. To date 257 species have been identified, of which 151(59%) are staple food crops, vegetables, supplementary food crops, Chantaboon Sutthi 213

cereals, herbs, spices, condiments etc. If we consider all the plants grown for food, cash, animal feed, medicines, construction, utensils, beverages etc., this accounts for 182 species (71%0) of the plants grown in the highlands. Only 60 varieties of medicinal plants or 23% of the total have been identified. The role that these plants play in maintaining an economy of semi-subsistent self- reliance is clearly documented.

RESEARCH AND GENETIC RESOURCES: THE CURRENT SITUATION

In 1960 a major development programme aimed at curtailment of swidden agriculture, reduction in opium growing, replacement of opium with other cash crops and promotion of permanent agriculture was initiated. Since then, many new crops have been introduced, mainly to displace opium. Most are higher yielding varieties of crops already well known to highlanders. As most readers will appreciate, these plants place considerable demands on growers. They require careful management and expensive inputs (fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides etc.) and, in this respect, are quite different from the plants high-. landers are used to. However, government extension workers report that they have received a good response from the highlanders. Most of these new plant materials are grown in accessible areas which extension workers can regularly visit without much difficulty.. Over 21 species of food plants have been introduced. Cash crops, flowers, spices and herbs have also been successfully introduced. Research work commenced about 1960. The Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives set up research and experimental stations in the highlands at Doi Mussur in Tak Province at about 950 masl. The crops used for research and extension included arabica and robusta coffee, avocado, macadamia nut, cherry-moya, litchi, longan, pomelo, sweet orange, tea, mulberry and strawberry. A considerable number of domesticated per- ennials have been added to the highlanders inventory, but lack of funds and personnel have limited the range of experimental work. The Royal Project set up in 1969 commenced work in 1970 and was the first agency to seriously analyse and experiment with various crops. Some 69 agricultural research projects, involving both plants and animals, were carried out between 1971 and 1985. Work concentrated on new and improved varieties of crops, only a few of which could be called traditional hill tribe plants. Although USDA support was withdrawn in 1986, the Royal Project is determined to continue research and experimental work on highland agriculture with the support of private funds from His Majesty the King. The United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control (UNFDAC) has also provided funding for research, principally aimed at identifying opium re- 214 Mountain Agriculture placement crops. It has been found that cash crops which grow best and are acceptable to highland communities include arabica coffee and several types of vegetables, such as red kidney bean, lima bean and pinto bean. The introduction of many new crops and improved varieties has resulted in changes in cropping systems. The change from mixed to single-cropping systems has led to the disappearance of many traditional plants from the highlands. This is especially evident in communities favourably served by roads and transport services. Rice is a crop which causes both academic researchers and development workers particular concern. The speed at which varieties that have many good adaptive qualities are being replaced by higher yielding improved varieties that require careful management, especially the application of fertiliser, is a serious problem. In response to this problem, in 1980, the Department of Public Welfare, together with the Thailand Rice Research Institute (RRI), undertook responsibility to collect and conduct experiments with many varieties of hill rice. In 1983-1984 the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources gave support to this effort by passing a request through the International Rice Research Institute and the RRI, Min- istry of Agriculture and the Cooperatives, for samples of all available types of highland rice. The rice cultivars collected between 1980-1984 include more than 1,100 varieties, all of which are kept at the National Rice. Germ Plasm Centre, Phathumthani Province. Other crops still traditionally grown, such as legumes, have been collected since 1986 by the Tribal Research. Institute in a joint project with Chiang Mai University. Plant materials are being collected to establish their scientific name and to describe their structure, fertility, productivity, utility, chemical content and other characteristics. Legumes were selected because they are an important source of protein. As of February, 1987, more than 10 distinct types of legumes have been identified. Compared to changes in subsistence and traditional agricultural systems in other parts of the world, the impact of such changes in the highlands of Thailand is currently not profound. But aggressive 'Top-Down' develop- ment projects can endanger the wide variety of indigenous germplasm by replacing it with a few improved varieties. Examples of this are already known. 'Pin Kaew' rice used to be the most famous rice grown in Thailand. It won many world rice competitions in the 1920s and 1930s but germplasm is now difficult to find. Another example is the '400 variety' of rice grown by the Red Lahu and Meo. This variety grows very well at an elevation of 1,000 masl. Its disappearance hardly serves the Thai Government's policy to encourage highlanders to foresake opium poppy cultivation nor to help them establish permanent villages. In the absence of the '400 variety; Meo and Red: Lahu are forced to abandon high-altitude settlements and relocate in areas suitable for paddy rice and marketable cash crops. Of interest is the fact that this variety has disappeared from Meo and Red Lahu communities served by extension workers, who only recently commenced work among them Chantaboon Sutthi 215

(1980). After a six-year search, a source of this seed has been found with the Lisu. Good quality germplasm is required by plant breeders. In the sample found, a single panicle sets from 300 to 400 seeds and, under favourable conditions, spreads out to establish up to 10 stems.

THE FUTURE

Clearly, rice is only one of many food crops traditionally grown by highland- ers in a system of cultivation which includes a multitude of medicinal plants and others grown for use in rituals. Many plants have recently been introduced into cropping systems by highlanders and extension workers to maintain favourable soil characteris- tics. Among these, are the lablab bean (Dolichos lablab) and the sweet and rice bean (Vigna umbellata). These plants will play an increasingly important role in the development of more intensive land use. Since the 1970s lowland Thai farmers in Kampaengpetch Province have developed a pattern of mixed cropping alternating between maize and rice bean, which has proved quite successful in maintaining soil fertility. The rice bean can be sown alone or mixed with maize to inhibit weed growth until harvesting in late December- early January. The germination of weeds in the following season will be greatly reduced, enabling farmers to single crop maize for a considerable period. Meo, Yao and Lisu have adopted this mixed cropping system. The rice bean was introduced into their mixed cropping systems on steep slopes in 1975 and has produced very encouraging results. Those who use it, especially the Yao, have found that they can bring steep slopes classified as loamy soils under long-term cultivation, whereas previously cultivation was restricted to 2 to 3 years before fallow became necessary. Some of the fields cultivated by this method have now been used continuously for more than 10 years and produce good harvests. Good yields have been maintained even though clearing is restricted to burning instead of ploughing. By planting maize and rice bean in a mixed cropping system, farmers are able to extend the period of land use well beyond that which prevailed in the past. As this system is extended to other highland villages we can expect a very positive impact on the intensification of land use, which will enable more people to earn their livelihood than was possible under traditional extensive agriculture. Not only does the method reduce the need for weeding, it also produces a cash crop for sale. Lablab bean has also been grown as a second crop after rice for as long as 4 years. Even though rice and lablab bean are not grown in sequence as widely as they might, still the combination may well prove important in the future. Intensive research is required to see if this combination will enable farmers to reduce the fallow period of rice fields, particularly those of the Lua, Karen, Htin and Khamu, most of whom are subsistence farmers who 216 Mountain Agriculture

grow rice for personal consumption and very few cash crops. Lablab bean could provide a cash crop which contributes to soil conservation. The use of fertiliser may be necessary. During the present period of rapid population growth, any technique which would make it possible to intensify land use should be investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

Salient characteristics of contemporary agriculture in the highlands and uplands have been described. Most farmers have a long history of occupa- tion and the agricultural systems developed over the centuries have only been subject to drastic change in the past few decades. These changes have involved a considerable loss of independence and self-sufficiency. If the genetic di- versity of the indigenous systems is not to be lost, deliberate intervention on the part of researchers and other scientists is a matter of considerable urgency. Development projects themselves could gainfully pay more atten- tion to the sophistication of traditional farming, thereby avoiding a situation wherein vulnerability to both the lowland market economy and biological over-specialisation could place the welfare of highland communities at risk.

REFERENCES

Anderson, E. F. 1986. Ethnobotany of the hill tribes of northern Thailand. I. Medicinal plants of the Akha, Economic Botany,vol. 40, pp. 38-53. Kunstadter, P., S. Sabhasri and T.-Smitinand. 1978. Flora of a forest fallow farming environment in northwestern Thailand, Journal of the National Research Council Thailand, vol. 10, no. 1. Poriyat Thammathada et al. 1967. Camthewiwong Phongsawadan Har- ipunchai (Camadevi Dynasty Chronicle of Haripunjaya). Bodhiramsi, pri- vately published, Bangkok. Purseglove, J.W. 1974. Tropical Crops, Dicotyledons. Longman, London. Purseglove, J. W. 1975. Tropical Crops, Monocotyledons. Longman, London. Smitinand, T. 1980. Thai Plant Names. Funny Publications Ltd., Bangkok. CHAPTER 14

Konso Agriculture and Its Plant Genetic Resources

J.M.M. Engels

INTRODUCTION

Konso is the name of a relatively small area (approximately 650 km'-) situated in southwest Ethiopia at a latitude of 5'15'N and a longitude of 37°30' E, whereas the administrative unit (Konso woreda) is about 1,660 kmz. The topography is characterised by rugged and stony highlands, cut by deep valleys that enter into the heart of the country. The main agricultural area ranges in altitude from 1,400 to 2,000 m and the climate is *of the dry montane type with temperatures ranging from below 15'C at night to 32°C during the day at the hottest time of the year. The Konso highlands run across the Rift Valley E-W and are situated in the dry belt of Ethiopia with an unreliable rainfall not exceeding 650 mm per year. There are two rainy seasons; the big rains are concentrated in March and April and the small rains fall around October and November. In general, the rains come in the form of violent thunderstorms which seldom last more than 2 hours (Hallpike, 1972). The Sagan River forms the eastern and southern borders of Konso, the of Gomida and Lake 5hamo the northern boundary and the Gidole mountains and the Woito valley the western. The Konso people are a small tribe of about 80,000 people, an estimate based on a figure of 60,000 inhabitants in 1970 (Hallpike, 1970). Their language belongs to the East Cushitic group (Hallpike, 1970). The Konso have evolved their remarkable (agri)culture in a high degree of isolation during the many centuries they have occupied the area. Their neighbours are partly pastoralists (e.g., the Borana in the south) or agriculturalists (among others the Gauwada tribe in the west) and they all belong to the Oromos. 218 Mountain Agriculture

The Konso live in densely populated towns, surrounded by remarkable stone walls, with narrow corridors connecting the walled or fenced home- steads. Within a homestead one can normally find the main round hut, the kitchen, the grinding house, sleeping huts, stores and one or more stables, all located closely together in order to leave some space for kitchen gardens. Almost all towns and villages are situated on mountain ridges or on steep slopes and therefore lack water. Wells 6-8 m deep are found in the deep gorges next to the dry riverbeds and are carefully protected against floods or dirty river water. During the dry season the women and girls are frequently occupied for several hours collecting sufficient water (Kuls, 1958).

THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM

The soils in Konso are, in general, of volcanic origin and in certain parts of the country basalt and tuff layers 100 m or more thick can be found on top of crystalline formations. The terrain is extremely mountainous and stony and the paucity of rainfall makes water and soil conservation of prime importance. The visitor quickly realises that the concern for sufficient water for people, cattle and crops has a dominant place in the daily life of the Konso, and this can also be frequently observed in the landscaping. The soil is preserved by the construction of stone terraces, hundreds of kilometres long and often several metres high. Because of the steep slopes, the terraces are generally only a few metres wide. The dry-stone walls are built along the contour lines of the hillsides and their principal function is to prevent rainstorms from washing away the soil and crops. At the same time, they assure an adequate supply of water for the crops by retaining the water within the terraces. In the flatter areas the wider terraces are subdivided into big plots, up to 9 m2, each surrounded by 10-20 cm high earth walls, frequently strengthened with sorghum straw in areas where stone is in short supply (Kuls, 1958). In some places a reinforced hollow some 1.5 m wide is built in the middle of a terrace, to concentrate the meagre water supply. Crops are then planted in the hollow. Where and whenever possible, the terraces are irrigated. The water is distributed through carefully constructed channels and irrigates fields which are sometimes 100 m2 or more in size. Such terraces are separated from each other by stone walls up to 6 m high. The water inlet from the riverbed can be regulated according to the needs of the crop plants. The soil of the irrigated terraces consists mainly of fine alluvial deposits, and is generally very fertile. One of the striking features of Konso agriculture is the use of manure, of both animal and, less frequently, human origin (Hallpike, 1972). Integration of animal husbandry (cattle, goats and sheep) and intensive agriculture is typical of the Konso. Dung is never used as fuel unlike in many other parts of Ethiopia. Normally, cattle are kept on pastures near the periphery of the J.M.M. Engels 219 villages from where the dung is collected, then left to rot in heaps or pits, together with other organic wastes, before it is applied to the fields. Nearly all the land surrounding the villages is permanently cultivated; the terraces are richly manured and only a few pastures are found. Manure is applied not only before sowing, but also during the growing period of the crops. Since many crop species are interplanted in the same field, crop rotation is not necessary. Only in the more remote fields where manure is not regularly applied can fallow land be observed. Because of the terraces and the sometimes very steep slopes, the double-bladed hoe and to a less extent the digging stick are the most commonly used implements. Ploughing has only recently been introduced and is not a common practice. Agricultural activities are primarily determined by the rainfall pattern. Field preparation starts at the onset of the first rains in January/ February and, in general, the fields are worked only once before sowing (Westphal, 1975). Sowing starts as soon as the big rains begin. The seeds of the cereals and pulses are mixed, broadcast and lightly covered with soil. Root and tuber crops as well as cotton seeds are planted earlier and are carefully protected by soil to prevent them being eaten by birds. After planting or sowing there is a laborious period of weeding, frightening off birds and animals and protection against insects. From May onwards, the various crops are harvested-first the roots and tubers, followed by the cereals and pulses and finally, in mid-September, the sorghum. If sufficient small rains fall, mainly during October and November, a second sorghum crop can be harvested in December /January from the ratooned sprouts of the first season's plants (Hallpike, 1970; Kuls, 1958). From time to time, crop failures are caused by drought, resulting in famine, as was observed in 1984 and 1985. The harvested crops are carefully stored in granaries or kept hanging in huts. Hallpike (1970) has reported that the ashes of burnt cow dung are used to protect whole sorghum heads against insects in the granary. Tubers are frequently left in the ground until required. One important factor for each farmer is that he possess a piece of land situated in each of the areas having a different soil type, e.g., in an irrigable area near the village, and in a more remote area for the production of cotton. Kuls (1958) has reported an average of at least 10 different fields per farmer, each of them seldom larger than a quarter of a hectare.

PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES AND THEIR USES

Two of the most striking aspects of Konso agriculture are intercropping and the presence of the cabbage tree (Moringa stenopetala) in terraces as well as in every village. Furthermore, there is hardly any unused piece of land around the villages and, almost throughout the whole year, the soil is covered with crops, crop residues, stones and trees such as Moringa, 220 Mountain Agriculture

Terminalia and Balanites spp.), or shrubs (e.g., pigeon pea, cotton, coffee and yams). Both trees and shrubs are important in preventing soil erosion. The major staple crop of the Konso is sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). It is believed to be an ancient crop of the region (Doggett, 1987) and a wide spectrum of varieties exists. Harlan and Stemler (1976) report an "unusual assemblage of sorghums" in a few small areas of Africa. One such region is found in southern Ethiopia, i.e., Konso. The guinea sorghum, one of the major races, is dominant in western Africa but is also found in Konso (Stemler et al., 1977). Hallpike (1970) mentions that at least 24 varieties are grown and lists the names of 17, which are distinguished according to their uses: ground, then boiled in water in the form of kneaded balls (dama), served with boiled cabbage tree leaves, or made into beer, soup or unleavened bread for travelling (Hallpike, 1970). The major characteristics which determine the varieties to be grown are their suitability for prepara- tion as food or beer, growing time, effect of grubs on taste, difficulty of dehusking and bird resistance. Sorghum fields are almost always interplanted with finger millet, espe- cially at lower levels. In higher areas (from 1,700 m upwards) wheat and barley are the dominant crops. Maize is a more recent introduction and is gaining ground (Hallpike, 1970). Pulses are another important group of crops, especially various Phaseolus species, peas, pigeon pea, chickpea, cowpea, lentils and faba bean. The left over stalks of sorghum are used as a support and also as a shade for climbing beans (many stalks are tied together at the top and the beans planted underneath them). Various tuber crops are grown extensively throughout Konso. Taro is grown on irrigated fields for its edible tubers and leaves. Yams are mostly grown as single plants near terrace walls or in gardens. Sweet potatoes are sometimes grown in gardens. Several Araceae, Amorphophallus abyssinicus, Arisaema sp. and Sauromatum nubicum are very common, and plants of the first species can still be found in the wild. Various vegetables such as cabbage, onion, squash and garlic are grown but are not as important in the daily diet (Kuls, 1958). Coffee trees are quite common despite the unfavourable conditions. Ensete and sometimes chat are also found. Table 14.1 (adapted from Goettsch et al., 1984 and complemented with data from Westphal, 1975) gives a more comprehensive listing of the crop plant genetic resources of Konso. Cotton is grown extensively either on its own or intercropped with other species. Finally, the very striking cabbage tree should be mentioned. It is planted densely within villages and on terraces up to 1,800 m and is found in the valleys. The conspicuous grey bark, the light green leaves and the long pods are characteristic features of this multipurpose tree. It has recently been reported (Jahn,1981; Goettsch, 1984) that ground seeds can be used to clarify muddy water. Mixed cropping plays a significant role in the food and fodder production security of the region, and is an important factor in soil conservation. Goettsch Table 14.1: Plant genetic resources found or reported to be used in Konso*

Scientific name Local name Common name Cultivation** Use and remarks Cereals of dama, **** Amaranthus caudatus Pasa Amaranth (1),2 Seeds used in preparation beer; use of leaves? Beer, soup, unleavened bread Eleusine coracana Pareja Finger millet 1,(2) bread; seeds some- Hordeum vulgare Boita, Parda Barley 1 Dama, beer, soup, unleavened times roasted soup, unleavened bread, Sorghum bicolor General: Schu'.eit; other Sorghum, Millet 1,(2) Staple food (dama), beer, names according to the stalks used as fodder; important as fuel variety bread; seeds some- Tirticum durum Kaba, Kapa Wheat 1 Dama, beer, soup, unleavened times roasted bread, Zea mays Paza, Pogoloda Maize 1,(2) Staple food (dama), beer, soup, unleavened stalks used as fodder; important as fuel Pulses Cajanus cajan Ashakilta Pigeon pea 1 Seeds boiled or eaten raw Lablab purpureus Okala Hyacinth bean 1,2 Boiled or eaten raw Lens culinaris Lentil 1 Boiled ground for Phaseolus lunatus Bapello Lima bean 1 Seeds boiled or eaten raw when young, flour in times of famine flour in times Phaseolus vulgaris Alkuka Kidney bean 1,2 Seeds boiled or eaten green, ground for of famine

Pisum sativum Pea 1,2 Boiled or eaten raw 1 for flour in times Vicia faba Faba bean Seeds boiled or eaten green, ground of famine Vigna unguiculata Ohota, Okals Cowpea 1 Boiled or eaten raw Table 14.1 (Contd.)

Scientific name Local name Common name Cultivation- Use and remarks Tubers Amorphophallus Saganeida Indian turnip 1,(2) Used to make dama in times of famine since these tubers abyssinicus Bagana 1,(2) can survive considerable Arisaema sp. Burie drought. Also used to make 1,(2) beer. Contain a poisonous substance which has to be Sauromatum Bansala eliminated during preparation. nubicum Colocasia esculenta Longa Taro 1 Tubers used to prepare dama, leaves used to flavour beer Dioscorea abyssinica Hidana Yam 2,3,5 Tubers boiled and eaten or pounded and made into dama Ipomoea batatas Dinitscha Sweet potato 2 Tubers boiled and eaten Manihot esculenta - Cassava 1,2 Tubers boiled and eaten Solanum - Irish potato 1,2 Tubers tuberosum boiled and eaten

Vegetables Adenia ellenbeckii Kaguta Passifloraceae 4(?) Leaves used as a vegetable Allum cepa - Onion 2 Bulbs used as a vegetable Allium sativum Garlic 2 Bulbs used as a condiment /vegetable Brassica carinata Gomano Ethiopian mustard (1),2 Leaves an important vegetable, seeds also used Cucurbita peppo Dahanta Pumpkin (1),2 Fruits and leaves consumed young Digera alternifoha Kogata Amaranthaceae 1,2 Leaf vegetable Launaea taraxacifolia Hangoleita Compositae 4 Wild vegetable Lycopersicum esculentum - Tomato 2 Occurs naturally; fruits eaten Moringa stenopetala Schelchada, Haleko Cabbage tree 1,2 Leaves a very important vegetable; eaten shifferaw boiled with dama; leaves especially important during dry season Pergularia daemia Korroda Asclepiadaceae 4 Leaf vegetable, elsewhere as edible fruit Portulaca quadrifida Mereita Portulacaceae 4 Leaf vegetable NN Kulbabita 1 Herbaceous 30 cm high plant. Succulent; leaves eaten as a vegetable e Spices Capsicum annuum Berberi (mitmita-type) Red pepper 1,2 Fruits eaten fresh and used to flavour food

Coriandrum sativum Tibichota Coriander 1 Seeds used to flavour food Foenieulum vulgare Fennel 2 Seeds used as a condiment

Linum usitatissimum Linseed 1 Seeds used to flavour food Rhamnus prinoides Buckthorn 2 Leaves and wood used as a condiment to flavour alco- holic beverages Ruta chalepensis Rue 2 Seeds and leaves used to flavour food Oil crops Carthamus tiuctorius Safflower 3 Seeds consumed and used for oil Helianthus annuus Sufeda Sunflower 1,(2) Seeds roasted, also infused and used as a liquid drink Ricinus communis Castor bean 2 Oil used for lighting and for softening leather Fruits Azanza garckeana Aureta Malvaceae 4 Edible fruit Carica papaya Papaya 2 Edible fruit Citrus aurantifolia Lime 2 Edible fruit Citrus sinensis Orange 2 Edible fruit Ensete ventricosum Dubana False banana 2 Starch of pseudo stem used as staple (not common) Grewia tenax Kotjata Tiliaceae 4 Edible fruit Morus mesozygia Inch' orre Mulberry 2 Edible fruit Musa paradisiaca Banana 2 Edible fruit Rhus natalensis Kabudeida Anacardiaceae 4 Edible fruit Opuntia ficus-indica Prickly 2,5 Fruits greatly enjoyed by children; frequently used in fences Vangueira Murganta (?) Pear 2,4 Wild tree, edible fruits; planted in villages madagascariensis Ximenia coffra Inginkada Rubiaceae 4 Edible fruit Table 14.1 (Contd.) Scientific name Local name Common name Cultivation** Use and remarks Zizyphus spina-christi Christ thorn 2 Edible fruit NN Kenenta 2,4 Wild tree, edible fruits; planted in villages Coffee Beverages Coffea arabica 1,2 Beans roasted with butter; leaves used to prepare a tea; Cotton important cash crop Fibres Goss_ypium Garatita Futota 1,(2) G. herbaceum is the older introduction, G. liirsutum gives sp. herbaceum higher yields; basis of important weaving industry; cash sp. hirsutum crop Narcotics Chat Catha edulis Teemahada Tobacco 2 Leaves chewed for ritual proposes

Nicotiana tobacum 2 Leaves fermented and smoked Miscellaneous Balanites aegyptica Hangalta 4,5 Leaves used as browse for cattle and sometimes as a vegetable; fruits edible

Commiphora sp. 2,4,5 Tree (often living) is important in building strong fences, Gourd especially in villages Lagenaria sieeraria 1,2 Used as containers Terminalia brownh Weybata lia 1 Widespread cultivated tree, important timber, leaves are harvested as browse for cattle

Note: In addition, Hallpike (1970) has reported 80 wild plant species and trees used for food, animal fodder, medicine, building material, magico-rituals and miscellaneous. * Information compiled mainly from Goettsch et al. (1984) and Westphal (1975). ** Key: 1. field; 2. backyard in village; 3. border of terraces in fields; 4. 'wild' plant; 5. fences. *** Dama: sorghum or other starchy products are ground, kneaded into balls and boiled in water. J.M.M. Engels 225

and colleagues (1984) report 40 different species from one village and 24 species from a single terraced field of about 0.2 ha at an elevation of 1,750 m. This is rather exceptional compared to other montane areas in Ethiopia.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the difficult agro-ecological conditions that prevail in Konso, it is remarkable how many people can be fed from a rather limited area when appropriate farming methods are applied. The ancient terraces and other constructions, as well as the simple but efficient irrigation methods, are the salient features of Konso agriculture, that allow an optimal use of water throughout the year. The intercropping of various crop and tree species together with the local cultivation practices seem to be important factors in food and fodder pro- duction security as well as in soil conservation in the Konso area. Diversity in crop species and genetic diversity within many of the crop species make Konso an important area from the viewpoint of germplasm conservation and exploration. Cultivation of the cabbage tree and certain tuber crops is almost entirely confined to the Konso highlands. These species may have good potential in other similar areas where rainfall is limited and where, so far, only a relatively small number of crops are grown.

REFERENCES

Doggett, H. 1987. Sorghum history in relation to Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Conservation and Utilisation of Ethiopian Germplasm, Addis Abeba (in litt.). Ed. J.M.M. Engels. Goettsch, E. 1984. Water-clarifying plants in Ethiopia, Ethiopian Medical jour- nal, vol. 22, pp. 219-220. Goettsch, E., J. M. M. Engels and A. Demissie. 1984. Crop diversity in Konso agriculture, PGRC/E-ILCA Germ Plasm Newsletter, vol. 7, pp. 18-26. Hallpike. C. R. 1970. Konso agriculture, Journal of Ethiopian Studies, vol. 8, pp. 31-43. Hallpike, C.R. 1972. The Konso of Ethiopia: A Study of the Values of Cushitic People. Oxford University Press, UK, 337 pp. Harlen, J. R. and A. B. L. Stemler. 1976. The races of sorghum in Africa, pp. 465-478. In: Origins of African Plant Domestication. Eds. J.R. Harlan, J. M. J. de Wet and A.B.L Stemler. Mounton, The Hague. Jahn, S. a1A.1981. Traditional Water Purification in Tropical Developing Countries. Existing Methods and Potential Application. GTZ Publication no. 117. Esch- born, FRG, 276 pp. Kuls, W. 1958. Betraege zur Kulturgeographie der Suedaethiopischen Seenregion. 226 Mountain Agriculture

Frankfurter Geogr. Hefte 32. University of Frankfurt, FRG, 179 pp. Stemler, A. B. L., J.R. Harlan and J. M.J. De Wit. 1977. The Sorghums of Ethiopia, Economic Botany, vol. 31, pp. 446-460. Westphal, E. 1975. Agricultural Systems in Ehiopia. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, 278 pp. CHAPTER 15

Native Andean Crops in the High Mountain Agriculture of Ecuador

J. Tola Cevallos, C. Nieto, E. Parolta and R. Castillo

Ecuador is situated on the equator. However, the Andes-the mountain backbone of Latin America-determine by and large the agricultural envi- ronments of this relatively small country. In Ecuador, the term 'highland agriculture' refers to crops and native species grown from 2,600 to 3,700 masl. Table 15.1 presents the three ecological areas that have been characterised on the basis of meteorological data. Altitudes of 2,800, 3,050, and 3,600 m cover some of the main environments for traditional agriculture. The most important climatic parameters include precipitation, soil and temperature. Using the highest elevation in Ecuador (6,310 m) as a point of reference, Figure 15.1 shows the distribution of crop species in the different ecologi- cal zones. The top soil is mainly volcanic in origin and three contiguous areas may be established:

1. High volcanic Sierra (3,700-4,200 m). This area, known as 'Paramo; has acid soils with 30 to 50%o clay, mainly kaolinite, aluminium toxicity problems, and generally steep topography. Predominant vegetation, bunch grass (Stipa spp.). 2. Intermediate volcanic Sierra (3,300-3,600 m). Known as the 'Low Paramo, this area is cold, frequently cloudy and wet, and generally has black soils that are high in organic matter, slightly acid, of intermediate texture, and medium to low in fertility. Serious constraints for agriculture in the 'Paramos' are temperature, lack of sunshine and topography. 228 Mountain Agriculture

ANDEAN PARAMO

BARLEY-OCA FABA BEANS POTATOES-MASHUA MELLOCO

QUINOA LUPINE WHEAT MAIZE BEANS

ZANAHORIA BLANCA MAIZE FRUITS

Figure 15.1: Crop distribution in the highlands of Ecuador J. Tola Cevallos et al. 229

3. Low volcanic Sierra (2,600-3,200 m). This region has a soil type similar to the above, without the limitations of altitude. It supports intensive agri- culture but slopes present a problem of erosion. Below these elevations lie inter-mountain valleys, basins, and watersheds, which generally have alluvial soils of medium to low fertility. Livestock, fruit and better farming practices prevail here. Almost 50% of Ecuador's population lives in the highlands. There are 1,122 agrarian communities and 6,000 agricultural cooperatives situated at eleva- tions above 2,700 masl. The vast majority of this population is native (Indian). Of the agricultural land, 10.8% consists of farms comprising less than. 5.0 ha. Agriculture absorbs almost 60% of the manual labour in Ecuador. Family farming is the most common system in the highlands. It is normally associated with an intensive use of land: 57.6% for annual crops and 22.6% for perennials. Larger farms on the other hand, keep only 24.9% of their area under annual crops. Subsistence agriculture in the highlands is generally characterised by a high degree of risk due to irregular rainfall distribution, frosts, wind, hail, heavy rains, drought, long vegetative periods and so forth. In addition to these natural factors, since fertilisers and herbicides are seldom applied and seed quality and soil preparation are often poor, crop productivity is generally low. The highest elevation for practical mixed agriculture has been estimated at 3,300 m, yet crops are found up to 3,700 m due to the continuous migration of Andean peasants in search of marginal lands, because richer people buy the better farmlands at lower elevations. The most common crop species are presented in Table 15.2. Barley, an important crop of the highland agricultural system, exemplifies peasant management practices (Table 15.3).

