OXFORD ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNIT

YARNTON FLOODPLAIN B POST-EXCAVATION ANALYSIS RESEARCH DESIGN:

MODULES 3, 4, 5 AND OVERVIEW

Gill Hey and Christopher Bell

August 2000 YARNTON FLOODPLAIN POST-EXCAVATION MODULES 3, 4 AND 5

Contents Page

List of tables

List of figures

List of plates

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 The Neolithic and Bronze Age project 1.2 A brief history of the Yarnton-Cassington Project 2 1.3 This document 3 1.4 Original project aims of the floodplain excavations 5

2. SUMMARY OF FACTUAL DATA AND THEIR POTENTIAL 7

2.1 Excavation evidence 7 2.2 Dating 22 2.3 Pottery 24 2.4 Fired clay 29 2.5 Flint 30 2.6 Worked stone 33 2.7 Burnt unworked stone 34 2.8 Wood 36 2.9 Bone and shale objects 37 2.10 Metal objects 38 2.11 Artefact conservation 38 2.12 Human bone 39 2.13 Animal bone 41 2.14 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains 45 2.15 Pollen 50 2.16 Geoarchaeology 52 2.17 Phosphates 55 2.18 Geophysical survey 56 2.19 Evaluation techniques 58

3. OVERALL STATEMENT OF POTENTIAL AND THE NATIONAL CONTEXT

3.1 The results measured against the original research objectives 59 3.2 The national research context 64 3.3 The regional and local context 67 4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT 68

4.1 National research aims 68 4.2 Project objectives 68

5. METHOD STATEMENT 72

5.1 Information and review 72 5.2 Dating 72 5.3 Pottery 73 5.4 Fired clay 75 5.5 Flint 76 5.6 Worked stone 76 5.7 Burnt unworked stone 76 5.8 Wood 77 5.9 Bone and shale objects 77 5.10 Metal objects 78 5.11 Artefact conservation 78 5.12 Human bone 78 5.13 Animal bone 79 5.14 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains 80 5.15 Pollen 82 5.16 Geoarchaeology 83 5.17 Phosphates 85 5.18 Geophysical survey 85 5.19 Spatial and structural analysis 86 5.20 Analysis of evaluation techniques 87 5.21 Descriptive text and illustration 87 5.22 Overview 88 5.23 Synthetic and introductory text and illustration 88 5.24 General project tasks 88 5.25 Research questions and methods 89 5.26 Archives 89 5.27 Health and safety 89

6. PROGRAMMING AND RESOURCES 94

6.1 Personnel 94 6.2 Task List 96 6.3 Cascade summary (main tasks) 108 6.4 Cascade 109 6.5 Costs 129

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 135 8. APPENDICES 144

Appendix 1: Revised publication synopsis

List of tables

Table 1 The sites, modules and publication chapters 3 Table 2 Yarnton Floodplain and Yarnton Floodplain B fieldwork 7 Table 3 Prehistoric features excavated on the floodplain (excluding 14 Modules1 and 2, and features seen, but not excavated, in the observation areas) Table 4 Methods and research objectives 91

List of figures: (bound at the back of the volume)

Figure 1 Location of the study area Figure 2 The study area showing sites and modules Figure 3 Excavation and evaluation areas Figure 4 Sites 1 - 4, showing areas already analysed in Modules 1 and 2 Figure 5 Sites 2 - 5, showing segregation of different activity areas Figure 6 Site 7, showing provisional feature groupings and phasing Figure 7 1998 fieldwork with provisional phasing

List of plates

Plate 1 Neolithic long house 13 Plate 2 Excavating the Beaker burial 16 Plate 3 The Beaker grave group 16 Plate 4 The limestone causeway and associated finds 19 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Neolithic and Bronze Age project

The Oxford Archaeological Unit (OAU) conducted excavations at Yarnton from 1989, mainly funded by English Heritage (EH), and between 1992 and 1998 this work concentrated on the floodplain. The Neolithic and Bronze Age landscape that has been revealed is rich and diverse (Hey 1997). There are archaeological remains from all periods from the early Neolithic (such as a long enclosure, rectangular posthole structure and pits) to the end of the Bronze Age (with groups of buildings associated with other domestic features), allowing us to trace the evolution of settlement and landscape over three millennia and investigate changes in social and economic practices over this period of time. Intensive investigation of a compact landscape, rather than of separate sites, has opened a window onto a range of activities often under-represented or invisible in the archaeology of these periods. Features of all kinds are well preserved, thanks to the alluvium covering the floodplain; they generally form discrete groups; they contain well- associated assemblages unconfused by intercutting or redeposition; and they are in explicit chronological and spatial relationship one to another.

There is an exceptionally full and continuous record of domestic settlement from the middle Neolithic to the end of the Bronze Age, whether clusters of pits and postholes representing short-stay encampments, or groups of circular buildings with associated pits, fences and waterholes. These living sites are part of a well-used landscape, which preserves traces of tasks carried out away from settlements, such as mounds and spreads of burnt stone, woodworking debris, and structures and deposits in watercourses, some mundane, some anything but. Routes across the area are marked by paths, tracks, and causeways. The Thames and its tributaries must also have been important routes and may have been the principal means by which non-local materials and artefacts were brought to the area. They were certainly a focus for the numerous monument complexes of the Upper Thames, and presumably a means of communication between them. Yarnton has its share of ceremonial and burial sites too (long enclosure, U-shaped enclosure, Beaker burials, pit and posthole alignments); they are exceptional in being visibly meshed into a web of everyday activity.

The archaeological remains are complemented by an extraordinary environmental sequence derived from the sites themselves (charred plant remains and molluscs from dry-ground deposits and waterlogged macrobotanical remains, insects and pollen from waterholes) and from other locations, particularly the palaeochannels which cross the area. This documents the transformation of the landscape from relatively dry and dense woodland at the beginning of the Neolithic to a cleared alluvial floodplain in the first millennium BC. The interactions of population and landscape can be read in exceptional and illuminating detail.

It is totality of the Yarnton record that is important, providing a more rounded picture of Neolithic and Bronze Age society than is normally visible.

In the course of the project we have also investigated the most successful techniques for evaluating floodplain landscapes, which are increasingly under threat, and have been assessing the most effective techniques for investigating the scattered and ephemeral

1 remains of Neolithic and Bronze Age inhabitants. This methodological contribution gives the project strategic as well as academic value.

1.2 A brief history of the Yarnton-Cassington Project

The Yarnton-Cassington Project was initiated as a result of gravel extraction in the parishes of Yarnton and Cassington in the Upper Thames Valley, 5 km north of Oxford. There was no provision for archaeological investigation (Fig. 1). English Heritage funding has been made available for this work because of the research potential of the archaeological resource, and the fieldwork has always been undertaken within a research framework.

The gravel extraction area encompassed 140 hectares on the second gravel terrace and floodplain of the river Thames, the majority (c 100 ha) being floodplain (Fig. 2). The study area was expanded to 200 hectares to include adjacent sites which were relevant to research questions posed by the remains which were under threat (Hey 1994a, 8-10).

Following evaluation of a cropmark site on second gravel terrace (Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm, YWRF), funded by OAU, excavations began in 1990 and the remains of an Iron Age, Roman and Saxon settlement were examined over the course of two field seasons (Hey 1993a; Fig. 3). Neolithic and Bronze Age pits and a flint scatter were also recovered. At the same time, fieldwalking was undertaken over 182 hectares within the extraction area and beyond it, to provide landscape evidence associated with the settlement site, for example Roman manuring scatters (Hey 1991). Environmental sampling was also undertaken within the palaeochannels which crossed the floodplain area, particularly around Oxey Mead in the south-east of the extraction area, and trenched evaluation of an adjacent site on Cresswell Field was carried out (ibid.; Fig. 3).

The recovery of flint and burnt stone scatters on the floodplain during fieldwalking, as well as occasional Bronze Age sherds, was unexpected and led to the evaluation of three fields which were under immediate threat (Hey 1992a). The Yarnton Floodplain A excavations of 3.5 hectares (Sites 1, 2, 3 and 4) followed on from this (Hey 1993b; Fig. 4). Post-excavation analysis to descriptive level has been undertaken on the results from Sites 1 and 2, and Bronze Age settlement evidence in the east of Site 3. Analysis of the majority of Site 3 and Site 4 remains to be done in Module 3.

The significance of the archaeological remains, in particular those uncovered on the floodplain, led to a full evaluation of the remaining study area with trenched evaluation, test-pit sieving, environmental and botanical survey, cropmark and geophysical survey and the assessment of documentary records and evidence of earlier discoveries (Hey 1994a; Fig. 3). Proposals for further work were developed from the results in order to investigate issues of settlement and landscape and their change through time (Hey 1994b; see below). It was initially suggested that the results of excavations on the floodplain would be published separately from those conducted on the gravel terrace.

Further excavation took place on the gravel terrace in Cresswell Field in order to investigate the earliest elements of the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age settlement, and in the process Neolithic, Bronze Age and Saxon remains were uncovered (Hey and Bell 1996). Saxon remains at Worton were examined in greater detail (Hey and Muir 1997a)

2 and information emerged from the various floodplain excavations on Iron Age to medieval environment and land use.

Excavation areas on the floodplain from 1995-8 were selected to examine the range of Neolithic and Bronze Age sites present on a variety of floodplain topographies, and also to investigate landscape variability across the area (Sites 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, 4e, 5, 7, 9, 10, 17 21 and 25; Figs 5-7; see Table 2 for references).

It became apparent that publications split topographically would be inappropriate to the landscape themes of the project, and also that the accumulating evidence was too large to be accommodated within two volumes. Three period-based publications have, therefore, been proposed (Neolithic and Bronze Age; Iron Age and Roman; and Saxon and medieval) with due consideration being given to exploring themes of continuity through transitional periods which fall at the interface between the volumes. Work on the Iron Age to medieval evidence was set in train by two research designs (Hey 1993a; Bradley and Hey 1996). The Saxon and medieval volume has been completed and comments were received in November 1999 from English Heritage and their academic referee. The small-scale revisions that have been suggested are now being undertaken. Analysis of the Iron Age and Roman material is currently being completed and the writing of descriptive sections is underway. These research design documents also encompass analysis of Neolithic and Bronze Age evidence from the gravel terrace which will form Chapter 7 of the Neolithic and Bronze Age volume.

1.3 This document

This document presents:

• a summary of the factual data and statements of potential for the Yarnton Floodplain and Yarnton Floodplain B fieldwork (1992-8) • a research design for post-excavation analysis of the results • a method for producing the third and final volume on Yarnton-Cassington project excavations, Yarnton: Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement and landscape (detailed in Appendix 1)

This work forms part of the Yarnton-Cassington project which was approved by AMAC in November 1994. The overall research design (Hey 1994b) sets out an integrated proposal for investigation, analysis and publication in the Yarnton-Cassington study area, the pattern of fieldwork conforming to the progress of gravel extraction. The location of the study area is shown on Figures 1 and 2.

Post-excavation assessments of all the sites covered in this document were submitted to English Heritage at the end of each field season (Table 2 in Section 2.1). These documents include detailed statements of potential of each site, revised in the light of the excavation results, and the potential of each material category to answer the research aims of the project. Their contents are only summarised here; the original documents are appended.

The 1994 project design provided for six modules of post-excavation analysis for Yarnton Floodplain, each taking the results of particular areas to the level of site

3 description. This was to be followed by a programme of integration to synthesise the evidence and write the discussion section of the report. The programme remains unchanged, except for the abandonment of Module 6 as a separate entity (see below).

Each module comprises a site, or group of adjacent sites where the archaeological remains are of a similar character. The location of the sites and modules is shown on Figure 2, the relationships between the sites, modules and publication chapters is shown in Table 1, and references can be found in Table 2. Approval was gained to proceed with the first two modules of analysis in 1995 (Hey 1995).

Table 1 Yarnton: Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement and landscape: the sites, modules and publication chapters

Volume section Chapter Module Sites

Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction Synthesis

Overview Chapter 2 Landscape Synthesis

Chapter 3 Neolithic and Bronze Age society at Synthesis Yarnton Chapter 4 Food production and consumption Synthesis

Chapter 5 Artefacts and crafts Synthesis

Chapter 6 The wider view Synthesis

Site description Chapter 7 Yarnton Worton Rectory Gravel terrace sites Farm/Cresswell Field Chapter 8 Module 1 Site 2

Chapter 9 Module 2 Site 1 and east of Site 3

Chapter 10 Module 3 Sites 3, 4, 4a, 4b

Chapter 11 Module 3 Site 5

Chapter 12 Module 4 Site 7 and adjacent observation area Chapter 13 Module 5 Sites 4c, 4e, 17 and 21

Chapter 14 Module 5 Sites 4d, 9, 10 and 22

Chapter 15 Module 5 Site 25 and adjacent areas Methods Chapter 16 Dating Synthesis

Chapter 17 Geophysical survey Synthesis

Chapter 18 Lessons of excavation and evaluation Synthesis techniques Technical appendices Synthesis

Modules 1 and 2 were completed in March 1999. They form Chapters 8 and 9 of the publication (Fig. 4; Table 1).

Module 3 will cover the main, western part of Site 3 (the area east of SP 474 was analysed in Module 2) and Site 4, both excavated in 1992 (YFP) as well as Site 4a,

4 Observation area 4b and Site 5 excavated in 1995 (YFPB; Fig. 5). Sites 3, 4, 4a and 4b will form Chapter 10 of the publication, and Site 5 Chapter 11. In addition, analysis of the evidence from Site 22, a section across a palaeochannel to the west of the extraction area, will take place within this module in order to provide information on the Roman and Iron Age environment for inclusion in the Yarnton: Iron Age and Roman settlement and landscape report.

Module 4 will examine Site 7 (Fig. 6), excavated on the long central gravel island in 1996, and the adjacent observation area (Chapter 12).

Module 5 will cover the areas excavated on the floodplain in 1997 and 1998, Sites 4c, 4e, 17 and 21 (Chapter 13); Sites 4d, 9 and 10 (Chapter 14) and Site 25 with its adjacent evaluation trenches (Chapter 15).

Module 6, Later land-use issues and methodological work of the 1994 overall research design, was partly subsumed within the Yarnton Cresswell Field post- excavation analysis (Bradley and Hey 1996) in order to complete this work for inclusion within the first two volumes of Yarnton-Cassington project reports. Aspects of methodological work which are relevant to the Neolithic and Bronze Age volume have now been absorbed within Modules 3, 4 and 5.