Table 15.1: Climatic indicators for three altitudes in the high lands of Ecuador

Altitude (m) 2,800 3,050 3,600 Temperature'C Annual average 13.6 11.5 8.4 Average maximum 23.2 20.7 17.4 Average minimum 2.0 2.5 1.3 Rainfall (mm) Annual Average 420-600 900-1450 1070 March-April 102-127 205-360 270 July-August 45-55 78-75 98 Days of rain 134-141 149-220 183 Sunshine (hours) Per month 141.8 158.3 118.8 Per day 4.6 5.3 3.9 Maximum/day - 6.6 - Minimum/day - 4.1 - 230 Mountain Agriculture

In spite of the fact that Ecuador is a major centre for plant genetic diversity within the Andean region, the country depends on relatively few crop species. Maize, potato, barley, wheat, beans, faba beans and a few legumes are widespread. Native Andean grains such as quinoa (Chenopodium sp.), chocho (Lupinus mutabilis), amaranto (Amaranthus sp.), and Andean tubers such as melloco (Ollucus tuberosum), oca (Oxalis tuberosum) among others, have been relegated to a minor position ever since the Spanish conquest (Table 15.4). The decline of these crops is due to changes in urban dietary

Table 15.2: Crop statistics for the Ecuadorian highlands (1985-86)

Crop Area (ha) Production Yield (tonnes) (tonnes/ha)

Maize 75,280 61,360 0.82 Potato 36,580 423,180 11.57 Barley 35,800 40,875 1.14 Wheat 19,800 23,315 1.18 Bean 18,500 17,300 0.94 Pea 6,800 4,000 0.59 Faba bean 4,800 3,100 0.64

Source: MAG surveys.

Table 15.3: Barley indicators (1986)

No. of producers 13,665 Area (ha) 35,811 Farm average (ha) 2.6 Use of certified seed M 7.9 Area with improved varieties M 60.4 Fertilised area (%) 32.5 Use of herbicides M 10.3 Mechanised tillage (%) 16.8 Mechanised seeding M 1.3 Mechanised harvest M 1.8 Mechanised threshing M 43.0 Credit M 4.6 Average yield (tonnes/ha) 1.15

Table 15.4: Native Ecuadorian Andean crop statistics (1985-86)

Crop Area (ha) . Production Yield (metric tonnes) (tonnes/ha)

Chocho 2,200 3,746 1.6 Melloco 1,600 6,720 4.2 Oca 600 3,060 5.1 Quinoa 300 1,950 0.6 Zanahoria Blanca 440 1,898 4.3 J. Tola Cevallos et al. 231 preferences, facilities for staple food imports, fast food dishes in contrast to traditional dishes requiring more time to cook and, most importantly, the lack of government policies supporting research and promotion of native species. All native species, especially those cultivated over 2,000 m, have been subject to a serious and progressive genetic erosion. This trend only began to change with the First Andean Region Genetic Resources meeting held in Peru (1981) wherein Ecuadorian species were given a high priority for collection, conservation and research (Table 15.5). Prior to 1972, no germplasm collection had been done except for maize and potato. Pioneer work started with the-National Institute for Agriculture Research (INIAP) and Genetic Resources Unit supported by IBPGR and IDRC Canada. Once the species of interest were defined, a systematic search was conducted in the highlands and intermediate altitudes on both sides of the Andes Mountains. A summary and characterisation of the material collected is given in Table 15.6. Maize, potato and tomato are included, even though the world germplasm collection effort assigns them low priority. Such species as the tree tomato (Cyphomandra petacea) were collected by university teams but to date the 50 accessions have not been characterised. A very exciting genus, Carica, includes some species known as highland papayas for which there are currently 20 accessions awaiting evaluation. Major characterisation and evaluation have been done for collections of Chenopod ium, Lupinus, Amaranthus, Oxalis, and Polymnia. Some general conclusions may be drawn: - All species with high genetic diversity; - Variability observed between and within entries for both agronomic and nutritional characteristics; - All species with good yield potential and insect and disease tolerance; - Native tubers with degree of local adaptation, especially Ullucus. The genetic variability identified will facilitate rapid breeding since simply through selection better material may be obtained quickly for release to farmers. Given that a certain percentage of the Ecuadorian population exhibits serious nutritional deficiencies especially in rural areas and among children, the nutritional potential of some native species affords an opportunity to alleviate the situation and should be explored (Table 15.7). The dietary staples of peasants and subsistence farmers are potatoes and. barley; other grains and tubers are consumed to a lesser extent; and meat, eggs and dairy products restricted to rare occasions such as holidays. Statistical data on the native Andean crop species with respect to area, yield, post-harvest handling, marketing and so forth are generally lacking. Nor are they included in the present Ecuadorian government policies on research but there are hopeful indications that the situation will change. 232 Mountain Agriculture

Table 15.5: Andean species: priority for collection in Ecuador Grains Amaranthus spp. (Amaranto)* Chenopodium quinoa (Quinua)* Lupinus mutabilis (Chocho)** Zea mays (Maiz)* Tubers and Roots Arracacia xanthorrhiza (Zanahoria blanca)* Canna edulis (Achira) Mirabilis expansa (Miso-Taso)* (Oca)* Polymnia sonchifolia (Jicama)* Tropaeolum tuberosum (Mashua)* Ullucus tuberosus (Melloco)* Solanum tuberosum (Papa) Fruits and Vegetables Cucurbita spp. (Zapallo-Zambo) Cyclanthera spp. (Achogcha) Cypomandra betacea (Tomate de arbol)* Carica spp. (Papaya de altura) Lycopersicon spp. (Tomate) Passiflora spp. (Taxo) Physalis peruviana (Ubilla) Prunus capuli (Capuli) Others Capsicum spp. (Aji)* Cinchona spp. (Quina) Agave spp. (Pence)

* Species collected to date.

Table 15.6: Andean crop germplasm available in INIAP bank (August 86) Species No. of entries Status Amaranthus spp. 207 C-PC-PD Chenopodium quinoa 411 C-PC-PD Lupinus mutabilis 110 C-PC-PD Arracacia xanthorrhiza 74 C-PD Mirabills expansa 3 C-PD Oxalis tuberosa 91 C-PC-PD Polymnia sonchifolia 25 C-PD Tropaeolum tuberosum 46 C-PC-PD Ullucus tuberosus 155 C-PC-PD Pronus capuli 207 C Capsicum spp. 45 C Zea mays 183 C-PC-PD Lycopersicon spp. 19 C Solanum tuberosum 21 C-PC Note: C = conservation; PC = partial characterisation; PD = partial documentation. Table 15.7: Nutritional value of some native Andean crops (100 g. edible part)

Calories Protein Carbohydrate Fibre Fat Calcium Vitamin C H,O (mg) (g) (total) (g) (g) (g) mg

Grains 3 11 Quinoa 351 15 67 4.6 6.1 112 12 Chocho 276 42 4 5.5 27.7 54 5 12 Amaranto 358 13 65 6.7 7.2 247 Tubers 4 37 84 Oca 63 1.0 14 0.8 0.6 3 23 86 Melloco 51 1.0 13 0.6 0.0 86 Mashua 52 1.6 11 0.8 0.6 7 67 Roots 28 73 Zanahoria 104 0.8 25 0.6 0.2 29 7 67 Achira 130 0.9 31 0.5 0.1 15 Fruits 18 77 Capuli 81 1.3 21 0.6 0.2 45 29 56 Tree tomato 50 2.2 10 1.6 0.9 9 52 93 Taxo 25 0.5 6 0.6 0.1 8 18 81 Tuna 67 1.1 17 1.1 0.6 57 Vegetables 18 123 Aji 28 0.91 1.4 0.8 2.2 0.4 13 14 Achogcha 17 0.95 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.1 234 Mountain Agriculture

Quinoa is a good example of what can be done. With some selection and on-farm trials, we were able to determine appropriate agronomic practices, and through rural and urban promotion generated some interest in this crop. Although farmers are interested mainly in its export potential, our initial goal is the subsistence farmer as a means to overcoming nutritional deficiencies. Constraints to the increased use of other native food crops include their low social status, lack of knowledge about alternative uses, unknown nu- tritional qualities and others. Native Andean species need and justify research and promotion. They fit well in the local systems of production and could provide a limited source of income for the highland subsistence farmers. These farmers generally lack technical assistance and are often compelled to make a living on marginal agricultural land. The most common cropping system in the high Andes of Ecuador is the association between species-both mixed cropping of several species and relay planting of native grains are done. Tuber and root crop associations usually include potato as the main crop. However, above 3,300 in there is no dominant crop and arrangements vary, with monocrops of quinoa, chocho, melloco and oca more common. Thus, several strategies should be consid- ered in the promotion of native species, namely: Agronomic aspects: (a) collection, evaluation and conservation of native germplasm; (b) diagnosis of problems, constraints and status of species; (c) research at appropriate levels; and (d) understanding traditional practices. Nutritional aspects: Identification of superior accessions based on protein content, carbohydrates, vitamins etc., and yield potential and adaptability. Social and economic aspects: (a) understanding the requirements of poten- tial users; (b) developing alternative preparations, recipes and dishes; and (c) conducting field days, press, radio, television and nutritional promotion. To conclude, some of the main constraints to increasing the production and use of native Andean crops in Ecuador are these: - Lack of basic information as foundation for planning research and promotion; - Lack of specialised personnel; - Lack of interest by universities and other private and public institutions; - Lack of government policies to promote production, marketing and consumption of native crops. CHAPTER 16 Andean Phytogenetic and Zoogenetic Resources

M. Tapia and N. Mateo

INTRODUCTION continent and The Andean Mountains extend N-S in the South American from sea embrace tropical and sub-tropical latitudes with altitudes ranging 2 million level to over 4,000 m. The area above 2,000 m occupies more than ha and straddles seven different countries. from the The settlers who arrived approximately 10,000 years ago selected for food broad range of flora found in the Andean region certain plant species for weaving (grains, tubers, roots etc.), spices, medicinal purposes and fibre cloth. wild Ample pasturage in the highlands encouraged domestication of skin and ruminants (the New World camelids, llama and alpaca) for meat, as 'hual- fibres. Old chronicles also mention the domestication of birds such lata' or South American goose.

SPECIES THE ANDES AS CENTRE OF ORIGIN OF CROP AND ANIMAL

Bolivia, as Vavilov (1935) refers to the Andean region of Ecuador, Peru and region was one of the eight centres of origin of crop plants in the world. This in the centre of Pre-Incan civilisations and gave birth to the Incan empire large compared the XI century. In spite of the fact that this zone is not very crop to South America as a whole, it is of utmost importance for endemic plant and animal resources. Yacoleff and Herrera (1943) have reviewed and analysed information on compiled by Spanish authors from the time of their arrival in the Andes 236 Mountain Agriculture

plants domesticated by natives of the pre-Spanish colonisation. The list includes 159 species, some of which are found only in a semi-wild state.

Table 16.1: Main Andean native food species above 2,000 m* Common name Scientific name Botanical family Grains Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Chueopodiaceae Kaniwa Chenopodium pallidicaule Chueopodiaceae Kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus Amarantaceae Tarwi Lupinus mutabilis Leguminosae Tubers Oca Oxalis tuberosa Oxalidaceae Olluco Ullucus tubefosus Baselaceae Mashua Tropaeolum tuberosum Tropaeolaceae

Roots Maca Lepidium meyenii Cruciferae Jimaca, Ajipa Pachurrhizus ahipa Leguminosae Arracacha Arracacia xanthorrhiza Umbeliferae Yac6n 'Jiquima' Polymnia sonchifolia Compositae Common fruits Nuez del Peru Juglans peruviana Juglandaceae Chirimoya Annona cherimola Anonaceae Pacae, 'guamos' Inga feuillei Leguminosae Huagra-manzana Crataegus stipulosa Rosaceae Capulf Prunus serotina Rosaceae Mora de Castilla Rubus glaucus Rosaceae Other fruits Ciruela del Fraile Bunchosia armeniaca Malpigiaceae Tumbo, Curuba Passiflora mollisima Pasifloraceae Tintin Passiflora pinnatistipula Pasifloraceae Lucuma Lucuma bifera Sapotaceae Capulf "uchuba" Physalis peruviana Solanaceae Sacha tomate Cyphomandra betacea Solanaceae * Maize and potato are not included due to their worldwide distribution. The main domesticated Andean crop species with a good potential for use in other regions of the world are listed in Table 16.1. Domestication of wild animal species in the Andes focussed on animals that could provide skin and fibre and serve as a means of transportation (Table 16.2). The South American camelids comprise two domestic species and two wild ones which have adapted to different conditions in the Andes. M. Tapia and N. Mateo 237

Table 16.2: Main Andean animal species do.nesticated or used by man

Species Scientific name Present status

Mammals Llama Lama glama Domesticate,.. Alpaca Lama glama pacos Domesticated Vicuna Lama glama vicugna Wild Huanaco Lama glama gunicol Wild Cervidae Deer Hippocamelus antisensis Wild Carnivors Fox Dusicyon sp. Wild Puma Felis coneolor Wild Poultry C6ndor Vulture gryphus Wild Wallata Choephaga melanoptera Wild Parivrana Phoenicoparus andinas Wild Partridge Nothoprocta sp. Wild Rodents Cuy (guinea pig) Cavia parcellus Domesticated Vizcacha Lagidium peruanum Wild Chinchilla Chinchilla laniger Domesticated

THE ANDEAN MOUNTAINS AND THEIR GENETIC DIVERSITY

Crops The presence of numerous species related to, or ancestors of, domesticated plants is an indication of the diversity that may be expected among crop species in the Andes. Crops assigned high priority in the Andean region because of their greater proliferation, appropriate nutritional value and efficient repro- duction system, are listed in Table 16.3. Grains a) Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is generally found in the Andean high- lands from 3,00 to 4,000 masl. However, it has been established that this grain can grow from sea level to near the snow line. Gandarillas (1968) has described 18 races, classified according to their growth habit, type of inflo- rescence and shape and edge of leaf. Quinoa varies in growth habit from highly branched to single stemmed. The leaf may be amaranth-like or glomerulous, with either entire or serrated edges. Plant height ranges from 1.0 to 3.0 m; the shorter ecotypes prevail in the highland plains and the taller in the inter-Andean valleys located at about 3,000 masl (Table 16.4). Some cultivars of quinoa can endure low rainfall conditions. Quinoa can be grown in salt pans ('salares') with only 280 mm of rain, provided certain 238 Mountain Agriculture

agricultural techniques are employed, such as small holes dug in the ground. Valley quinoa can withstand a rainfall of greater than 1,000 mm. Tolerance for fungal diseases such as mildew (Peronospora sp.) is associated with rainfall and humidity.

Table 16.3: Main Andean native crops in Peru

Crop area (ha) Altitude (masl)

Grains Qunioa* 15,000 0-3,900 Kaniwa 5,000 3,900-4,100 Amaranthus 500 0-3,000 Lupinus 3,000 1,500-3,800 Tubers Oca 18,000 3,000-4,000 Olluco 16,000 2,000-3,900 Mashua 6,000 2,800-4,000 Roots Yacdn 300 0-3,000 Arra.cacha 400 0-3,000

It is estimated that there are 40,000 ha of quinoa in Bolivia and 2,000 ha in Ecuador.

Table 16.4. Main groups of quinoa and their ecological adaptability

Group Altitude Country/Region

Sea level quinoa 0-500 Chile/Central Zone Valley quinoa 1,000-3000 Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador Colombia Highland plains quinoa 3,500-33,900 Peru, Bolivia 'Salares' quinoa 3,700-3,800 Bolivia High 'Yungas' quinoa 2,500-3,000 Bolivia/Peru

The colour of the quinoa grain varies from dark (usually associated with a higher protein content, up to 21%) to white. Grains may be starch or crystalline ('chullpi') with a protein content of 12 to 16%. There is also a group of grey-skinned quinoas known as 'ccoito' which produce a soft flour. The adaptation of quinoas to different soils relates mainly to pH. The 'royal quinoas' grown in 'salares' are highly, halophytic and can grow in alkaline soils (pH 7.8). The sea-level quinoas exhibit a good adaptability to neutral soils. b) Kaniwa is possibly one of the crops most resistant to low temperatures. It has a special anatomical structure which protects the inflorescence, and is capable of withstanding temperatures as low as -3'C during anthesis. Grain M. Tapia and N. Mateo 239

colour ranges from light brown to black. The grain cover (perisperm) ranges from light grey, yellow, orange or dark red to almost black. c) The Andean amaranth comprises two species: Amaranthus caudatus in the Central Andean mountains of Peru and Bolivia, and A. edulis in southern Bolivia and northern Argentina. Local names such as 'coyo,' 'achis; 'achita; 'coimi; and 'millmi,' often lead to confusion of these two species. A similar species (A. hibridus), locally known as 'hat' 'ago,' is eaten at a young stage as a vegetable. Amaranth plants vary in height from 1.0 to 3.0 m. d) Tarwi or chocho (Lupinus mutabilis) likewise exhibits considerable di- versity. However, three distinct types have been identified (Table 16.5). Several authors have mentioned the wide variability of wild species of Lu- pinus. McBride (1953) indicates the existance of 82 species, some of which are grown and used as food (see Figure 16.1). Carrillo (1956) has described most of these species, one of which (Lupinus praestabilis) is grown at altitudes up to 4,200 ntasl. Tapia and colleagues (1980) have suggested the kind of germplasm that could be used in a breeding programme for the enhancement of domesticated species, with emphasis on resistance to frost, diseases and pests.

Tubers Andean tubers such as oca (Oxalis tuberosa), olluco (Ullucus tuberosus) and mashua or isano (Tropaeolum tuberosum) vary not only in shape, size and colour of tuber, but also in earliness, tolerance to cold, oxalic acid content (oca) and mucilage content (olluco). Some information on the genetic diversity of oca is given in Table 16.6 (see Figure 16.2).

Table 16.5: Diversity of Lupinus mutabilis

Common name Area Altitude Growth

Tarwi or tauri Bolivia, Southern Peru 3,600-3,800 Slightly ramified/semi-early Chocho Central and Northern 3,000- ? Ramified/late Peru, Ecuador Tarwi Around Lake Titicaca 3,800-3,850 Slightly ramified/ very early

Table 16.6: Characteristics of oca tubers Common name Origin Colour Style length

Yurac oca Bolivia, Potosi White Long Pallihuaya Bolivia, Omasuyo Yellow Short Puca oca Bolivia, Cochabamba Red Short Keni Pecke oca Bolivia Pillapi White Medium Ibia Colombia, Zipaquira Light yellow Medium Lari oca Bolivia, Tunari Purple Medium

Source: Cardenas 1958. 240 Mountain Agriculture

Figure 16.1: Andean grain crops. 1 - quinoa; 2 - kaniwa; 3 - kiwicha; 4 - tarwi. M. Tapia and N. Mateo 241

Broad genetic diversity is a common feature of Andean crop species and could advantageously be used in a cooperative programme among countries with high mountain conditions, in order to obtain improved materials adapted to these environments. Special emphasis should be placed in selection on pest and disease resistance as well as tolerance to cold. The latter characteristic apparently correlates negatively with plant height.

Roots Yac6n is grown from Venezuela to Argentina. It is a perennial root even though the aerial stems are annual. These roots are sweetish and eaten raw (Leon, 1964). Arracacha is considered one of the oldest domesticated species in America (Bukasov,1930). Since it is a short-day plant, its introduction into non-tropical areas has not been possible (Montaldo, 1972). There are white and purple cultivars adapted up to 2,700 m. Plants produce 4 to 10 cone-shaped roots (see Figure 16.3).

Animals

SOUTH AMERICAN CAMELIDS Of the four camelids found in the Andean region, two have been domes- ticated-the llama and the alpaca (see Figure 16.4). These two species fulfill different though complementary functions. The llamas are taller but also exhibit variation in height: adult llamas found in the Bolivian'salares' are about 2.20 m tall, while those in the drier, high desertic lands ('punas') are about 1.60 m tall. Llamas are mainly used for transporting agricultural products (primarily potato, barley and fruits) within the high- lands. Their fibre, though somewhat thicker than that of the alpaca, is prized for its strength and durability. The meat of younger animals is widely accepted and a variety of products produced from the hide, such as clothing and straps for bundling agricultural products. Llama manure is used in agriculture. There are three distinct types of llama: two have thick coats but differ in height, and the third is almost hairless. Alpacas yield a finer, higher quality of fibre. Their meat is also greatly appreciated and widely'used in the sausage industry. Information on the camelid population in South America is presented in Table 16.7. 242 Mountain Agriculture

2

Figure 16.2: Andean tuber crops. 1 - olluco; 2 - oca; 3 - mashua. M. Tapia and N. Mateo 243

Figure 163: Andean root crops. 1 - Arracacia xanthorrhiza (arrachacha); 2 - Polymnia sonchifolia (yac6n). 244 Mountain Agriculture

Table 16.7: Camelid population in South America

Country Alpacas Llamas Total

Peru 3,290,000 900,000 4,190,000 Bolivia 300,000 2,000,000 2,300,000 Chile 50,000 70,000 120,000 Argentina Few Few - Total 3,640,000 2,970,000 6,610,000

Source: FAO, 1971.

GUINEA PIG ('CUY')

In Peru, at present, there are about 20,000,000 guinea pigs born annually (Arroyo, 1986) and theannual consumption is estimated at 1.2 kg per capita. Guinea pigs are mostly bred by families, and there are four distinct types. Calero del Mar (1978) researched the variability of these types and found that their hair varies from white to black, and their body shape generally adequate for meat production, except those with a more angular body type. Table 16.8 gives the comparison of conversion efficiency between Guinea pig and other species. The average production of the main domesticated Andean animal species is given in Table 16.9.

Table 16.8: Comparison of conversion efficiency between Guinea pig and other species (ALIAGA, 1979)

Species Weight/kg Consumption per weight Increase/ weight

Guinea pig 0.8 31.25 0.9 Bovines 40.0 12.50 0.3 Ca the 500.0 10.0 0.2

Table 16.9: Average production of main domesticated Andean species (per animal)

Meat, kg Fibre, kg/year Milk, 1/day

Llamas 40 - 60 3-4 1-3 Alpacas 30 - 50 2-5 1-2 Guinea pigs 0.3-0.8 - - M. Tapia and N. Mateo 245

VICUNA

LLAMA

ALPACA GUANACO

Figure 16.4: Characteristic body shapes of South American camelids (from Cardozo, 1954). 246 Mountain Agriculture

NATIVE ANDEAN CROP AND ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES

Numerous isolated efforts have been made to collect native germplasm. Probably one of the most successful expeditions was that of Dr. Jorge Le6n and Eng. Julio Rea in the early -1960s, when the Programa de Cultivos Andinos of IICA began. These collections mainly comprised tubers and roots. The material was distributed to universities in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. A goodly portion of the material on oca is housed in Cusco and Huancayo and the germplasm of arracacha kept at Cajamarca University in Peru. A large collection was sent to Dr. Martin Cardenas of Cochabamba Univer- sity in Bolivia who undertook evaluation of the material (Cardenas, 1958). Several expeditions were conducted by regional universities in Peru during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with special emphasis on Andean grains. In Puno, most efforts were devoted to quinoa and kaliiwa, while in Cusco and Huancayo, priority was given to Lupinus. In 1975 a coordinated action was initiated under the Program Andes Altos of IICA, based in Bolivia, for the organisation and compilation of the existing collections held in Bolivia and Peru. Support was also provided for similar actions undertaken in Colombia and Ecuador. The IICA programme was further supported by FAO's International Committee on Phytogenetic Resources (CIRF). In addition to providing funds for several collecting expeditions between 1976 and 1980, the following facilities were constructed and/or endowed.

BOLIVIA Belen Experimental Station: facilities improved and endowed Patacamaya Station: equipment purchased.

PERU Camacani Station (Puno): building and equipment Kayra Station (Cusco): building and equipment Ayacucho Station: facilities built The establishment of the FAO infrastructure facilitated the evaluation of material and the selection of improved lines. The GTZ supported a Lupinus project in Peru for the collection of these species over an 8-year period. The germplasm was distributed to Cusco and Huancayo and the construction of an appropriate building was funded. The CIRF and IDRC have continued to support the maintenance and evaluation of specific collections in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. In 1982, the Amaranth collection (227 accessions) was given to Cusco University, leading to the establishment of a programme for the promotion of this crop. In 1985, the Instituto Nacion-al de Investigaci6n y Promoci6n Agropecuaria del Peru (INIPA) created the Programa Nacional de Cultivos Andinos M. Tapia and N. Mateo 247

(National Andean Crops Programme), which is now concentrating on re- search on native Andean species (see Tables 16.10, 16.11, 16.12).

Table 16.10: Institutions responsible for Andean plant germplasm

Crop Institution Quinoa-kaniwa CIPA XXI-PUNO, c/o Ing. Valeriano Huanco Apartado 388 Puno, Peru UNA, c/o Ing. Roberto Valdivia (Universidad Nacional del Altiplano) Apartado 271 Puno, Peru Lupinus Universidad del Cusco, c/o Ing. Oscar Blanco Apartado 1006 Cusco, Peru CIPA XVI-JUNIN, c/o Ing. Oscar Garay Calle Real 509 El Tambo, Huancayo, Peru Andean tubers Universidad del Cusco, and kiwicha c/o Ings. Hernan Cortez/Luis Sumar Apartado 1006 Cusco, Peru Universidad de Ayacucho c/o Ing. Julio Valladolid Apartado 243 Ayacucho, Peru Andean crops/ general Programa Nacional de Cultivos Andinos c/o Dr. Marco Tapia Apartado 110097 Telex 25194 NC Lima 11, Peru

Table 16.11: Institutions responsible for Andean animal germplasm

Animal Institution

Camelids IVITA, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Apartado 4270 Lima, Peru INIPA, c/o Ing. Julio Sumar Apartado 110097 Lima 11, Peru Guinea pigs INIPA, c/o Ing. Marco Saldivar Apartado 110097 Lima 11, Peru 248 Mountain Agriculture

Table 16.12: Number of accessions (collections) per crop in each germplasm bank (1985) in Perd

Puno Cusco Huancayo Ayacucho Cajamarca Qninoa 1500* 198 48 425 425 Kaniwa 330 - 14 47 - Kiwicha - 570 32 109 17 Tarwi 228* 1200* 1500* 325 126 Bitter potato 68 130 42 257 - Oca 120 610 168 122 30 Olluco 40 18 118 61 18 Isano, mashua 65 14 47 107 -

* Includes material from other Andean countries.

PRESENT AND POTENTIAL USE OF ANDEAN PHYTOGENETIC AND ZOOGENETIC RESOURCES

Andean crops, other than potatoes and corn, have not been widely used. Due to the food crisis that occurred in this decade and reached critical levels (Peru today imports more than 90% of its wheat and 30% of its milk), the value of native species has now been recognised. However, further study to improve, promote and establish the advantage of native species over imported food products is essential. The present area occupied by the main crops mentioned here totals only 60,000 to 70,000 ha; yields and prices vary from year to year in accordance with prevailing climatic conditions (Table 16.13). The Andean grains quinoa and kiwicha have evoked considerable interest. But their potential dietary role has yet to be fully explored despite the fact that peasants have traditionally used them in soups and sweet and salty dishes in place of rice. These two grains have been industrially processed into flour that can be mixed with milk or used to make 'tortillas' (flat bread). Popped quinoa and kiwicha are also common. Although kaniwa is expected to eventually cover a much larger area (over 50,000 ha), it requires roasting before consumption. Its good nutritional value (protein content about 15%) has been widely recognised. Tarwi is very rich in protein (32-42%0). It is a legume, and considered the soybean of the Andes. Upon removal of its alkaloids, it can be used as a food in a manner similar to beans. Planting this legume in rotation with other crops can substantially increase the productivity of the latter; tarwi is estimated to fix between 60 to 80 kg N/ha. Roots and tubers are an important source of energy. Their future prospects are expected to improve when industrial processing of flour becomes more common. One hectare of oca can yield up to 8.0 tonnes dry matter/ha, thus competing favourably with many other crops. Common agronomic practices for the afore-mentioned crops are presented in Tables 16.14 and 16.15. Table 16.13: Distribution of Andean crops, altitude, and yields in the Peruvian highlands

Cajamarca Valle De Ayacucho Total la libertad Ancash Mantaro Apurimac Cusco Puno area (ha)

Quinoa D *. * * ** ** *** 16,000 A 2,600-3,500 2700-3,800 2,500-3,700 2,600-3,800 2,y00-3,800 3,800-3,900 Y 1,500 1000 1,400 800 1,300 600-1,500

Kaniwa D ** *** 4,000

Kiwicha D - 800

Tarwi D ** ** ** ** 5,000 A 2,000-3,300 2,00-3,400 2,500-3,500 2,200-3,500 2,400-3,500 3,800 Y 1,000 800 800-2,000 900 800-2,000 1,000-2,500

Bitter potato D * ** ** 38,000 A 3,800 3,800-4,000 3,800-4,000 3,900-4,000 Y 8,000 7,000 7,000 7,000

OCA (2) D ** ** ** ** ** ** 16,000 A 3,000-3,800 3,000-3,800 3,000-3,900 3,000-

** Olluco D ** ** ** ** 10,000 A 3,000-3,800 lsano, mashua D * ** 6,000

10,000

Note: D = distribution; A = altitude in masl; Y = yield kg/ha(1) (1) Yields vary widely due to technological levels, years and variety used. (2) Andean tubers are normally intercropped or associated with maize; thus yields are not included in all cases.

* Unimportant; ** important; *** very important. Table 16.14: Agronomic practices for Andean grains

Activity Kiwicha Quinoa Kaniwa Tarwi Planting Date August-October August-November September-October August-October Method Rows Row-transplanting Row-broadcast Row/In holes Seed treatment N.N. N.N. N.N. Fungicide Seeding rate (kg/ha) 3-6 4-15 3-6 60-80 Planting distance (cm) 60-80 40-80 40-50 60-80

Fertilisation 80-40-0 80-40-0 60-40-0 0-40-0

Hilling up At least 1 1-2 N.N. 1

Diseases Esclerotinea Alternaria Peronospora Colletrotrichum Ascochyta Uromyces, Phoma Chrysocelis Pseudomonas Pests N.S. Ticona Agromyza Cpitarsia Apion Scrobipalpula Pachyzancla Epicauta Epitrix Myzus Frankliniella Astillus Bird control N.N. During last 3 months N.N. N.N. Harvest method Plant cutting Plant cutting or uproot Uproot or cut Plant cutting Threshing Manual or mechanical Manual or mechanical Manual Manual Grain classification Wind cleaning or Wind cleaning or Wind cleaning By hand mechanical mechanical

Note: N.S. = non-significant; N.N. = not needed Table 16.15: Agronomic practices for Andean tubers

Activity Oca Olluco Mashua

Seeding rate (kg/ha) 1200-1400 800-200 1000-1200

Planting distance cm 60-80 60-80 60-80

Fertilisation* 120-20-0 60-40-0 100-60-0

Hilling up (number) 2-3 2-3 2-3

Diseases N.S. 'Fasciacion'** 'Fasciaciori **

Pests Copitarsia Premnotrypex Bothynus Macrosiphum

Harvest (vegetative cycle) 220-270 210-245 20-245

Storage (problems) Rotting N.S. N.S. Rhizopus

Note: N.S = non-significant.

* Fertilisation depends on the rotational system. In new fields rates are very low, slightly higher after fertilised potato, and higher after a cereal. The use of manure is common but the rates used are very low.

** Physiological disorder, undefined origin. 252 Mountain Agriculture

The South American camelids at their population peak totalled 20,000,000-about three times their number today. They were an important source of protein for the XVI century populace when the Spaniards arrived. Animals were culled annually in rodeo roundups ('chaco') and their meat sun- and salt-cured to preserve it for a long time. This technique is still practised and allows transportation of meat to tropical regions. Given the fact that these species are well adapted to the Andean pastures, their population could be substantially increased were competition from cattle and sheep reduced (Pri- mov,1983). Alpaca hair is highly prized in world markets, and countries like Bolivia and Peru still retain more than 95% of the world's total production. Guinea pigs are one of the most economic sources of proteins because most kitchen scraps can be used in their feed. Some select guinea pigs have reached a weight of 1.5 kg. This animal can be cooked in a variety of ways (for example, broiled or fried) and is traditionally served on all holidays. It is essential to know the geography and resources available in a given region in order to improve the agricultural practices and crops grown under prevailing climatic and agronomic conditions. The Andean region is rich in re- sources which, as in the case of potatoes and corn, could be shared with other mountain agriculture systems in the world.

REFERENCES

Aliaga, L. 1979. Production de cuyes. Huancayo, Universidad Nacional del Centro. Huancayo, Peru. Arroyo, O. 1986. Investigaciones sobre el cuy en el Peru. Proyecto PISA-INIPA- CIID-ACDI. Informes Tecnicos no. 8. INIPA, Lima, Peru. Bukasov, S.M. 1930. The cultivated plants of Mexico, Guatemala and Colombia, Bull. Appl. Bot. Genetic Plant Breeding, suppl. 47. Calero del Mar, B. 1978. El cuy. Ed. Agron6mica, Cusco, Peru, 281 pp. Cardenas, M. 1958. Il informe sobre trabajos hechos en Bolivia sobre oca, olluco y mashua. En: Estudios Sobre Tuberculos Alimenticios de los Andes. Comuni- caciones de Turrialba, no. 63. Costa Rica. Cardozo, A. 1954. Auquenidos. IBTA, La Paz, Bolivia. Carrillo, E. 1956. Revision del Genero Lupinus en el Peru. Tesis Universidad Nacional de San Agustin, Arequipa, Peru. FAO. 1971. Estadisticas de Ganaderia. (Yearbook). Rome. Gandarillas, H. 1968. Razas de quinua, Boletfn Experimental, no. 34. Ministerio de Agricultura, La Paz, Bolivia. Horkheimer, H. 1973. Alimentation y obtencidn de alimentos en el Peru prehispdnico. UNMSM. Lima, Peru. Leon, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias andinas, Boletfn Technico, no. 6. IICA. Lima, Peru. M. Tapia and N. Mateo 253

McBride, J.F. 1953. Flora of Peru. Field Museum of Natural History. Botanical Series 13. Chicago, 510 pp. Montaldo, A. 1972. Cultivo de raices y tuberculos tropicales. IICA. Lima, Peru. Primov, G. 1983. Alpaca Meat Production and Exchange in Southern Peru. Technical Report Series no. 31. SR/CRSP. Lima, Perd. Tapia, M.C. and C. Vargas. 1982. Wild lupine of the Andes of southern Peru. Agricultural and nutritional aspects of lupines. Proceedings of the First International Lupine Workshop. Lima-Cusco, Peru. Tapia, M.E. et al. 1980. La quinua y kaniwa. Cultivos andinos. IICA. Bogota, Colombia. Vavilov, N.I. 1935. The Origin, Variation Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass., USA, 365 pp. (English translation.) Wing, E.S. 1975. La domesticacion de animales an los Andes, Rev. Allpanchis, no. 8. Cusco, Peru. Yacoleff, E. and F.L. Herrara.1943. El mundo vegetal de los antiguos peruanos, Lima, Rev. Museo Nacional, 3,3,241-323, Peru.

CHAPTER 17

An Evaluation of Andean Root and Tuber Crops: Genetic Resources for Mountain Environments)

Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents information on the root and tuber crops domesticated in Andean South America. Viewed as a group, these plants form a complex of crops that are beginning to receive increased international agricultural re- search priority (Vietmeyer,1984,1986). The Andes is well known as the centre of origin and diversity of the potato (Solanum tuberosum). Only recently have other potentially important Anden crops been transferred to other areas of the world. The work of Andean scientists and others is facilitating the agronomic characterization, improvement, and distribution of a number of these root and tuber crops, which are well adapted to mountain environments. First, detailed data on Lepidium meyenii Walp. (Brassicaceae), Mucus tubero- sus Loz. (Basellaceae), Oxalis tuberrosa Mol. (Oxalidaceae), and Tropaeolum tuberrosum R. and P. (Tropaeolaceae) are presented, to facilitate the increased utilization of these crops in mountain regions. Second, general information is given on other Andean roots and tubers- Arracacia xanthorrhiza, Canna edulis, Mirabilis expansa, Panchyrizus tuberosa and Polymnia sonchifolia. These five species are in need of further research within Andean zone but also show promise for distribution to other mountain zones. Sources for obtaining germplasm for the afore listed root and tuber crops are given in the Appendix, along with a partial list of Andean scientists working on these crops.

' Portions of this paper are currently in press in the journal Mountain Research and Development. 256 Mountain Agriculture

CROPS

Maca The first crop, Lepidium meyenii, is distinct from the others both in limited distribution and method of propagation. It has been declared a cultigen in danger of extinction (IBPGR,1982) but its use is currently only known in the Puna of Peru in the region of Lake Junin. It is called Maca in this zone where it is cultivated up to elevations of 4,500 m. The plant is rosette-forming perennial, grown as an annual, with branched, mostly decumbent stems. The roots are variable in colour, and attain a size of up to 8.0 cm in diameter. The cropping system is complex; seeds are produced from replanted roots selected to set seed. The seed, called pita, is replanted the following season. Sheep are used to plant (broadcast) seed in the soil while grazing on other Puna perennials. Maca is also known and sold in Lima, Peru, for its reputed fertility enhancing effects. Preliminary tests have tended to indicate an increase in rodent population, since these animals consume maca (Chacon, 1969). When dried, maca will hold for up to 3 years. It is consumed in a number of ways: baked fresh, mixed with milk to form a porridge and mixed with various liquids to form a sweet beverage. The leaves of maca are fed to guinea pigs, one of the animals domesticated by Andean people. The nutritional value of maca has been poorly studied. Unpublished nutritional data from the Instituto Nacional de Nutricion in Lima, Peru is-as follows: protein 15.8%0, fat 1.10% and moisture 13.5%. Maca shows great potential for cultivation in high- altitude areas, both within and outside Andean Zone. Tubers The following three tuber crops T Mucus tuberosus, Oxalis tuberosa, and Tropaeolum tuberosum - are cultivated from Venezuela to Argentina at alti- tudes from 2,500 to 4,000 m. The centre of diversity of these three crops is in the Altiplano of Peru and Bolivia in the region of Lake Titicaca. These tubers are often interplanted together and with other native Andean crops. Selection of the numerous varieties is based on a combination of characteristics. These characteristics include yield, pest resistance, seed quality, frost resistance, storage characteristics, aesthetic appeal and market value. The many varieties are recognised and integrated into the Quechua and Aymara indigenous classification systems, similar to the folk taxonomies applied to Solanum tuberosum cultivars discussed by Brush and colleagues (1981). U11co (Ullucus tuberosus) is a monotypic genus that grows in two forms, bushy and prostrate. The tubers exhibit a wide morphological variation. Tuber colour ranges from red, pink, yellow and orange to white. Short days are needed for flowering as well as production of stolons which enlarge to form tubers. The length and number of short days needed to promote stolon formation and tuberisation is quite variable among the numerous cultivars. The amount of time required from planting to harvest in Peru is 6 to 8 months. Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 257

In Peru, more than 15,000 hectares of Ullucus were under cultivation in 1983 with yields estimated from 7 to 9 tonnes/ha (INIPA 1983). There is an estimated annual market demand of 60,000 tonnes per year. Ullucus tubero- sus is processed in a freeze-dried form called 'llingli which can be stored for several years without spoiling. In addition to rural consumption, Ullucus is sold in urban supermarkets in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Each country has its own vernacular names for Ullucus "melluco " and "Rubas" (Colombia), "chugas" (Ecuador), "papas lisas" (Peru), and "atok lisas" (Bo- livia). Oca (Oxalis tuberosa) is an annual tuberous herb, usually 20-30 cm high, with cylindrical succulent stems that vary in colour from green to red. These tubers also exhibit wide colour and size variation. Optimum daylength for tuber formation is 11 to 12 hours. Plants yield tubers 6 to 8 months after planting. In Peru, INIPA (1983) estimated that there was a minimum of 16,000 ha of Oxalis tuberosa under cultivation, with yields ranging between 7-30 tonnes/ha. In addition to its direct food value, Oxalis tuberosa is being exam- ined as a potential commercial source of flour, starch and alcohol (Cortes, 1983). The tubers of Oxalis tuberosa contain varying levels of oxalic acid. Tubers with higher levels are considered bitter and are processed in several ways. One of the methods involves freeze-drying the tubers, which produces a product called "khaya" in Peru. This process reportedly reduces the bitter taste associated with oxalic acid, but further chemical analyses of fresh and processed Oxalis tuberosa need to be carried out. Forms of Oxalis tuberosa with a lower oxalic acid content can be eaten fresh, are prepared in a variety of regional dishes, and require no special processing. Oxalis tuberosa is a widespread minor crop in the highlands of central Mexico, where it is cultivated at elevations from 2,200 to 3,200 m. It is likely that Oxalis tuberosa was introduced into Mexico after the conquest. This crop is also cultivated in , where it was probably introduced within the past hundred years. Thus Oxalis tuberosa is cultivated from 45°S of the equator in New Zealand to 18°N of the equator in Mexico. This indicates that the introduction of Oxalis tuberosa to regions such as the Himalayas (18 to 45°N of the equator) should present little problem with regard to photoperiod adaptation. Oxalis tuberosa is also known by different names in each country where it is grown: "ibia" (Colombia), "oca" (Ecuador and Peru), "apilla" (Bolivia), "papa extrangera" (Mexico) and "yam" (New Zealand). Anu (Tropaeolum tuberosum) is a cultivated species of a genus containing 90 species. It is similar in growth form to the garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus). The plant grows in a semi-prostrate form up to 1.0 m in height; the stems are slightly branched with a slightly fibrous texture. The flowers of the genus are eaten in both North and South America. The agricultural cycle of this crop varies from six to eight months. Yields of 20 to 50 tonnes have been recorded in experimental plots of Tropaeolum tuberosum in the area of Cuzco, 258 Mountain Agriculture

Peru (Cortes,1981). A cooked frozen product of Tropaeolum tuberosum, known as "tcyacha", is sold in La Paz, Bolivia. In addition to its food value, Tropaeolum tuberosum is used and sold for its medicinal and anti-reproductive value (Garcilazo de la Vega, 1960). Clinical tests of its pharmacological constituents and activity have been conducted and lend support to its use in Andean folk medicine (Johns et al., 1982). Tests of the nematocidal and insecticidal properties of the isothiocyanates present in cultivars of T. tuberosum also tend to substantiate its use to protect other cultivars from pathogen attack. This cultigen is known by various names throughout the Andean zone: "cubio" (Colombia) "mashua" "isano" and "anu" (Ecuador and Peru), and "apilla" (Bolivia).

PROPAGATION, SEED PRODUCTION AND WILD RELATIVES Each of the three tubers described above is vegetatively propagated. Cut- tings or whole tubers selected from the previous years harvest are placed in the soil from 0.4 to 1.0 m apart. Ullucus tuberosus has not been reported to produce viable seed. Oxalis tuberosa is reported to occasionally produce small quantities of seed, but it is uncommon and no reports of farmers using botanical seed for propagation have been found. Tropaeolum tuberosum does produce large quantities of viable seed that may prove valuable in breeding efforts aimed at improving this crop (Cortes, 1981). The production of botanical seed is a current research focus of potato breeders, as true seed can be transported and distributed at a fraction of the cost of heavy entire tubers International Potato Centre, 1984). The reputed wild form of Ullucus tuberosus is known from Peru and Bolivia. The wild tubers exhibit little colour and size variation and have longer internode lengths compared to the cultivated Ullucus tuberosus (Sperling, pers. comm.). Tropaeolum tuberosum has been differentiated into cultivated and wild subspecies: T. tuberosum ssp. tuberosum and T. tuberosum spp. silvestre. This classification is supported by the chemotaxonomic studies of Johns and Towers (1981). The existence of a wild progenitor of Oxalis tuberosa is under study at this time.

TUBER VIRAL INFECTIONS Research on viruses affecting the above-described tubers has only recently been carried out. Ullucus tuberosus contains complexes of three or four viruses. These viruses have been identified as potexvirus (PMV/U), a tobamovirus (TMV/U) a potyvirus (tentatively designated Ullucus mosaic virus UMV), and a newly recognised comovirus (Ullucus virus C) (Brunt et al., 1982a, b). The potexvirus (PMV/U) was found to symptomlessly infect Ullucus tuberosus. The tobamovirus (TMV/U) appears to induce conspicuous necrotic lesions in Nicotiana glutinosa. The Ullucus mosaic virus (UMV) alone in Ullucus tuberosus induced leaf symptoms indistinguishable from the chlorotic mottling and distortion found in naturally infected plants. Plants infected with Ullucus Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 259 virus C were stunted and showed some chlorotic leaves but plants infected experimentally only with Ullucus virus C remained symptomless (Brunt et al., 1982b). All four of these viruses have been experimentally eliminated from Ullucus tuberosus using meristem-tip culture and chemotherapy (Stone, 1982). Field trials on the effects of these viruses on plant growth and tuber yield have not yet been conducted. It is believed that the elimination of these viruses would dramatically increase plant vigour and yield.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE To date, little nutritional analysis of these tuber crops has been conducted. Research carried out by King and Gershoff (1987) revealed high variation both in quantity and quality of protein within and between cultivars of Ullucus tuberosus, Oxalis tuberosa, and Tropaeolum tuberosum. Table 17.1 presents the results of proximate analyses of tubers representing minimum and maximum values of 15 samples. It is clear from the data that the wide degree of variability exists in the protein content of these species. The percent of protein is especially important to people of highland environments where diets are often deficient in this essential nutrient. In Tropaeolum cultivars, the maximum value indicates nearly 120% more protein than the minimum value. Among all three species there is a 300% difference between high and low values.

Table 17.1: Nutritional variability in three species of Andean tubers

Component Oxalis tuberosa Ullucus tuberosus Tropaeolum tuberosum Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. 15.7 Protein (%) 3.0 8.4 10.8 15.7 6.9 Carbohydrate (%) 83.0 88.8 73.5 81.1 69.7 79.5 0.4 Fat M 0.5 0.6 0.1 1.4 0.1 Ash M 1.9 3.5 2.8 4.2 4.0 6.5 8.6 Fibre M 4.0 5.1 3.6 5.0 7.8 Moisture M 80.2 84.6 86.0 86.2 78.3 92.4 Calories/100 g 368.7 374.0 370.0 381.0 342.0 350.0

Note: All values presented on a dry weight basis. Data in all tables are from Peru and Colombia.

AMINO ACIDS Table 2 presents an amino acid analysis of two of the same collections of Ullucus tuberosus that were used for proximate analysis. The amino acid content of their protein was compared to the (FAO/WHO provisional amino acid scoring pattern (FAO/WHO, 1973) The standard score provides an estimate of the mg of each essential amino acid which would be expected in a gram of protein of 100% biological value. The score of the most limiting amino acid is an estimate of the utilisation of the protein if it were the sole source of 260 Mountain Agriculture

dietary protein. Ullucus appears to be an adequate-to-good source of amino acids with the exception of valine. Table 17.3 presents an amino acid analysis of two of the collections of Oxalis tuberosa studied by proximate analysis. The data indicates that in O. tuberosa, the limiting amino acid is valine in sample no. 1 and tryptophan in sample no. 2. The other values indicate that Oxalis tuberosa is a fair-to-good source of protein. Table 17.4 presents the amino acid analysis for Tropaeolum tuberosum samples for which proximate analysis were obtained. T. tuberosum consumed alone appears to provide the least adequate balance of essential amino acids of the three species tested.

GENETIC EROSION We are in danger of losing the crop Lepidium meyenii through genetic erosion and also the traditional agricultural knowledge associated with its cultivation. L. meyenii is cultivated at elevations where only one bitter potato variety can be grown. Very little is known about the distribution, cultivation, utilisation, and nutritional characteristics of the root crops Mirabilis expansa and Polymnia sonchifolia, discussed below. The wide diversity of Ullucus tuberosus, Oxalis tuberosa, and Tropaeolum tuberosum is also diminishing at a rapid pace as "improved" varieties of Solanum tuberosum and introduced foods displace them.

OTHER ANDEAN ROOTS AND TUBERS

Some information is presented here on the remaining Andean roots and tubers, based on data compiled by Vietmeyer for as future publication on Andean crops genetic resources. The format of that is in this publication.

Arracacha Botanic name: Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft. Synonyms: Arracacia esculenta. Common names: Apio, Arrecate (Latin America); batat baroa, man- dioquinha-salsa (Brazil); pomme de terre celery (French); racacha virraca (Peru); zanhoria balanca (Ecuador). Family: Umbelliferae. Main attributes: Native to the Andean highlands from Venuzuela to Bolivia, Arracacha is an herbaceous perennial that produces large, thick, edible, carrot- shaped, starchy roots. In the larger cities of Colombia, arracacha roots are sold in large quantities. In many areas arracacha replaces the potato; it costs half as much to plant and harvest. Potential future importance: If introduced into temperate or other high altitude areas of the tropics, arracacha is likely to be valuable root crop, especially if improved cultivars and cultural techniques are developed. Arra- Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 261

Table 17.2: Amino acid profile of Ullucus tuberosus

Content (mg. amino Standard % score Amino acid acid/g protein) amino acid FAO/WHO No. 1 No. 2 scoring pattern No. 1 No. 2

Lysine 41 55 55 74 100 Threonine 23 30 40 57 77 Valine 33 37 50 66 75 Isoleucine 34 48 40 85 121 Leucine 41 57 70 58 82 Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 49 70 60 81 116 Tryptophan 7.6 10.6 10 76 106 Methionine + Cystine 27 34 35 77 98

Table 17.3: Amino acid profile of Oxalis tuberosa

Content (mg. amino Standard % score Amino acid acid/g protein) amino acid FAO/WHO sample No No. 1 No. 2 scoring pattern No. 1 No. 2

Lysine 57 59 55 103 108 Threonine 47 45 40 117 113 Valine 26 48 50 52 96 Isoleucine 46 36 40 115 79 Leucine 60 53 70 85 76 Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 57 68 60 95 113 Tryptophan 8 5.5 10 80 54 Methionine + Cystine 34 25 35 97 72

Table 17.4: Amino acid profile of Tropaeolum tuberosum

Content (mg. amino Standard % score Amino acid acid/g protein) amino acid FAO/WHO sample No No. 1 No. 2 scoring pattern No. 1 No. 2

Lysine 35 41 55 64 74 Threonine 22 24 40 55 61 Valine 25 46 50 51 93 Isoleucine 25 37 40 62 80 Leucine 35 43 70 50 61 Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 37 14 60 61 24 Tryptophan 4.7 5.3 10 47 53 Methionine + Cystine 12 15 35 34 43 262 Mountain Agriculture

cacha has recently become popular in southern Brazil and is now an estab- lished vegetable in the markets of Sao Paulo. Current status: Arrachcha is cultivated today in most Latin American countries as as Costa Rica, usually in small gardens for local use. Method of use: Secondary tubers (offshoots of the main tuber) are boiled or fried as a table vegetable or used as an ingredient in stews. In many areas yellow tubers are preferred. All other parts of the plant are also used: offsets for the next planting, the coarse main rootstocks and mature leaves for live- stock feeding, and young stems in salads or as a table vegetable. Taste and nutritional quality: The tubers have a delicate flavour, a crisp texture, and, depending on the cultivar, white, creamy-yellow, or purple flesh. They are reported to have a starch content from about 10 to 20% and to be rich in calcium and phosphorus. The starch is similar in many respects to that of cassava (Manihot escuelenta); it is easily digested and can be used in infant and invalid foods. Agronomy: The arracacha is cultivated in a manner similar to potato, with which it is often interplanted. Although it may be planted throughout the year, it is usually planted at the beginning of the rains in April and September. While it is possible to obtain fertile seed with a good germination rate, arracacha is traditionally propagated vegetatively by the offset of shoots produced on the crown of the main root stock. After detaching the offset from the rootstock, the basal end is cut several times to stimulate sprouting of the shoot and to ensure that secondary roots begin to form and are well distributed laterally on the primary rootstock. The offsets are usually planted in holes along furrows and fertiliser is normally placed in each hole. Hand-weeding is necessary for two months after planting.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS Daylength: There is some evidence that arracacha requires short day lengths in order to produce economic yields. Rainfall: Moderate, evenly distributed rainfall of at least 600 mm but pref- erably 1,000mm. Insufficient natural rainfall is supplemented by irrigation. Altitude: Grows best at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m, but can be cultivated as low as 1,000-1,200 m. Temperature: 14°C - 20°C. Soil type: Requires deep, fertile, well-drained sandy soil, ideally with a pH of about 5-5.5. Application of P has been found to increase yields considerably, while heavy applications of N have had an adverse effect. Limitations: Arracacha is susceptible to attacks from nematodes in Venezula and other regions.

Achira Botanic name: Canna edulis Ker-Gawl. Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 263

Synonyms: Canna achiras. Common names: Achira (Spanish America); gruya (); toluman (Dominica); ubi gereda, kenyong (Malaya); adalut (Burma) ganjong, lembong njeedra, seneetra (Java); tous les mois, arrowroot purple arrow- root. Family: Cannaceae Main attributes: Achira or edible canna (Canna edulis) has a long history in the Andean region. At Huaca Preita, on the Peruvian coast, samples have been excavated from levels dated to ca. 2500 BC. It is grown to a limited extent in Asia and the Pacific, and has been experimentally cultivated in other parts of the tropics. The leaves and rhizomes are also used as feed for livestock. Achira contains starch grains that are larger than those of almost all other plant products. Potential future importance: A good alternative to other starchy root crops in many areas. Current status: Achira cultivation now extends from Venezuela through the , to northern Chile. Description: A perennial tinged with highly branched rhizomes and upright leafy shoots. The leaf blades dark green with reddish-brown veins. The flowers are red, yellow or variegated. Methods. of use: The rhizomes are usually eaten after baking. Achira is also grown commercially in for the production of starch, known as Queensland arrowroot. The rhizomes contain 25% starch, which is manufac- tured in St. Kitts in the under the name "tous les mois". Taste and nutritional quality: Achira is almost pure starch, not a particularly efficient food producer. Agronomy: Propagated vegetatively, in a manner similar to the banana. The branched rhizome is fleshy, up to 60 cm long, with thick fibrous roots. The small terminal portions of the rhizomes are used for planting and the crop is harvested after about eight months. It grows fast in the rainy season.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS Daylength: No data. Rainfall: 250-600 mm. Altitude: 2,600 - 3,200 m. Temperature: 7°C -33°C. Soil type: The plant requires good soil enriched with manure. Limitations: High level of calcium oxilate crystals mandates certain washing and cooking procedures.