1.4 Original project aims of the floodplain excavations

The Yarnton-Cassington Project: a Neolithic to medieval landscape project design discussed the national and regional context of this project and the academic issues which it addressed (Hey 1994b, 31-6). Processes of change, the character of settlement and the interrelationship between contemporary sites, landscapes and past human impact on the environment, and patterns of craft production were seen as being of particular relevance to investigations in the study area. Three major research aims were identified for future work on the floodplain, with particular objectives expressed (Hey 1994b, 38-9):

Aim 1: Clarifying the nature of Neolithic and Bronze Age society in lowland Britain and, in particular, the nature of domestic settlement:

Objective 1.1 Examining larger areas of domestic settlement to gain an appreciation of its dynamics, range, scale and the spatial and chronological patterning of feature groups Objective 1.2 Enhancing an understanding of the economic basis of society, land use and human impact on the environment by recovering a wider and more representative range of palaeoenvironmental and faunal remains. Assessing landscape variability and the date of woodland clearance Objective 1.3 Investigating tasks external or peripheral to settlement, particularly burnt stone deposits and the use of palaeochannels Objective 1.4 Extending the range of funerary and ceremonial sites investigated in order to understand the extent of these remains and their character and function

5 Objective 1.5 Exploring the relationship between domestic, other utilitarian, ceremonial and burial sites Objective 1.6 Investigating the chronological and functional relationship of the major pottery styles and their substyles

Aim 2:Understanding the character of late Bronze Age/early Iron Age transition, which in this area represents a shift to a permanently settled and bounded landscape:

Objective 2.1 Comparing the character of the earliest permanent settlement on the gravel terrace with the latest floodplain occupation sites Objective 2.2 Comparing apparently contemporary sites across the study area Objective 2.3 Investigating the earliest land boundaries in the area

Aim 3:Exploring methods by which well-preserved but fragile landscapes on the floodplain can most effectively be evaluated and how scattered but important remains can be adequately and cost-effectively be investigated:

Objective 3.1 Comparing the 2% evaluation with the results of excavated areas, including areas selected because no or few features were found in evaluation Objective 3.2 Comparing different geophysical techniques and their results with ‘ground truth’ Objective 3.3 Continuing experimentation of the magnetic properties of soils in alluvial areas

The aims and objectives were supplemented by a series of research questions detailed in appendix 4 of the research design (Hey 1994b, 63-8).

6 2. SUMMARY OF FACTUAL DATA AND THEIR POTENTIAL

2.1 Excavation evidence

2.1.1 The location of the sites and the condition of the remains

Since 1992, excavations covering 10.5 ha have been undertaken on the Yarnton floodplain, in addition to nearly 300 evaluation trenches, three test-pit transects (51 pits), and a further c 10 ha observed during topsoil stripping by ARC (now Hanson) (Fig. 3). Fifteen individual sites and three observation areas were examined (Fig. 2); this document considers only those features that will be analysed within Modules 3 - 5. The sites were assessed on the completion of each field season as shown in Table 2. Archaeological remains described in this section on the factual data and their potential will be cross-referenced to the sites on which they were discovered; see Table 2 for the relevant post-excavation assessment documents. The archaeological features excavated are quantified in Table 3.

Table 2: Yarnton Floodplain and Yarnton Floodplain B fieldwork

Site Excavation Post-excavation Post-excavation Main character of archaeology season assessment document module 1 1992 Hey 1993 2 (completed) Bronze Age domestic settlement 2 1992 Hey 1993 2 (completed) Neolithic midden deposits and Bronze Age ceremonial features 3 1992 Hey 1993 3 Late Neolithic and Beaker pits and postholes, possible late Bronze Age domestic 4 1992 Hey 1993 3 Ring ditch, some palaeochannel activity 4a 1995 Hey 1996 3 Neolithic and Bronze Age pits 4b 1995 Hey 1996 3 Bronze Age structures and pits 4c 1998 Bell and Hey 1999 5 Bronze Age structures, waterhole and pits 4d 1998 Bell and Hey 1999 5 Cremation and Bronze Age pit 4e 1998 Bell and Hey 1999 5 Bronze Age pits 5 1995 Hey 1996 3 Neolithic long enclosure and associated inhumations and cremations 7 1996 Hey and Muir 1997 4 Neolithic rectangular structure, late Neolithic and Beaker pits, Bronze Age structures and pits, ring ditch Obs. 1996 Hey and Muir 1997 4 Inhumation and pits area 9 1998 Bell and Hey 1999 5 Stone and sand-and-gravel causeways and associated wooden structures, burnt stone pits 10 1998 Bell and Hey 1999 5 Causeway, wooden structures and trackway, burnt stone pit and cremations 17 1997 Bell and Hey 1998 5 Burnt stone pits and spreads and waterholes 21 1998 Bell and Hey 1999 5 Burnt stone pit and spreads and waterholes, causeway 22 1997 Bell and Hey 1998 3 Palaeochannel section and causeway 25 1997 Bell and Hey 1998 5 Late Neolithic pits, late Bronze Age boundary ditches

7 These sites were located on three distinct topographies which have been subject to different post-depositional processes and have characteristics leading to differential preservation of physical remains:

Gravel islands

The majority of archaeological features were found on gravel islands between palaeochannels (Fig. 2). These relatively high areas within the floodplain appear to have been favoured for occupation, and all the buildings discovered during fieldwork were located upon them. There seems to have been only limited alluvial deposition upon the islands before the Roman period, when arable fields were sited here. Roman cultivation truncated the prehistoric ground surface to some extent, probably around 0.10 m (this is the subject of investigation, see Geoarchaeology below), and there were no preserved ground surfaces or floors, and few hearths. Nevertheless, the presence of small postholes and stakeholes indicates that truncation was not severe; placed deposits within pits were seldom damaged.

Modern ploughing only reached down to the prehistoric surface in a very few places, mainly on the north channel bank on Site 4 and the south channel bank on Sites 9 and 7. Prehistoric finds on the modern surface derive from the Roman cultivation soil (Hey 1998).

The character of the remains suggests that even before cultivation there would have been few useful stratigraphic links between individual clusters of features. However, the presence of discrete, scattered groups of features means that problems of redeposition and contamination are minimal and a high degree of confidence can be placed in the integrity of finds assemblages recovered.

All material remains were affected by the fluctuating water table, but in general artefacts were in a good to moderate state of preservation. The condition of bone and molluscs depended on the depth of the features from which they were recovered. Shallow features within the relatively acidic silty-loam covering of the gravel did not provide good preservational environments. Deeper features cutting into the alkaline gravel, or those sited in areas where subsoil had eroded, offered good preservation. Organic material only survived in waterholes.

Channel edges

Low-lying channel edges were not affected by later cultivation, and consequently buried ground surfaces survived beneath alluvium; features only cutting the contemporary topsoil and in situ finds scatters were exposed. Test-pit sieving showed that there had been no movement of finds through the later soil horizons (Hey 1998, 51-2). These environments were mainly excavated on Site 2 (YFP 92, now written up in Module 1 as Chapter 8), but also on parts of Sites 9, 10, 17, 21 and 25. Unfortunately, domestic structures were never found on these lower topographies.

Occasionally, stratigraphic sequences survived in these locations, particularly on Site 9 where there were physical relationships between the causeways and features on the bank

8 of the channel, but the relatively late date for the onset of alluviation meant that depositional sequences were restricted.

The higher water table provided good conditions for bone preservation and limited survival of organic material, for example the bark container found in a pit on Site 9.

The channels

Preservation of all categories of finds was good within the palaeochannels, and as these water courses were utilised for a variety of purposes in the past, there is good evidence for human activity as well as the survival of environmental data. Stratigraphic relationships were usually clear, although it was often difficult to ascertain the level from which timbers had been driven. Occasional changes in the course of the channels confused depositional sequences in places, as did post-depositional oxidisation of deposits, but on-site discussions between excavators, environmentalists and geoarchaeologists sought to resolve apparent inconsistencies.

Unfortunately, it is only within the Bronze Age that water flowed permanently through these channels. Thus there is only limited evidence of activity before this date; organic material would have decayed during seasonally dry periods or been flushed out when streams reactivated. However, waterholes were dug into the channel beds because of their proximity to the water table, and survival of organic material and environmental evidence was excellent in these locations (for example the wooden bowl and log ladder from Site 21).

2.1.2 Method of excavation, recording, sampling and post-excavation assessment

Excavation and survey

Overburden, including modern and Roman ploughsoil and alluvium, was removed by 360° excavator with a toothless ditching bucket, under close archaeological supervision. The exposed surface was cleaned by hand, planned and photographed.

Magnetometer survey was conducted over all sites except Sites 9 and 10, before topsoil stripping and on Site 21 after the archaeological surface was exposed. Magnetic susceptibility and phosphate sampling were undertaken on the stripped surfaces of Site 5 and parts of Sites 7 and 21 to investigate funerary and domestic areas, and apparent gaps in archaeological activity (see below for sampling details). In addition, individual features were sampled to assess their magnetic properties. A metal detector was used within the palaeochannels.

Soil was sieved from a baulk across the Neolithic long enclosure on Site 5, in an attempt to locate its banks by assessing the relative quantities of gravel in the overlying soil. Test pits, 1 m x 1m, were dug through the buried ground surface on Sites 2, 9, 10 and 25. A percentage of some deposits was wet sieved for artefacts, particularly those associated with the causeway on Site 9.

All pits, postholes and waterholes were fully excavated. Normally they were half- sectioned in the first instance, and the sections drawn, but features with structured

9 deposits were excavated in plan. A representative sample of tree-throw holes were examined, including the majority with burning, and also those with visible finds.

Linear features were sectioned to include all intersections and sufficient lengths to date and characterise them. A large sample of prehistoric ditches was hand excavated (30% of the long enclosure on Site 5; 25% of ring ditches on Site 4 and 7; 35% of a Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 and 20% of a contemporary adjacent gully), paying particular attention to possible recuts, post settings and finds deposition and distribution within them. All were subsequently emptied by machine under close archaeological supervision.

Deposits such as burnt stone spreads, causeways, organic spreads and other more extensive layers were drawn, photographed and levelled before sections were hand- excavated to establish their relationship with other deposits and to recover dating and environmental evidence. In some cases the entire deposit was hand-excavated. Sections through palaeochannels were cleaned and drawn.

Observation areas

Stripping by ARC was monitored over c 10 ha, and all exposed features were planned. A range of features was excavated using standard procedures. Charcoal-rich features were sampled for environmental remains.

Recording

A single-context numbering system was employed, and plans and sections were also numbered in a unique sequence. Finds were usually bagged by context number, but in some contexts, where they were plotted two- or three-dimensionally, they were given small-finds numbers, for example on the buried ground surfaces, within the Neolithic long enclosure ditch, and within some pits with placed deposits.

Sampling

All cremation deposits were carefully floated and sieved, as was soil around inhumations. An intensive programme of soil flotation for charred remains was undertaken (20,714 litres from 1339 contexts), sampling a range of features and periods. On each site a strategy of assessing a representative sample of contexts was followed by targeting those producing the most promising results. The possibility of differential distribution of environmental remains in features or layers was always considered. Flotation during fieldwork enabled the most productive strategies to be adopted on site. Residues were kept and examined for small bones and other artefacts.

Waterlogged deposits were sampled for insects, snails, seeds and pollen, with columns taken where appropriate. Samples were taken for soil studies to answer specific geoarchaeological questions.

10 Specialist advice

An important element in developing strategies on site was the provision of advice from specialists who visited the excavations. This enabled the success of sampling methods to be assessed as work progressed and modified as necessary, and provided assistance during the recovery of particular deposits. In addition, specialists were furnished with a background knowledge of the site from which their material was collected.

Artefact specialists spot-dated important assemblages during the course of fieldwork and Vanessa Fell provided advice on conservation issues. Angela Boyle and Maisie Taylor were able to see in-situ deposits of human bone and waterlogged wood respectively and provide advice on lifting, and in some cases record material before it was removed from the ground. Mark Robinson provided advice on a wide range of environmental and geomorphological issues as well as taking samples from important deposits. James Greig took pollen samples and columns from waterlogged deposits and occasional dry- ground contexts which appeared promising. Soil conditions were discussed with Matt Canti who suggested some sampling strategies, and Neil Linford visited site to compare the results of geophysical survey with features exposed, and sample relevant contexts for more detailed analysis.

Site archive

Site records were archived and entered onto a site database in dBase IV. Plans and sections were checked and ordered and plans were digitised. Photographs were labelled and stored in an appropriate manner. The quantities and weights of finds were entered onto a database. Microfilm copies were made of site records at the NMR following the post-excavation assessment.

Features and deposits were ordered into context groups (see below).

Post-excavation assessment

The rarity of stratified deposits and physical relationships meant that only limited phasing could be achieved by this method. Some features were clearly related to others, however, by their patterning and/or similarities of shape or fill. Contexts were assigned to contexts groups in order to facilitate structural analysis, provide accessible information for specialists and assist in the integration of the results of their analyses. This was done on stratigraphic grounds where possible, but was also achieved by spot dating and spatial grouping of features. These groupings are provisional and further analysis of the finds, fill types, spatial relationships, and information from radiocarbon dating will undoubtedly result in amendments.

Site summaries, information on context groupings and location plans were provided to specialists who assessed the finds and the environmental material. Using their assessment results the integrity of the contexts groups was checked and the potential for spatial and structural analysis was evaluated. Preliminary phase plans were created using these results.

11 Using the provisional phase plans, and combining the context and finds databases, limited analysis was undertaken to examine the distribution of finds both by period and by feature type within each period. This method was also used to examine the occurrence and distribution of carbonised plant remains and charcoal.

2.1.3 Summary of the floodplain excavations results: range and variety of material

The following is a brief summary of the results which will be the subject of this post- excavation programme (see Table 2 for bibliography). Further detail is available in the individual post-excavation assessment reports.

Neolithic living sites have been found on all the gravel islands, but particularly on the long central island spreading over 1 km in length. A large sub-rectangular posthole building was discovered toward the centre of the island (Site 7; Plate 1; Fig. 6). Preliminary radiocarbon results suggest an early to mid Neolithic date for this structure (4970±60; OxA-6772 with a later result of 4180±55; OxA- 6773 either associated with the hearth containing Peterborough Ware or a pit with Grooved Ware). Clusters of pits and postholes were found scattered over the island, and substantial deposits of Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker pottery were present in some pits (particularly on Sites 3 and 7; Figs 5 and 6), along with flint and other artefacts. Contemporary material has also been recovered from the tops of tree-throw holes. Although postholes were present in these feature groups, no structures have been recognised and it is provisionally suggested that this reflects the short duration of habitation in these locations, as the survival of both earlier and later buildings precludes poor preservation as an explanation. Many of the pits were finds-rich and some contained ‘special’ deposits (eg Site 3 and 7), and there are interesting differences in the quantity, types, and combinations of artefacts and the manner in which they were placed which may shed light on the practices which led to their deposition. From the early Bronze Age occupation becomes more visible and over 15 circular buildings of early, middle and late Bronze Age date, associated with cooking areas, pits, fencelines and wells have been identified (Sites 3, 4b, 4c, 4e, 5 and 7).

Areas of ‘off-site’ activity have also been located, particularly those associated with the generation of burnt stone and the use of palaeochannels, including causeways, burnt- stone spreads, wooden structures and woodworking debris (eg Fig. 7). In the 1997 and 1998 excavations adjacent areas with spreads of burnt stone and features packed with charcoal and burnt stone were located on the banks of shallow palaeochannels, associated with waterholes (Sites 17 and 21). A bowl or trough, a complete wooden implement of uncertain purpose, waterlogged plant remains and beetles were among the organic remains recovered from these contexts (Bell and Hey 1998, fig. 6; Bell and Hey 1999, fig. 8). Trenches excavated across palaeochannels in 1997 and 1998 exposed a wide range of deposits, including wooden structures, possible brushwood trackways, gravel causeways, finds scatters and waterholes (Sites 9, 10, 21 and 22). Unexpectedly, a substantial limestone causeway 35 m long was exposed, in association with Bronze Age metalwork and large deposits of animal bone (Site 9; Plate 4).