Mauka Botanic name: Mirabilis expansa R. and P. Common names: Mauka, (Bolivia); miso, tazo (Ecuador). Family: Nyctaginaceae. 264 Mountain Agriculture

Main attributes: Very little is known about this root crop. It appears to be well adapted to mountain environments and is comparable to potatoes in nutri- tional value. Potential future importance: The cultivation and utilisation of this crop could potentially greatly expand in mountain areas of Latin America and Asia. Current status: Mauka is only known to be cultivated in one area of Bolivia, near the community of Yokarguaya of Canton Italaque in the province of Camacho, and in Ecuador. It has been experimentally cultivated in the depart- ment of San Mateo in Peru. Description: Mauka is low growing and compact, attaining a height of up to 1.0 m. The stems are round, dividing at the nodes. The leaves are ovoid and heart-shaped. The edible underground stems and roots are cream to yellow in colour. Method of use: The underground stems and roots are boiled or fried as a table vegetable, as similar to arracacha. The stems and roots are placed in the sun to diminish their astringent compounds. Honey or raw cane sugar is often added to sweeten them after cooking. The stems are also fed to pigs. Taste and nutritional quality: The addition of sweet liquids to mauka indicates that it has an unusual flavour. The nutritional value of mauka has been reported by Rea and Leon (1965) on a dry weight basis: protein 6.58%, carbohydrate 86.9%, ash 4.20%, fibre 1.25%, fat 0.72%. Agronomy: Mauka is normally propagated vegetatively, although it does produce viable seed. It requires roughly 9 to 12 months to harvest.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS Reports indicate mauka is cultivated from 2,800-3,200 m. It is probable that its potential range of cultivation is wider than this but there is very little known about its specific requirements. The other specific environmental require- ments are poorly documented. Research needs: Mauka is an Andean root crop in need of much basic research.

Aj ipa Botanic name: Pachyrhizus tuberosus (Lam) and P. erosus (Mexico). Common names: Jicama, Mexican yam bean, (Mexico); ajipa (South America); dilique tubereux, pais patate (French); knollige bohne (German); fan-ko (Chinese), sankalu (India); sinkamas (Philippines). Family: Leguminosae. Main attributes: Both are increasingly exported from Mexico to the United States in part to supplement scarce water chestnuts used in Chinese cooking and as a low-calorie snack food. Potential future importance: Both grow well in hot wet tropics. Current status: Though ajipa is a favourite food in the West Indies, it is not well known in Asia, Africa or Oceanic. Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 265

Description: Both are vigorous with coarse, hairy, climbing vines that grow rapidly, can reach 5.0 m in length, and bear many white or violet flowers. Method of use: Ajipa and yam bean are often sliced thin and eaten in green or fruit salads. They are also lightly cooked. Unlike most other root crops, the crunchy texture is retained after cooking. In general the tubers are handled, stored, and marketed like potatoes. Taste and nutritional quality: The white flesh is crisp and succulent like that of an apple, with a sweet pleasant flavour. Agronomy: The plants are easily propagated by seed and, except for good manuring of the soil before planting, and staking, require little attention. When the plants are propagated from seed, 5-9 warm months are needed to produce large tubers, but propagating the crops using small tubers greatly reduces growing time. In some areas, to encourage large sweet roots, the flowers are removed by hand. This can double the yield of the tubers. Yields average 40- 50 tonnes/ ha throughout Mexico's Bajio region and Morelos state, where 4,000 ha are planted each year.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS Rainfall: Although these tubers grow well in locations from sub-tropical to tropical and dry to wet forest, for good yields they require a hot climate with moderate rainfall. Altitude: Sea level to 2,000 m. Temperature: They are sensitive to frost. Soil type: AsWith other tuber crops, the soil should be light and well drained so as not to restrict tuber growth or encourage fungal rot. Limitations: Only the tuber is safe to eat. The leaves, stems, roots, ripe pods and seeds possess insecticidal properties and can also be toxic to humans. Research needs: Special attention should be given to differences in tuber protein content and quality.

Yacon Botanic name: Polymnia sonchifolia Poepp and Endl. Synonyms: Polymnia edulis Wedd. Common names: Yacon (South America); yakumo, chicama, icama (Ecua- dor). Family: Compositae. Main attributes: Because of its sweet taste and watery quality, yacon is con- sidered a pleasant refreshment; its food value is low and probably lies chiefly in its sugar content. Potential future importance: It has been suggested that yacon could be a useful fodder crop for cultivation at high altitudes in the tropics and sub-tropics. 266 Mountain Agriculture

Current status: Found in small family plots in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Yacon has also been recently introduced to New Zealand by a few experimen- tal horticulturists. Description: An herbaceous plant in which the stem comprised a perennial underground part that gives rise to annual aerial stems. The tall aerial stems can reach about 1.5 m in height. The underground part of the main stem thickens to give rise to tubers which are usually ellipsoid or cylindrical in shape and fused together. Method of use: Yacon is used as a vegetable and may be cooked or eaten raw; sometimes the tubers are dried in the sun before cooking, which is said to sweeten them and to improve their flavour. The tubers may be used as a source of inulin or fermented to produce alcohol. The main stem is also eaten as a vegetable and the dried leaves, which have a protein content of approximately 11-17% are used as animal feed. Taste and nutritional quality: The tubers are sweet and refreshing. A recent analysis of the tubers reported; moisture 69-83%, protein 0.4-2.2%, sugar 20%. The sugars consist mainly of inulin, and contents ranging from 61-69% have been obtained from dry roots. Agronomy: Propagated vegetatively from offsets of slips, about 10-20 cm long, taken from the base of the main stem with a few tubers attached. The slips are planted throughout the year, provided there is adequate soil moisture and receive little attention apart from being kept free from weeds. The crop reaches maturity in about 7 months. Yields of 38 metric tons/ha have been reported.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS Altitude: Yacon is reported to be cultivated from 900-3,300 m. Other environ- mental requirements are not well documented. Research needs: There is very little known about yacon, and all aspects of it cultivation, variation and utilisation need to be researched.

ANDEAN TUBER GERMPLASM COLLECTIONS, EVALUATION AND SOURCES

Germplasm collection of all of the Andean roots and tubers has been carried out by a network of Andean scientists in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (CIRF,1983). In the case of mauka (Mirabilis expansa), yacon (Polymnia sonchifo- lia) and maca (Lepidium meyenii), there are only two or three collections in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. The collections of oca (Oxalis tuberosa), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus), anu (Tropaeolum tuberosum), and arracacha (Arracacha xanthdrrhiza) are much larger. There are several hundred germplasm collec- tions of oca, ulluco and anu in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. A list of sources of Andean crop germplasm is listed at the end of this paper (see Appendix). The germplasm collections in Ecuador and Peru are substantial and agro- nomic evaluation is now being done at many germplasm banks. Many of the accessions have been duplicated in vitro at the University of San Marcos of Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 267

Lima, Peru. Using tissue culture techniques, this material is being conserved as part of research projects aimed at producing diseases-free "basic seed" that can be returned to Andean farmers. The University of San Marcos team, led by Rolando Estrada, has also sent in vitro material to South and will soon be sending material to the Himalayas for experimentation.

DISCUSSION

Andean people have domesticated a large number of hardy high-altitude root and tuber crops. This unique group of food plants represents centuries of sophisticated human selection that has created cultivars with specialised morphological, physiological and chemical adaptations to mountain environ- ments. The development and exchange of these food plants is linked to increasing the health status of highland people. This is especially true for populations in remote areas where local food production forms the bulk of the subsistence base. It is especially significant that these root and tuber crops are now being promoted for utilisation in other mountain regions of the world. These crops have in the past been considered "peasant" crops and have been increasingly replaced by imported often less nutritious foodstuffs. The president of Peru, Alan Garcia, is also promoting the consumption of these and other Andean crops in urban areas where malnutrition is often as bad as or worse than in the rural areas. Nutrition education programmes in urban areas now stress the value of these traditional crops and Peruvian companies are increasing their marketing of these foods in urban markets. More basic and applied research is needed on these crops both within and outside the Andean zone. The wild ancestors of all of the crops should be investigated as part of efforts to improve their productivity and adaptability in other ecogeographic zones. Detailed chemical and nutritional studies on post-harvest processing techniques also need to be conducted to better under- stand their utilisation. Further research on the range of diseases and pests affecting these plants will yield direct benefits for crop improvement. The traditional agricultural knowledge associated with these crops should also be documented as this knowledge is being lost due to the younger generations lack of interest in traditional crops.

CONCLUSIONS

The further development and exchange of little-known Andean root and tuber crops is vitally important to all countries with mountain environments. The Andean root and tuber crops discussed here are only a portion of the rich agricultural heritage present in the Andes. Increasing the diversity of crop plants that sustain mountain populations will increase the food stability of remote highland populations. Crop plants adapted to the Himalayas and other mountain regions should also examined for their potential exchange with 268 Mountain Agriculture

Andean countries to increase Andean agricultural diversity. Finally, a coordi- nated network to international crop exchange should be established between countries with mountain environments to facilitate the diffusion and exploi- tation of valuable crop genetic resources.

REFERENCES

Brunt, A.A., S. Phillips, A.C. Jones and R.H. Kenten.1982a. Viruses detected in Ullucus tuberosus (Basellaceae) from Peru and Bolivia, Ann. Appl. Biol., vol. 101, pp. 65-71. Brunt, A.A., R.J. Barton, S. Phillips and A.C. Jones. 1982b. Ullucus virus C, a newly recognised comovirus infecting Ullucus tuberosus (Basellaceae), Ann. Appl. Biol., vol. 101, pp. 78-78. Brush, S. B., H. J. Carney and Z. Huaman. 1981. Dynamics of Andean potato agriculture, Economic Botany, vol. 35, pp. 70-78. Chacon, R.C. 1961. Estudio fitoquimico de Lepidium meyenii. Diss. Univ. Nac. Mayor de San Marcos, Peru. CIRF. 1983. El germoplasm vegetal en los paises Andinos. Consejo Interna- tional de Recursos Fitogeneticos. Rome. Cortes, H.B. 1961. Avances de la investigaci6n en tres tuberculos Andinos. En: Curso SobreManejo de la Produccidn Agraria en Laderas. Huaraz, Serie Ponen- cias, Resultados, Recomendaciones de Eventos, Tecnicos, no. 235, IICA. FAO/WHO. 1973. Energy and Protein Requirements FAO/WHO. Technical Report Series no. 522. Geneva. Garcilazo de la Vega, El. Inca. 1960. Comentarios reales, Cuzco: Univ. Nac. del Cuzco, pp. 1609-1617. IBPGR.1982. Plant genetic resources of the Andean region. Proc. of Meeting of IBPGR, IICA and JUNAC. Lima, Peru. INIPA.1983. Programa national de sistemas de producci6n Andina. Borrador final de trabajo. Lima, Peru. International Potato Centre. 1984. Potatoes for the Developing World. Lima, Peru. Johns, T. and G.H.N. Towers. 1981. Isothiocyanates and thioureas in enzyme hydrolysis of Tropaeolum tuberosum, Phytoehemistry, vol. 20, pp. 2687-2689. Johns, T., W.D. Kitts, F. Newsome and G.H.N. Towers. 1982. Anti-reproduc- tive and other medicinal effects of Tropaeolum tuberosum, Journal of Ethno- phrmacology, vol. 5, pp. 149-161. King, S.K. and S.N. Gershoff. 1987. Nutritional evaluation of three underex- ploited Andean tubers: Oxalis tuberosa (Oxalidacae), Ullucus tuberosus (Basellaceae), and Tropaeolum tuberosum (Tropaeolaceae). Economic Botany, vol. 41 (4), pp. 503-511. Le6n, J. 1964. The "Maca" (Lepidium meyenii), a little-known food plant of Peru, Economic Botany, vol. 16, pp. 122-127. Stever, R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 269

Rea, J. and J. Leon. 1965. La Mauka (Mirabilis expansa) un aporte de la agricultura Andina prehispanica de Bolivia, Annales Cientiftcos de la Univer- sidad Agraria, vol. III, Enero-Febrero-Marzo, no. 1. Lima, Peru. Stone, O.M. 1982. The elimination of four viruses from Ullucus tuberosus by meristen-tip culture and chemotherapy. Annals of Applied Biology, vol. 101, pp. 79-83. Vietmeyer, N.D. 1984. The lost crops of the Incas, Ceres, vol. 99, pp. 37-40. Vietmeyer, N.D. 1986. Lesser known plants of potential use in agriculture and forestry, Science, vol. 232, pp. 1379-1384.

APPENDIX SOURCES FOR ANDEAN TUBER CROP GERMPLASM AND INFORMATION Colombia Colombia does not have numerous germplasm banks of the above de- scribed Andean roots and tubers. It does have the highest known diversity of Arracacia xanthorrhiza in the Sibundoy Valley. The regional director for Latin America of the International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) is located in Cali, Colombia. Information concerning sources for any of the Andean root and tuber germplasm from Colombia discussed above can be obtained by writing to: IBPGR Representative Centro International de Agricultura Tropical Apartado Aereo 6713 Cali, Colombia Telex: 05769 CIATCO

Cables : CINATROP

Ecuador Germplasm collections of all the above-discussed Andean crops except Lepidium meyenii are being evaluated by the Instituto Nacional De Investiga- ciones Agropecuarias (INIAP). Material and information can be obtained by writing to: Ing. Raul Castillo Estacion Experimental "Sta Catalina" Km. 18, Panamericana Sur Apartado 340 Quito, Ecuador Tel. 317-035 317-115

Peru Germplasm collections of all of the above-discussed Andean crops except Mirabilis expansa and Polymnia sonchifoli have been made and are conserved in numerous agricultural research stations in Cajamarca, Huancayo, Ayacucho, Cuzco, Puno and Lima, Peru. These stations are coordinated by the Instituto 270 Mountain Agriculture

Nacional de Investigacion y Promotion Agropecuaria (INiAA). The specific work on Andean crops is part of the Proyecto de Investigacion y Sistemas Agropecuarias Andinos (PISA). The address of the general coordinator of the PISA project is given below. Dr. Mario E, Tapia General Coordinator Projecto PISA Apartado 110097 Lima 11, Peru

In vitro material of Ullucus tuberosus, Oxalis tuberosa, and Tropaeolum tubero- sum can be obtained by writing Ing. Rolando Estrada at the address below. Dr. Estrada should also have in vitro material of Maxican Oxalis tuberosa. Ing. Rolando Estrada University of San Marcos Laboratorio de Recursos Geneticos y Biotechologia Apartado 10548 Lima, Peru.

Bolivia Germplasm material for all the above-discussed crops except Lepidium meyenii in Bolivia can be requested through Ing. Julio Rea. The germplasm collections in Bolivia of these crops are not yet well established; individuals wishing to obtain material from this country will probably need to provide some funds. Information and Tequests should be directed to: Ing. Julio Rea Casilla 4122 La Paz, Bolivia

Mexico Germplasm material for Oxalis tuberosa and Pachyrhizus erosus in Mexico can be obtained by writing to: Ing. Agr. Efraim Hernandez Xolocotzi Centro Botanico Colegio de Postgraduados Chapingo 56230 Edo. de Mexico Mexico

New Zealand Germplasm and information concerning Oxalis tuberosa in New Zealand can be obtained by writing to Mr. Peter Halford at the address listed below. Other Andean fruits not discussed in this paper are also now cultivated in New Zealand and information concerning them can be obtained by writing to Steven R. King and Noel D. Vietmeyer 271

Stewart Dawes at the address below: Mr. Peter Halford Almadale Road RD 7, Fielding, New Zealand

Dr. Stewart Dawes Division of Horticulture and Processing DSIR, Private Bag Aukland, New Zealand

England Information regarding tuber viruses infecting Mucus tuberoses and Oxalis tuberosa can be obtained by writing to: Dr. Allen Brunt The Glass House Crops Research Institute Worthing Road, Rustington Little Hampton, West Sussex BN16 3PU, England

CHAPTER 18

Role of NBPGR in Exploration, Char- acterisation and Exchange of Mountain Crop Genetic Resources

R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi

INTRODUCTION

The vast Himalayan region stretches from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. A goodly percentage of the people living in the Himalayas lead a life of hardship and poverty. Since the millions of people living here must produce their own food, systems of agriculture based on local resources have evolved over the years. These systems vary greatly and include mixed cropping and shifting cultivation, found in parts of the eastern states, and the more intensive types of cropping patterns practised in parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh of the northwest Himalayas. The varying topography, climate and soil support many types of vegetation characteristic of tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and alpine conditions. Some areas in the Himalayas even support desert or semi-desert vegetation. This varied vegetation in the Himalayas provides scope for studies in forestry, ecology, ethnobotany, agri-horticulture, phyto- geography, and improvement of agricultural and medicinal plants and their wild relatives. This article briefly relates the activities conducted by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in the exploration, characterisation, conservation and exchange of the vast mountain crop genetic resources in India. The risk of depletion of these resources has recently increased markedly due to demo- graphic pressure and the introduction of improved varieties of crop plants resulting in the erosion of old land races. 274 Mountain Agriculture

CROP DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY

The prominent climatic change due to altitude shows itself in varied crop patterns or associations at different elevations. Rice is predominantly a crop of lower altitudes, whereas maize and millets extend to higher elevations, about 2,100 m. At places in the Pangi Valley (Himachal Pradesh) and in parts of the eastern Himalayas, the upper limit of maize is about 2,500 m; cold-tolerant rice varieties likewise occur in the western and eastern Himalayas up to this limit. Naked barley is superior to other cereals in terms of adaptation to high altitudes and extends up to 3,500 m. The upper limit of naked barley has been reported to be 4,320 m in the Himalayas. Amaranth, buckwheat, potatoes and sweet gourd are the other crops grown successfully up to 3,000 m. Wheat, Brassica spp., pulses, Capsicum, oilseeds and most vegetable crops are of sub- Himalayan altitudes, extending up to 2,500 m. Considerable crop diversity is observed in the Himalayan region due to the wide range of agro-ecological and climatic conditions (sub-tropical to temperate).

CAUSES OF GENETIC DIVERSITY

Wide climatic and physiographic variation has offered opportunities for the cultivation of a large array of food, fodder, fruit and medicinal plants. These are cultivated in the extensive fertile valleys, on the hill terraces, and in the exposed flat mountain tops, under irrigated and rainfed conditions in the Himalayan region. Most of the hills in the eastern Himalayas are placed under shifting cultivation. Several promising, agronomically and physiologically adapted types or land races resistant to drought, from several species of cultivated plants, are grown in these areas. Specialised habitats (for example, the cold and climate) are also responsible for enhancing variation in specific traits. Agriculture in the hill regions is mostly rainfed and the land either hand- ploughed or left unploughed. Primitive agricultural systems of raising crops under stress conditions have generated considerable variability, especially in adaptive traits. Furthermore, in isolated hill pockets, tribal people of various ethnic groups grow their own preferred cultivars of different crops. Genetic diversity in these Jand races or varieties has multiplied through both the conscious and non-deliberated selection of plants by the people. Diverse plant types suited to the region were also introduced into the Himalayas in the past, particularly from Afghanistan, Tibet and China via migration or trade routes or simply land connection.

EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION

Mountain crop genetic resources include land races (traditional cultivars), advanced cultivars, weed or wild relatives of crop plants and wild species. Areas falling in the Himalayan mountain region for potential crop exploration R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi 275 include the northeastern hills, the Uttar Pradesh (UP) hills and the states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Mountain plant exploration activities to augment genetic variability in different agricultural crops and their wild relatives were initiated in India about three decades ago. In the mid-1940s to 1950s, the emphasis was on the collection of improved cultivars from various agro-climatic regions, pockets of diversity of mountain crop plants, for the purpose of utilising this germplasm in crop improvement programmes. This programme continued into the 1960s but three additional schemes were introduced, i.e., collection of grain legumes, Brassica spp., fodder legumes and grasses. Thus general and specific germplasm collection programmes were undertaken in various parts of the country but particularly in the northern hills, and the germplasm of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), soybean, Brassica spp. and fodder grasses were collected. In the 1970s activities were accelerated and more region-specific multicrop exploration programmes were initiated to tap primitive genetic resources from the northeastern and northwestern hills of India. These collec- tion programmes emphasised priority crops based on current national needs. Crops and areas, mainly dominated by tribal groups, which still hold native material in cereals, millets, legumes and other crops, were identified. In accordance with the needs of the All-India Coordinated Crop Improve- ment Project and the crop-based institutes of the ICAR, several explorations were organised by scientists of the NBPGR during the 1970 to 1980s. The em- phasis in these explorations was on variability in population samples and on select material. Hence sampling sources included farmer fields, threshing yards, stores and village markets. In addition to local explorations, the Bureau's scientists also undertook collections from abroad (Nepal and the USSR) of several crop plants, namely, rice, maize, millets, French bean and Brassica, with an eye on genetic variability. The Bureau also organised two training courses in methodological strategies involved in the collection of germplasm from mountain regions, one in 1979 and another in 1980. Funds were provided by the FAO/IBPGR. In-training explorations covered such topics as the distribution and analysis of crop-plant diversity, origin/domes- tication of crops and crop-evolutionary studies involving biosystematics. From 1980 to 1986 the Bureau and its regional stations at Shimla, Almora and Shillong organised, in collaboration with ICAR crop-based institutes and agricultural universities, 35 explorations in Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, the Uttar Pradesh hills and the northeastern hill region- covering the broad agro-ecological mountain region of the Himalayas-and collected more than 10,000 accessions (Table 18.1).

GERMPLASM UTILISATION

One of the primary functions of the NBPGR as a national service organisation is to widen the genetic base and to make available diverse germplasm to 276 Mountain Agriculture

Table 18.1: Germplasm collection of mountain crops in India 1980 to 1986

S.No. Region Total collections Crops collected

1. Himachal Pradesh 4,954 Wheat, rice, maize, pulses, oil seed and vegetable crops, amaranth, buckwheat 2. North eastern hills 2,744 Rice, maize, wheat, grain legumes, vegetables, amaranth, buckwheat 3. Uttar Pradesh hills 1,240 Wheat, rice, maize, pulses, oil seed and vegetables crops, amaranth, buckwheat 4. Jammu and Kashmir 1,363 Wheat, rice, maize, amaranth, buck wheat, French bean; oil seed, pulses Total collections 10,301

Note: 35 explorations were undertaken. breeders for crop improvement studies. The major recipients of collections made by the NBPGR have been the ICAR crop-based institutes, Crop Co- ordinated Projects, scientists in agricultural universities and State Depart- ments of Agriculture (Table 18.2). Apart from these activities, the Bureau has also been evaluating and studying the performance of introduced and indige- nous material at its headquarters and regional stations, particularly of crops not handled by ICAR crop-based institutes. Over the last four decades these efforts have resulted in the identification of several promising genotypes/ varieties and several of these have been released. Successful introduction of dwarf wheat and rice varieties are good examples. Native germplasm variability has also been successfully utilised in develop- ing improved varieties through selection or hybridisation and several varieties of vegetable crops have been developed. In rice-bean indigenous collections, largely from the eastern/ northeastern hills, dwarf types possessing high levels of protein and amino acids, tryptophan and methionine have been selected. In amaranth from the material collected in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, a promising high-yield grain type named 'Annapurna' has been released for cultivation in the hills.

Cereals

RICE In India, rice is cultivated in the mountain regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand region of Uttar Pradesh (UP), Sikkim, all of northeast India and northern parts of the . It is estimated that two million hectares of hill area are under rice. R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi 277

Table 18.2: Genmplasm collections maintained by NBPGR and other ICAR institutes

Locations Crop diversity maintained

NBPGR, New Delhi *Cereals: wheat (1,395), barley (740); Minor Millets: panicum (425); Legumes: cowpea (2,543), field pea (1,063), black gram (1,400), horse gram (572), Lentil (325); Vegetables: tomato (1,750), okra (1,087), brinjal (421), bottle gourd and other cucurbits (92), onion (1,094), garlic (680); Oilseeds: Brassica (2,306); Medicinal: poppy (317). Central Rice Research *Rice (15,740) Institute, Cuttack Division of Genetics, *Wheat (15,000) IARI, New Delhi Project Coordinator, *Barley (8,000) Barley, Karnal Project Coordinator, *Finger millet (4,480), foxtail Millet, Pune millet (4,396), proso millet (1,169) Central Potato Research *Solanum tuberosum (626), andigena Institute, Shimla types (228) semi-wild (191). Project Coordinator *Brassica spp. (14,259) Rapeseed-Mustard, Hissar Vivekanand Parvatiya Rice (1,500), wheat (1,700), barley Krishi Anusandhan (260), maize (300), finger millet Shala, Almora (3,000), barnyard millet (900), foxtail millet (800), proso millet (50), amaranth (500), black gram (80), green gram (125), horse gram (9), soybean (55), French bean (150), tomato (30), chilli (20), peas (100)

*Includes hill collections. A total germplasm of 1,254 rice collections was made from the northern region of India. Local types of rice from the UP hills revealed considerable variability in glume, colour, grain type and presence /absence of awns. Certain types known as sawa and khaia are grown specially for consumption on religious occasions. In the valley region of the UP hills where irrigation is assured, improved types such as China-4, IR-8 and Taichung Native-1 are being grown. However, some local types such as thapa chini are competing with the improved varieties and possess wider adaptability; they are grown in the valleys and uplands of the UP hills between 960 and 1,675 m. They exhibit marked variation in glume colour and grain size (6-12 mm). From the hills of Himachal Pradesh both prominent and rare local varieties were collected, including the highly cold-resistant katheri, sukhdawas, kishkish, rangari, phulpatash, jottoo and sukara; scented types include munga, basmati, 278 Mountain Agriculture hansraj and ratuwa. Tapta swells well but is coarse-grained, shatters readily, and the stalks lodge. jiri, bhangawa, basmati, hansraj, jhinghin, sukara, achain and tiu taste good but their yield is poor. Risa, tapta and nakarda are early-maturing types. Katheri is a dwarf variety often given to women after child-delivery because it is thought to restore certain internal reproductive body organs to normalcy. This line may also be used as a donor for dwarfness and cold- resistance in developing high-yielding varieties for the hills. In the northeast- ern region different ethnic groups often grow their own locally adapted rice varieties on physiographically diverse terrain. Rice grown under shifting cultivation may possess drought-resistance. A few short (70-105 cm) forms with dark green, semi-erect leaves and good plant shape have also been observed. Collections from Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur (higher hills) resemble the japonica forms. Glabrous types also occur with sporadic cultivation of glutinous forms in the Garo hills (Meghalaya), part of Manipur and Mizoram, and in other hill areas. This material showed wide variability in clustering of spikelet, ear length, and kernel colour (light to deep red); stiff straw and several grains per panicle were characteristic. The Garo hill types are drought- resistant; some are also resistant to plant and stem borer. Genes for photo- insensitivity, glabrousness, drought-resistance and stiff straw also occurred in collections from the Naga hills, Tuensang area, Sikkim and Manipur. The Mizoram material provided types resistant to the brown planthopper. Sikkim collections comprised several fine-grained types.

Wheat More than 500 collections of wheat were made. Local wheats from the mountain regions of India are tall and have a high yield potential. Awnless and cold-resistant types that yield a tasty flour for chappatis were found. Another type that does not shatter, not even during heavy hailstorms, yields a dark- coloured, sweet flour that makes a tasty chappati. The collection from Sikkim and the western hills exhibited several highly variable characters and adapta- bility to different latitudinal and altitudinal limits. Hill collections of Triticum aestivum, when grown in Delhi, proved susceptible to brown and black rust. These collections were tall, mostly small-awned or awnless, with slender spikes and both red and white, soft grains.

Maize Collections of maize from the mountain region of India totalled 1,476. Local variability was seen in the popcorn type 'chidku makki': three to five cobs, medium in height, thin culm, tendency to produce tillers, short cob (6-20 cm long) and elongated yellowish or creamish grains. It was collected in Chamba and Sirmour districts of Himachal Pradesh (HP). The tall flint types with yellow, white, red /black or mixed grain cobs or the white 'deshi kukri' with a cob up to 30 cm long were also collected from these districts in HP, as was the R.S. Parod9 and B.D. Joshi 279 early-maturing variety sathoo (60 days). The sathoo variety produces two to three cobs per plant, with a very high yield (2000 kg/ha); green cobs that are very tasty and sweet are ready for sale in 45 days. The highest variability in, local maize collections was observed in the Chamba and Sirmour districts in HP. Maize is less prevalent in the UP hills. The collections there exhibit variation in cob size, grain colour, number of kernels and- rows per cob, plant height and period of maturation. Among the plants collected were the early-maturing, lower-altitude types such as teen pankhi and the high-altitude, tall flint types with very large cobs (29-31 cm) with yellow, red and variously coloured grains. Jaunsari maize, an early type, has cylindrical cobs with a larger number of kernels/rows. Another early-maturing type (65-70 days) was collected from the Doon valley, with 10-12 kernel rows per cob. Marked variability has been noted for the Indian material (Bhag Singh, 1977). Especially noteworthy is its adaptation to tropical and sub-tropical conditions. The release and spread of hybrids (Ganga-1, Ganga-101, HIM-123, Vijay and VL-42) in areas where local cultivars were grown previously, has provided additional variability, since several farmers keep seeds for next year's crop. During the decade several collections were added from the northeastern hill region, which exhibit variability in flint, dent and pop types. The pop types, similar to the Argentinian popcorn, are characterised by tillering (three to five tillers) and prolific cob production (five to eight small cobs per stalk). The Sikkim primitive material is of this type, with male and female flowers on the same inflorescence. SP-2 is a shorter plant with smaller cobs and considerably smaller grains. Cylindrical types with eight kernels per row also occur in the tract. In Mizoram waxy types are also grown. A few collections of sweet corn were also done in Manipur. An equally rich variation was collected from the northern hills. Cold and adaptable maize types have been collected from northern Sikkim, parts of Lahaul, Chamba (HP) and Uttarakhand Himalayas, mostly the tall flint types. These materials possess additional desirable traits such as ear number, upright leaves, medium stature and resistance to the corn borer, stalk rot and other diseases. The modern varieties currently grown in the hills are: HIM-123, Vijay, VL-42 and Pioneer.

Barley The mountain region collection included 523 samples from the hills of Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti, and the Uttarakhand and Sikkim Himalayas. Materials found at 2,700-3,500 masl are highly cold-adaptable. Both hulled and unhulled types were collected. Variability was high with regard to morpho- agronomic characters, particularly grain yield and ear number. Compared to other regions, samples from HP exhibited more variation in plant height, spike emergence, spike maturation, ear number, grain weight per spike pnd 100- grain weight. Collections from Sikkim were extremely variable in spike length 280 Mountain Agriculture and grain number per.spike, while those from the Uttar Pradesh hills were highly variable in awn length. The Ladakh and Sikkim germplasm consists of early types, with spikes emerging in about 88 days. Some are semi-dwarf (52 cm tall). UP materials show high grain yield. Among the important varieties are: Kailash, Himani, BHS-46, HB-87, Dolma and VLB-1. Dolma, Himani and VLB-1 are adaptable to the northern Himalayan zone.

Minor Millets A total of 1,138 minor millet samples were collected in the northern regions. Finger, foxtail, proso, kodo, barnyard and little millets are commonly grown in the Himalayan mountain region. A total of 506 samples, exhibiting high variability, was collected from HP, Jammu and Kashmir, UP hills and the northeastern hills.

FINGER MILLET (RAGI) Ragi exhibits a wide variation in several characters, especially the long- finger types of Kumaon and eastern Himalayas. In Ladakh cold- and dfought- resistant types were found. Tall types of finger millet reveal variation in tillering and leafiness; the fingers of the panicle vary in number and may be open, half-open or closed. In Indian material mostly naked grain types occur. Hill materials are generally more late-maturing than those from the plains. The grains may be white, brown, purple or reddish but variation in size is minimal. Finger millet is a very drought-resistant plant.

FOXTAIL MILLET This is a short-duration crop, maturing in about three months. It is drought- tolerant and well-adapted to higher elevations. Tall forms generally occur with some variation in leafiness and tillering, but much more in ear length, com- pactness, bristling, awn length and grain colour (black, brown and creamy). Variability is greater in the eastern than in the western Himalayas.

PROSO MILLET Chena or proso millet is quite common and its cultivation extends eastward to northern , but on a limited scale. Quick-maturing and highly drought-resistant tall forms occur, which vary greatly in grain yield and tillering capacity. The panicles are loose to semi-compact; the grains vary in size and colour (creamy, black or red).

BARNYARD MILLET Sawan or barnyard millet, a crop of limited area in the Himalayas, is rather extensively grown in Kumaon. The local germplasm of barnyard millet comprises drought-tolerant tall types, which vary in inflorescences, bristling and grain boldness. Promising types include VL-11, VL-12, VL-13 and VL-8. R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi 281

Smut is a severe disease of the crop. VL-30 and VL-31 were found free from attack of shootfly, while VL-29, PAU-6 and Bageshwer Local-2 were not infested with the pink borer.

Pseudo Cereals A germplasm collection of 2,530 samples of pseudo cereals was made from the mountain regions. The group of pseudo cereals comprises amaranth, buckwheat and chenopods grown in the middle and high hills of the.Indian Himalayas. About 2,100 samples of grain amaranth, 350 buckwheat and 84 chenopods were collected from the NW and NE hill regions.

AMARANTH Grain amaranth is inter-cropped with maize, finger millet, French bean, soybean, black gram, horse gram and Colocasia. Compared to Amaranthus cru- entus and A. caudatus, the area under Amaranthus hypochondriacus is large in the low, middle and high hills. A. cruentus is mainly found in the low and middle hills. Related wild species of the genus Amaranthus, A. hybridus, A. spinosus, A. dubius and A. blitum, are also found in the low and middle hills. These species were likewise collected and are maintained at the NBPGR station at Shimla. The distribution. pattern of the three main grain species in the hills suggests that there is a basic difference among them in physiological adaptation. Considerable diversity was found in the inflorescences, leaf, stem and seed colour, size, shape, spikele. length, compactness of spike, spiny/glabrous nature of the inflorescences, seed size, popping quality and maturation. Samples of A. caudatus with drooping inflorescences 150 cm long were col- lected from Chauhar valley in HP, which breaks the known range of variability in inflorescence length in the 2,700 lines available. Compared to the HP land races, those from the UP hills were higher yielding, taller and with larger inflorescences. Collections from the NE hills were less tall, stout, and late- maturing. Pink-seeded types were confined to the higher hills. The mountain regions of India offer an excellent opportunity for collecting representative samples of variability in grain amaranth for high seed yield (Pauri and Kullu), bold-seeded types (Kinnaur and Kangra), high number of spikelets (Mandi), dwarf types (Shimla) and large inflorescence types (Al- mora, Pauri and Chauhar). Based on these observations, it may be concluded that the Himalayas are the secondary centre of diversity for grain amaranth.

BUCKWHEAT The sampling of buckwheat, primarily grown in the higher hills, was quite variable. Both Fagopyrum esculentum and F. tataricum are cultivated, while F. cymosun, a wild weedy progenitor of F. esculentum, occurs in the NW Himalayan region. Collections from Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, hills of Uttar Pradesh and the northeast hill region comprised 350 samples. Variability was greatest in these characters: plant height, number of 282 Mountain Agriculture

branches, seed size and colour, period of maturation, 100-seed weight and yield per plant. VHC-26, IC-13374, IC-13376 and IC-18869 proved to be very good seed yielders.

CHENOPODS This germplasm comprises 86 samples from HP. Rarely, chenopods are intercropped with maize or finger millet in the Kullu valley. Grain yield is poor and variation in seed size minimal in the indigenous collections.'

Grain Legumes or Pulses A total of 1,160 collections were made from the mountain region of the Himalayas. Considerable variability was found in French bean, rice bean, cowpea, lentil, soybean, green gram and black gram. Both climbing and sub- erect and semi-bushy types occur, with great variation in pod, and seed colour and size. The western Himalayan populations of lentil are unusually variable. Medium duration types have pinkish, greyish-black, mottled brown or grey seeds. The pods of some types have bold seeds. Material of broader adaptabil- ity occurs at altitudes of 1,500 up to 3,000 m. Among field peas, winter-hardy types with round or mottled grains prevail throughout the Himalayan region, but more genetic diversity is seen in the western Himalayas. For soybean, on the other hand, variability is greatest in the eastern Himalayas. Small cream- coloured grains are easier to cook than the hard, bold, black grain types characteristic of the Kumaon Himalayas. French bean, an important pulse of the NW Himalayas, exhibits remarkable genetic diversity in local farms. Both bushy and climbing types occur, exhibiting variation in seed size and colour (red, brown, grey-buff, mottled and white). In the sub-Himalayan tract, black gram, horse gram, cowpea, and green gram are grown. The western Himalayan cultivars of these crops reveal marked variability. In cowpea this is seen in plant habit, pod size, shape and colour and seed size, shape and colour. Among black grams, black, mottled and greenish grain types are seen; among horse grams, white, black, grey, brown, red and mottled forms. Other pulses, of sporadic distribution, are the rice bean and the Adzuki bean, for which variability is greatest in the eastern Himalayas. Here, one sees rice bean of the bold-grain, climbing to semi-bushy type.

Vegetables The collection of 688 samples from the mountain region of India comprised okra, cucurbits, snake gourd, bottle gourd, sweet gourd, eggplant and chillies. Similar to the leafy types of amaranth chenopods and grain legumes, so, too, considerable variability was seen in Phytolacca, Nasturtium spinach, Rumex, several cucurbits, cucumber, squash, and bottle gourd. In Kumaon, ridge gourd, cucumber and bitter gourd, and in the eastern region 'chau-chau' R.S. Paroda and B.D.Joshi 283 exhibit genetic diversity.In the sub-Himalayan tracts of the eastern part of the range, there are many local types of taros and yams. Here, too, genetic variability in plant and fruit is evidenced in okra, eggplant, bell pepper and chilli. Sweet gourd can be grown above 3,000 m in the Himalayas.

Oilseeds Mustard, linseed, sesame and perilla samples totalled 477 and marked variability was observed in plant height, number of branches, pod length, seed size and colour and yield per plant. The genetic diversity of rape and mustard is particularly remarkable. Both yellow and brown saron (Brassica campestris var. bilocularis) and rai (B. junceo) are grown throughout the Himalayas up to middle elevations. Broad-leaved, tall, green or pigmented types of Brassica predominate in the east while tall sesame types are grown in the western and eastern sub-Himalayan ranges, Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining tracts, where black- or white-seeded tall and drought-resistant types occur.

Spices, Condiments and Beverages In the eastern and western Himalayas, wide variability occurs in ginger and to some extent in turmeric. High-quality ginger genotypes occur in parts of Himachal Pradesh, especially in Sirmour, which need to be collected and preserved. A good collection is maintained at Solan. In the northwestern Himalayas, especially in Chamba and Lahaul, local variation prevails in caraway (Carum bulbocastinum). In the east, in Arunachal Pradesh and adjoin- ing areas, old tea clones show resistance to cold and diseases. Much of this germplasm is found up to 1,600 m. Superior genotypes of green tea also occur sporadically in the Kangra and Palampur region of HP.

Forage Crops Much diversity is seen in fodder types of grasses and legumes throughout the Himalayan region from 2,000 m to 4,000 m, i.e., Agrostis, Danthonia, Phleum, Poa, Dactylis, Oryzopsis, Agropyron, Phalaris, Brachypodium, Eragrostis, Cym- bopogon, Trifolium, Crotolaria, Indigofera (indigo), and Desmodium. The Bugyal areas above 4,000 m are well known for their luxuriant pastures in the higher ranges of the Himalayas. In the Ladakh Himalayas, these pastures of alpine heights possess a rich flora of temperate legumes and grasses.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants India's mountain regions are endowed with a rich diversity in medicinal and aromatic plant resources, such as Saussurea lappa, Aconitum latarophyllum, Ephedra gerardiana, Rheum, webbianum, Gentiana kurroo, Orchis mascula, Swertia chirata, Berharis, Achgrointhes viola, Podophyllum ehodi, Valeriana offici- nalis, Artemesia, Mentha and Cimum sp. The diversity of these plant species is greater in the western than in the eastern Himalayas, generally at altitudes between 1,200 and 3,000 m. 284 Mountain Agriculture

Fruits and Nuts Much of the prevalent variability in fruits and nuts is due to the introduction in the eastern Himalayas of pomes, stone fruits, soft fruits, cherries and nuts at higher elevations, and pineapple at lower elevations. Some variability occurs in the higher hills for cold-resistant pear, apricot, pomegranate and jujube. These are old adapted types that are often preserved by the natives in their courtyards. In the eastern Himalayas, many native types of Citrus and, to a limited extent, mango and banana grow, the last two occupying the sub- Himalayan foothills. Lime and other citruses extend up to 1,500 m in northern Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh and, occasionally, above this altitude. Old native types offer potential germplasm of utility for resistance to cold and diseases. Semi-naturalised populations as well as old cultivars of winter- hardy walnut occur at higher elevations in the western and northwestern Himalayas. Some variability is also seen in'chilgoza' (edible pine); plantations of this tree occur at 1,600-2,000 m in the western Himalayas. In Pangi, chilgoza, hazelnut and walnut grow wild and exhibit remarkable variation. Similarly, in Kinnaur genetic diversity occurs in chilgoza, almond, walnut, chestnut, grapes, apricot, peach and 'bahami'. In the East, local Castanopsis and Corylus species yield nuts; edible types are either wild or grown in courtyards.

Wild Useful Types Many wild relatives of cultivated plants occur from the sub-Himalayan zone upwards. Solanum, Vitis, Saccharum, Dioscorea and Zizyphus are seen at lower elevations, between 900 and 1,500 m. At 1,500-2,000 m, Pistacia, Di- oscorea, Cucumis, Rubus, Pyrus, Prunus, Sorbus and Cotoneaster are also found and constitute hardy root stocks. Pistacia integeriomma is confined only to the western belt where, between 2,500-3,000 m, Cicer microphyllum, a wild type of chickpea, also occurs. In the east several wild forms of Citrus grow, many of which are useful root stock, possessing disease resistance and cold tolerance. Another important fruit tree of the eastern tract is Docynia indica.

CHARACTERISATION OF CROP GENETIC RESOURCES

To bring uniformity into the recording of evaluation data, sets of descriptors were developed for several crops. Prepared by the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, insofar as possible, these descriptor lists are used for the multilocation and evaluation programmes of various crop genetic re- sources. Evaluation and characterisation of mountain crop genetic resources are currently being done at NBPGR's regional stations in Shimla, Bhowali and Shillong, as well as the Vivekananda Laboratory for Hill Agriculture at Almora, the Kashmir Agricultural University and the Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University at Palampur. The Shimla station is currently main- taining and evaluating germplasm of more than 10,000 samples of 108 species. The major economic groups and crops evaluated for different charac- R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi 285 ters are listed in Table 18.3. Catalogues have been published by this station on French bean and grain amaranth. A second amaranth catalogue of 1,800 collections with 40 descriptors is under preparation. Catalogues on buck- wheat, French bean (11), lentil, soybean, grain amaranth (11) and minor millet are being developed. Crop catalogues on cowpea, lentil, Trigonella, wheat, barley, pea and soybean, published by the Bureau at Delhi, also include hill collections. Besides the Bureau, crop-based institutes have also published catalogues on rice, millets and potato, giving details about the hill collections. Promising donors in various crops have been identified, multiplied and supplied to user agencies. As a result of multilocation evaluation work, promising introductions identified and popularised for cultivation in the hills are: Annapurna (amaranth), CXMPZ12 (rice bean), late=cluster (hop) EC-87896 and EC-87900 (adzuki bean), EC-57080, EC-108101, PLB-10-1 and PLB-14-1 (French bean) fodder grass variety Narax, and Russian comfrey (Table 18.4).

Germplasm Conservation Germplasm conservation is one of the foremost tasks of any crop genetic resources effort and hence the maintenance of a wide range of seed materials is undertaken by the Bureau through periodic regeneration in order to main- tain seed viability. Cold-storage facilities for medium-term storage are being developed at some crop-based institutes as well as at the regional stations of the Bureau. A cold-storage module has recently been commissioned for Long- term storage. This module contains two chambers: one is kept at 4°C for medium-term storage and the other at -20° C for long-term preservation. The Bureau's collections from headquarters and regional stations are being proc- essed and maintained in this module. At present, it contains 8,000 hill collec- tions of different crops stored in laminated aluminium foil packets. All germplasm accessions are tested for viability and moisture content before storage in the module.

Germplasm Introduction and Exchange The Bureau maintains exchange links with 70 countries. It also has effective linkages with several international agricultural research institutes. The im- port/export of plant genetic resources conducted by the Bureau is published in its quarterly, the Plant Introduction Reporter. The Bureau has also introduced germplasm of several uncter-utilised plants, e.g., fruits, millets, oilseeds, legumes, vegetable and forage crops. In the past two decades more than 33,000 mountain crop genetic resources have been distributed to user agencies both within and outside the country. The ex- change, done under careful phytosanitary conditions, includes major field and fruit crops. Quarantine control over materials exchanged through the Bureau is exercised by the stations of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage of the Government of India, at all the relevant sea and airports as well as other points of entry through various land routes. Post-entry quaran- tine measures, especially seed health testing, detailed inspection, treatment 286 Mountain Agriculture

Table 15.3: Mountain crop genetic resources maintained and characters studied at NBPGR Shimla

Crop Total No. of characters collections studied

A. Pseudo Cereals (3,115) Amaranth 2,700 40 Buckwheat 331 24 Chenopod 84 12 B. Minor Millets (2,465) Proso millet 314 15 Little millet 148 37 Finger millet 767 44 Foxtail millet 737 45 Kodo millet 208 26 Barnyard millet 291 37 C. Pulses (3,759) French bean 1,635 26 Multiflorus bean 67 10 Adzuki bean 31 12 Rice bean 500 22 Urid bean 162 23 Soybean- 611 13 Mung bean 86 10 Horse gram 76 12 Pea 91 10 Lentil 500 11 D. Oilseeds (292) Mustard 276 10 Linseed 9 10 Cuphea 7 11 E. Fodder Legumes & Grasses (283) Lucerne 105 10 Clover 22 10 Comfrey 1 1 Grasses 155 9 F. Fruits and Nuts Apple 237 20 Pear 31 20 Apricot 29 20 Plum 22 12 Peach 38 20 Walnut 45 20 Pecan 10 20 Chinese gooseberry 7 20

Total 10,233 R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi 287

Table 18.4: Current improved cultivars of crops grown in mountain regions of India

S.No Crops Variety Areas

1. Rice (a) Phou-Du-bi Manipur (b) Khonorullu Meghalaya (c) Ngoba (d) Giza-14 Jammu & Kashmir Q & K) (e) Barkat (f) Tawi (g) Himdhan HP (h) Himalaya-1 (j) Himalaya-2 (k) Majhera-3 Uttarakhand (1) VL-8 (m) VL-16 (n) VL-206 (o) VLK-39

2. Wheat (a) VL-421 Uttarakhanad & HP (b) VL-416 Jammu & Kashmir (c) VL-404 (d) Girija (e) Sonalika Sonalika for NEH region also (f) HS-86 3. Maize (a) VL Amber J & K, UP and HP hills (b) VL-16 (c) Pioneer (d) HIM-123 (e) Vijay 4. Barley (a) Kailash, UP,HP,J&K (b) Dolma (c) Himani 5. Amaranth (a) Annapurna UP and HP hills & NEH region (b) VL-21 6. Buckwheat (a) VHC-26 Entire hill region (b) IC-17334 7. Finger millet VL-204 HP and UP hills 8. Barnyard millet VL-8 All hills 9. Proso millet HCC-120 All hills 10. French bean (a) Pajma-63 J & K, UP and HP hills (b) Jwala (c) Hans (d) PLB10-1 (e) PLB14-1 11. Pea (a) VL-21 Entire hill region (b) Harachhal (c) Kinnauri 12. Potato (a) Kufri Jyoti Entire hill region 288 Mountain Agriculture and cure, are carried out by the Phytosanitary Laboratory (Entomology, Nematology and Pathology) of the Bureau. The Bureau has exchanged crop genetic resources with South Asia and other countries, including rice, chillies, cowpea, fodder grasses, grain legumes, wheat, maize, mustard and grain amaranth. Furthermore, in accordance with national regulations, requisitions for plant exchange involving India, are routed through fhe Director, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012.

FUTURE STRATEGIES

The hill areas are largely under-developed and the financial resources of the farmers are extremely limited. Therefore their special problems are to be tackled by an integrated programme of development. A thorough survey of these regions for collecting plants, identifying them and studying their rela- tionship with cultivated plants with a view to improving the crops of the region, including field crops, horticultural, medicinal, forage, forest crops, etc. should be taken up. Hitherto, research in various fields of agriculture has been confined mostly to the problems of the plains, as a result of which limited experimental data are available on which to base recommendations for the development of the hill areas. The necessity for conducting intensive research through a chain of experimental stations is all the more important because a wide range of agro-climatic conditions exists in the hills even within a short distance. More emphasis is to be laid on the introduction of superior high- yielding cultivars, in order to boost the agricultural potential of this region. Priority should be given to the identification of types adaptable to cold and drought conditions. There is a lack of short-duration varieties required for double cropping in largely rainfed terrains. Fertiliser and pesticide depots need to be established since such basic supplies often do not reach the hill farmers in time. India has made no headway in raising nut crops and dry fruits. The cold terrain near the timber line and the cold and valleys (the Kinnaur District, Pangi valley of Lahaul and Spiti and Ladakh District) are ideally suited for growing dry fruits, e.g., pistachio, almond, and walnut besides grapes for raisins and dried apricots. The fodder resources of the Himalayas are limited and therefore it would be useful to try sub-tropical and temperate grasses and legumes. Likewise, tree fodder, types, e.g., Salix could be tried in the cold and climates while Penni- setum, Festuca, Trifolium, Medicago and Trigonalla species could effectively be tried at suitable elevations. There are also many medicinal and aromatic plants which need identifica- tion and chemical studies for extracting chemical principles that might have a number of economic uses. R.S. Paroda and B.D. Joshi 289

A vigorous effort to strengthen the collaborative programmes between NBPGR and crop-based ICAR Institutes/Projects/Agricultural Universities and linkages with the International Crop Improvement Institutes under the CGIAR system is required. All ICAR Crop-Coordinated projects have initiated a session on plant genetic resources in their annual workshops to discuss various needs in terms of collection from within and outside the country. The Bureau has also started organising periodic specific working group meetings to discuss with the Directors and crop coordinators specific needs concerning coordination of efforts relating to plant genetic resources.' Visits of crop breeders, scientists/ users of genetic resources from different centres, includ- ing agricultural universities, are being arranged at the Bureau's Experimental Farm and at its regional stations. This enables them to select the genetic variability of particular interest to them. Interactions during such visits also provide feedback concerning their specific requirements. All the collections held must, therefore, be evaluated and described/ characterised with particular emphasis on screening for disease resistance, quality traits and yield attributes under representative agro-climatic condi- tions so that they can be gainfully utilised. Work on the preparation of such crop catalogues should henceforth assume high priority. Computer facilities are being created at the Bureau which will also be extended to regional stations. Strengthening and build up of the necessary infrastructure for medium-term and long-term conservation will expedite the required seed- storage facilities. A medium-term seed storage is near completion at Shimla Regional Station which will conserve about 25,000 seed samples at controlled temperatures (5-10°C) and relative humidity (20-25%). The seed will be kept in aluminium foil. This is a national facility provided in this region which greatly reduces the costs of raising seeds for rejuvenation and will ensure the variability of the population samples. Concern for genetic resources has grown considerably at the national and international level in the last decades and gained sufficient awareness as well as importance, wherein a collective ap- proach is considered necessary involving an international network engaged in similar activities. The Bureau maintains effective linkages with the Interna- tional Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) and other International Ag- ricultural Research Institutes. These linkages, however, need to be strength- ened with more frequent interactions and problem-oriented discussion groups. Such efforts, would serve the cause of collection and utilisation of available plant genetic resources more effectively, especially keeping in view their safe conservation for posterity. Such efforts would have far reaching implications irrespective of geographic and political boundaries and also allay fears regarding the free exchange of genetic resources. 290 Mountain Agriculture

REFERENCES

Arora, R.K. 1981. Plant genetic resources exploration and collection: planning and logistics, NBPGR Scientific Monograph, vol. 3, pp. 46-54. Arora, R.K. and K.L. Mehra. 1978. Exploration in northeast India (cereals and pulses), IBPGR Plant Genetics Resources Newsletter, vol. 34, pp. 4-8. Arora, R.K., K.P.S. Chandel and M.N. Koppar. 1982. Genetic diversity in cold and western Himalayas, IBPGR, Pl. gen. Res. Newsl., vol. 51, pp. 27-30. Arora, R.K., K.P.S. Chandel, B.S. Joshi and K.C. Pant. 1980. Rice bean-a tribal pulse of eastern India, Econ. Bot., vol. 34, pp. 260-263. Bhag Singh. 1977. Races of Maize in India. ICAR, New Delhi, 106 pp. Joshi, B.D. 1981. Exploration for amaranth in northeast India, IBPGR, Pl. Gen. Res. Newsl., vol. 48, pp. 41-51. Joshi, B.D. 1981. A Catalogue on Amaranth Germplasm. NBPGR Station, Shimla, 47 pp. Joshi, B.D. 1985. Annapurna- a new variety of grain amaranth, Ind. Farming, vol. 35, pp. 29-31. Joshi, B.D. 1986. Genetic variability in grain amaranth, Ind. J. Agric. Sci., 56, 8, 574-576. Joshi, B.D. and K.L. Mehra.1983. Genetic variability in French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Prog. Hort., 15, 1-2, 109-111. PART 3 Comparisons of Mountain Regions

CHAPTER 19

Potatoes: Genetic Resources and Farmer Strategies Comparison of the Peruvian Andes and Nepali Himalayas

Robert E. Rhoades

INTRODUCTION

During the past decade, scientists have developed an interest in comparing biological and cultural adaptations of human populations living in the world's highest mountain ranges (Rhoades and Thompson, 1975; Guillet, 1983; Thompson). One of the more interesting issues arising from these studies has centred around the adaptation of rural populations to roughly similar physical environments through analogous social and economic institutions, but with- out direct cultural contact. Similarities as well as differences in land-use, agro- pastoral strategies, social organization, technologies and mobilization of resources have been described and analyzed. Comparisons of the Ande and the Himalayas in particular have been frequent (Guillet, 1983; Orlove and Guillet, 1985). While direct contact between the people of the Ande and Himalayas has historically been limited, important interchanges of food crop species has been in progress since the earliest days of the European conquest of the . Major Eurasian food crops such as wheat, barley, rye and rice are grown in the Andean or adjacent hill areas while maize and potatoes are the two most widely diffused crops in the tropical mountains of Asia and Africa. After spreading from its Andean homeland in the sixteenth century, the potato (Solanum tuberosum) probably reached Nepal well before 1773, the year 294 Mountain Agriculture

Kirkpatrick observed that seed potatoes were imported annually from Patna for production in the Kathmandu Valley. The potato was only becoming widely accepted in the diets of Europeans around this period. Slowly, the potato made inroads into the Himalayas until the mid-nineteenth century when it became established as an important staple throughout the hill areas and the far north. Furer-Haimendorf (1964) suggested a correlation between the diffusion and acceptance of the potato, increase in population and rise of the Buddhist cultures in the Solu-Khumbu and other inter-Himalayan valleys of northern Nepal. Today the potato serves most of Nepal as an important vegetable and is grown at all elevations from the Terai to the highest Hima- layas valleys. While potato agriculture in the Andes has been studied in great detail, little was known until recently about farmers' traditional practices in the Hima- layas. Nonetheless, even a cursory glance at cultivation practices in the Himalayas shows them to parallel many Andean practices. Many of these practices, however, reflect mountain agriculture in general and are not specific to potatoes. For example, potatoes are planted in many communities in several ecological zones and at different dates to spread risks and labour demands. These are practices which apply to many other crops as well. In this paper, I prefer to zero in on the specifics of the potato crop. The observations reported here are based on my own research in Peru and the Mechi Zone of Nepal, supplemented with relevant citations from the literature. An examination of how geographically independent mountain farmers have adapted and utilised a single crop is not only relevant to comparative anthropology but to major crop improvement efforts currently underway in the Andes and Himalayas (Indian Aid, International Potato Centre (CIP) and National Potato Development Programme). These programmes aim at intro- ducing new production techniques, post-harvest technologies and germplasm to farm families. A comparison of the two highland areas should provide insights into the rationale behind existing production systems as well as technological needs of the Andes and Himalayas. Parallels in traditional practices and technologies represent adaptive reflections of growing this crop under mountain conditions, given a subsistence - level technology. Such a comparison might also suggest the kinds of results that can be extrapolated between mountain regions. Practical research along these lines can also bring a relevancy that is not always clear in the now large comparative mountain lit- erature.