12 13 Table 3. Prehistoric features excavated on on the floodplain (excluding Modules1 and 2, and features seen, but not excavated, in the observation areas) Site Size Pits Postholes/ Inhuma/s Crema/s Waterholes Ditches Channel Causeways Timbers Roman features Tree- Notes structures deposits throw holes 3 1.1 ha 48, incl. 4 clusters with 126, incl. 1 1 3-sided feature 7 ditches, incl. droveway 61, some Gravel island Grooved Ware and 1 possible ploughsoils burnt, 11 with Beaker structure, 2 alluvium in field entrance with finds clusters and a fenceline 4 0.2 ha 13 within ring ditch; 6 25 within ring Ring ditch √ 4 uprights and 2 field boundaries, 7 within Incl. extensive burnt sto n outside ditch; 4 horizontals ploughsoil to N ring ditch; spreads with worked flin outside 3 outside Some modern truncatio on channel bank 4a 0.5 ha 10, incl. GW placed 7 Ploughsoil 4 Gravel island deposits 4b 3 ha 12, incl. Beaker placed 16, incl. 1 3 Trackway, 4 field 1 Gravel isla n deposits and cow structure and 2 boundary ditches and (observation) skeleton clusters ploughsoil 4c 0.25 ha 13, incl. 3 burnt stone 62, incl. 1 1 Ploughsoil 6 Gravel island features structure 4d 0.25 ha 2 1 √ Ploughsoil; 1 Gravel island and chan n bank 4e 1 ha 7 1 4 ditches; ploughsoil 1 Gravel island 5 0.5 ha 22, incl. PW, Beaker 47, incl. 1 3 8 Long enclosure Trackway and ploughsoil 22 Gravel island; medie v and BA placed deposits structure and 1 field boundary cluster 7 3 ha 133, incl. PW, GW and 376, incl. 1 3 1 Ring ditch 2 field boundary ditches; 204 Gravel island; m Beaker placed deposits, rectangular ploughsoil boundary and post-m 2 alignments; plus 8 and 8 circular enclosure; some mode hearths structures truncation in NE corner 7 obs. 2 ha 3 4 1 Ploughsoil 1 Gravel island

9 0.5 ha 6, incl. 3 burnt stone 71√ 2 √, incl. 2 1 field boundary ditch; 49 9 Buried ground surfaces o pits alignments slots in alignment, some edge of channel; fin adjacent to ploughsoil in N and S scatter in channel causeways 10 0.25 ha 4, incl. 1 burnt stone pit 2 √ 1 √, incl. track 1 gully Buried ground surface o and group edge channel; finds scatt uprights in channel 17 0.25 ha 2, incl. 1 with burnt 2 √ 2 field ditches; some 11 2 broad spreads of bu r stone ploughsoil in N but stone limited truncation 21 0.3 ha 7, incl. burnt stone pit 4 1 2 Segmented ditches √ 1 √, incl. wood Ploughsoil in N 5 Buried ground surface o associated with in waterhole edge of channel; sprea channel burnt stone 22 0.03 ha √ 1 5 Trampled surface on ed g channel 25 0.4 ha 3, incl. GW placed 2 Linear ditch with √ 3 parallel ditches; 18 Buried ground surface; deposits recut; gully at right ploughsoil med boundary ditch angles

14 Funerary monuments have been uncovered on the north bank of one of the palaeochannels (Sites 4, 5 and 7). A Neolithic long enclosure, thought to be associated with mortuary practices, was laid out perpendicular to the channel (Site 5). No diagnostic finds were recovered from the lower fills, though Peterborough Ware (Fengate substyle) came from upper deposits. A small cremation lay in the centre of the enclosure and an unaccompanied inhumation near the southern entrance. An inhumation, probably Bronze Age in date, was found in the top fill of the enclosure and a Beaker ‘flat grave’, with grave goods comprising one fine and one cruder Beaker pot, an end scraper and six barbed-and-tanged arrowheads, lay 20 m to the north (Plates 2 and 3). Seven other small, unurned cremations lay in the immediate area with other pits containing placed deposits. A ring ditch, possibly of late Neolithic/early Bronze Age date, lay 150 m to the north-east (Site 4), apparently at the north end of pit alignments exposed on Site 2. An unusually low density of features observed in the area between the enclosure and the ring ditch in ARC’s topsoil stripping (Observation area 4b), underlines the special nature of the burial areas. A ring ditch was partly uncovered on Site 7, further south-west along the same palaeochannel. In addition small deposits of cremated human bone, sometimes found with animal bone, have been exposed elsewhere on the floodplain (Sites 4d, 4e, 7 and 10) and two undated, isolated inhumation burials have also been found (Site 7). These finds will contribute to an understanding of the role and extent of burial outside monuments.

The preservation of plants, beetles and pollen in the waterholes and palaeochannels has enabled the recovery of a considerable body of data on the surrounding landscape and on changing conditions as a result of human activity. Amongst other trends, the rise in the water table can be traced and its impact on human habitation, leading to the abandonment of the floodplain for occupation early in the first millennium BC. Dry- ground locations have also yielded charred plant remains, wood charcoal and molluscs in direct association with habitation and burial sites allowing a broader reconstruction of socio-economic patterns.

Evaluation using a suite of techniques was undertaken in advance of the extensive excavation and observation programme. This included fieldwalking, geophysical survey (magnetometry at a variety of intervals with both Fluxgate and Caesium-vapour machines, resistivity, magnetic susceptibility and phosphate), machine trenching a 2% sample of the site, and test-pit sieving. The relative merits of the various methods for providing a predictive model of the archaeological remains can be assessed and recommendations made for their most effective use in the future. The means by which scattered prehistoric remains can be most cost-effectively excavated can also be suggested.

2.1.4 Documentation

Yarnton Floodplain B forms part of the Yarnton-Cassington study area for which information has been and is being amassed on landscape and land use, as well as on contemporary sites in the locality.

15 16 Fieldwalking, test-pitting and trenched evaluation have provided important information on prehistoric activity in the wider study area and post-depositional changes to deposits (Hey 1991; 1992; 1994a).

The adjacent Yarnton Floodplain sites (YFP), excavated in 1992, provided evidence of a wide variety of Neolithic and Bronze Age activities (Hey 1993). Features of similar character to those excavated on Site 7 were found on YFP Sites 1 and 3. The 1992 excavations also found deposits related to Bronze Age burnt mound and woodworking activity along the edges of a palaeochannel, and several gravel causeways which spanned the channel which can be compared to material found in 1997 and 1998 further west along the floodplain.

Neolithic and Bronze Age burial sites were observed on the nearby gravel terrace during railway construction in the last century (Rolleston 1884), and have been excavated within the Yarnton-Cassington study area on Cresswell Field (YCF, Hey and Bell 1996). Earlier prehistoric pits were also examined and a flint scatter was recovered on the Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm site (Hey 1993a).

Results from Yarnton can be compared with contemporary remains uncovered during other English Heritage projects in locality, for example Gravelly Guy, Stanton Harcourt (Lambrick et al. forthcoming) and Barrow Hills, Radley (Barclay and Halpin 1999).

2.1.5 Potential

The excavation evidence from Yarnton has great potential to address issues of national significance. Its value principally derives from the scale of the excavations, the range of feature types recovered and the longevity of the settlement record represented.

Spatial analysis

The character of the archaeological remains is such that its greatest potential lies in the spatial analysis of the data, both at the landscape wide level and the detailed scrutiny of feature groups.

Domestic/ceremonial/‘off-site’ activity The most exciting challenge of the Yarnton evidence is provided by the presence of domestic, funerary/ceremonial and activity areas beyond settlement sites within a landscape that can be reconstructed in terms of topography and environment. It will be possible to assess the extent of contemporaneous groups of features and investigate the spatial relationship between them. Was there zoning of living and burial space, and are certain activities routinely conducted away from occupation sites? Do similar patterns emerge at all periods or is there change through time? There was a marked absence of non-funerary/ritual activity in the vicinity of the Neolithic long enclosure until the very end of the Bronze Age when a small circular house was constructed within it. Does this indicate that the enclosure had ceased to have significance by this time or was there a general change in attitudes to ancestral places and death that can be seen in other aspects of burial practice? The extent of ritual activity within domestic space can be investigated by examining pits with deliberate deposits and their relationship to

17 structures, and these can be compared with such pits excavated next to ceremonial structures. Is the apparent increase in ‘off-site’ activity in the Bronze Age, as represented for example by burnt stone deposits and wooden structures in channels, borne out by more detailed analysis of the evidence, and how do these features relate to habitation?

Dynamics of settlement The fieldwork on the Yarnton floodplain has been on a scale which makes it possible to investigate the character of early settlement in the area and change within it. Examining the space/time ratio of occupation sites will allow an appreciation of the intensity and frequency of episodes of occupation. The analysis of feature groups will provide evidence on the character of settlement and its layout, and there is potential in some dense posthole clusters, for example in the west of Site 7, to reveal structures that were not readily apparent on the ground. It will then be possible to compare domestic sites across the floodplain to understand the dynamics of settlement and processes of change through time. Early settlement can be assessed in relation to land clearance by examining associated environmental data and the physical evidence from tree-throw holes, and in relation to the wider landscape. Are recognisable posthole structures really absent from sites of mid Neolithic to early Bronze Age date, and what is the significance of the substantial early Neolithic structure on Site 7 in this context? Is the framework of increasingly permanent and substantial settlement in the Bronze Age real? Other features, such as pits and waterholes associated with posthole clusters, will contribute to an understanding of the permanence of settlement and the extent of investment of effort in domestic spaces. By examining the location and character of late Bronze Age settlement, for example on Sites 5 and 4c, it will be possible to assess the increasing impact of a rising water table, eventually leading to the abandonment of the floodplain for habitation in favour of the second gravel terrace.

Buildings There is potential to examine the changing form of posthole buildings throughout the prehistoric period within a single locality. The rectangular structure at the centre of Site 7 is the only known example in the Upper Thames Valley and one of a rare class of monument nation-wide. Very few structures have been completely excavated under modern conditions. Although the overall shape of the building is clear, there is evidently more than one phase of construction (see above) and further analysis is required in order to appreciate its architectural form. The earliest circular structure known on the floodplain is a small circular house excavated on Site 3 (and already written up within Chapter 9). Similar buildings have been found, for example on Site 7. However, larger and more oval structures have also been excavated, such as the probably middle Bronze Age house on Site 4c, which resembles middle Bronze Age buildings on Site 1 (Chapter 9).

Ceremonial landscape The extent of the buried ceremonial landscape was not anticipated and its discovery considerably enhances the potential to investigate the character of early prehistoric settlement and early activity in relation to tree clearance. The spatial relationship of the long enclosure on Site 5 and ring ditches on Sites 4 and 7 can be investigated and their apparent siting on the north bank of the same palaeochannel. They can be compared to the enclosure excavated on the gravel terrace on Cresswell Field (Hey and Bell 1996; Chapter 7), and ring ditches found on higher ground during railway construction in the

18 19 19th century (Rolleston 1884). The long enclosure on Site 5 is the most completely excavated monument of this type in the Upper Thames Valley, and there is considerable potential to examine its form and purpose, use and re-use, by examining its physical remains and the burials and pits with deliberate deposits within and around it. The exposure of large areas on the floodplain has revealed several human burials away from funerary monuments, for example on Sites 7, 10 and 4d. Their spatial relationship to settlement and topographical features will shed light on burial practices at this time. Are they preferentially sited near channels? The distribution of cremations, the presence of very small quantities of human bone in some deposits, the presence of animal with human bone, and the spatial spread of unburnt individual human bones will all enhance an understanding of the treatment of the dead and the use of human bone in non-funerary contexts.

Burnt-mound remains and land clearance Because of the scale of work at Yarnton a range of features related to activities conducted away from settlement have been exposed and excavated, and these can be seen in relation to domestic units and specific landscape features. The beginnings of the creation of a more bounded and managed landscape may be observed in the pit alignments excavated on Site 7 and the linear ditch on Site 25. They may be associated with more intensive settlement and agricultural activity in the Bronze Age. The distribution of areas of burnt-mound activity can be investigated and their chronological range assessed. Their distance from contemporary settlement may shed light on their function, as will an analysis of the features found with them, particularly the waterholes on Sites 17 and 21. There may be indications that tree clearance occurred immediately before the activity that created the burnt stones on some sites, for example Site 17. Analysis of the distribution of visible tree-throw holes, the extent to which these are burnt and they contain finds, will provide valuable information on the process and date of tree clearance.

Waterlogged contexts A considerable amount of evidence has been amassed about the use of the palaeochannels, particularly the wooden structures found within them, but also finds deposited unevenly along their course and waterholes dug in their bottoms before water flowed year-round. The form of these features, their relative density and their location in relation to other types of activity will enhance an understanding of their function.

Wooden tracks and causeways across the channels, on channel banks on Sites 9 and 21 and over the ring ditch on Site 4 provide rare evidence of movement through the landscape. Once they are dated their location in relation to topography and settlement can be examined. The longevity of these crossings, and their influence on the siting and layout of settlement and subsequent field systems and land use can also be investigated. The ?later Bronze Age limestone causeway is of national significance, and seems unlikely to have had a purely mundane function (Plate 4). Its possible alignment on a ring ditch and other features on Site 7 can be investigated.

Excavations on this scale also enable negative evidence to be used effectively. Thus the lack of early ploughsoils and stony soils in feature fills can be more confidently claimed to evidence very low-levels of cereal cultivation. Low levels of charred cereals in features fills becomes more significant when sampling over such a wide area has been conducted.

20 Stratigraphic analysis

The potential of stratigraphic analysis is more limited than that of spatial patterning. Nevertheless, there are some contexts for which it will be worthwhile. Analysis of deposits within the palaeochannels will be of particular value where they are associated with structures, and especially where deposits can be traced onto channel banks, and are in physical association with other features. Site 9, with its causeways and wooden structures, is an excellent example of a context in which detailed stratigraphic analysis has considerable potential. Even in channels with comparatively straightforward sedimentary sequences an understanding of these will be important for interpreting environmental evidence retrieved.

Investigations of ditch fills will be important for reconstructing the original appearance of the features with which they are associated, particularly the location of their banks, and recovering evidence of the later use of these features. The fill of the long enclosure on Site 5, for example, provided indications of recutting around its entrance and hinted at an internal bank (though other evidence contradicts this). The ring ditches on both Sites 7 and 4 provided useful evidence of the original form of construction of the monuments, such as the probable presence of turfs in the Site 7 feature, and information on later land use can be gleaned from investigation of the character of the upper fills. Trackways cross the top fills of the Site 4 ring ditch. The position of the bank, the character of the fills and the extent of recutting of the boundary ditch on Site 25 will shed light on the purpose of this feature, its relationship to contemporary settlement and longevity of use, and on changing environmental and hydrological conditions over this period of time.