CONTEXT OF MOUNTAIN POTATO PRODUCTION

The Peruvian Andes and Nepali Himalayas are characterised by the most complex in the world. This is reflected in potato cultivation patterns. In both areas, there are two main production zones: a highland and lowland (coast in Peru and Terai in Nepal). Within the highland zone, major and minor Robert E. Rhoades 295 production seasons occurs which are determined by rainfall pattern or other what is climatic demands. The lowland zone in both countries produces considered a "winter crop" under irrigation and is mainly a commercial The venture. Mechanisation is often used as are pesticides and fertilisers. part, to highland crops are either irrigated or rainfed and are grown, in large Seed from satisfy subsistence demands but also for purposes of barter and sale. some the highlands serves as seed for the lowlands, although in both countries the seed also flows from the lowlands to the highlands. In the highest altitudes, while at potato is an important staple in the local diet (e.g., Khumbu or Puno) lower elevations it assumes the role of an important vegetable.

LEXICOGRAPHY: NAMING OF POTATO how A study of names and folk classifications reveals a great deal about its farmers perceive the uses and characteristics of a food crop species and a dual cultivars. The naming systems for potato in Nepal and Peru reflect production system related to cultivars of potatoes: (1) local, native or tradi- tional land races and (2) modern "improved" introductions. been The names of Andean, especially Peruvian, potato cultivars have long of interest to anthropologists, ethnobotanists and geneticists (La Barre,1947; Hawkes,1947). Brush and colleagues (1981) report:

The average farmer growing these varieties can name about 35 types, a number which varies according to the experience of the individual. In a % are single locality, 50-70 potato names may be found, but perhaps 10-20 synonymous.

Although no one is certain how many cultivars exist in the Andean region, CIP has assembled a large collection, of which it is estimated that possibly 4,000-5,000 are distinct physiologically. In Peru, the Andean native potatoes are called, in Spanish, papa nativa (native potatoes), papa de color (coloured potatoes) and sometimes papa de regalo (gift potatoes) or papa antiqua (Camino, 1976). In Quechua and Aymara the naming systems are even more complex. The native varieties are distinguished from improved or "hybrid" potatoes, which are known as papa Blanca (white potatoes) or papa mejorda (improved or commercial potatoes). Many native varieties in the Andes may be several centuries old, while the first modern breeding cross was made of Peruvian material in 1947 (Ochoa,1951). Hawkes (1947), one of the first geneticists to study the vernacular nomen- clature of indigenous Andean potatoes, noted:

Potato names are usually made up of a noun and a qualifying adjective. The latter usually takes into account superficial qualities of the tuber (colour, shape, size, surface texture) or its internal qualities (taste and texture). 296 Mountain Agriculture

For example, papa shiri translates as "bitter" (shiri) and potato (papa) while those called harinosas are "floury" in texture and those known as Blanca (white) or comun (common) are primarily for sale to the commercial markets of urban centres. The same general distinction is drawn in Nepal between bikaskoalu (devel- opment or improved potatoes) and localalu (local potatoes). The former, "development potatoes; are being introduced through development and extension programmes, while the latter are those considered to be Nepali and local. Localalu is, in fact, a generic term that encompasses all potatoes grown for several years in Nepal or India and is distinguished from bikaskoalu, which specifically designates those being introduced through development efforts. Further distinction among "local" alu is drawn between pahari (hill) and desi (Indian) potatoes, the latter actually meaning "local" but in fact designates India. Naming features also include colour, place, presumed origin, or a combination of these. The same variety may have several names which vary through time and space. The complexity of the naming systems, in both the Himalayas and the Andes correspond with elevation; the higher the eleva- tion, the more complex the potato naming pattern. Brush's (1977) description of the Andean exchange system and its relation to the naming of potatoes is equally applicable to the Himalayas:

Exchange of potatoes between families was commonly referred to in terms of specific locally named varieties. Farmers in one village generally know which households have certain named varieties and their particular agro- nomic, culinary and perhaps commercial characteristics. When asked about a particular variety, farmers often reported that they did not have it, but that it could be found at such and such household and where it was cultivated. Furthermore, it was reported that traders and farmers from other villages, sometime distant, often request particular named varieties. Indeed, place names were commonly attached to certain varieties.

In Nepal, our research (Rhoades, 1985) has shown that an "improved variety can pass to the status of a local land race if it proves useful and is adopted and utilised over long time periods." Although this tendency is not as clear in the Andes, some of the rustic, improved varieties introduced more than a decade ago are moving toward a native categorisation due to the many years they have been grown successfully with traditional methods. They are now being recognised by younger growers as the potatoes used by their parents, and therefore distinguished from "new" introductions. The naming of potato is clearly a dynamic process.

DIVERSITY OF CULTIVARS

Diversity characterises Himalayan and Andean agriculture; for example, many cultivars of barley are grown in the Himalayas and many races of maize Robert E. Rhoades 297 are found in the Andes. These cultivars are suited to the diverse environmental conditions of tropical mountains and have their origins in highland domesti- impor- cation centres. Farmers in both the Andes and Himalayas practise two tant aspects of germplasm selection: (1) maintenance and purposeful collec- qualities tion of a diversity of cultivars of the major food crops; (2) selection of which, although less important to specialists interested in yield, have benefits for small-scale producers (Werge,1980). Maintaining diversity is an age-old strategy still strong in peasant mountain communities. Potato growers seek out and utilise a wide range of resistances make to disease, pests, frost, drought and adaptation to different zones to for their sure at least part of the crop pulls through. Some cultivars are selected earliness, others for their lateness. Farmers are always keen to obtain tubers of late new cultivars. The tolerance of improved cultivars to disease, such as blight, is often up to two or three weeks longer than local cultivars, but farmers note that the resistance in improved cultivars is often short-lived, making it necessary to renew seed stocks frequently. Diversification is a way to minimise risk and continual introduction of new germplasm is looked upon favourably by farmers. History has shown that when a population relies on a narrow of genetic base, as was the case of Ireland in the nineteenth century, danger near total crop failure due to pests and diseases is increased. As the cradle of domestication, the Andes are famous for germplasm diversity in potatoes. For this reason, the International Potato Centre is located in Peru and has a mandate to collect, maintain and utilise the native and wild germplasm for crop improvement in developing countries. Such diversity is obviously not found in other parts of the world, although more diversity is found in Asia and Africa than was previously realised by plant scientists. In China approximately 800 local land races have been identified, in Turkey 80 and in India several hundred. In a study of villages in eastern Nepal (Ilam District) 25-35 cultivars can be named in many villages by individuals, al- though four or five of these represent cultivars that are "historical", that is, they are no longer grown (Rhoades, 1985). Such diversity was not recognised by potato development workers in Nepal until recently (Rhoades,1985). Despite the ability of farmers in both the Andes and the Himalayas to identify 30 to 40 distinct cultivars, farmers in both regions generally rely on only three or four cultivars in a given season (Brush et al., 1981). Farmers are capable of discussing in great detail the cultivation qualities, disease tolerance, storability, etc., of each cultivar. They know, for example, that certain fields are more prone to frost or late blight attacks. Hence, they select their cultivars to meet those constraints as much as possible. Farmers are keenly aware of the agro-ecological zone suitable for a particular cultivars and the uses, labour inputs, cultivation needs and physiology of each. Native or local and improved potatoes are recognised in both areas as having different agronomic requirements. For example, in eastern Nepal local potatoes are classified according to colour and each colour requires a different 298 Mountain Agriculture

cultivation practice, which is tied to the known physiognomy of each cultivar. In Nepal and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, where conditions are more humid and tropical, local cultivars, are desired for mixed cropping qualities, i.e., they can be grown mixed with maize. To agronomists the disadvantage of local cultivars is their low yield, although farmers prefer not to speak tonnes/ha of but of a multiplication rate, e.g., if they seed "V numbers of sacks or baskets, they get "Y" number of sacks in output. If accompanied by an agronomic package (irrigation, fertiliser, row planting, etc.), the improved cultivars can give two to three times the yield of native ones. They are grown for their commercial acceptance in both regions. Culinary Quality In both areas, improved cultivars are considered poorer in taste and cooking quality than native or local potatoes. Their appeal lies primarily with commer- cial growers interested in larger yields, such as growers in the Kathmandu valley who produce for the hotel industry. Development programmes are ori- ented almost exclusively to this commercial type of production. Native culti- vars, on the other hand, are considered simpler to cultivate, require less labour and input, store well, and have desirable taste, colour, size and cooking quality. Information collected at Jasberf, (1,785 masl) in Ham district, Nepal, indi- cated that farm families classify potatoes according to home consumption and nutritional qualities versus market or barter qualities (Rhoades, 1985). For example, white potatoes rate highest in taste while local red is for barter and "feeding sick people," a reference to folk perceptipns of nutritional quality.

EXCHANGE AND BARTER SYSTEM

In mountain agricultural systems, farmers nearly always have a special relationship with farmers from other agro-ecological zones as a strategy to gain access to zones where they have no fields (Mayer, 1971). One of these relationships is based on barter or exchange networks. In the Andes, for example, potatoes are often exchanged for meat and wool from the highest zones and maize from the lower zones. Given that direct access to several zones is not possible, variety in diet is ensured through such exchanges. These exchange rates bear no relationship to monetary production costs, but are a way in which peasant families allow each other access to difficult production zones (Mayer, 1)71). As in the Andes, the potato economy of eastern Nepal is still by and large a non-monetalised, altitudinal exchange and barter system. In 1985, for ex- ample, I noted in Ilam district three trading communities and their ex- change pattern: Maipokori exchanges only potato with lower communities; Jasberi primarily exchanges maize and potatoes; Barbhoti (lower zone) ex- changes paddy and millet. The exchange system varies according to product. If,.for example, farmers in Jasberi run short of consumption potatoes for home Robert E. Rhoades 299 use, they can obtain 20 kg from a lower production zone (Barbhoti) in return for 15 kg at seed time. In Nepal, potatoes are generally exchanged for lower zone cereals: rice, maize or millet. They seem to have a closer equivalency in economic value compared to the Andes where the exchange seems at times to take on a symbolic, social value. In Nepal, 4 kg of seed potato are exchanged with 4 kg of unhusked rice (dhan) from lower zones. At harvest time, however, 4 kg of ware potatoes are exchanged for 4 kg of dhan. Exchange volumes are measured in baskets called pathi or dhali. If potatoes are low in price, they practice chute chute, that is, heaping up the top in exchange for a leveled basket of rice. If potatoes are high in price, the basket is leveled across the top. Brush (1977) notes for the'Andes that exchange is not merely economic but involves reciprocity between families. Mental accounts are kept and rates are fixed. This means that when potatoes are exchanged for maize or wheat, the rate is the same no matter what households are involved:1 arroba (25 pounds) of wheat or maize is always exchanged for 2 almuds (two sides of a saddle bag totalling close to 56 pounds), and 1 arroba of barley brings one almud of potatoes.

SEED SOURCES AND FLOWS

Another common feature of the Himalayan and Andean potato economies is the flow of seed potatoes. Generally speaking, cultivars seed in both areas flows downward although "improved" are sometimes carried upward from lower elevations. Higher elevations are generally considered best for seed production due to cooler temperatures and lower incidence of disease. In Peru, improved seed is produced in the highlands and is used on the coast for "winter" planting. In the Andes, there is an altifudinal zonation-of kinds of potatoes grown: papa shiri (bitter potatoes) are grown almost exclusively in the high agro-life zone, while Solanum varieties are produced at lower elevations. This parallel does not exist in Nepal as only S. tu-berosum is found. In Nepal, a local custom in many potato-growing areas dictates that seed Must never move uphill. This means that farmers when using their own seed ideally do not bring seed from a lower terrace upward not even, it is said, if the terrace is only 10 lower. Within communities, farmers exchange seed among themselves; if they use their own seed, they never replant it in the same plot where it was produced. If a shortage of good local seed exists, farmers will travel to higher elevations to seek quality seed. At Jasberi in Ram District seed is renewed every 3 years depending on soil and airborne patho- gen buildup. "Improved" or "Indian" cultivars flow upward but apparently this material is soon integrated into the downward flow system. The Andean case, however, is more complex: seed consistently flows both upward and downward. Seed` potatoes are sought from distant areas or areas that are ecologically distinct from the area of cultivation. Thus, farmers from lower elevations seek seed potatoes from higher zone, and vice-versa. 300 Mountain Agriculture

TRADITIONAL CULTIVATION PRACTICES AND DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS

Development efforts aimed at improving potato practices of peasant house- holds have been underway for many years in both Peru and Nepal. Traditional production practices have often been described as "poor" or "backward". Therefore, projects and research are aimed at replacing "old" methods with "new" ones. Lists of modern technological components are frequently drawn up which will be "transferred" to farmers to replace current practices (Werge, 1980). In addition to replacing native varieties, a question particularly troub- lesome to potato development specialists is: Why do Andean and Himalayan potato farmers plant very small tubers as seed? An examination of farmer rationale in the two mountain areas of a seemingly irrational practice is revealing for what it tells us about the mountain farmer's approach to farming. Potatoes are reproduced vegetatively by planting tubers or tuber pieces. It is important that the right size tuber be selected. Agronomists recommend an optimal size of 40 to 60 g, or even larger. But in the Andes and Nepal where potatoes are a subsistence crop, the majority of peasant producers plant tubers of 20 g down to 10 g (Rhoades,1985; Werge, 1980). While agronomists often look upon small size in potatoes as a product of virus degeneration, small-scale producers assign other values to smallness: (1) seed rate is less than in the recommended "package" of extension program- mes. This means to plant the same area it takes half the weight of potato to plant by farmer methods. Farmers do not like planting food, and if small tubers are planted, more land can be planted. (2) With smaller seed, farmers plant more densely, achieve greater density of plant emergence and hope for higher survival rate. (3) Farmers take advantage of premature tubers to obtain a guaranteed harvest of small tubers before late blight hits. This is related to marginal survival and insecure food supplies. If, for example, they plant far apart with large tubers and blight or hail hits, then available food supplies may be reduced to zero. If a new system is introduced, whereby tubers are grown to maturity, then a marketing and storage infrastructure compatible with this svstem is necessary. In the Andes, farmers' reasons for planting small tubers are tied to require- ments that are outside the mere act of production itself. Social customs are involved. Both Andean and Nepali potato farmers produce potatoes for sale/ exchange and household consumption. In Nepal, small-sized tubers are desired in barter situations not only because families prefer smaller potatoes for consumption, but because of seed requirements and the fact that packing density is greater in trading baskets than with large, bulky tubers. Farmers are faced with weighing a series of factors between future seed requirements, home needs and marketing or exchange (Werge, 1977). Additional reasons for preferring smaller tubers are related to household needs and requirements of the larger food system: Robert E. Rhoades 301

1) Small tubers cook faster and better than large tubers, which is important where there is a scarcity of fuel. 2) Small tubers fit better into traditional Nepalese dishes, e.g., takhari, and are best for chino (dehydrated potato) in the Andes. 3) Small seed tubers are sown instead of large ones to discourage potential thieves (Caming,1976).

In the Central Peruvian Andes, farmers are closer tied to commercial markets than farmers in Nepal; large tubers are sold while smaller tubers are set aside for future seed needs. Yet the principle is the same as in Nepal; farmers are faced with a situation of preserving as little as possible for seed while marketing or consuming the remainder. The strategy is to hold down the amount needed for seed. In the Himalayas, farmers also cut out the eyes, eat the remaining tuber, and save the smallest tubers for seed. The decision to use small seed in both countries is not made on technical grounds alone, as might appear to a specialist comparing production strate- gies. Rather the use of small seed tubers is linked to the broader sociocultural context of production. Because the use of small seed is linked to consumption and marketing alternatives, peasants will not easily switch to larger seed, even if higher yields are demonstrably possible.

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this paper has been to briefly compare potato production in two mountain areas; the Central Andes and the Mechi zone of eastern Nepal. Only a few topics were touched on and other equally interesting systems, such as storage, processing, and strategies to deal with disease were neglected. The limitation of this exploratory paper must be realised; furthermore, only scant information is available on the Himalayas, compared to the wealth of data on the Andes. My purpose has been to suggest future lines of comparative crop research not only for potatoes but for other crops grown in mountain regions. Additionally, I would like to suggest possible collaboration involving ICI- MOD and CIP in terms of respective mandates and mutual interests. Moun- tain environments, which have given rise to major food crops, still preserve the genetic diversity of those crops. This is particularly true of the potato and sweet ,potato, CIP's two mandate crops. I believe a great need exists for genetic resources research of the major crops in montane regions outside the centres of domestication of those food crops. In the potatoes's spread from the Andes and throughout the tropical and sub- tropical mountains, a similar diversification took place resulting in thousands of locally adapted cultivars. In recent years, the genetic erosion of wild and primitive cultivars constituting the germplasm of the world's major food crops has stimulated international agricultural centres to collect and preserve exist- ing materials, generally from the centres of origin. This has been especially 302 Mountain Agriculture

clear in the case of the potato. For example, the International Potato Centre has collected and classified over 10,000 primitive Andes cultivars. These reserves are being tapped by the centre's breeders to select material for cross-breeding in order to produce resistant varieties. While this work is to be applauded, it might be argued that the collection of non-Andean "local" or "traditional" land races should also be considered a valuable part of the world potato germplasm pool. Evidence is slowly accumu- lating that, in fact, there exists a vast and rich source of germplasm in non- centre areas that may be of crucial importance in the search for natural' resistance to plant disease and pests. In fact, some populations derived from earlier plant migrations currently cut off from the evolutionary dynamic centres of origin may represent far more primitive cultivars than many of those presently being collected and utilised in the centres. Furthermore, such popu- lations have in the course of time become adapted to different conditions and therefore may contain valuable resistance for breeding varieties adapted to the more immediate environment. With some qualification, it can be argued that this material is being written off as not valuable, and should be replaced with introduced "improved" material from Europe or germplasm from the centres of domestication. In this paper I have argued that Himalayan potato agriculture approaches, in many respects, the complexity found in the Andes. While the germplasm is not as diverse, there is a great range as reflected in the rich folk taxonomy. Farmers in both mountain areas maintain their own "potato germplasm banks". I would expect that this diversity is found throughout the entire Hindu Kush-Himalayan range as well as in montane areas of China. An even stronger case can be made for the sweet potato where the centre of diversity is no longer in the Americas. In the highlands, it is said that over 10,000 cultivars of sweet potato are grown. China, which grows more than 90% of all sweet potatoes in the world, is another great centre of diversity. If it is accepted that traditionarland races of the American food crops in Asia and Africa have value, a study of farmer strategies of genetic resource utilisation would be useful. Studies on cassava and rice have shown that subsistence farmers tenaciously cling to their. traditional cultivars, although they still may give part of their crop to commercial production if located near a market. Reasons for this tenacity need to be studied. Finally, I wish to use the data in the this paper to propose a framework for collaborative work between the CIP and ICIMOD. In looking at a crop such as the potato and potato agriculture, we can think of three levels for comparative analysis and extrapolation of research results. Universal level: This is a general level, based on the commonality of the potato plant wherever it is produced. For example, the potato is a crop which, like all plants, requires proper climatic conditions, is planted in tuber form, bulky to handle and difficult to store compared to grains. These are general observations about the potato that apply to all cases at all times. Robert E. Rhoades 303

Conditional level: This is a level of analysis where the crop is looked at within different agricultural systems or envi-fonments, such as and lands, temperate zones or mountains. This level, which has been the basis of this paper, is the most fruitful for yielding comparative observations. The fact that practices occur independently in widespread montane areas, suggests they may be logical, adaptive responses to similar constraints. We can use such comparative observations for extrapolations of general results. Particularistic level: This is an environment specific level of analysis, which does not lend itself well to cross-comparison and extrapolation at the system level. Every potato-growing area is in fact, unique in terms of agro-climatol- ogy, socio-economic conditions, or other constraints. On-farm research is needed at this level to determine the need of specific groups of farms in the target area under consideration. In my opinion, ICIMOD and CIP should consider close collaboration at the conditional level of analysis, that is, look at mandate crops within the moun- tain context on a comparative level so that mountain countries can learn from each other's experiences and compare strategies of crop development and management.

REFERENCES

Brush, Stephen. 1977. Mountain, Field, and Family: the Economy and Human Ecology of an Andean Valley. Univ. of Penn. Press, Philadelphia, PA. Brush, S., H.J. Carney and Z. Huaman. 1981. Dynamics of Andean potato agriculture, Economic Botany, 35, 1, 70-88. Camino, A. 1976. Traditional agriculture in the Central Andes: An ethnobo- tanical approach (unpublished manuscript). Furer-Haimendorf, Christoph von.1964. The Sherpas of Nepal. Univ. Calif. Pres, Berkeley, CALIF Guillet, D. 1983. Toward a cultural ecology of mountains: The Central Andean and the Himalayas compared, Current Anthropology, 24, 5, 561-567. Hawkes, Jack. 1947. On the origin and meaning of South American potato names, J. Linn. Soc. London, vol. 53, Botany, no. 350, pp. 205-250. La Barre, W. 1947. Potato taxonomy amount the Aymara Indians of Bolivia, Acta Americana, vol. 5, pp. 83-103. Ochoa, C. 1951. Algunos estudios sobre papas Peruanas como base para un programa de mejoramiento en el pais, Agronomia,16, 65, 31-38. Mayur, E. 1971. Un Carnero por un Saco de Papas. Aspectos del Trueque en la zona de Chaupiwaranga, Pasco. Revista del Museo National, vol. 38, pp. 184- 196, Peru. Mayer, E. 1977. Land Use and Ecology in the Mantaro Valley of Peru with Special Reference to Potato Production. International Potato Centre, Lima, Peru 115 pp. Orlove, B. and D. Guillet.1985. Theoretical and methodological considerations 304 Mountain Aericulture

on the study of mountain peoples: Reflections on the idea of subsistence type and the role of history in human ecology, Mountain Research and Development, 5, 1, 3-18. Rhoades, R. 1985. Traditional Potato Production and Farmer Selection of Varieties in Eastern Nepal. Food System Research Report no. 2. International Potato Centre, Lima, Peru, 52 pp. Rhodes, R. and S. Thompson. 1975. Adaptive strategies in alpine environ- ments: Beyond ecological particularism, American Ethnologist, vol. 2, pp. 535-551. Werge, R. 1980. Potatoes, peasants, and development projects: A sociocultural perspective from the Andean (unpublished manuscript). CHAPTER 20

Wild and Cultivated Barleys in the Himalayas

Shao Quiquan, Zhou Jeqi and Li Ansheng

INTRODUCTION

This paper compares genetic populations of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum, H. agriocrithon, convar lagunculiforms, convar euagriocrithon, and convar nu- dum) and cultivated barley, and shows that varieties from the northern and southern slopes of the Himalayas are definitely similar. This similarity estab- lishes that there is unity in the genetic population of wild barley in this area and reveals that the different forms of wild barley are widely distributed. Data from morphological, cytological and genetic observations and ecological analysis support this unity. This report is based on the results of field expeditions and laboratory studies carried out during a comprehensive scientific crops expedition of Ching Zang (Chinghai Province and Xizang Autonomous Region*), undertaken by Acade- mia Sinica from 1974 to 1980. The expedition indicated that there are many types of wild barley widely distributed in the southwestern part of China. This is of importance in understanding barley evolution. It is also of practical importance since wild barley is highly disease-resistant and offers great potential for utilisation of this resistance in breeding programmes. 1. Two-rowed Wild Barley (Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch) Two-rowed wild barley, first identified in 1848, is the original ancestor of cultivated barleys. Two-rowed wild barley is found in Afghanistan, Turkey, , Syria, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and parts of northern Africa (Le, Silania, Marmarika), outer Caucasus in the USSR, and the southern part of Central Asia. Normally, wild barley is grown between 350 and 1,500 masl. Since wild barley is sensitive to cold, it is rarely found above 1,500 m.

* Formerly known as Tibet 306 Mountain Agriculture

The importance of China's wild barley in the origin of barley cultivation has often been overlooked; there are no previous reports of Chinese two-rowed types. Data from our expeditions confirm that two-rowed wild barley not only occurs in the southwestern part of China, but that it is also widespread in the east, including Dawfu County, Ganze Autonomous Prefecture, Shichuan Province, and to the west, Xigaze County and Xigaze Prefecture. It is found as far south and as far north as Sharman Prefecture and Dologdequen County, Lhasa. The distribution range of wild barley includes the agricultural areas of Yalong River Valley, Jinsha River Valley, Lancang River Valley, Nu River Valley, Yarlong Zonbo River, Nianchu River and Lhunze River, at altitudes ranging from 2,800 to 4,050 masl. It can be assumed that the real distribution area is even wider. Wild barley, like any naturally occurring species is apparently polymorphic. All the three major varieties of two-rowed wild barley are grown in the above-mentioned areas: a) H. spontaneum var. ithaburense (Boiss) Nabelek; lateral spikelet with - tusely rounded tip. b) H. spontaneum var. ischnatherum (Cosson) Thell; lateral spikelet with sharply angled tip. c) H. spontaneum var. proskowetzii Nabelek; spikelet with awn-shaped tip. Two-rowed wild barley plants were found as weeds in fields of wheat, barley and pea but were not found as wild populations, as the fields in those valleys are entirely used for agricultural production or for pastures. Two-rowed wild barley has been recorded in the southern slopes of the Himalayas in India and Nepal. It was first recorded in a natural wild popula- tion in the northern part of Afghanistan (Sakamoto, 1986).

2. Six-rowed Wild Barley (Hordeum agriocrithon Aberg) Some workers claim that there is a significant difference between two- rowed wild barley and the presently cultivated six-rowed forms. Intermediate types may exist in the evolutionary process of barley, but none has been found for quite a long time. Aberg reported six-rowed wild barley, the seeds of which he obtained indirectly from Dawfu County, Ganze Prefecture in the western part of Shichuan Province. Foreign scholars were impressed by the discovery and interest was stimulated and sustained for quite some time. This discovery of six-rowed wild barley followed similar discoveries in the southern and eastern parts of Tibet. Vavilov, among others, believed that the wild barley found in the southwestern part of China was an ancestor of cultivated six- rowed forms. Schiemann believes that the cultivated two-rowed type evolved from the six-rowed wild forms through the reduction of lateral spikelets into sterile ones. The existence of six-rowed wild barley in the southwestern part of China is doubted by a number of researchers for the following reasons: a) Six-rowed wild barley may be the result of a recent hybridisation between two-rowed wild and cultivated six-rowed barley. Shao Quiquan. et al. 307

b) Six-rowed wild barley is not very stable and is still segregrating. c) Six-rowed wild barley has no natural distribution. From our investigations it can be seen that these reasons are not convincing. Firstly, there is no scientific basis for ascertaining whether similar types are of the same origin, since'similarity' is not the same as 'equivalent'. Anthesis does not coincide in cultivated six-rowed and two-rowed wild barley, which makes natural hybridisation unlikely. Native farmers generally indicate that wild barley matures about half a month before the cultivated naked barleys. In the course of expeditions to Changzhu commune, Naidong County, Shannan- Prefecture, Tibet, in July 1974, it was seen that spikelets of the black six-rowed wild barley had matured and fallen to the ground, while the cultivated naked barley was only in the initial dough or waxy stage. According to field observations at the Shannan Prefecture experimental station, the maturity date of all native cultivated naked barley varieties ranged from August 9-17, which is about half a month later than the wild forms. In our opinion, the difference in flowering period between wild and cultivated barley suffices to form the interspecific isolating mechanism necessary to maintain the independence of the species. Secondly, we investigated whether six-rowed wild barley is still homozy- gous or not, by selecting progenies from one ear to form 12 families. The results of this experiment verified that they are fully stable. About a dozen varieties and forms of six-rowed wild barley were collected in 1974, including the yellow six-rowed wild barley of Dawfu and black six-rowed wild barley of Tzedang. In fact, the polymorpWsm within the species is the trait of a true species. Thirdly, the distribution range of the six-rowed wild barley is similar to or even surpasses that of the two-rowed forms. Two-rowed forms could not be found in some places where six-rowed wild types were abundant. The six- rowed wild barley is not readily identified and discovered because it strongly resembles the cultivated species. It is likely, however, that natural populations of wild barley will soon be eliminated by the improvement of modern cultivation systems. The above observations indicate that six-rowed wild barley is the immedi- ate ancestor of the cultivated six-rowed types, and even possibly a primitive cultivar. One Tibetan commune member said that barley was used for milling flour and making wine in Yangda Commune, Dueilongdeqing County, and Jiula District in Cuona County. The farmer knew it well, even its special Tibetan name, Tzeda, the English equivalent of which is 'wild one'. This indicated further that six-rowed wild barley, found in the southwestern part of China, is closely related to the cultivated types. H. agriocrithon was recorded in a wide area in India by Witcombe (1978) as well as in Afghanistan and Nepal. This species is quite similar to the wild barley found on the northern slopes of the Himalayas. 308 Mountain Agriculture

3. Bottle-shaped Wild Barley (Hordeum lagunculiforme Bacht.) Six-rowed wild barley was discovered by Bachteev (1969) in Central Asia. Again, this form is very similar to that found in the southwestern part of China. The only difference is that the lateral spikelet has its own stalk, like a bottle placed upside-down. This bottle-shaped wild barley is considered the ances- tor of cultivated forms by Bachteev (1969). Although it has not yet been reported from other parts of the world, bottle-shaped wild barley was found the Academia Sinica in many places in southwestern China for the first time growing simultaneously with the six-rowed type. The bottle-shaped wild barley is-morphologically stable. The wide range of distribution of the bottle-shaped wild barley is similar to that of the six-rowed wild barley. Similar or identical forms of six-rowed wild barley were discovered in Nepal by Nakao (1952-53) and named himalaica by him. Therefore H. laguncu- liforme, is distributed in both the northern and the southern slopes of the Himalayas and has a unity in its natural population.