Other, smaller features have interesting sequences of fills which can provide valuable evidence on activities which took place in the adjacent area. Several waterholes with good environmental evidence will repay analysis of the changing nature of deposits and evidence of recutting, particularly those associated with burnt stone spreads. Numerous pits contained deposits which appear to have been deliberately placed, and although the majority of these have fairly simple depositional sequences others, for example the pit on Site 7 which appeared to contain the remains of a wooden container in the middle fills and had a human cremation deposit in the top, merit more careful scrutiny. Some of the substantial post pits of the Neolithic rectangular building on Site 7 similarly had complex fills worthy of detailed analysis. On a more general level, a more rapid comparison of the character of fills and their sequence of deposition in relation to finds will shed light on variability in the character of activities over space and time, and on land use and changing environmental conditions.

Potential for analysis of artefact and ecofact distributions

Potential for the analysis of the distribution of finds and carbonised remains is high, especially in conjunction with the spatial analysis of features.

The recovery of apparently contemporary material from a broad range of features will allow an investigation of the use of different artefacts in different contexts, which will in turn shed light on the variable character of the activities represented. This is also the case within material categories, for example the spread of different forms of vessel made in the same pottery fabric. Variation in the type, quantity and combination of finds may

21 shed light on the character of ritual deposits and their role in the different contexts from which they have been recovered, for example domestic sites, funerary contexts, ‘off-site’ activity, such as the causeway on Site 9, and other features such as waterholes which seem to be the repository for unusual finds after they ceased to function as wells (eg Site 21). The type of finds recovered from burnt stone deposits will elucidate their function, for example the apparent absence of food remains, but also the presence of wooden objects and a high percentage of retouched pieces amongst the struck flints. The horizontal and vertical distribution of finds in the mortuary enclosure and ring ditches may shed light on their use and reuse, and finds associated with cremation deposits will illuminate aspects of funerary practice. The presence of burnt, imported limestone in some of the cremations on Site 5 resembles the stone brought in to construct the stone causeway on Site 9.

The time depth of the occupation means that there is potential to investigate the changing contents of similar features through time. This is true in the broad sense of comparing material from sites used for similar purposes, for example finds and ecofacts from domestic areas through time, but also more specifically, for example the changing composition of deliberate deposits through time.

Investigation of in situ finds deposits will be of particular value, not only within pits, but also more open contexts, for example the metal finds and substantial deposits of animal bone associated with the Site 9 causeway. Finds recovered from the buried ground surfaces, by surface collection and test pitting, will also be of interest. To what extent do they suggest that low-lying and more marginal topographies were used for different purposes, such as flint preparation?

Integrating environmental and physical remains will be particularly important for assessing the character of the activities in surrounding areas. Issues such as diet, whether as part of everyday life or special feasts, the economic character of the site and how it changed through time, and depositional practices can all be investigated, in addition to the type and variability of the environment and land use across the floodplain area and how this changed over the earlier prehistoric period. It will be possible to contrast environmental evidence from areas of settlement with that from the wider landscape.

There are changes in the type of plants being deposited over the earlier prehistoric period, and in a few cases, a correlation between specific types of plant and specialised contexts. Hazelnuts, for example were relatively abundant in middle and late Neolithic contexts, particularly associated with Peterborough Ware, but become less common in the Bronze Age. Cereals, on the other hand, are very rare except in the few Bronze Age contexts on Sites 4c and 4e. Tubers were found exclusively with cremation deposits, for example on Site 7, and could have been used as fuel or tinder for funeral pyres.

2.2 Dating

2.2.1 Assessment of factual data

It is possible to employ radiocarbon, dendrochronological and archaeomagnetic dating methods on material or deposits from the Yarnton floodplain. Items suitable for

22 radiocarbon dating include charred plant remains, wood charcoal, waterlogged seeds and wood and human bone. Some waterlogged wood has sufficient tree rings for dendrochronological dating to be attempted. Archaeomagnetic dating has been tried unsuccessfully on a few in situ burnt deposits and, with greater promise, on sediments within palaeochannels. Optical dating has been used elsewhere on the floodplain by Julie Rees-Jones with some success (Bayliss and Hey forthcoming). The potential for dating was assessed on the completion of each field season (Hey 1993, 84; Hey and Bayliss 1996, 1997 and 1998; Bell and Bayliss 1999; Linford 1998, 60-2; 1999, 79-80).

2.2.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

Scientific dating can be undertaken on a wide range of feature types spread across the Yarnton floodplain. Potentially, these features vary in date from the earlier Neolithic to the end of the Bronze Age and represent a wide range of activities from domestic to funerary, and activities undertaken in the wider landscape. In addition, environmental samples which provide evidence of landscape change can often be dated by these means.

Charred plant remains and wood charcoal have been recovered from many dry-ground locations, mainly during the process of soil-sample flotation. They derive particularly from pits with deliberate deposits, but also from hearths, from the postholes of the Neolithic rectangular building and several Bronze Age circular structures, from cremations and the ditches of funerary monuments and from burnt stone deposits.

Inhumation burials have been found across the Yarnton floodplain, providing material unequivocally associated with the burial event that require dating. Some burials were found with grave goods.

Waterholes and palaeochannels have provided good environments for the preservation of organic material, especially wood, including objects such as wooden implements (?flax beater), wood and bark vessels and a log ladder. Seeds have also been recovered, some of which indicate important changes in the landscape, and these can be dated by accelerator radiocarbon dating. Wooden structures within these contexts occasionally have sufficient tree rings for counting. Of note is the presence of timbers within the causeway structure on Site 9 which are from slow-grown trees that have been cut radially. Hence larger numbers of tree rings survive than normal.

Fine sedimentation within some palaeochannels and some of the larger ditches, particularly that on Site 25 (Hey and Bayliss 1998; Linford 1998), presents the opportunity to gain archaeomagnetic dates.

2.2.3 Potential

The time depth of occupation at Yarnton and the broad range of human activities represented are of national importance, and scientific dating will be vital for understanding the development of settlement and landscape and enabling the full potential of the excavated evidence to be realised. As direct stratigraphic links are so few, it will be critical for setting domestic and funerary structures in their contemporary

23 landscape, and assessing the associated environment of each phase of settlement. These methods of dating will also be fundamental to providing a chronological framework for charting changes in structures and monuments, and the evolution of social and funerary practices. Evidence for the dating of landscape change, changing agricultural practices and human impact on the environment, for which Yarnton has particular potential, will rely on scientific methods of dating. It will also enhance the potential to understand change in particular locales, for example the use and reuse of monuments, such as the Neolithic long enclosure and the rectangular building.

Individual features, for example the stone causeway on Site 9 and the Neolithic long enclosure and rectangular building, are of national significance in their own right and dates of material from them should be compared to parallels elsewhere. Similarly the chronological ranges of some types of structure, such as burnt stone deposits and the earliest ditched land boundaries are national research issues (English Heritage 1991, 36, 38 and 42), and dating their formation at Yarnton will enhance an understanding of these features. The dating of objects found on domestic and funerary sites and areas where ‘off-site’ activities were conducted will add to knowledge of craft production in the Neolithic and Bronze Age.

In general, datable samples come from discrete features and, therefore, there is limited potential to mathematically model the results and constrain broad date ranges produced by radiocarbon. However, there are a few circumstances in which stratigraphic sequences are present which will enable the date ranges of samples to be significantly reduced. A good example of this is the successive causeways and wooden structures on Site 9.

Results of archaeomagnetic dating within a waterlogged ditch on Site 25 suggest that they relate to the date at which the ditch became oxygen free, rather that the original silting (Hey and Bayliss 1998; Linford 1998). Comparing the results of radiocarbon- dated plants from the same deposit will enable a comparison to be made, and will shed light on the event being dated by archaeomagnetic means.

2.3 Pottery

2.3.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Pottery was recovered from all the sites excavated on Yarnton floodplain, except the palaeochannel trench of Site 22, (Barclay 1993a, 1996a, 1997a, 1998a, 1999a), although quantities varied greatly according to the type of contexts excavated. The material was found in a wide range of features. The specialist visited each site and provided spot dating as the excavations progressed.

All pottery was examined, including material recovered from sieving. The assemblage was recorded by ceramic style and fabric, and where possible was assigned to a chronological period. The pottery was quantified by sherd count and weight. The condition of the material and visible evidence of use, for example residues, was also recorded.

24 In total 6716 prehistoric sherds, weighing 24.816 kg came from the contexts that will be analysed within the modules which are the subject of this research design. This is in addition to 840 sherds (3.8 kg) already examined in Yarnton Floodplain Modules 1 and 2, and 214 sherds of Iron Age, Roman or medieval date that were found in floodplain deposits.

Ceramic style/date 1992 1995 1996 1997 1998 Total No. Wt No. Wt No. Wt No. Wt No. Wt No. Wt Neolithic Bowl 59 139 g 2 4 g 61 143 g

Peterborough Ware 622 1639 g 2467 6382 g 3089 8021 g

Grooved Ware 428 1774 g 145 580 g 1007 3463 g 3 10 g 1583 5827 g

LNEBA 5 15 g 28 97 g 168 605 g 149 168 g 2 3 g 352 888 g

Beaker 65 533 g 138** 1351 g 149 1001 g 226 758 g 578 3643 g

Early Bronze Age 186 1093 g 2 30 g 6 42 g 194 1165 g

Middle Bronze Age 203 1649 g 49 245 g 1 12 g 265 1457 g 518 3363 g

Late Bronze Age 28 309 g 8 126 g 14 8 g 9 83 g 15 93 g 74 619 g

Late Bronze Age- 53 720 g 53 720 g early Iron Age

Indeterminate 85 198 g 70 96 g 35 105 g 4 11 g 20 17 g 214 427 g prehistoric

Total 670 2968 g 1269 6262 g 4074 12902 g 168 314 g 534 2370 g 6716 24816 g ** Plus 2 complete Beakers

2.3.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

The pottery collection spans a period of over three thousand years, from the early Neolithic through to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age. This material is very diverse in ceramic style, and all major periods are represented. It includes substantial assemblages of Peterborough Ware (Ebbsfleet, Mortlake and Fengate substyles), Grooved Ware (Clacton and Durrington Walls substyle), Beaker (fine and coarse or ‘domestic’) and middle Bronze Age, Deverel-Rimbury pottery. In addition, important groups of Neolithic Bowl, Beaker, Biconical Urn and middle Bronze Age Deverel-Rimbury pottery have been examined in Modules 1 and 2, and will be considered in the overview of this project.

Pottery was recovered from all feature types, but particularly came from pits. Large assemblages of Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker appeared to form part of placed deposits within pits. Bronze Age pottery was also found within postholes and waterholes. Little or no redeposited material was noted amongst this material. In addition, small numbers of sherds came from ditches, tree-throw holes, buried ground surfaces and palaeochannels, and the source of this material is less clear. However, the examination of this small group may aid in understanding site-formation processes and the character of associated activities.

25 2.3.3 Condition

The condition of the pottery varied according to the context from which it was derived, material from pits and the palaeochannels being much better preserved than that from postholes, tree-throw holes and buried ground surfaces. The majority of good groups came from pits fills and was in good condition; chalk inlay, possible limescale/lime wash and burnt residues were noted on a number of sherds.

To some extent condition was also dependent on fabric type, and quartz- and flint- tempered sherds tend to be in better condition than those with shell, from which most of the inclusions have been dissolved away. Shell-tempered sherds are mainly of middle Bronze Age Deverel-Rimbury type, and some Fengate Ware and Grooved Ware has these inclusions.

2.3.5 Documentation

It will be possible to integrate the results of pottery recorded from these sites with those from the adjacent floodplain area and contemporary material on the nearby gravel terrace excavated on the Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm and Yarnton Cresswell Field sites.

Other material of this period has been excavated recently in the Upper Thames Valley, for example at Barrow Hills, Radley (Cleal 1999).

2.3.6 Potential

The potential of the pottery assemblage derives from its range, its timespan, the diversity of contexts from which it was recovered and the quality and quantity of associated evidence. The majority of this material comes from sealed deposits.

National level

Ceramic production The numerous pit groups that have now been excavated provide scope for detailed typological analysis of the fabric, form and decoration of some of the major prehistoric pottery styles. The wide variety of inclusions present within several of the wares are of importance for understanding changing modes of production. For example, quartzite, shell, flint, grog or an admixture of these, has been found within the Fengate and Mortlake Ware vessels of the Peterborough Ware potting tradition (Barclay 1997, 25). Fengate Ware has also been found with pebbles, flakes and chips of the quartzite with which it was tempered (Barclay 1996, 35).

Of particular significance is the presence of a wider range of vessel types than is usually recovered from a single site. Peterborough Ware cups, shallow bowls and dishes have been found, for example, in addition to the more usual rounded and conical bowls (Barclay 1997, 26). There is potential to study changing decorative techniques through time. The variability of decoration on Grooved Ware from different pit groups is of

26 great interest, for example, with more complex decoration being present near monuments (Barclay 1996, 36). The presence of ‘barbed-wire’ impressions on a collar of Fengate Ware bowl has implications for understanding the origins of the Barbed Wire Beaker style (Barclay 1997, 26).

Ceramic chronology Analysing these aspects of production will test traditional models of chronological development of ceramic styles (eg Smith 1976, 112). The chronological relationship between pottery styles of the mid/late Neolithic to the early Bronze Age (Peterborough Ware, through Grooved Ware and Beaker to Biconical Urn) remains poorly understood. The presence of good groups of this material from sealed contexts within a single landscape will enable the relationship between them to be assessed by examining spatial relationships/segregation of the features from which they were recovered, analysing changing manufacturing and decorative techniques, and their deposition in different kinds of feature and with distinct artefact associations. At present recent reviews of Peterborough and Grooved Ware ceramic traditions have been based on a national database of radiocarbon dates, rather than on single sites (Gibson and Kinnes 1997; Garwood 1999). Yarnton offers the opportunity to obtain a range of high-quality dates for the various traditions and build on and define a regional chronology for what can be described as one of the core areas of Neolithic Britain.

A good example of the importance of the Yarnton material is the potential to examine the development of Beaker Domestic assemblages from a single well-excavated and understood landscape and place this in its wider national and regional context. Some ‘early’ Beaker Domestic pottery from the site is likely to fall with the date range of 2500-2150 cal BC (Barclay 1999, 35-7). This material is generally much rarer than the more typical British Beaker Domestic assemblages (cf. Gibson 1982). Recent discoveries of this material at Yarnton and elsewhere challenge the assumption that Beaker Domestic is downgraded fineware and the significant quantity of Beaker material from a range of contexts at Yarnton will enable investigation of this issue.

Ceramic exchange and social interaction There is potential to investigate ceramic exchange and social interaction. For example, the Wessex/Middle Rhine Beaker found in a grave on Site 5, is almost certainly the product of a specialist workshop or skilled potter, and was probably made from non- local clay. The similarity of this Beaker to one from a burial at Dorchester-on-Thames (Site XII, Whittle et al. 1992, 179, fig. 25.1) is so striking that the two can be considered to have been made by the same individual(s). Alternatively, one could be a copy of the other. Either way, the two must be contemporary. The contrast between the Yarnton Beaker and a crude Beaker that lay within it (Barclay 1994, 72-4) is notable; it could represent local and non-local production and exchange over an area of at least 15 km. Petrological work will be of considerable assistance here as has already been demonstrated for work on Sites 1 and 2 material in Modules 1 and 2, where Ebbsfleet Ware has been found with non-local flint temper, possibly coming from the Berkshire Downs.

The association of Fengate Ware with part of a perforated implement (macehead?) is important for typo-chronological studies, especially as both maceheads and Fengate

27 Ware are poorly dated. It may be significant that much of the Fengate Ware is decorated with incised lattice, a type of decoration which also occurs on antler and lithic maceheads (Roe 1968).

Use and deposition The varied depositional practices and discard patterns observed at Yarnton will shed light on the purpose for which different ceramics were used, especially as pottery forms an important component of many placed deposits. Examples include the association of Fengate Ware with the Neolithic long house, and the subsequent deposition of Grooved Ware within it, perhaps to mark an important ancestral place in the landscape, the recovery of Ebbsfleet Ware in ditches and Fengate and Mortlake Ware in pit deposits, and the contrast between large quantities of coarse Beaker ‘Domestic’ found in pits and single sherds from fine vessels. Residue analysis has potential to shed light on food resources and the ways in which vessels were used (eg Dudd and Evershed 1999a); residues have already been seen to survive on some Yarnton vessels (Dudd and Evershed 1999b).

Regional level

The pottery assemblage from Yarnton is one of the largest in the Upper Thames Valley, and includes material that has not commonly been recovered in the region. The groups of Fengate-style Peterborough Ware, Durrington Walls-style Grooved Ware and non- funerary Beaker are of particular significance for the understanding of pottery production and use in the area. Yarnton also possesses one of the very few good Bronze Age assemblages from the Thames valley, and presents the opportunity to characterise domestic assemblages that include both Bucket and Globular Urns.

Site level

The pottery has a major contribution to make towards the understanding of chronology and spatial patterning of archaeological remains in the Yarnton-Cassington study area. It provides one strand of evidence for when and how the wider landscape at Yarnton was occupied, indicating foci and areas of off-site activity, as well as aspects of landscape clearance.

It is a recurrent pattern at Yarnton for individual pottery styles to occur in mutually exclusive contexts. Neolithic pottery is found in pits and Bronze Age pottery in waterholes and other, more domestic contexts. There seems to be a contextual relationship between the different styles of Peterborough Ware and the place of deposition, and there is recurrent association of Grooved Ware with Neolithic monuments, perhaps marking significant places in the landscape.

As pottery forms such an important component of placed deposits, such as the lining of some pits with sherds of pottery, its use in relation to style, fabric and decoration can shed light on the practices which lie behind the surviving remains.

28 2.4 Fired clay

2.4.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Fired clay was found in varying quantities on all sites (Barclay 1993b, 1996b, 1997b, 1998b, 1999b). The fired clay was scanned and examined for evidence of wattle or other impressions, possible finished objects and structural pieces. The material was quantified by number of fragments and weight. No record was made of fabric.

Fired clay weighing 15.325 kg was recovered from the floodplain excavations that are the subject of this assessment, including 209 fragments from objects.

Loomweight Oven clay Other moulded pieces Amorphous Total

3235 g (85 frags) 1500 g (93 frags) 200 g (31 frags) 10,390 g 15,325 g

2.4.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

Fired clay was found in several fabrics, and may include some potting clay (Barclay 1996, 39). The majority of this material was amorphous lumps, but 85 fragments came from loomweights, 93 fragments from ovens and an additional 31 fragments from objects the function of which has not yet been determined. Some pieces could be structural daub.

The clay came from a variety of contexts, such as pits, postholes, tree-throw holes and ditch fills, but was most commonly found in pits. It was associated with pottery of all periods, including Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware, Beaker and Biconical Urn, but was most abundant in middle Bronze Age contexts. All loomweight fragments and recognisable oven clay came from middle Bronze Age pits. Fired clay was also found in the ditches of the Neolithic long enclosure and a ring ditch on Site 7.

2.4.3 Documentation

The excavated features on the adjacent Yarnton floodplain sites analysed in Modules 1 and 2 produced a similar range of material. The same fabric and type series will be used.

2.4.4 Potential

Fired clay is a good indicator of domestic and industrial activities, including cooking, pottery manufacture and textile production. The occurrence and distribution of oven clay will shed some light on the character and range of domestic activities. Although only 93 fragments of such material were identified in assessment, much of the amorphous clay probably derives from such activity, and this can be assessed by comparing clay preparation techniques. Closer examination of the fabrics and degree of firing may indicate potting clays, a possibility which seems to have particular potential

29 in Beaker pits (Barclay 1995, 39; 1999, 39). If so, this will shed light on methods of pottery production and, possibly, the nature of the deposits of which they form a part. The group of Bronze Age cylindrical loomweights from Site 4c is important as few of these have been found within the region (Barclay 199, 39-40). Their relatively complete or reconstructible condition enables their size and weight to be compared with weights recovered elsewhere; they appear to be in the upper size range.

The recovery of fired clay from mortuary features and pits with cremated bone suggests that some of this material may be pyre debris which will supplement information on funerary practices.

The spatial distribution of fired clay will add to the overall understanding of patterns of domestic and ritual activity and discard across the landscape.

2.5 Flint

2.5.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Flint was recovered from all sites excavated on the floodplain (Bradley 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999a). All of the struck flint was examined. The material was briefly scanned and limited recording was undertaken to enable the assemblage to be characterised, and to allow provisional dating of diagnostic types.

Year of Flakes Blades, Irregular Chips Cores, core Retouched Totals Burnt unworked exc. blade-like flakes waste fragments pieces flint

1992 523 3 8 88 8 34 664 18 12 1995 126 16 4 22 29 209 18

1996 388 21 5 58 17 81 570 3

1997 48 5 11 4 11 79

1998 172 6 6 47 16 64 311

Totals 1257 51 23 226 57 219 1833

Flakes include core rejuvenation flakes and flakes from polished implements

2.5.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

Both chalk and derived flint was used, though most struck material comes from chalk flint that has good flaking properties and was imported to the site. Very little flint occurs in the local gravels. Some Bullhead was recovered, the origins of which are uncertain.

The struck flint dates from the early Mesolithic to the later Bronze Age in date, although later Neolithic/early Bronze Age material predominates. Hard-hammer struck material is most common, but soft-hammer struck flakes are present on several sites, for example Site 5.

30 All stages of the reduction sequence are present, from large tested nodules to finely retouched pieces and flakes from polished implements. The sieving strategy employed enabled small chips and pieces of irregular waste to be recovered. Cores and core rejuvenation flakes were also found on several sites. The cores are often of small size emphasising the value of flint as an imported item, and the reuse of polished implements also shows concern for the conservation of raw materials. Some stages of manufacture may be under-represented, however; few hammerstones were recovered.

A wide range of retouched material was retrieved, which varied in composition from site to site. Finely-worked material includes a polished fragmentary macehead and knife made from the same material from Site 5, arrowheads from several sites and fragments of polished axes. Scrapers, knives and serrated pieces were relatively common finds. Percentages of retouched material varied greatly from site to site. On Site 3, for example, only 5% of flint was retouched, but on Sites 5 and 7 this was between 13% and 14%, rising to 21% on the channel-related sites excavated in 1998. Similarly, the occurrence of different artefact types varied. Knives and scrapers dominated the Site 7 assemblage and the retouched forms associated with the Site 9 causeway included many scrapers, and piercing and cutting tools. These may reflect the different activities that were being carried out in these areas. The polished implements and arrowheads associated with the Site 5 long enclosure suggest symbolic deposition of flint in some contexts.

Flint was found in a wide range of contexts, including pits, postholes, the long enclosure ditch and ring ditches, tree-throw holes and ploughsoils. The majority of the assemblage came from sealed pit deposits, sometimes from placed deposits, within which there was little evidence of residual material. The contemporaneity of flint from ditches was less secure, as shown by a late Mesolithic microlith recovered from the long enclosure ditch, although other material may have been deliberately placed in this context. Some flint came from buried ground surfaces and was associated with channel activity. The different character of this material to that from domestic sites suggests that it reflects the activities being undertaken in these locations, rather than redeposited finds. Flint from ploughsoils and other disturbed contexts does have value in a landscape-wide context for locating general areas of activity, particularly if much flint working was taking place away from settlement, and for understanding post-depositional disturbance to the archaeological remains (Hey 1998).

Although burnt unworked non-local flint was present on the sites, it was relatively uncommon. This presumably reflects the value of flint for implements; burnt stone is found in a variety of local material (see below).

2.5.3 Condition

The assemblage is generally in good condition, with some very fresh material with sharp edges. Some calcium carbonate concretion was noted, however, and occasional pieces are abraded, iron-stained or sand glossed. Cortication is light to medium, although a few pieces are heavily corticated.

31 2.5.4 Documentation

The flint already examined from Yarnton floodplain Sites 1 and 2, and from the Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm and Yarnton Cresswell Field sites enhances the large and varied assemblage from the floodplain excavations. This collection of material can be compared with those from other sites funded by English Heritage in the area, such as Gravelly Guy (Holgate forthcoming) and Barrow Hills, Radley (Bradley 1999b). This will enable the procurement, use and discard of lithics to be studied both temporally and spatially.

2.5.5 Potential

The large assemblage of mainly Neolithic and Bronze Age flintwork that has been recovered during the Yarnton-Cassington project will enable changes in lithic reduction sequences, raw material exploitation, use and discard to be studied across the landscape within this part of the Thames Valley. The numerous pit assemblages, many of which have good ceramic associations, will be of particular importance.

Changing strategies of flint procurement can be studied by investigating different sources used through time, for example chalk flint and Bullhead flint, and the stage of preparation in which flint arrived. Technological aspects of flint working can also be examined by analysing cores and other waste products. The consistent recovery of chips and other small irregular waste will be useful here. The condition of some flint will enable use-wear analysis on selected pieces.

There is potential to examine the different ways that flint was used through time. There appears to be more structured deposition of flint within Neolithic pits and ditches, as compared to more casual discard in Bronze Age pits and waterholes. The ceramic associations of some of the early groups are particularly important. For example, nationally there is a lack of lithic associations for Peterborough Ware apart from a few specific areas of the country (Bradley 1996, 43; 1997, 32), but material from good pit deposits are present at Yarnton, including the polished flint macehead. It will also be possible to examine pit deposits associated with substyles of some of the main pottery traditions. Variability in flint assemblages between different Grooved Ware pit groups on Site 3 was noted, and it will be an exciting opportunity to look at the different Beaker styles to see if the associated flints possess different characteristics. Comparisons between Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker-associated lithics will be possible (cf. Healy 1984).

There is considerable potential to look at the composition of flint assemblages in relation to site function, which may also shed light on the locations selected for flint preparation, as the assessments suggest interesting differences between the material found on sites with apparently different activities. The low percentage of retouched pieces on Site 3 (5%), associated mainly with Grooved Ware, is similar to that found by Wainwright at Broome Heath (1972), but very much lower than that from other Yarnton sites, for example those with funerary or ceremonial aspects (13% on Site 5). The high proportion of retouched pieces associated with the Site 9 causeway is of great interest. The flint from the old ground surfaces can be compared with the much larger assemblage from

32 Site 2, reported upon in Module 1. Flint from the gravel terrace can be compared with that recovered from the floodplain.

Analysis of the flint will also contribute to the understanding of site function and the exploitation of the wider landscape, for example tree clearance. As it is ubiquitous, its analysis in conjunction with well-dated deposits may allow greater understanding of technological change through time that will assist, in turn, with the dating of features of less certain date.

2.6 Worked stone

2.6.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Small numbers of objects made of stone other than flint have been found in all seasons of fieldwork (Roe 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999). All potentially worked stone was scanned and the probable artefact and stone types were noted.

1995 1996 1997 1998 Total

Quartzite/ 4 7 2 5 18 Quartzitic (incl. hammerstones (hammerstones, rubber and (hammerstones) (grinding stone, sandstone and anvil) polisher) rubbers, hammerstones) Sarsen 11 4 5 -20 (mostly small (rubbers and polishers) (?quern or rubber frags) fragments incl. ? saddle quern) Lower Calcareous 1 1 237 Grit (?roughout for saddle (frag of saddle quern reused as (saddle quern frags) quern) rubber) Lower Greensand - 1 113 (?quern frag) Marlstone Rock 12 -3 Bed (sandstone) (quern or rubber frags) Northampton Sand - 1 2 1 4 (?rubber) (?rubbers) (? saddle quern frag) Local Jurassic -- 5 5 Limestone (?rubber) Miscellaneous -2 - 2 Sandstone Igneous - 1 -1 (chip from Group VII axe) Total 17 19 17 10 63

2.6.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

Pebbles of quartzite or quartzitic sandstone from the local gravels were consistently used from the Neolithic onwards for tools such hammerstones, grinding tools and rubbers. Other materials do not occur naturally and so can be assumed to have been brought to the site, even if worked surfaces do not always survive. Jurassic limestone, which is found nearby, was used for rubbers. Quernstones and rubbers were made of Lower Calcareous Grit, Lower Greensand from around Culham, sarsen, slightly micaceous sandstone (probably from the Northampton Sand) and red sandstone (probably from the Marlstone Rock Bed of the Banbury area). One chip came from a polished stone axe of

33 augite andesite (Group VII), to add to the evidence of use and reuse of this material from Site 2, examined in Module 1.

Worked stone was recovered from a variety of contexts. Neolithic material mainly came from pits, including deliberate deposits, and buried ground surfaces, and Bronze Age finds from features on domestic sites and associated with burnt stone deposits.

2.6.3 Potential

The worked stone from these sites will make an important contribution to a gradually accumulating body of information on the lithic tool types, other than flint, that were used in the Neolithic and Bronze Age, and the materials from which they were made. Change through time can be investigated, especially in the context of good evidence for stone tool use in the Iron Age from the Yarnton Cresswell Field and Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm sites. The sources of stone that were selected for artefact production can shed light on stone procurement strategies and external contacts. It is now becoming possible to demonstrate that, in the Yarnton area, there was continuity in the use of specific lithic materials from the Neolithic to the middle Iron Age.

Although this is not a large collection, the varied contexts from which the worked stone was recovered may indicate the range of tools used in ritual, domestic and ‘off-site’ activities.

2.7 Unworked stone and burnt unworked stone

2.7.1 Stone from the causeway

The limestone used to construct the causeway discovered on Site 9 was examined on site by Philip Powell of the Oxford University Museum (Powell 1999). It is Lower Cornbrash (a formation in the Great Oolite of the middle Jurassic). The nearest occurrences of cornbrash to Yarnton are at Church Hanborough, Bladon and Begbroke Geology Map 236). The rounded edges of the stones suggest that they were most probably picked up off the surface in one (or more) of these areas. Even today some of the ploughed fields in these areas are very stony, and before the onset of intensive agriculture, larger stones would have been more common.

2.7.2 Method of assessment and quantification of burnt unworked stone

Burnt, unworked stone was collected and bagged in the same way as other finds. The burnt flint and non-local stone was retained for further analysis and is reported on above. The local material was sorted into quartzite and local flint pebbles and limestone and was then counted, weighed and discarded.

Burnt stone was found on all sites (Hey 1993, 63; 1996, 44-6; Bell and Hey, 35-6; 1999, 45-6; Hey and Muir 1997, 35-6).