4. Intermediate Forms of Wild Barley It seems that two-rowed, bottle-shaped and six-rowed wild barleys have occurred as different forms during the period of barley evolution. From these forms an evolutionary process did occur by means of which intermediate forms were produced. These forms are important in evolution, although they are not very stable and often taxonomically neglected. Many intermediate wild forms of barley have been found in the southwestern part of China. One of them produces six-rowed and two-rowed spikelets in the same ear; the other form has a six-rowed ear on the main stem and two-rowed tillers on the same plant. All the intermediate forms are similar to bottle-shaped wild barley. Their characters indicate that six-rowed bottle-shaped barley is an intermedi- ate evolutionary form between two-rowed to six-rowed wild barley. No stalk is seen on the lateral spikelets of the triplet in either six-rowed wild or cultivated forms. This further indicates that six-rowed forms from southwest- ern China are the ancestors of the six-rowed cultivated naked type. Significant variation of the row character has occured in the wild forms. When wild barley is grown in cultivated environments, it may produce six-rowed forms.

CYTOLOGICAL AND GENETIC IDENTIFICATION

Since the number of chromosomes of cultivated and wild barley is the same, i.e., 2n = 14, it is necessary to analyse the chromosome morphology from an evolutionary point of view. The chromosome configuration has been indenti- fied by Takahashi (1969) in two-rowed and six-rowed wild barley and in 86 cultivars. This study showed that the first and longest chromosome pair of the wild form possessed a microsatellite on one terminal, or alal type of karyotype. Approximately half of the karyotypes of the cultivars were also of the alal type, Shao Quiquan et al. 309

indicating that these wild barleys are closely related to the cultivated forms. Cytological identification of several forms of wild barley (i.e., H. spontaneum var. ithaburense, var, ischnatherum and var. proskowetzii, H. lagunculi forme and H. agriocrithon) showed that their first and longest chromosomes are all of the alal type. Our investigations have shown that the first and longest chromo- somes of the bottle-shaped forms are also of the alal type. This indicates that six-rowed bottle-shaped barley is possibly one of the intermediate forms in barley evolution. For identification of position of every species of wild barley in the evolution- ary system, crosses were done between different species of wild barley. Results of this crossing experiment are shown in Table 20.1. They verify the dominance of two-rowed wild barley over six-rowed wild barley, through bottle-shaped wild barley and six-rowed wild barley to the cultivated forms.

Table 20.1: Characteristics of F, from crosses between wild barley

Family No. Cross combination Plate No. Morphological characteristics

264 H. agriocrithon X H. spontarieum 6 Lateral spikelets infertile 270 7 " 289 18 266 H. agriocrithon X H. lagunculiforme 6 Lateral spikelets fertile and with stalk 263 2. 270 5 "

272 " 6

277 " 8

281 " 3 291 12

EVOLUTION OF CULTIVATED BARLEY

Close cytological relationship was demonstrated between wild barley and cultivated forms. Data from genetic analysis reveal that such characters as two- rowed brittle rachis and lateral spikelet with stalk are dominant. The spikes of Fl plants from the cross of six-rowed wild barley as the female, with two- rowed wild barley as the male had two-rowed brittle rachis. From the cross of six-rowed wild barley female with 'bottle-shaped' wild barley male, the lateral spikelets of Fl plants were fertile but stalked, while from the cross of 'bottle- shaped' wild barley female with two-rowed wild barley male, the lateral spikelets were sterile (Table 20.1). The wild barley in Xizang, very similar to primitive cultivars, has long been used by the local people as a source of starch, wine and forage. The main 310 Mountain Agriculture conclusion of our work is that the origin and evolution of cultivated barley went through a continuous process but with various stages: the two-rowed wild barley is the oldest ancestor and is the first stage of evolution of cultivated barley; the six-rowed wild barley (Hordeum agriocrithon) is the second stage; and the cultivated barley denotes the third and final stage of evolution. It has been pointed out that in the new systematics wild barley is closely related to cultivated barley as follows: Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch convar, ithaburense (Boiss) Nabelek convar, ischantherum (Cosson) Thell convar, proskowetzii Nabelek Hordeum agriocrithon Aberg emend shao convar, lagunculiforme (Bacht) Shao convar, agriocrithon (Aberg) Shao convar, nudum Shao Latin diagnoses of new varieties: Hordeum agriocrithon convar, nudum Shao var. nova Hexastichum spontaneum, cum vel sine matthiola, caryopsis nudus est.

REFERENCES

Bakhteev, F. 1969. Barley Genetics, vol., pp. 40-45. Nakao, S. 1952-1953. In: Land and Crops in Nepal Himalaya, vol. 2, pp. 313-343. Ed. H. Kihara. Sakamoto, Sadao.1978. In: Preliminary Report of Comparative Studies on the Agro- Pastoral Peoples in Southwestern , pp. 33-66. Ed. Yutaka Tani. Sakamoto, Sadao. 1986. (personal communication). Shao Qiquan. 1982. Wild Barley from Xizhang (Tibet). Science Press, 86 pp. Takahashi, 1969 Barley Genetics, vol., pp. 51-54. Witcombe, J. 1978. Euphytica, vol. 27, pp. 601-604. CHAPTER 21

Degree of Similarity in Cultivated Crops between the Andean Mountains and East African (Ethiopia) Mountains

Amare Getahun

There appears to be a striking similarity in the mountain environments of these two regions of equal latitudes and hence the cultivation of some crops is similar. Lupines are extensively cultivated in both the Ethiopian ce _tral and northern highlands with similar traditional techniques used for removing the 'bitter principle'. Grain (Amaranthus caudatus), chenopods (Ch- enopodium dubius), Physalis peruviana, Catha edulis, Oxalis spp. etc. are present in eastern Africa but are not cultivated for food. The passion fruit (Passiflora grandiflora, P. mollisima) and, to a lesser extent, the tree tomato are cultivated and used; these plants appear to be of recent introduction. On the other hand, the east African mountains, especially the Ethiopian mountains, are known to have many cultivated crops not commonly culti- vated and used in other parts of the world. Examples include: Guizotia abyssinica, Eragrostis tell, Lathyrus satinus, Coelus edulis, Coccinia abyssinica, Carthamus tinctorius and Catha edulis. The environments in which these crops are grown appear to be similar to those in the Himalayan mountains.

Conclusions and Recommendations

On the final day of the Workshop, participants divided themselves into'two discussion groups as follows:

Group A-Special Features of Mountain Agriculture and Farming Systems Group B - Mountain Crop Genetic Resources An extensive and indepth discussion took place in both groups. During the final plenary session, the following summary of discussions and recommen- dations was adopted.

GROUP A: MOUNTAIN FARMING SYSTEMS

Characteristics of Mountain Farming Systems First of all, it was recognised that any effective research and development in farming systems must take into account the complex nature of Mountain Farming Systems (MFS). The following characteristics set MFS apart from other agricultural production systems: a) Fragility: Mountain Farming Systems, although consisting of consider- able diversity in ecosystems and genetic resources, are generally extremely fragile due to steep slopes, erodable soils, intense rainfall, intensive cultivation and uncertain markets. Consideration of the issue of stability is needed in introducing change in MFS. b) Diversity: MFS over short distances exhibit different micro-ecosystems (different crops, varieties, cropping patterns etc.). Altitude is a major factor influencing this diversity. It was suggested that with increasing altitude this diversity narrows and more simple MFS are found. Aspect (direction of slope), slope and soil type are other important components of this diversity. c) Community-linked Production: MFS, particularly those with grazing or agro-forestry components, imply community issues (allocation of resources, cooperative production), distinct from individual issues involved in private production in MFS. Community organisation in MFS may be weakening as rural-urban links are made. 314 Mountain Agriculture

d) Information Limitation: MFS have little documented information avail- able both within a country and between regions. Language considerations limit access to some national information (Spanish, Chinese). The high moun- tain farming systems are particularly lacking in documented studies. e) Low Political Priority: MFS, due to their remoteness and complexity, are usually accorded the lowest priority for research and development activities in most national strategies, considered after those of lowland rainfed and irrigated production systems. f) Dynamic Evolution: MFS are changing to meet new physical and cultural influences. Some influences (out-migration, erosion) are of critical concern in the consideration of the future of MFS. Other changes (shifts in production patterns-potatoes for buckwheat in Bhutan) reflect the dynamic adjustment of MFS to these influences.

Recommendations for Mountain Farming Systems In view of the issues and characteristics indicated above, greater emphasis is needed on systems research of MFS. Additional support to national pro- grammes in conducting research on the biological and physical components of MFS is suggested. The implication is that governments, donors, and researchers must consider longer-term support and commitment to research and development activities in MFS. Major advances in research of development of lowland agricultural systems occurred only after the cumulative effort of many years of research and development support. The above characteristics of Mountain Farming Systems must be carefully considered if improved MFS are to be developed for greater productivity and stability.

Components of Mountain Cropping Systems a) A holistic approach to research in mountain areas is clearly essential in view of the extreme complexity of the issues involved. Nevertheless, it was decided to concentrate discussion on cropping systems and the components of cropping systems, in order to arrive at some specific recommendations in line with the overall theme of the meeting, i.e., the exchange of information and germplasm between different mountain regions. This is also consistent with the fact that this meeting is the first of a series to be hosted by ICI.MOD to look at different aspects of mountain agricultural systems, leading to a symposium in 1988 in which these various aspects will be integrated. b) The value of the exchange of information between various countries and mountain complexes was stressed. Such information exchange could include, but would not be limited to, topics such as training, land preparation and cultivation techniques, irrigation and drainage techniques, rotation and ap- propriate tools. c) In view of the increasing importance of potatoes in many areas, this crop should receive some priority in the future exchange of germplasm and Conclusions and Recommendations 315 information between various regions. Knowledge about traditional potato and bitter potato cultivation and post-production techniques of the Andes, for example, could prove very valuable in the Himalayas. Ways should be sought to strengthen the interaction between these regions, and also others where potato cultivation is important. CIP, which is already active in germplasm and information exchange, is probably best placed to continue to coordinate these activities. However, extra donor and other assistance may be required in order to focus more attention on traditional high mountain systems of cultivation. The prominence given to potatoes in the discussion does not imply that other crops were considered of secondary importance, but rather that there was insufficient time to consider all the species and that, in any case, this topic would be addressed by Discussion Group B. d) It is often difficult to conduct conventional agronomy and yield trials in mountain environments. More work should be done on developing and/or disseminating information about alternative experimental designs appropri- ate to mountain conditions.

Recommendations of Information Exchange 1) It was recommended that consideration be given by ICIMOD to produc- ing a regular newsletter to facilitate information exchange on mountain agricultural systems covering all major mountain complexes in the world. This would be an informal 'newsletter' rather than an international scientific journal. The utility of such a newsletter would be greatly enhanced if it were produced in both English and Spanish. 2) A large data base on Andean agriculture is being developed in Peru and this information is available to researchers worldwide. Similar data bases should be developed for other mountain complexes. 3) Exchange visits of scientists between different mountain regions is a very effective way of exchanging information and knowledge. ICIMOD and donor agencies should consider ways of encouraging and supporting such scientific exchanges.

GROUP B: MOUNTAIN CROP GENETIC RESOURCES

1) It was recognised that exchange of mountain crop germplasm is needed in order to develop more stable, sustainable and productive mountain agricul- tural systems and to improve the conditions of those who depend on agricul- ture in mountain regions. Information on the crops themselves, where they have adapted, how they are used, is an important component of such ex- changes. 2) A table (Table 1) was developed containing lists of mountain crop species which could be exchanged between regions or countries. This table may serve as a guide to facilitating the bilateral exchange of mountain crop germplasm. 3) It was recommended that each country provide a brief description for 316 Mountain Agriculture each of the crops that can be exchanged. The description is to include: - Altitudinal range, aspect and slope where the crop is grown - Average rainfall - Soil pH - Cropping systems - Yields - Dates planted and harvested, phenological calendar -- Special traits - Uses - A line drawing of the crop Addresses of the scientists and institutions that can provide the germplasm for each crop and a short description of the procedure required to exchange germplasm should be provided by each country. 4) It was recommended that ICIMOD compile these descriptions into a booklet for distribution. In many countries, government regulations or policies make exchange difficult. It was recommended that participants draft a firm letter to their respective governments, reflecting the consensus at this meeting that in- creased exchange between different mountain regions in the world is neces- sary to develop improved agricultural systems. 5) The following types of exchanges were recommended: a) Direct exchange of mountain germplasm material. This should start immediately with country-to-country exchange of true seeds. b) Exchange of small groups of scientists. c) Multi-disciplinary expeditions of five to seven members, including farmers from different Andean countries, to different countries in the Himalayas and vice versa. Organisations such as ICIMOD, IBPGR, IDRC and national governments should be involved in facilitating these exchanges. Such expeditions could lead to much greater understanding about how mountain crops can best fit into new environments. 6) Roots, tubers and perennial crops require tissue culture methods for exchange and conservation. Suitable methods of tissue culture should be worked out for these crops. 7) There is a need to match similar environments in different regions in order to increase the probability of successful introduction. Several methods of describing and classifying environments should be examined, including cli- matological and geographic descriptors and uses of indicator crops in classi- fying environment. The local uses of the crops to be exchanged are an important factor in understanding the cultural environment. 8) Participating countries should exchange highly variable land races rather than genetically homogenous lines. This will improve the chances of ad- aptation and help to promote more stable production. 9) National institutions have the primary responsibility for collecting, storing and improving many of the mountain crops. Table 1: Crops suggested for exchange between mountain regions AFRICAN MOUNTAINS ANDES HIMALAYAS_ Crops available Crops wanted Crops available Crops wanted Crops available Crops wanted Cereals and Pseudo Cereals Amaranthus spp. Amaranthus spp. Amaranthus spp. Amaranthus Amaranthus Eragrostis spp. Hordeum spp. Hordeum spp. Hordeum spp. Chenopodium quinoa Triticum spp. Fagopyron spp. Chenopodium Chenopodiun: spp. Fagopyron Triticum spp. Avena Eragrostis spp. Eleusine spp. Zea mays spp. spp. Hordeum spp. Panieum spp. Oryza sativa Fagopyron spp. Triticum spp. Chenopodium quinoa Zea mays spp. Oryza sativa edulis Tuber Roots Arracacia spp. Colocasia spp. Oxalis tuberosa Coleus Coccinia abyssinica Oxalis tuberosa Solanum juzepzukii Tropaeolum tuberosum Ullucus tuberosus Whims tuberosus Lepidium meyenii Polymnia sonchifolia Polymnia sonchifolia Lepidium meyenii, Solanum juzepzukii

Legumes, Pulses, Oilseeds Brassica Vicia faba Brassica campestris Vicia faba spp. Lupinus mutabilis Perilla fruite- Lens culinaris B. napus Lathyrus sativa Vicia faba Lupinus albus scens, Lihum sp. ens culinaris Brassica spp. Cicer spp. Cicer spp. Madhuea butyracea Brassica spp. Dolychos biflorus Phaseolus calcaratus Phaseolus nnowo Phaseolus Inungo Guizotia abyssinica Glysine max, Cannabis Pisum sativum Trifolium spp. spp., Agropyron spp.

Fodder Trees Brassiopsis glotnerata Apple, Fruits Carica spp. Vegetables Apricot, Peach Apricot Cypliomandra spp. Apple Walnut, Cashew, Walnuts, Prunus capuli Pear Peanuts, Sunflower Opuntia, Passiflora spp. Cardamom spp. edicinal Plants Medicinal Plants Medicinal Plants Tea, Olive 2,000 m. 318 Mountain Agriculture

a) Stress should be laid on improving national facilities for storing the germplasm of these crops. b) Collection of many mountain crop species is urgently needed to con- serve the valuable genetic diversity presently threatened in many cases. 10) International Agricultural Research Centres have a role to play in collecting, documenting, conserving and exchanging those mountain crops for which they have a mandate. National scientists should make use of the resources of these international centres. 11) In the exchange of crop material, suitable quarantine regulations must be observed to prevent the spread of pests, diseases or nematodes. 12) Improved communications and information in mountain regions are essential in the evolution of mountain agricultural systems from subsistence towards cash crops. The crops being exchanged or improved must reflect the present and expected evolution of these systems. 13) The use of computers as a valuable tool for documenting genetic resources and classifying environments is encouraged. 14) It was recognised that ICIMOD has a central role to play in collecting and disseminating information, and in facilitating the exchange of people between mountain regions. General Index

Abate, A.N., 162 Ali, M., 2425 Abdella, O., 132,134 Allard, R.W., 148 Aberg, 306 All-India Coordinated Crop Improvement Academia Sinica, 305 Project, 275 Achira, 262-63 Almond, 154 Adhikari; B.R., 185 Altitude, and crops in Nepal, 189 Afforestation, 112 and crops in Peru, 249 Afghanistan, 2, 13, 22, 125, 128, 131, 147, and physiography of Africa, 110 305,306 Amaranth, 239, 246, 276, 281, 311 Africa, 297, 305 Amaru community, 97, 99, 101 agrophysiographic regions of, 106-107 Amino acid, in tubers, 259-60,261 East, 109 Andean region, 1, 2, 4, 76 mountain environment, and farming 'altiplano', 77 systems, 105-18, 121-22 climate in, 79-88 Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Bureau communities, 90,97-99, 101 of Xizang, 43 crops in Ecuador, 227-34 Agricultural Botany Division of Agricultural farming systems in, 91-97 Department (Nepal), 195,198 mountain environment and farming in, Agricultural economy, 113-14,142 75-102 Agricultural output, in Latin America, 76 mountains and East Africa Agricultural production., in Yemen, 137 (Ethiopia), 311 Agricultural productivity, 44, 46-47 phytogenetic and zoogenetic resources, Agricultural Research Institute, 156 235-52 Agricultural systems, in Bhutan, 69-73 soil types in, 77-79 in Mediterranean climate, 130-32 Angola, 105,107 of Konso, 218-19 Animal(s), in Andean region, 91, 92 of Xizang, 43-49 germplasm, institutions responsible Agro-ecological zones, 10, 51, 297, 298 for, 247 husbandry, 46, 47, 218 of Andes, 81, 92 production, 96, 99 Kush-Himalayas, 20, 23-25 of Hindu species, 236, 237, 241, 244-45 Agro-ecotypic plants, 149 Anon, 126,133 Agroforestry, 3, 64, 67, 122, 313 Ansheng, Li, 305 Agronomic practices, for Achira, 263 Anu, 257, 266 for Ajipa, 265 Anwar, Rashid, 147,153 for Andean grains, 250 Apple, 154 for Arracacha, 262 Apricot, 154,156 for chenopods, 177-78 Arabian Peninsula, 130 for Manka, 264 Argentina, 241 for tubers, 251 Arora, R.K., 18 for Yacon, 266 Arracacha, 241, 260, 262, 266 Agro-physiographic regions, in Africa, Arunachal Pradesh, 23, 273, 278, 283, 284 106-107 Arusha-Kiliminjaro region, 118 Ajipa, 264-65 Asia, 297 Algeria, 125,126 Assam, 23 320 Mountain Agriculture

Atkinson, E.T., 168 Cabbage, 225 Atlas mountains, 1, 125, 126, 127, 130 tree, 219 agricultural systems in, 132-36 Cajaarca University, 246 Atmospheric pressure, 2, 88 Calero del Mar, B., 244 Ayacuda area, HZP in, 98 Camacani community, in Andes, 95 Ayyangar, G.N.R., 161 Camelids, 241, 244, 245, 252 alpaca, 241 Bachteev. F., 308 llama, 241 Back, W.J., 79 Cameroon mountains, 107,109 Baig, N.S., 23 Caming, 301 Balanced diet, 101 Camino, A., 295 Baluchistan, 12, 13, 22, 148, 150, 153 Carapica, S., 136 Bamboo, 211, 212 Cardenas, Martin, 246 Banana, 118 Caribbean region, 1, 76 Bari land, 55 Carlsson, 175, 181 Barley, 33, 47, 71, 80, 96, 97,131, 133,140, 188, Carmen, M.L., 181 220, 229, 230, 231, 274, 279-80, 309 Carrillo, E., 239 cytological and genetic identification Cash crops, 53, 72, 113, 209, 211, 214 of, 308-309 chenopods, 174 germplasm, 190,194-95 Caspian Sea, 128 in the Himalayas, 305-10 Castillo, R., 227 Barnyard millet, 280 Cattle, 132, 135 Barter system, 33, 298 farms, 114 in potatoes, 300 Cereal(s), 47, 64, 94, 97, 114, 115, 117, 119, Beans, 230 120, 121, 140, 191, 219, 221, 276-82, Bencherifa, A., 133,135 281-82,317 Bengal, 284 genetic resources of, in Pakistan, 147-51 Bennett, E., 148 CGIAR system, 288 Betel nut, 212 Chacon, R.C., 256 Beverages, 224, 283 Chad, IQ7 Bhadra, B., 9 Chalam, G.V., 159 Bhatnagar, S.S., 161 Chang, T.V., 25 Bhattarai, AX, 185 Chena See Proso millet Bhatti, M.S., 147, 153, 155 Chenopods, 173, 282, 311 Bhutan, 16, 23, 314 area under, 168 agriculture in, 69-73 as commercial crops, 173,174 climate in, 69 in Himalayas, 165-81 Bhutan National Potato Programme local names for, 166, 167 (BNPP), 71 nutritional content in, 168 Bioclimatic regions, in Hindu Kush- Sour cherry, 154 Himalayas, 20-38 Cevallos, J. Tola, 227 Black gram, 282 Chiang Mai University, 214 Bolivia, 77, 80, 84, 86, 235, 246, 258, 266, 270 Chickpea, 131 Bourbouze, A., 132 Chilalo Mountains, 116,118 Breeding programme, 196 China, 44, 302, 308 Brown, A.H.D., 148 Ching 'Lang, 305 Brown, L.H., 109 Chinghai Province, 305 Brunt, A.A., 258,259 Christian influence, 23 Brunt, Allen, 271 Church, A.H., 168 Brush, S.B., 256 CIMMYT, 71 Brush, Stephen, 295, 296, 297 CIP, 302, 303 Buckwheat, 33, 72, 188, 189, 281 CIRF, 246,266 Buddhist influence, 20 Climate, 9, 12, 17, 26, 38, 43, 46, 52, 69, 84, 91, Bukasov, S.M., 241 109, 110, 150 Burman, S.G., 10 of Africa, 111 Burundi, 105, 107, 117, 121 of Andes, 79-88 Butman, 12 of Ecuador, 779 General Index 321

of Hindu Kush-Himalayas, 12,17-19 Degradation, 40, 121, 122 of Mediterranean, 125,130 Demographic, physical and agricultural data of Nepal, 52,186-87 of Nepalese mountains, 188 Cochame, J., 109 de Nuamanga, 97 Coffee, 141, 220 Department of Agriculture, of Bhutan, 71 Colca River Basin System, 96 Department of Agriculture, of Nepal, 54 'Cold land', 206 Department of Agriculture, of Thailand, 213 Collett, H., 169 Department of Arequipa, of Peru, 96 Columbia, 76, 266, 269 Department of Ayacuda, 97 Communal land, 2,91 Department of Colombia, 88 in Thailand, 204 Dapartment of Cusco, of Peru, 78, 94 Communication, 1 Department of Food and Agricultural Condiments, 210, 212, 283 Marketing Services (DFAMS), 59 Conservation, of forests, 112 Department of Public Welfare, of Thailand, Cosio, P., 94 203,214 Constable, M., 113,121 Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarntine Cosio, P., 97 and Storage, 285 Contour terraces, 20 Djibouti, 106 Coporaque, 96 Doggett, H., 220 Cortes, H.B., 258 Dogra community, 22 Cotton, 131, 219, 220 Double cropping, 48 Cowpea, 282 Drugs, cultivation, of 120 Crop(s), in Andean and Ethiopian Dry fruits, 288 mountains, 311 Dryland cultivation, 71 and animal species in Andeas, 235 Duthie, J.F., 168 distribution in Ecuador, 228, 230 in Ethiopian highlands/mountains, 119 East Africa, 121, 311 exploration, 274-75 Eastern Himalayas, 12, 16, 23 genetic resources, 284-85, 286 Ecological zones (regions), 65 genetic resources, and role of NBPGR, of Ecuador, 227 273-89 of Nepal, 58 husbandry, 136 Economy, of farmers, 24 output, in China, 44 of Nepal, 51 rotation, 94, 96, 97, 134, 136, 141 of Xizang, 46 species, 209-13, 229 Ecuador, 75, 235, 246, 266, 267, 269 species in the Andeas, 236, 237-41 native crops in, 227-34 Cropping pattern, in Atlas region, 133-34 ECWA/FAO, 136 of chenopods, 177 Egli, R., 113 in Nepal, 58, 60 Elburz Mountains, 125,128 in Thailand, 208 Ellemberg, S., 80 in Yemen Arab Republic, 140-42 Ellis, R.H., 156 Cross-breeding, of potatoes, 302 Employment, 25, 38, 57, 69 Cultivars, improved, of crops, 287 Engels, J.M.M., 217 of potato, 295, 296-98 England, 271 Cultural affinities, 40 Environments, African mountains and, Cultural diversity, 166 105-12 Cusack, D.F., 181 of Andean region, 76-77 Cusco area, of Peru, 97, 100 and farming in Andean region, 75-102 Cytological and genetic identification, of Hindu Kush-Himalayas, 10, 12-20 of barley, 308-309 of Nepal, 185-88 of West Asia, and North Africa, 125-43 Dairying, 121 of Yemeni mountains, 137-40 Darjeeling, 23 Environmental diversity, influence of, Dawes, Stewart, 271 on farming, 9-40 Deccan Plateau, 130 Equatorial mountains, farming, in 114 Decorational plants, 210 Estrada, Rolando, 267, 270 Deforestation, 3, 40, 79, 111, 112 Ethiopia, 4,105, 106, 113, 114, 217 322 Mountain Agriculture

agricultural and rural economy of, 115 French bean, 275, 282 farming practices in, 121 Frere, M., 77, 79, 80, 84, 87, 88 highland/mountain crops in, 119 Frost, 207 mountain environment in, 110, 111, 118 Fruit(s), 22, 23, 26, 57, 131, 190, 210; Ethiopian Highland 212, 223, Reclamation 229, 232, 236, 274, 317 Programme, 121 crop genetic reserves, in Pakistan, Ethnicity, 21, 90 153-57 in Thailand, 202 genetic resources, 156 Ethnobotany, of chenopods, 169, 171, 172 germplasm collection, 155 and nuts, 283-84 Faba beans, 96,131, 230 temperate; in Nepal, 60 Family size, 97 Furer, Haimendorf, 21, 38, 294 Farm communities, in Andeas, 75 Farm-labour resources, 121 Galway, N.W., 181 Farm management, 59 Gandarillas, H., 237 Farm monitoring, 61, 62 Garcia, Alan, 267 Farming systems, 25, 34, 61-62, 65,114-17 Garcilazo de la Vega, El Inca, 258 in African mountains, 105-18 Gausser, A., 10 in Andean region, 91-97 Gautam, J.C., 51 and environment, in East Africa and Genetic diversity, 5, 24, 26, 38, 114, 117, 147, Ethiopia, 122 237,274 and environment, in Andean region, Genetic erosion, 150-51, 157 75-102 of chenopods, 178,181 and environment, in West Asia and of tubers, 260 North Africa, 125-43 Genetic identification, of barley, 308-309 in Ethiopia, 116-17 Genetic resources, of Andean crops and in Hindu Kush-Himalayas, 20, 25-26, animals, 246-48 33,38 of Andean root and tuber crops, 255-71 in Nepal, 36 conservation of, 195-97 Farming Systems Research and Development Konso agriculture and, 217-25 Division (FSRDD), 64 in Nepalese mountains, 185-200 Fertiliser use, 57, 60, 61, 64, 121, 134, 136 of potatoes and farmers strategy, Fibre crops, 210 293-303 Field peas, 282 in Thailand, 201-16 Field preparation, 207 unit, 231 in Konso, 219 Genetic variation, 149, 190, 19?-95 Finger millet, 159-60,188,189, 211, 280 Germination behaviour, of chenopods, germplasm, 190,195 177,179 in Himachal Pradesh, 159-63 Germplasm, bank, 147 nutritional content in, 162 collection, 148, 149, 195, 198, 231, 248, processing and utilisation of, 161-63 277,274-75 First Andean Region Genetic Resources, 231 conservation, 196, 225, 285 Flatlands, 95 introduction and exchange of, 285, 288 Fodder, 61, 162, 220, 274, 275, 288 utilisation of, 275-76 shortage of, 66 Gershoff, S.N., 259 trees, 59 Getahun, Amare, 105, 113, 114, 118, 311 Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), Ghalley, U.R., 69 72,246 Goettsch, E., 220 Food, deficit in, 60,197, 248 Gomez, M., 162 processing, 121 Gopalan, C., 161 uses of, crops, in Nepal, 191-93 Grains, 232, 233, 236, 237-39, 240, 275, 282 Forages, 133, 136, 283 agronomic practices for, 250 Forests, 1, 26, 40, 43, 59, 79,130 Grapes, 154 conservation of, 40 Grass pea, 131 development of, 114 Grasses, 275 water and, resources, 111-12 Creen gram, 282 Foxtail millet, 159, 211, 280 Grazing, 3, 79, 99, 122, 135, 141-42, 186, 313 General Index 323