34 Local stone no Local stone weight Limestone no Limestone weight

1992/3, Sites 3 and 4 653 13.820 kg 31 0.581 kg

1995 461 29.640 kg 455 10.861 kg

1996 815 31.799 kg 59 1.642 kg

1997 5225* 192.310 kg

1998 8023* 123.080 kg 1257 360.945 kg

Total 15177 390.649 kg 1802 374.029 kg

* To these should be added burnt stone found during the 1993 evaluation (Hey 1993, 35-6)

2.7.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

Local burnt quartzite pebbles and flint were found on all excavation sites and in a wide variety of contexts. It was associated particularly with cremations and funerary sites, some pits with placed deposits and with domestic areas, especially hearths. The largest quantity of burnt stones, however, came from concentrations and spreads which seem to be the levelled remains of burnt mounds. Adjacent features were packed with this material and wood charcoal. The stones were heavily calcined and more fragmented than those from other types of deposit.

Limestone does not outcrop naturally in the immediate area and has to be brought to the site from a distance of at least 5 km. Burnt limestone was not as common as burnt local material, although its average size was far larger and so the total weights of each type are similar. It tended to be concentrated in a small number of features, for example cremations on Site 5 and pits north of the limestone causeway on Site 9 and 4e. It was never found in burnt mound deposits, and seemed more common in later Bronze Age features. It is a very common find on Iron Age sites in the area.

2.7.3 Potential

Burnt stone is a good indicator of domestic activity or refuse deposition. It was probably used for a range of cooking purposes, including water heating and seating pots over a fire. However, its association with cremations and possible role in the cremation process deserves further attention. The correlation between cremation deposits and imported, burnt limestone will be particularly interesting in this respect. The inclusion of burnt stone among some placed deposits, particularly associated with Grooved Ware, may help to shed light on the type of material selected for those contexts.

Burnt stone was obviously integral to the process which generated such large quantities of this material across the floodplain, and for which heat and a ready supply of water was an important element. The nature of this activity is currently uncertain, but analysis of the distribution of the burnt stone and its degree of burning and fragmentation, along with its association with other categories of artefact and food remains, will contribute to an understanding of burnt mound activity. At Yarnton animal bone and charred plants are rare in these contexts, and an industrial process such as textile production is more likely. There is also potential to undertake some experimental work to see how quickly this material becomes burnt, whether through direct heating or quenching.

35 2.8 Waterlogged wood

2.8.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Waterlogged wood was found in the 1992, 1996, 1997 and 1998 field seasons (Taylor 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999). It was observed by the specialist in the field and rapidly assessed later. It is quantified below.

2.8.2 Range and variety of material

Waterlogged wood was recovered from palaeochannels on Sites 4, 9, 10 and 22, from the closed contexts of waterholes and pits on Sites 4e, 7, 9, 17 and 21, and interstratified with causeways across the channel on Site 9.

Code Site Context type Description

YFP 92 4 Channel (Section C) Uprights with horizontal pieces (19 in all)

YFPB 96 7 Waterhole Roundwood, woodchips, bark and fragments in matrix of twigs. Possible object (found in evaluation, YCE 93) YFPB 97 17 Waterhole One artefact (? textile implement); roundwood possibly associated with wattle lining 22 Causeway Roundwood

YFPB 98 9 Causeway Line of horizontal stakes predating stone causeway; uprights and horizontal pieces associated with causeway (? hand rails); two post alignments adjacent to causeway. Over 200 pieces retained. Waterhole and pit Waterlogged timber, bark object

10 Channel Brushwood trackway; upright posts

21 Waterhole Woodworking debris; wooden bowl; log ladder

4e Waterhole Large post

Not all these contexts have yet been dated, but the preservation of important environmental data from the same deposits means that most if not all will be radiocarbon-dated. The majority of the wood is likely to date from the early Bronze Age to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age.

A variety of tree species is known to be present, including Quercus sp. (oak), Alnus glutinosa (alder), Corylus avellana (hazel) and Fraxinus excelsior (ash).

2.8.3 Condition

The condition of the wood varied, but all was sufficiently preserved to reveal cut marks. Within the waterholes on Sites 17 and 21 there was excellent preservation, but wood within the Site 7 waterhole was vulnerable, probably because of its proximity to dewatered areas. The variable condition of wood associated with the Site 9 causeway is probably the result of taphonomic processes in antiquity. The wood is currently stored in water tanks under cover (see note below in Section 5.8).

36 There has been considerable concern about the deteriorating condition of the wood in storage. This has been addressed by the provision of funds to record this material immediately (see below, Section 5.8).

2.8.4 Potential

The waterlogged wood from Yarnton has considerable potential to shed light on Bronze Age woodworking technology, particularly when added to the evidence from the woodworking debris from Yarnton Floodplain Site 1 already studied in Module 2 (Chapter 9). This includes selection of wood, methods of cutting and working wood and the tools employed (eg Taylor 1999, 48-9). It will also enhance an understanding of woodland resources available at this time, and methods of woodland management, particularly coppicing.

The wood from Yarnton was recovered from a variety of contexts, and thus provides a broad range of potential uses. Some of the waterholes were located next to domestic structures, others lay adjacent to pits filled with burnt stone and spreads of this material. Indeed, one wooden implement came from a waterhole that had burnt stone within it. Much of the wood from the channels was associated with simple crossing places, including walkway surfaces, and possible fish traps, but the wood found with the Site 9 causeway was apparently part of a more special structure and includes upright posts, horizontal ‘bearers’, small roundwood, pegs and binding material, as well as adjacent post alignments (Taylor 1999, 48). Evidence for the fabrication of wattlework screening has been found in several locations. This not only provides an exceptionally varied assemblage from a single location, but unusually the wood may be able to provide valuable data on the range of activities in the area.

The survival of wooden objects enhances an understanding of the range of containers and implements in use in everyday life, and the tools will shed light on Bronze Age craft activities, such as textile production (Taylor 1998, 38).

The condition and wear on wood can provide useful information on taphonomic processes that were in operation in the past. This has been suggested, for example, for the wood associated with the Site 9 causeway (Taylor 1999, 48).

2.9 Bone and shale objects

A small number of bone objects was recovered from the floodplain excavations (Mulville 1997, 44-5; 1998, 41; 1999, 53-4). An antler pick came from a waterhole on Site 7 (as yet undated), and other worn tines of red deer were found in a Beaker pit and three Bronze Age waterholes on other sites. In addition, a bone spike came from the palaeochannel in the 1992/3 excavations, and a gouge, a pin, an awl and a worked or worn cow ulna from the 1998 excavations. The tiny bone (or ivory) pin came from a cremation, although it had not been burnt, and the sheep tibia awl was recovered from the stone causeway on Site 9. It is possible that other simple bone objects will be found when the animal bone from the causeway is fully recorded. These objects will enhance

37 an understanding of the use of animal bone for tools in the earlier prehistoric period, the range of tools in use and the deposits from which they were recovered.

A globular shale bead was found in a Grooved Ware pit within the Neolithic rectangular structure on Site 7 (Allen 1997). These are rare finds in southern Britain and parallels should be sought. The context at Yarnton suggests special deposition. It is unlikely that information will be forthcoming about the source of the shale as a much larger assemblage is required for this type of analysis to be successful. Sampling the object would destroy it.

2.10 Metal objects

Metal detecting was undertaken within the palaeochannels, both within excavation sites and in adjacent areas. It was also conducted over the 1992 excavation areas. However, only six metal finds were recovered, three from hand-excavated contexts. All six finds came from the 1998 excavations, three from stratified deposits associated with the stone and sand-and-gravel causeway on Site 9 and three from silts in the palaeochannel adjacent to them (Northover 1999a). Potentially they could span the period from the end of the early Bronze Age to the late Iron Age, and at least some may have been special deposits. As seems to be increasingly the case in southern Britain, these finds display exotic associations as well as typical, more-or-less local products. No other metal finds were recovered from the floodplain sites, even though the woodworking evidence demonstrates that metal tools were in use.

A side-looped spearhead and an awl came from beneath the stones of the causeway, and a flanged bracelet was stratified between the stone and the sand-and gravel causeway. The spearhead dates from Middle Bronze Age I-II, although a later date is possible, but the awl is of a more long-lived type. Other flanged bracelets are known of middle Bronze Age date. A tin or tin-lead alloy strap end from palaeochannel silts can be paralleled with occasional later Bronze Age finds at British sites, such as Flag Fen (Rohl and Northover 1994). A hollow, riveted sheet bronze ring from the upper silts of the channel may be Iron Age in date, as is a copper- or copper alloy-plated iron ring.

Analysis of the bracelet and spearhead will aid in their dating and metallographic investigation will provide details of manufacture, for example the apparent variation in the manufacture of the spearhead blade edges. The provenance of the strap end, and issues of long-distance exchange from the site, may be elucidated by examination of the segregation of impurities in the object to any intermetallic compounds, or possibly by lead isotope analysis.

2.11 Artefact conservation

All non-bulk artefacts were examined by Vanessa Fell, either in situ or as soon as they had been removed to OAU premises. Objects of wood, shale, metal, bone and fired clay were assessed for conservation requirements (Fell 1997, 1998, 1999).

38 Following appropriate cleaning, x-raying and packaging, the shale, metal, bone and fired clay is considered stable for long-term storage. The metalwork will benefit from further cleaning to enable archaeological and scientific analysis, and the fired clay loomweights may require some consolidation and reconstruction work to enable recording and study.

Objects of wood are more vulnerable. These include a notched wooden implement with a handle found in a waterhole associated with burnt mound activity in 1997, and a wooden bowl, the remains of a bark container and a log ladder from the 1998 excavations. The bark object is very fragile and brittle. The other wooden objects appeared in good condition and had well-preserved tool marks, but some gentle probing suggested a slightly spongy texture in the case of the implement resulting from loss of cellular components, and hair-line cracks were visible within the bowl.

These are unusual and important objects that would be suitable for stabilisation for further study and, potentially, display.

2.12 Human bone

2.12.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Human bone was found during excavations on Site 5, Site 7, Site 17, Site 10 and Site 4d (Boyle 1996a, 1997, 1998 and 1999a). In addition, some unidentified cremated bone from within the Site 4 ring ditch may be human.

Articulated human remains were observed in situ and all human bone was rapidly scanned and sample-examined at OAU premises. The inhumations were assessed according to preservation, degree of completeness of skeleton, potential for ageing and sexing the remains. Pathology and discontinuous traits were recorded where seen, although this was incidental to the assessment and does not necessarily reflect the true incidence. The age and sex estimations are provisional as they are based on minimal examination of the material.

Following careful processing (see above Section 2.1.2) cremations were scanned and judged by assessment of weight, average fragment size and quantity of identifiable bones. Not all fine residues from small burnt deposits have been sorted, for example from the postholes of the Neolithic rectangular building on Site 7.

Inhumations Cremations Disarticulated unburnt Small unidentified human bone cremated deposits 1992/3 2

1995 4 3 + 4 small deposits

1996 1 2 + 10 small deposits 3 18

1997 1

1998 2

5 7 + 14 small deposits 4 20

Details of individual burials can be found in the assessment reports (ibid.).

39 2.12.2 Variety of material and its provenance

Although the collection of human remains is small, the contexts are very varied. Five of the individuals were found as inhumation burials, four within graves and one in the top of the Neolithic long enclosure ditch. One of these individuals was found buried with two complete Beaker vessels, barbed-and-tanged arrowheads and a flint scraper. In addition, disarticulated human bone came from postholes and a hearth of the Neolithic rectangular building on Site 7 and a waterhole on Site 17. Bone from the latter was bleached and smoothed as though it had been exposed for some time, and had a possible notch at one end that merits detailed investigation.

Cremation deposits were found on many of the floodplain sites. Although they were all very distinctive when first exposed, only seven were reasonably substantial deposits, the others being small and sometimes mixed with animal bone. The character of 20 other burnt/cremated deposits remains to be established. Seven cremation deposits were associated with the Neolithic long enclosure, including some lying on burnt limestone or clay bases. A substantial cremation was found in one of the pits of an alignment on Site 7. Other deposits were found scattered over the floodplain area, but seemed to be preferentially located near to palaeochannels, including one with a good ‘Domestic’ Beaker assemblage on Site 4d.

Human bone (cremated and inhumed) was found in contexts of several periods, including earlier Neolithic (long enclosure and rectangular structure), late Neolithic/early Bronze Age (mainly with Beaker associations) and later Bronze Age (top of long enclosure ditch).

The assessment indicated that both male and female burials are present, and the age range, as currently known, varies from sub-adult to 40+. Pathology noted includes various dental conditions such as periodontal disease, calculus and caries. In addition dental anomalies (enamel pearls and crowding and rotation of incisors) and discontinuous traits are present.

The condition of the bone varies. Some of the inhumations were well preserved, for example two burials associated with the Neolithic enclosure, but that found in the top of the enclosure ditch was in poorer condition. The cremation within the pit alignment on Site 7 was in excellent condition and all parts of the body could be recognised, but other cremation deposits were small and none of the bone was identifiable. Little further work is proposed for less well preserved material.

2.12.3 Potential

Although the human remains from Yarnton are a small group, they do have potential to shed light on mortuary practices in the Neolithic and Bronze Age and on the human population at the time.

At least three of the inhumations are late Neolithic/early Bronze Age in date and can be compared with a small group of individuals excavated on the Cresswell Field site (Boyle 1996b) and the discoveries made during gravel working on the north-east edge of the study area in the 19th century (Rolleston 1884). The Beaker burial merits detailed study

40 in its own right given the range of associated objects, and can be paralleled with others in the region, for example Dorchester-on-Thames (Whittle et al. 1992) and Barrow Hills, Radley (Boyle 1999b). Two of the well-preserved cremations also seem likely to be of similar date and the distinctive profile of the cremation pit within the alignment on Site 7 can be paralleled with a pit in a similar alignment at Barrow Hills, Radley (ibid.). It is possible others may be found to be contemporary by radiocarbon dating or examination of associated material. These remains will indicate a range of mortuary practices at this time, as well as providing a sufficiently large group to shed some light on the human population of Yarnton.

The number of small deposits of cremated human bone is of interest as it implies that specific body parts were selected for burning or burial and/or that an individual could be placed in more than one location. This is an important and overlooked aspect of mortuary practices that is currently being researched (Boyle forthcoming).

The positive identification of animal bone with human remains in some cremations merits further investigation. It would be profitable to conduct further examination of these and other deposits of less readily identifiable material with the animal bone specialist, in order to clarify the likely proportions of different species. This would not be a very time-consuming process.

An interesting feature of the Yarnton floodplain landscape is the recovery of burials and other deposits of human bone away from ceremonial and funerary monuments. There is potential to examine the location of these and their character in relation to landscape and settlement features. Examination of the human remains associated with the Neolithic rectangular structure on Site 7 will elucidate the ways in which disarticulated human remains were used at that time, in addition to shedding light on the function of the structure. Similarly, the scrutiny of the possible notched human bone from a waterhole on Site 17 may suggest the use of human bone in non-funerary contexts at a later date.

2.13 Animal bone

2.13.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Bone was recovered by hand collection and by the sieving of selected contexts. Specialists from the Faunal Remains Unit at Southampton visited the excavations to discuss retrieval strategies, especially the sieving of soil samples. Sieved residues were scanned. All sites produced animal bone (Serjeantson and Smith 1993; Smith 1996; Mulville 1997, 1998 and 1999).

The detail in which animal bone was examined varied from year to year, depending on the size of the assemblage and its state of preservation. The hand-collected bone from the 1992, 1995, 1996 and 1997 excavations was all scanned, the number of fragments was counted and the presence/absence/abundance of species was noted. Amounts of bone in the 1995, 1996 and 1997 excavations were so small that the material was fully recorded, including ageable mandibles and articulated bones. Information on the condition of the bone surface, carnivore damage, burning and weathering was noted. Quantities of bone found in 1998, especially from contexts associated with the Site 9

41 causeway, were greater and only approximately 20% of the eight standard boxes and two other boxes recovered was examined. For this reason the quantification presented below is an underestimate of the total number of bones.

Material retrieved from flotation and sieving was also examined in the assessment, although few of the residues from fine sieving have been sorted. This produced mostly unidentifiable fragments and they were counted conservatively.

1992 1995 1996 1997 1998** Total

Neolithic 5 84 1941 8 2038

Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age 99 59 200 17 375

Bronze Age 9 126 225 86 3385 3831

Uncertain* 732 41 773

Total 113 269 3098 135 3402** 7017

* Includes contexts that may yet be dated during analysis ** Represents only 20% of bone found in this year

2.13.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

The assemblage was dominated by domestic species, with only a few wild species present. Cattle was the most common species encountered; it was present on all sites and formed around half of the Bronze Age contexts examined in 1997 and 1998. It may have formed a smaller percentage of bone on the Neolithic sites, where pig bone was a significant component of the identifiable assemblage, particularly in Peterborough Ware and Grooved Ware pits. Pig bone was rare in Bronze Age contexts. Sheep/goat was present in features of all periods, but may have become more important through time. In addition to these major domesticates, horse bone was found in varying quantities. It was most abundant in channel deposits and formed 7% of the assemblage from the Site 9 causeway; it was rare on dry-ground sites. Unusual features of the assemblage of domestic animals include a possibly Bronze Age cattle third molar from Site 22 which showed absence of the third cusp and possible evidence of bit-wear in horse teeth from the old ground surface on Site 25.

Red deer was occasionally recovered, but nearly all was antler and most of this was worked or worn. It was often found in waterholes. One complete red deer jaw was found in association with a fox skull in the waterhole from which a wooden bowl and log ladder was recovered. This suggests that the placing of wild animals and antler tools within waterholes may have a special significance at these sites. A small number of fish bones, including pike, came from the area of the causeway on Site 9.

A few examples of worked bone have been identified, including a sheep tibia found on Site 9 which had been made into an awl and a worked or worn cow ulna from Site 7. It is possible that more will emerge when all the 1998 animal bone has been studied.

Animal bone was found in features dated from the earlier Neolithic to the late Bronze Age. Quantities tended to vary according to the finds location rather than the date of the

42 feature (see below). It was found in pits, particularly those with placed deposits, waterholes, cremation deposits and the ditches of funerary monuments, and especially in channel deposits. A substantial assemblage was associated with the causeways on Sites 9 and 10.

2.13.3 Condition and integrity of the assemblage

The condition of the faunal assemblage varies according to the location from which it was recovered. Bone from dry-land sites tends to be least-well preserved, particularly that from open ditch contexts which has eroded surfaces. Bone from the closed contexts of pits was in better condition, even so there was a high degree of erosion. The high proportion of teeth amongst the identifiable assemblage indicates that the preservational environment has affected the survival of bone.

Bone recovered from the palaeochannels was in good or excellent condition, particularly that found in association with the limestone causeway on Site 9. Here only 14% of identifiable bones were teeth, compared, for example, with 60% from some of the Neolithic pit deposits. The well-preserved nature of the causeway assemblage is also reflected in the high proportion of bones with visible butchery marks. Unfortunately, the channels tend to be less secure contexts for understanding the derivation of the material, but the causeway sequences on Site 9, and the clear functional association of bone with them, will provide well-dated contexts for the study of this well-preserved assemblage.

A more serious difficulty for the analysis of the faunal remains is the small size of the assemblage. However, if material is grouped from different sites by period, it should be possible to make comparisons between periods and feature type. Decisions on the amalgamation of material should be made only after detailed discussions between the analyst and the excavator.

2.13.4 Potential

National level

The assemblage from the Yarnton floodplain is one of the largest earlier prehistoric bone collections recovered from the region, and is of considerable value because of the wide range of period and feature type from which it is derived. It is one of the few Neolithic and Bronze Age assemblages in the country with over 1000 identifiable bones. Amalgamation of the floodplain bone assemblages will allow issues of settlement, economy, land use, off-site activity and symbolic placement of deposits to be addressed, and analysis of how these change through time. The good condition of the bone found in 1998 will enable loss of information on the remaining assemblage to be assessed.

Neolithic bone assemblages are rare in Britain, especially those from domestic contexts, and this collection presents an opportunity to supplement knowledge of animal husbandry in these early, Neolithic to late Bronze Age, periods and assess the contribution of different species to the diet (Hey, Mulville and Robinson forthcoming). It will be possible to compare the Neolithic and Bronze Age material with other

43 contemporary sites with large and better-preserved faunal assemblages such as Runnymede Bridge (Serjeantson 1996) and the Eton Rowing Lake (Jones in prep.) which are situated in a similar environment. The possibility that the Yarnton inhabitants were largely pastoralists throughout this period will make these comparisons particularly interesting.

Some butchery marks were visible on the animal bones and there is potential to investigate the use of tools, particularly the difference between stone and metal tools, and methods of butchery through time. Animal bone was also used to make tools (see above), and these will add to an understanding of the uses to which animals were put.

There is considerable potential to assess the differential distribution of quantities and species of animal bone in relation to different activity areas, including domestic sites and areas used for ‘off-site’ activity, which will enhance an understanding of how these areas were used and also patterns of bone disposal. The relationship between burnt mound deposits and animal bone may shed light on the purpose of these deposits, particularly their possible role in cooking.

The well-preserved assemblages of bone from the channels may also indicate areas of rubbish disposal, although some special deposition is suggested in association with the causeway. The fox skull and red deer jaw found together in a waterhole and other finds of worked antler in these contexts suggests a symbolic role for wild animals in some features. Their study will allow the character of ritual deposition to be more clearly understood.

An interesting feature of the Yarnton work is the presence of cremated deposits containing both human and animal bone, or possibly only animals. The more careful examination of these deposits, including the assessment of different proportions of human and animal bone, has the potential to shed light on mortuary practices and the role of animals in ceremony.

Regional level

Neolithic and Bronze Age bone assemblages from sealed contexts are extremely rare regionally. Study of the bone will increase the knowledge of economic activities in the Upper Thames Valley and enable comparisons with other sites in the region.

Site level

The animal bones are crucial for the interpretation of on-site activities. Their analysis will aid in the interpretation of the function of features, spatial layout, intensity of occupation and processes of debris deposition and will make a substantial contribution to the understanding of the economic base of this community.

The analysis of the variation in animal bone quantity and species between features and, particularly, its state of preservation, will assist in understanding relationships between different areas of the site and different kinds of deposit. Analysis of the varying states of bone preservation could help to suggest changes in the soils, as well as being an important prerequisite for interpreting the bone assemblage itself. Detailed study of the taphonomy of the bones will aid in the understanding of site-formation processes. For example, within the channel the surface preservation and fragmentation of bone, will

44 contribute to an understanding of how much reworking has taken place in the channel silts.

Pottery and flint assemblages vary within the Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker pits. Does the animal bone reflect this contrast?

2.13.5 Bone diagenesis

Christine Nielsen-Marsh examined bone survival (diagenesis) at Yarnton as part of her D Phil. thesis at the Oxford University Research Laboratory for Archaeology, in particular the survival of the mineral component of bone, hydroxyapatite (Hey and Muir 1997, 46-7). Bone was selected on site and samples of the adjacent soil were taken. All the bone was identified by the Faunal Remains Unit and details of the method used in her analysis are given in the assessment (ibid.).

Bone from Yarnton included some poorly preserved bone from Neolithic pits on the floodplain, but paradoxically Bronze Age bone from the channels provided the highest standard of preservation of any archaeological specimens collected for her project.

Preliminary analysis demonstrated the relevance of environment to bone preservation, not only from general areas but from contexts within those areas. There appears to be a slight relationship between age and preservation, but this is undermined by the much stronger correlation with burial environment.

2.14 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains

2.14.1 Method of assessment and quantification

During the excavations on the Yarnton floodplain a large-scale programme of environmental archaeology was undertaken. This included sampling and on-site flotation and sieving for charred plant remains, sampling of deposits for laboratory analysis for molluscs and waterlogged macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains, and detailed on-site recording of channel morphology, sediments and field observations on biota. Mark Robinson of the Oxford University Museum was pivotal in devising sample-collection strategies. He made frequent visits to the site, monitored the progress of environmental work, took many samples of his own, assessed the material and reported the results and potential of each fieldwork season in the post-excavation assessments (Robinson 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999). Tables showing provisional results are presented in these assessments.

The dried flots were scanned at up to x50 magnification under a binocular microscope. The charred seeds and chaff observed were identified and an estimate made of their abundance. The scanning of unsorted flots inevitably results in an under-estimate of the abundance or even presence of smaller seeds and chaff items. However, the flots are generally clean and the scanning probably characterised the samples well.

45 Charcoal from the flots was broken transversely and examined at up to x50 magnification. While this is an appropriate means for the identification of oak (Quercus), the identification of the diffuse-porous taxa (Alnus/Corylus, Pomoideae and Prunus) are tentative.

The molluscs were assessed by a combination of scanning flots for shells from those contexts which had been sampled for charred remains as well as molluscs, scanning the wash-overs from organic samples, and sieving 500 g to 1 kg sub-samples on a 0.5 mm sieve, drying them and scanning them at x10 magnification.

Sub-samples of 250 g upwards from all the waterlogged samples were washed over onto a 0.25 mm sieve and scanned at up to x50 magnification for macroscopic plant remains and Coleoptera.

Flotation Mollusc samples Waterlogged samples Assessment No of samples Litres 1992 519 5190 4 Robinson 1993 Sites 3 and 4 1995 282 5569 13 (11 in 1 column) Robinson 1996 Sites 4a and 5 1996 383 6512 44 (43 from 4 columns) 13 Robinson 1997 Site 7 1997 37 1034 10 22 Robinson 1998 Sites 17, 22 and 25 1998 118 2409 23 51 Robinson 1999 Sites 4c, 4d, 4e, 9, 10 and 21 Total 1339 20714 94 86

Mollusc samples are 1 kg in size Waterlogged samples are 10 kg in size

2.14.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

The examination of a wide variety of archaeological features on a range of topographies has yielded an extraordinary wealth of evidence on the environment of sites of many types and periods, and on the wider landscape.

Charred plant remains were recovered mainly from dry ground sites, in particular from pits with good groups of datable finds. Hazelnut shells were abundant in many of the Neolithic pits and, with other gathered foods such as apple (Malus sp.) and sloe (Prunus spinosa), heavily outnumbered domesticated plants. This follows the pattern for the Neolithic suggested by Moffett et al. (1989), but the numbers of samples from Yarnton and the range of features from which they came, provides considerable support for this hypothesis. Small numbers of cereals are found in Neolithic contexts (free-threshing wheat, Triticum sp., emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccum, and barley, Hordeum sp.), and quantities of these increase gradually through time. Even so, hazelnuts were still common in Bronze Age contexts, including a group of late Bronze Age/early Iron Age postholes on the west edge of Site 3. An exception to this pattern, however, was discovered in 1998 when far greater quantities of cereals were found in features associated with a mid to late Bronze Age house on Site 4c and a waterhole in the adjacent Site 4e observation area. The latter yielded more cereal (emmer wheat and hulled barley) than the total of all the remaining floodplain contexts sampled. Uniquely, crop processing waste was recovered in waterlogged samples from the waterhole on Site

46 4c nearer to the structure. Rare seeds of flax were recovered from mid and late Bronze Age features on Site 4c and Site 5.

Wood charcoal was particularly common in cremation deposits, some pits with placed deposits and features containing quantities of burnt stone. It is also found in some tree- throw holes. Oak (Quercus sp.) was most abundant but a wide range of other trees were present, particularly trees common in local woodland such as alder/hazel (Alnus glutinosa/Corylus avellana) and ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and scrubby species such as hawthorn (cf. Pomoideae), sloe (cf. Prunus sp.) and purging buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus). Alder and hazel seems to be more common in Neolithic contexts and oak in Bronze Age features. Of particular interest are records of elm (Ulmus sp.) and maple (Acer sp.) from waterholes on Sites 17 and 21 in the west of the study area, which might suggest greater woodland survival in these areas. Cremation deposits around the long enclosure on Site 5 provided very mixed wood charcoal, others on Site 7, associated with the Neolithic rectangular structure and the ring ditch, were found mainly with oak and occasional charred tubers of onion couch grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). Oak charcoal predominates in features containing burnt stone.

Preservation of molluscs was variable over the floodplain area, but they did survive within the ditches of the Neolithic long enclosure on Site 5 and the ring ditches on Sites 4 and 7, and they reveal interesting information on the progress of land clearance, with episodes of woodland/scrub regeneration. Some waterlogged contexts also contained useful molluscan assemblages, for example some of the waterholes, but particularly the possible middle Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 where evidence of a rising water table can be observed on a floodplain that was generally dry open grassland. Unfortunately shells were virtually absent from the stone causeway on Site 9.

Waterlogged plant remains were found in palaeochannel silts and waterholes. Within the channels they provide good evidence of the vegetation within these water courses and changing conditions over time. Plants beneath the sand-and-gravel causeway on Site 10 will provide evidence of the environment of this crossing place. Sadly preservation was poor around the Site 9 causeway, although some organic material had survived within the sand of the upper causeway here. Evidence from the waterholes is probably more significant, as preservation was often very good or excellent, and is more likely to reflect a wider landscape than the lush vegetation that swamp the channel sequences. In addition, waterholes were found across the floodplain area and probably represent several periods. Whereas several of the waterholes appear to have had scrub growing around them (eg on Sites 7, 4c and 4e), light-demanding annuals suggest a cleared landscape in the surrounding area, a situation supported by the molluscs and beetles. Waterlogged plants were also found within the ditch on Site 25, showing damp conditions within the ditch but grazed grassland around. Evidence of both wet and relatively dry grassland is present on Site 9 and Site 25 respectively. Disturbed ground is indicated by plants from the Sites 4c and 4e features. Waterholes on Sites 17 and 21, however, have leaves and fruits of trees and plants that derive mainly from shady habitats, demonstrating interesting variation across the floodplain landscape in space and time.

Waterlogged plants from waterholes on Sites 4c and 4e provide evidence of economic activity, with the recovery of cereals (Triticum spelta replacing Triticum dicoccum),

47 crop-processing debris, flax, and bracken frond fragments which were brought to the site, probably for animal bedding.