Grierson, A.J.C., 169 ICIMOD, 5, 199, 200, 302, 303, 314, 315, Groundnut, 189,190 316,318 Groundwater, storage of, 84 IDRC, 4, 5, 70, 231, 246 Gruber, G., 17 IICA, 246 Guillet, D., 293 ILCA, 105 Guinea pigs, 244,252 Information, limited, 314 Implements, agricultural, 66 Halford, Peter, 270 Imports, of cereals by Yemen, 143 Hallipike, G.R., 217, 218, 219, 220 Income, 33, 57, 101 Haryana, 25 Inputs, 4, 58 Harlen, J.R., 220 Institutions, plant and animal germplasm Hawkes, J.G., 149, 155, 295 researches in, 247 Hawtin, G.C., 1, 78, 79, 88, 90, 125 Instituto Nacional De Investigaciones Hda, El Baghati, 132 Agropenarias (INIAP), 269 Helvetas (Swiss Aid), 72 Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Hengduan Mountains, 12, 17, 23 Promotion Agropecuria (INiAA), 270 Herbs, 210, 212 Instituto Nacional de Nutricion, 256 Herrera, F.L., 235 Integrated mountain development, 38 High Yielding Varieties (HYV), 4,150,165 Intercropping, 96, 219, 225 of cereals, 147 International Agricultural Research Centres, of rice, 278 318 Hillfarm production system, 33 Intertropical convergence Zone (Itcz), 87 Himalayas, 10, 12, 257, 273, 274, 281 Intertropical conversion zone (TTCZ), 109 central, 12, 16, 25-26 Iran, 147 high, 10, 69 International Board of Plant Genetic inner, 69 Resources (IBPGR), 149, 155, 181, 196, lesser, 10 197, 231, 256, 269, 284, 289 Himalayas, barley cultivation in, 305-10 International Centre for Integrated Mountain chenopod cultivation in, 165-81 Development (ICIMOD), 4 organic belt, 11 International Committee on Phytogenetic rainfall and temperature in, 14 Resources (CIRF), 246 Himachal Pradesh, 22, 24, 25, 33, 273, 274, Insti)uto Nacional de Investigaci6n 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281 Promotion Agropecnaria del Peru finger millet in, 159-63 (TWIPA), 232, 246, 257 Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, International Potato Centre (CIP), 72, 258, 284 294, 297, 302 Hindu influence, 20 International Rice Research Institute (TIM), Hindu Kush-Himalayas, 9-40,125,128, 70, 148, 195, 214 130,148 Iran, 125, 128, 131, 305 classification of, 38 Iraq, 147, 305 Homogeneous Zones of Production (HZP), Irrigation, 1, 2, 66, 90, 94, 114, 135,141, 142, 91-92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100 149, 150, 203, 218 Hong, Cheng, 43 Hong, T.D., 156 Jahan, 220 Hooker, J.D., 168,169 Jammu and Kashmir, 22, 273, 275, 276, Horkheimer, H., 88 280,281 Horse gram, 188, 282 Jeqi, Zhou, 305 Horticulture, 18, 57, 67, 72, 114, 115, 117, 120 lhum' cultivation, 25 'Hot land', 206 Jones, W.I., 113 Humidity, 87 Jordan, 305 Hybridisation, 306 Joshi, B.D., 273 of maize, 71 of potatoes, 295 Hydro-electric power, 111 Kabul, 130 Kalat Mountains, 148 ICAR, 275,276 Kampanna, C., 159 crop coordinated project of, 288 Kangra, D.G., 168 germplasm collection in, 277 Kafiiwa, 238-39, 240, 248 324 Mountain Agriculture

Kapok, 212 Maize, 25, 53, 55, 57, 71, 131, 133, 136,188, Kapoor, P., 166, 168, 169,181 209, 211, 215, 230, 231, 278-79 Kashmir, 153,156 germplasm, 190,194 Kashmir, Azad, 150 HZP, 94, 97 Kashmir Agricultural University, 284 Malawi, 105,107 Kavallapa, B.N., 159 Malnutrition, 79,177 Kenya, 105, 106, 113, 114, 121 Manandhar, K.L., 185 agricultural and rural economy of, 115 Mandarin orange, 72 Khandbari research site, 62 Manipur, 278, 279 Khet land, 55, 60, 141 Mantra, 263-64, 266 King, S.K., 259 Mann, Surinder K., 159,160 King, Steven R., 255 Manure, 218, 219 Kirkpatrick, 294 Market forces, impact of, 201 Kirthar range, 13,148 Market system, 67 Kitchen garden land, 73 Marshall, D.R., 148 Mwicha, 240, 248 Mashua tubers, 239, 242 Konso, agriculture and genetic resources in, Mateo, N., 1, 75, 78, 79, 88, 90, 235 217-25 Mayer, E., 298 tribes of, 217-18 McBride, J.F., 239 Kuls, W., 218, 219, 220 McPherson, M.F., 76 Meat production, 244 La Barre, W., 295 Medicinal plants, 190, 209, 211, 274, 317 Lablab bean, 215, 216 and aromatic plants, 283, 288 Labour force, 61, 69, 136, 142, 208-209 Meghalaya, 23, 278 Ladakh, 279, 280 Mehra, K.L., 18 Land categories, in Bhutan, 70 Meridional Range, 17 in Yemen, 138 Meshing, H., 132 Land preparation, 38, 57, 90 Mexico, 257,264 Land Tenure and Mapping Project (LRMP), Middle Mountaining Farming System, 26 55, 66, 185 Migration, 1, 88,114, 142, 229 Land tenure, 204205 Mildew disease, 238 Land use, 111, 112, 113, 118,122, 293 Milk collection, in Nepal, 62 in Andean region, 75 Millet cultivation, 55, 72 in Himalayan region, 37 minor, 280-81 in Nepal, 31, 35, 51, 52, 53, 56 Mineral value, of chenopods, 178 soil, vegetation and, 20 Mining, 1 Landless farmers, 142 Ministry of Agriculture (Nepal), 5 Latin America, 75, 76 Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Legumes, 94, 131, 136, 317 213 Lemordant, D., 161 Mittal, S.P., 25 Lentil, 131, 282 Mixed farming, 53, 117, 177, 208, 215, 220 Leon, J., 241, 246 of chenopods, 178 Lescano, J.L., 95 private and public tenure, 204 Linder, H., 118 Mizoram, 279 Livestock, 4, 22, 24, 26, 33, 38, 44, 53, 58-59, Moisture, 18 60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 114,131, 136, 229 Molnar, A., 38 feed, 66 Monastic life, 33 production, 113, 117, 140 Monomodal system, of rainfall, 87 systems, in Atlas mountains, 13435 Montaldo, A., 241 Long, D.G., 169 Morocco, 1, 125,126,130,132-36 Luquina Grande community, 95, 96 Mount Ararat, 128 Lupines, 311 Mountain crop genetic resources, 313, 315-16 Mountain Crop Research System, 199 Maca, 256, 266 Mountain farming systems, 32, 33, 313-15 Madagascar, 105,107 in Africa, 113-21 Mahabharat range, 16 in Andean region of Latin America, 75, Maharajan, P.L., 9 91-97 General Index 325

in Bhutan, 70-73 Nutritional value, 237 in Ecuador, 227, 229 in Andean crops, 233 in Himachal Pradesh (India), 159-63 in chenopods, 174-76 in Himalayas, 166,168-74 in finger millet, 162 in Hindu Kush-Himalayas, 20, 25-38 in potato, 298 in Konso, 218-19 in tubers, 259 in Nepal, 32, 51-67 in West Asia, and Africa, 125-30 Oat cultivation, 62 in Xizang, 44-48 Oca tubers, 239, 242, 257, 266 Mountaineering, 38 Ochoa, G., 295 Mozambique, 107 Oil crops, 119, 120, 193, 223, 283, 317 Mung bean, 131 Oil wealth, 142 Murra, J.V., 90 Oktingati, A., 118 Murre deposits, 12 Olluco tubers, 239, 242 Mustard cultivation, 72,188 On-farm research, 64 'Muyuys', 95 Opium cultivation, 203, 205-206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214 Nabhan, G.P., 162,166 Orchards, 72,157 Naffis Valley, case study, 135-36 Orlove, B., 293 Nakao, S., 308 Nanga Parbat range, 13 Paddy cultivation, 25, 26, 33, 70 Narcotics, 224 Pakistan, 25, 128, 305 National Institute for Agriculture Research, agro-climatic zones in, 24 231 cereal crop genetic resources in, 147-51 NBPGR, role of, 273-89 fruit crop genetic resources in, 153-57 National Plant Genetic Resources Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, 147, Programme (Pakistan), 153 153 National Potato Development Programme, Panth, M.P., 51 294 Paroda, R.S., 273 National Rice Germplasm Centre, 214 Parolta, E., 227 National Rice Improvement Programme, 195 Partap, Tej, 165, 166, 168, 169, 177, 181 Natural resources, 38 Passion fruit, 311 Nepal, 2, 3, 4, 22, 308 Pastures, 49, 97, 235 crop genetic resources in, 185-200 in Andean region, 92 mountain farming in, 51-67 in Xizang, 49 food crops in, 188-90 Pathans, 22 GDP of, 51 Pea, 131 land systems in, 28, 31 Peach, 131, 154, 156 livestock population in, 58-59, 60 Pear, 154 physiographic region of, 27 Pearl millet, 140,159 terai farming in, 29, 30 Peasant economy, 136 Nepal Himalayas, Peruvian Andes and, Perennial crops, 316 293-303 Peru, 1, 3, 75, 76, 80, 81, 83, 85, 91, 97, 98, 235, New Guinea, 302 238, 244, 246, 257, 258, 266, 267, 269-70 New Zealand, 257, 266, 270-71 Andes and Nepalese Himalayas, 293, Nieto, C., 227 303 Nigeria, 107 departments in, 88 Non-swidden crops, 211-13 sub-regions and homogenous zones of North Africa, mountain environments and production, 93 farming systems in, 125-43 Pests, and diseases, in crops, 33 Northern Areas of Pakistan, 149, 154, 157 Peters, L.V., 159 North West Frontier Province (NWFP), 148, Physic nut, 212 150, 153, 154, 156, 157 Physiography, of Pakistan, 148,154 Novoa, A., 75, 77 Phytogenetic resources, in the Andean, Nut crops, 288 235,236 Nutrition education programme, 267 Pir Panjal range, 13 Nutritional deficiencies, 231 Plant genetic resources, in Konso, 221-24 326 Mountain Agriculture

and their uses, 219-25 Radiation, 87 Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) Laboratory, Rafiq, M., 128 147,148 Ragi, See Finger millet Plant germplasm, institutions responsible for, Rainfall, 9,12,13,14,17,59,84,86,87,%,109, 247 114,128,130,132,135,154,168,186, Plantation land, 72 187, 219, 295 Plum, 154 and water availability, 80, 84 Polyandry, 33 Raina, B.N., 10 Pontine Mountains, 125,128 Rainfed-cropping, 14011 Poppy, 205 Rabhandary, H.B., 24 Population, of Andes region, 88, 89-90 Ramanathan, MX., 161 of Atlas mountain region, 132-33 Ranching, 121 of Bolivia, 89 Range,95 of Ecuador, 89, 229, 231 Rea, Eng, Julio, 246 of Himalayas, 33 Reforestation, 203 of Hindu Kush, 21 Religious beliefs, 210 of Konso tribe, 217-18 on chenopods, 172,173 of Latin America, 76 Research, 4, 54, 59, 64, 70, 199, 269 of Naffis Valley, 135 and genetic resources, 213-15 of Nepal, 59 need for, 66, 67 of Thailand, 201-203 Resources-poor farmers, 64 growth in Africa, 111 Revanda, 105, 106 pressure, 2, 3, 55, 59, 79,136 Reunion Islands, 105,107 Posner, J.L., 75, 76, 77 Rhoades, Robert E., 293, 2%, 297, 298, 300 Potato cultivation, 33, 59, 60, 71, 80, 84, 94, 95, Rice cultivation, 53, 55, 131, 149, 188, 208, 209, 97, 131, 188, 230, 231, 294-95 214,215,274,276-78 bitter, 84 high yielding varieties of, 278 economy, 298, 299 Rice-based farmers, 209 genetic resources and farmers Rice bean, 215, 282 strategies, 293-303 germplasm, 276 germplasm, 302 Rice germplasm, 190,193-94 lexicography of, 295-96 Rice Research Farming Systems Project price of, 299 (Bhutan), 70 Potts, G.R., 125 Rice varieties, 150, 205 Pradhan, S.M.S., 24 Risi, J.C., 181 Precipitation, 9, 13, 38, 109,125, 130, 132, 137, Ronburgh, W., 168 186,187 Rongsu, Zhang, 9 Processing, and utilisation of finger millets, Root crops, 210, 219, 232, 233, 234, 236, 241, 161-63 243, 248, 316 Program de Cultives Andinos, 246 of Andean region, 255-68 Proso millet, 159, 280 Roy, P., 9 Protein content, in chenopods, 174 Royal Forestry Department, 203 in tubers, 259 Royal Project (Thailand), 213 Pulse crops, 119, 120, 188, 192, 221, 282, 317 Rozas, J.W., 78 Pumdi Bhumdi, 59, 62, 63 Ruthsatz, B., 80 Punjab, 25 Rwanda, 114,121 Punjab Economic Research Institute, 24 Purseglove, J.W., 131 Sacherer, J., 38 Sahara, sub-, Africa, 106-107,108 Qamar, A., 23 Sakamoto, Sadao, 306 Qinghai-Xizang, Plateau, 10, 16 Saponin content, in chenopods, 174, 176 Quinoa, 80,94,96,174,230,234,237-38,240, Saudi Arabia, 125,130 248 Sauer, J.D., 169 Quinoa Corporation, 181 Schiemann, 306 Quiquan, Shao, 305 Seed sources, and flow, of potatoes, 299 Seed storage, 289 Rachie, K.O., 159 Sesame, 131 General Index 327

Shannan Prefecture experimental station, 307 Takahashi, 308 Sharma, Anjana, 160 Tanggula-Hengduan mountain region, 16 Shifting cultivation, 18, 23, 72, 203, 278 Tanin content, in chenopods, 176 Shi-Xuan, W., 17 Tanzania, 105, 106, 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 121 Sichuan Province, 23 Tapia, M., 75, 91, 97, 168, 181, 235, 270 Sierra, 227, 229 Taro, 220 Sierra Blanca Associates, 181 Tarwi (Chocho), 239, 24., 248 Sikka, B.K., 24,33 Taurus Mountains, 125 Sikkim, 16, 23, 276, 278, 279, 280 Tawantinsuyu, 90 Singh, Inderjeet, 159 Tea plantation, 23, 212 Singh, H., 168,177 in East Africa, 117 Singh, Bhag, 279 Technology, agricultural, 2, 66, 121, 205-209 Site selection, 205-207 Tef, 118 Siwaliks, 10, 12, 13, 16, 25,186 Temperate fruit crops, 153 Skyes, J.T., 156 Temperature, 2, 13, 14, 16, 18, 38, 43, 47, 52, Snow, 13, 186, 187 59, 69, 79-80, 82, 83, 84, 128, 130, 137, Soap nut tree, 212 187 Social mobility, 1, 4 Terai Hills, 54, 59,186 Social organisation, of production, 90 main, 26,29 Socio-economic background, 20-23, 234 upper, 26, 30 Soil conservation, 199, 220 Terraces, mountain, 2, 3, 21, 26, 218, 286 Soil erosion, 3, 20, 66, 79, 112, 142, 197 Tethys Himalayas, 10 Soil factor, 206-207 Thailand, 4 Soil fertility, 26 genetic resources in, 201-16 Soil maps, Andes, 78 population of, 201-203 Soil types, 3, 17, 20, 24, 52, 70, 77-79, 96, 109, Thailand Rice Research Institute (RRI), 214 132, 137, 140, 186, 187-88, 206, 215, 218, Thermal conditions, in Andean region, 80 219, 227, 229 in Xizang,45 Soil, and vegetation, land-use, 20 Thakur, K.C., 177 Solar radiation, 2, 205 Thomas, T.A., 168 Somalia, 106 Thompson, S., 293 Sorghum, 140, 141, 211, 218, 219, 220 Thompson, T., 168 South Asian Association for Regional Tibet, 12, 16-17, 23, 307 Cooperation (SAARC), 70, 71 Lamaaistic culture in, 22, 23 Soybean, 188, 189, 275, 282 Tobla Kakar range, 13 Spices, 210, 212, 223, 283 Tomato, 231 Stewart, J.L., 168 Tourism, 1, 38 Stimulants, cultivation of, 119 Trade, 33, 38 Stone, O.M., 259 Transportation, 60, 207, 236 Subsistence agriculture, 1, 58, 229 Trekking, 38 Subsistence farmers, 215, 234 Tribal population, in Thailand, 202-203 Sub-tropical mountains, 114 Tribal Research Institute (Thailand), 202, 214 Sudan, 106 Tribal system, 142 Sugarcane, 188 Tsheri land cultivation, 72 Sulaiman range, 13, 22 Tuber crops, 119, 219, 220, 222, 231, 232, 233, Sunshine, 87 234, 236, 239, 241, 242, 248, 256-60, 316, Sutthi, Chantaboon, 201 317 Swaminathan, M.S., 150 agronomic practices for, 251 Swarup, R., 24, 33 amino acids in, 259 Swedish International Development genetic erosion in, 260 Authority (SIDA), 147 germplasm collection of, 266-67 Sweet cherry, 154 nutritional value of, 259 Swidden crops, 209-11 viral infection in, 258-59 cyclical, 203, 204, 208 Tubewell irrigation, 142 pioneer, 203, 208, 209 Tunisia, 125,126 Sykes, J.T., 155 Turkey, 125, 128, 147, 297, 305 Syria, 147, 305 mountains in, 126,128 328 Mountain Agriculture

Tutwiler, R., 136 Wetland cultivation, 70-71 Wheat, cultivation, 25, 26, 48, 53, 55, 71, 97, Uganda, 105, 106, 113, 114, 121 131, 140,150, 188, 220, 230, 278 Ulluco, 266 bread, 133 Under-exploited crops, of Himalayas, durum, 133 165-66,167 germplasm, 190,194 United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse yield of, 278 Control (UNFDAC), 213 White beans, 131 Universidad Nacional de San Cristobal, 97 Wilcox, A.N., 156 University of San Macros (Peru), 267 Wild barley, 156 Upadhya, M.D., 169 bottle-shaped, 308 Urbanisation, 111 intermediate forms of, 308 Usambara Mountains, 112 two-rowed, 305-306 USDA, 213 six-rowed, 306-307 Utilisation, of chenopods, 172,173 Wind factor, 206 of finger millet, 161-63 Witcombe, J., 307 Uttar Pradesh, 22, 273, 275, 279, 280, 281 Women, in decision-making, 66 U.S., 264 in farm operations, 66, 67, 137 U.S.S.R., 305 Wood, R.T., 181 World Bank, 88 Vavilov, N.1., 235 Vegetable crops, 73, 197, 209, 220, 222, 232, Xizang Autonomous Region, 305 233,282 wild barley in, 309 seed industries, 198 Xolocotzi, Efraim Hernandiz, 270 Vegetation, 16, 77, 206 in Nepal, 52 Yacoleff, E., 235 in Hindu Kush region, 17-19 Yac6n, 241, 265-66 Venkateswarlu, J., 159 Yadav, R.P., 9 Venezuela, 77, 241 Yemen Arab Republic, 125, 130, 137 Vietmeyer, Noel D., 255, 260 environment and farming in, 136-43 Viral infection, in tubers, 258-59 Yield, of chenopods, 174,177 of finger millet, 160 Walnut, 154 in Peru, 249 Water, balance, 84, 85 plant diversity, of chenopods, 180, 181 and forest resources, 111-12 Yizang, agricultural systems of, 43-49 management, 3 climate of, 43, 46, 47 Wasteland, 140 population of, 44 Watkins, Ray, 156 Yunnan Province, 23 Watt, J., 168,169 Weeding, 57, 262 Zagros Mountains, 125,128 Welsh onion, 211 Zaire, 105, 107, 121 Werge, R., 297, 300 Zambia, 107 West Asia, mountain environments and Zaskar range, 13 farming system in, 125-43 Zonneveld, J.M., 26,33 Western Himalayas, 22, 25 Zoogenetic resources, in the Andean, 235 Westphal, E., 219, 220 Zvietcovich, G., 96 Index of Scientific Names

Acacia, 142 Citrus hystrix, 212 A. pennata ssp., 211 Coccinia abyssinica, 118 A. rugata, 212 C. grandis, 211 Alpinia spp., 212 Coix lachryma-jobi L., 210 Amaranthus, 160, 230, 231 C. puellarum, 210 A. anardana, 168 Coleus edulis, 118, 311 A. blitum, 281 Colocassia, 160 A. caudatus, 239, 281, 311 Cordia, 142 A. edulis, 239 Cordylina fruticosa, 211 A. cruentus, 281 Curcuma, 212 A. dubius, 281 C. domestica, 211 A. hibridus, 239 Cympopogon martinii, 190 A. lybridus, 281 C. winterianus, 190 A. hypochondriacus, 281 Cyphomandra petacea, 231 A. spinosus, 281 Amorphophallus abyssinicus, 220 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, 206 Arisaema sp., 220 Dendrochide stimulans, 206 Arracacia xanthorrhiza, 243, 255, 260, 266, 269 Digitalis purpurea, 190 Atropa belladonna, 190 Dioscorea floribunua,190 D. tantan, 190 Balanites, 220 Dolichos lablab, 215 Baphicacanthus cusia, 212 Boesenbergia pandulata, 212 Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn, 159 Bougainvillea spectabilis, 212 Ensete ventricosum, 118 Brassica campestris, 283 Ergrostis abyssinica, 118 var. toria, 72 E. teff, 311 Brugieriae, 142 Euphorbia, 142

Canna edulis, 255 Fagopyrum cymosun, 281 Ker-gawl, 262, 263 F. esculentum, 281 Cannabis sativa, 211 F. tataricum, 281 Capparis sp., 212 Ficus, 142 Caroyota obtusa, 206 Carthamus tinctorius, 118, 311 Garuga pinnata, 212. Carum bulbocastinum, 283 Gigantochloa albociliata, 206 Catha edulis, 118, 311 Gossypium spp., 131 Chenopodium, 178, 181, 230, 231 Guizotia abyssinica, 118, 311 C. album, 169 Gymnema inodorum, 211 C. dubius, 311 C. giganteum, 169 Hibiscus sabdariffa, 211 C. nuttaliae, 181 Hiuttuynia cordata, 212 C. pallidicaule, 181 Hordeum agriocrithon, 305, 306, 307, 309, 310 C. quinoa,168, 169, 181, 237 H. euagriocrithon, 305 Chrysanthemum ceneraiaefolium, 190 H. ithaburense, 309 Cicer arietinum, 131 H. lagunculiforms, 305, 308, 309 330 Mountain Agriculture

H. nudum, 305 Polymnia, 231 H. spontaneum, 305, 306, 309, 310 P. sonchifolia, 243, 255, 260, 265, 266, 269 H. vulgare, 131 Prunus amygdalus L., 154 P. armeniaca, 154 P. avium, 154 Ipomoea aquatica, 212 P. cerasus, 154 Ixora sp., 212 P. genera, 155 P. persica, 154 Jatropha curcas, 212 Pyrus spp., 154,156 Juglan regia,154 Rauwolfia serpentina, 190 Kaempferia sp., 211 Kalanchoe pinnata, 212 Salvia officinales, 78 Sapindus rarak, 212 Lasia spinosa, 212 Sauromatum nubicum, 220 Lathyrus, 118 Sauropus androgynus, 211 L. sativus, 131, 311 Sida acuta,, 212 Lens culinaris, 131 Sesbania, 212 Lepidium meyenii, 255, 256, 260, 266, 269, 270 Sesamum indicum, 131 Leucaena,211 Setaria italica, 159 Litsea cubeba, 206 Solanum indicum, 212 Lupinus, 246 S. stramonifolium, 212 L. mutabilis, 230, 231, 239 S. tuberosum, 131, 255, 256, 260, 293, 299 L. praestabilis, 239 Sorghum bicolor, 220 Stricuiia guttata, 212 Malus spp., 154,156 Strobilanthes, 212 Manihot escuelenta, 262 Mentha ariensis, 190 Talinum paniculatum, 211, 212 Mirabilis expansa, 255, 260, 263, 266, 269 Tamarindus, 142 Morinda citrifolia, 212 Terminalia, 220 Moringa stenopetala, 219 Tinospora crispa, 212 T. glabra, 212 Nasturtium, 257 Trifolium peruvianum, 78 Nicotiana glutinosa, 258 Triticum aestivum,131, 278 T. dicoccum, 131 Ollucus tuberosum, 230, 231 T. durum, 131, 150 Oronylum indicum, 211 T. monococcum, 131 Oryza sativa, 131 T. sphaerococcum, 150 Oxalis tuberosum, 230, 231, 239, 255, 256, Tropaeolum majus, 257 257, 258, 259, 260, 266, 270, 271 T. tuberosum, 239, 255, 256, 257, 258, Oroxylum indicum, 212 259, 261, 266, 270 T. tuberosum spp. silvestre, 258 Pachyrhizus erosus, 264, 270 P. tuberosus, 264 Ullucus tuberosus, 239, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, Panchyrizus tuberosa, 255 260, 266, 270, 271 Panicum milaceum, 159 Passiflora grandiflora, 311 Vibernum inopinatum, 212 Pennisetum typhoides, 159 Vicia faba, 131 Peronospora spp., 238 Vigna radiata, 131 Phaseolus, 220 V. umbellata, 215 P. vulgaris, 131, 275 Vitis vinifera, 154 Physalis peruviana, 311 Piper betel, 212 Zea mays, 131 P. chaba, 212 Zingiber cassumunar, 212 P. sarnentosum, 212 Z. ottensii, 212 Pisum sativum, 131 Zizania iatifolia, 211 Polygonum odoratum, 212 Ziziphus, 142