Waterlogged insects were recovered from the same contexts as waterlogged plants. They are particularly useful for showing the conditions beyond the immediate surroundings of waterholes, for example the open conditions around the waterhole of context group 7 on Site 17 and waterholes on Sites 7, 4c and 4e. Scarabaeoid dung beetles are well represented in these features indicating the importance of animal raising. Insects from the waterhole on Site 21, however, support the evidence of woodland plants from this feature and, in addition, contained a beetle (Grynobius planus) which bores into dead wood. The Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 also had a good assemblage of insects including grassland species, in addition to water beetles, such as Helophorus cf. brevipalpis, from the ditch bottom. Preservation of insects within the channel sections was more variable. Insects were found within the Site 22 sequence, where the evidence is consistent with the seeds, but otherwise survival was poor, particularly around the causeways. Some insects indicate not just the general environment, but evidence of nearby human occupation, for example synanthropic beetles found within the waterhole on Site 7.

The collection of these different strands of evidence formed part of an integrated strategy to investigate the landscape and environmental change. In addition, observations were made about palaeohydrology and alluviation, and general soil conditions and tree-throw holes which will complement the botanical remains. A general sequence can be observed of a relatively dry, wooded landscape in the middle Holocene, following channel stabilisation in the Late Devensian. Tree clearance from the early Neolithic accelerated in the Bronze Age leading to a rising water table and the onset of alluviation by the end of the prehistoric period.

Some channel sections were excavated and sampled purely for landscape evidence, eg Site 22, but the majority of samples were taken from archaeological features directly related to human activity. The evidence derives from features associated with domestic, funerary and ceremonial sites and areas of ‘off-site’ activity, such as burnt mound deposits and channel crossings. Tree-throw holes also occasionally yielded environmental data in addition to providing physical evidence of clearance. These features cover all periods from the early Neolithic to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age, and all contexts that are critical in the environmental sequence will be dated by radiocarbon (see above Section 2.2).

The low water table during the Neolithic means that no waterlogged deposits are present from this period, although it is conceivable that the waterholes with woodland surroundings on Sites 17 and 21 belong to the end of the Neolithic. However, molluscs from the long enclosure ditch provide a good sequence showing environmental change and can be supplemented by snails recovered from flotation of samples from the postholes of the Neolithic rectangular structure and other pits. Some good assemblages of charred food remains and wood charcoal have been recovered from deliberate deposits associated with Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker.

Although Bronze Age settlement is more evident on the Yarnton floodplain, features are generally less rich than Neolithic and late Neolithic/early Bronze Age pits. Nevertheless some good assemblages of charred remains do survive. More importantly for this later

48 period, the rising water table has resulted in the preservation of organic material, particularly in waterholes adjacent to domestic sites which provide information on site- related activities as well as the landscape in which they were set. ‘Off-site’ activity is also more visible and has provided a context for the recovery of data associated with burnt mounds and channel-related activity. No food remains have ever been found near the burnt stone deposits.

Funerary sites proved to be the focus of placed deposits which included charred remains, for example on Site 5. Cremation deposits also contained wood charcoal and, occasionally, other charred plants.

2.14.3 Potential

The archaeology of the Yarnton floodplain has yielded environmental evidence of exceptional interest and importance. Sampling of such a range of feature types representing a long time period has been undertaken on a sufficient scale to address major national research issues. The dating of important features will be critical for a full appreciation of the remains. The potential of the different elements of environmental evidence that survive is considerable enhanced by the ability to integrate these bodies of data; survival of charred remains and molluscs on dry-ground sites complement that of plants and insects in waterlogged environments.

Of particular significance is the gradual transition from small-scale cultivation and the collection of wild, edible plants to a much more intensive agricultural system. The good charred assemblages from later Neolithic pits and charred and waterlogged plant remains from Bronze Age waterholes will be particularly useful in this respect. Previously, detailed evidence of these changes have been lacking outside Wessex, an area which may be atypical in its early concentration on cereals. Due consideration will, of course, need to be given to depositional practices in the interpretation of remains.

The process of woodland clearance, with periods of scrub regeneration, can be traced by looking at molluscs derived from ditches of funerary monuments of different periods, waterlogged material from boundary ditches and waterholes and the tree-throw holes themselves with the finds recovered from them. The topographical spread of this evidence across the floodplain will allow variation within the landscape to be assessed, enhancing an understanding of how populations utilised this part of the Thames Valley.

A rising water table within the major river valleys has made a significant impact on the formation of the modern landscape and had profound consequences for the lives of prehistoric inhabitants. In the Upper Thames this was probably the direct result of forest clearance in the catchment (Robinson and Lambrick 1984). The period at which the rise of the water table began, and its rate of progress, can be assessed by examining the level at which organic material survives at different periods. Its gradual impact on the vegetation, the changing land use strategies of the inhabitants and the location of settlement can also be investigated, principally by examining waterlogged plant and invertebrate remains. The absence of cereals on some of the late Bronze Age sites, for example, could indicate pastoral activities of people exploiting the lush grassland on the valley floor.

49 The quantities and distribution of food remains will assist in understanding economic activities, for example where and how food was prepared and, more certainly, how remains were deposited (Hey et al. forthcoming). The provisional results indicate that charred foods are rare in the postholes of structures and common in deliberate deposits. Comparing food remains from domestic features, pits with placed deposits, and funerary contexts may suggest the foods that were appropriate in different contexts. The range of plant foods within the diet can also be assessed. It has been suggested by Gordon Hillman that tubers formed an important part of the prehistoric diet, and their absence from Neolithic and Bronze Age assemblages is due either to poor preservation or inept recovery on British sites. However, the low-lying character of the Yarnton site and the survival of organic remains in several locations failed to yield such food remains, even though charred Iris tubers were easily recovered.

The environmental evidence has the potential to elucidate the nature of activities which are poorly understood. For example, the apparent absence of food remains in the context of burnt mound deposits, either charred or waterlogged in adjacent waterholes, is of considerable interest in the light of their possible interpretation as cooking areas, and should be fully investigated and validated. The type of wood charcoal recovered, and its use in the process, either as wood or as charcoal, can also be examined. The species of wood used in cremations can be seen to vary across the floodplain area, with mixed species within the Site 5 cremation deposits (associated with the Neolithic long enclosure), oak alone on Site 10 and oak and onion couch grass in cremations on Site 7. Does this vary according to period or the type of deposit? Were different woods used in domestic areas and burnt mound deposits, and did these differ from those found in placed deposits?

It has already been seen that it is possible to observe periods of climatic change within the prehistoric period at Yarnton. The species composition of middle Bronze Age insect fauna from a waterhole on Site 1 (now written up within Module 2, Chapter 9) suggests a warm phase and is similar to that recovered from the contemporary Wilsford Shaft (Osborne 1969, 1989). Once the major features have been dated by radiocarbon, it will be possible to assess how long-lived these changes were and their impact upon the landscape.

2.15 Pollen

2.15.1 Method of analysis and quantification

James Greig of Birmingham University visited the site during fieldwork and advised on the likely preservation of pollen. He collected samples in 1996, 1997 and 1998, usually from the same contexts as those for waterlogged macrobotanical plants and insects, and he assessed this material (Greig 1997, 1998, 1999). Test counts are shown in these post- excavation assessments.

The pollen samples were prepared using the usual fine sieving and swirling process to separate the material above or below the size of pollen, and to separate the lighter organic material from the heavier mineral. The preparations were acetolysed to remove cellulose, stained with safronin, and mounted on microscope slides in glycerol jelly.

50 Small counts were done for the purposes of the assessments, using a Leitz Dialux microscope. Identifications were made using Greig’s reference collection seen with a Leitz Lablux microscope, and one slide was scanned to see how many additional taxa were present. The glycerine preparations have been retained so that more slides can be made.

Pollen was recovered from ten contexts on six sites, 32 samples in all:

Site Waterholes Channels Ditches Assessment ref.

Site 7 4 (from 2 features) 1 Greig 1997

Site 17 7 (from 2 features) Greig 1998

Site 22 6 Greig 1998

Site 25 9 Greig 1998

Site 4c 1 Greig 1999

Site 21 4 (from 2 features) Greig 1999

Total 16 6 10

2.15.2 Range and variety of material and its provenance

The pollen comes from waterholes and ditches of Bronze Age date, though it is possible that one of the waterholes on Site 17 and one on Site 21 are late Neolithic. In addition, a palaeochannel sequence was sampled on Site 22, which probably ranges in date from Bronze Age to Roman. All contexts were waterlogged and had evidence of other organic preservation, with the exception of a possible turf found within a ring ditch on Site 7. The latter, however, did not contain significant amounts of pollen and will not be discussed further.

Tree and shrub pollen was present in all samples. In general this provided evidence of secondary re-growth of woodland, for example on Site 7, and scrub, for example on Site 4c where sloe/wild cherry (Prunus) and hawthorn (Crataegus) were found in addition to oak (Quercus). As the scrubby species are under-represented as pollen their mere presence is significant. Both these waterholes also contained what would be early records of beech (Fagus), if they do produce Bronze Age radiocarbon dates. Two waterholes yielded higher tree pollen counts than is normal for archaeological sites. Nearly 60% of the pollen from a waterhole in the bed of a shallow palaeochannel on Site 21 was from trees and shrubs. Most of this was alder (Alnus), hazel (Corylus) and oak, but grassland species were also present. Oak and lime (Tilia) were found in a waterhole on Site 17 which may indicate woodland survival in this area and may also suggest that this feature is earlier than the other waterhole on this site which produced evidence of a more cleared landscape. The survival of pollen in this feature is important as preservation of macrobotanical remains was poor (Robinson 1998).

The presence of grassland on the floodplain area can be seen, for example, from pollen recovered from waterholes on Sites 7 and 21 and a ditch on Site 25. Economic plants

51 are represented by cereal pollen which was identified within the Site 7 feature, one of the waterholes on Site 17 and one on Site 21.

Waterholes on Sites 7, 17 and 21 have ova of the intestinal parasite Trichuris. These worms are found in many animals, but humans are another possible source and these eggs may have derived from sewage.

2.15.3 Potential

The pollen collected during work on the Yarnton floodplain will provide evidence of the wider landscape of the study area that will supplement the information provided by the more detailed and site-specific plant, mollusc and insect remains. It will also aid in the interpretation of this data.

Evidence of the density and character of woodland will be of considerable importance for understanding human settlement of the area. The variety of pollen present in different features across the floodplain shows that it should be possible to address issues of changing woodland composition through time, and contemporary variability within the landscape. Comparison between the proportions of tree/shrub and of grassland species will also be of interest in understanding changing land use strategies of the inhabitants.

The survival of small quantities of cereal pollen within some features suggests the growing or processing of crops nearby. This information will enhance the potential for the study of agricultural intensification, provided by the macrobotanical and invertebrate remains. Human activity can also be evidenced by the presence of parasites within some of the waterholes, whether derived from animals being grazed in the vicinity or from human occupation.

The collection of pollen columns from some features can assist in understanding site formation processes. For example, a sequence of samples was taken from a waterhole on Site 21 in order to assess whether the feature was backfilled rapidly, as a deliberate deposit (it was filled with worked wood and unusual faunal remains), or gradually over a period of time.

2.16 Geoarchaeology

2.16.1 Method of analysis and quantification

Geoarchaeological studies were initiated on site to answer specific questions about archaeological soils and site-formation processes:

1. Can the bank of the Neolithic long enclosure be detected by greater concentrations of stone in the overlying ploughsoil, even when this is not visible by eye?

2. Is the stone-free upper fill of the long enclosure an alluvial deposit, suggesting an early (pre-late Bronze Age) alluvial event?

52 3. Does the Roman ploughsoil, which is usually found overlying prehistoric features on the floodplain, mainly incorporate alluvium or the sub-soil into which early features are cut, and what can this tell us about the degree of truncation of the prehistoric ground surface?

4. Did layers of soil with strong organic staining within a ring ditch represent collapsed turfs, or could two of these deposits represent fine sedimentation from standing water?

5. Could a stained deposit within a Neolithic flat-bottomed pit overlain by a human cremation deposit represent a container (perhaps of wood)?

6. Were the upper fills of two pits alluvial in character, and does this shed light on their date and possible function?

7. Could the fill of a waterhole adjacent to burnt mound activity reveal evidence of the nature of this activity, or the character of the backfill of the waterhole? In particular, is a cess component indicated by an unusual mottling with faint greenish colouration?

8. Were soil particles within a pit packed with burnt stone and charcoal introduced by post- depositional biological activity and/or wash from above, and is it possible to determine whether the charcoal was formed in situ or dumped into the pit after it had cooled?

9. Were the apparently alluvial fills of a double row of post/slot features of a similar character along the length of both rows and did they resemble the overlying alluvial deposit?

10. Could soil-reddened deposits on the palaeochannel banks result from domestic fires or the burning of tree stumps, and at what temperatures do such colour changes take place?

11. Could the phosphate samples taken in several surveys on different sites on Yarnton floodplain, be affected by the presence of ancient collophane (fossil bone) in the gravels?

Matt Canti of AML visited the site to advise on the potential of geoarchaeological analysis, took appropriate samples and assessed the results (Canti 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999).

Question Location Sampling strategy Method of analysis Assessment ref.

1 Site 5 Sampling (5 litres) across baulk at 0.5 m Full analysis of variation in total weight and Canti 1996, 21-3 intervals. 77 samples in total. stone content of 10 samples; remainder wet- sieved through 4 mm mesh and stone bagged for further analysis 2 Site 5 7 samples taken from vertical section Particle size and heavy mineral percentages Canti 1996, 23-4

3 Site 4b/5 8 samples through soil profile of 2 Particle size and heavy mineral percentages Canti 1996, 24-5 sections through ploughsoils, alluvium and gravel 4 Site 7 3 samples from three contexts within Micromorphology to look for organic or Canti 1997, 58-63 ring ditch fill mineralised plant remains, or preserved layers from water sorting. 5 Site 7 1 Kubiena tin through staining along Micromorphology, X-ray fluorescence and Canti 1997, 58-64 with comparable bulk sample; 3 bulk Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis to samples from other places in section as determine what is stained and what its control composition is. Checking field-textures of the control samples.

53 6 Site 7 2 samples, one from each pit Particle size and heavy mineral percentages Canti 1997, 64

7 Site 17 1 sample Thin-sectioning Canti 1998, 58-9

8 Site 17 3 undisturbed samples representing Thin-sectioning; sub-sample testing in furnace Canti 1998, 58-9 complete profiles of the pit to determine maximum temperature soil could have reached to acquire its current colouration 9 Site 9 7 samples; 3 from fills, 2 from Particle-size analysis Canti 1999 75-7 surrounding sediment and 2 from overlying sediment 10 Sites 9 Field testing different types of fires on Thin-sectioning and comparing results; Canti 1999 76-7 and 21 different soil types, burning for different controlled heating of deposits in laboratory lengths of time; detailed temperature environment measurement of these. Thin sections of experimental areas and archaeological tree-throw holes with burning. 11 Sites 5, 7 10 samples: 5 strongest and 5 weakest Heavy mineral extraction; collophane to be Canti 1995, 29 and 21 samples as identified in analysis at quantified optically in each sample Bournemouth (see below)

2.16.2 Variety of sample type and their provenance

A variety of analytical techniques will be used to address the questions raised during fieldwork, as shown in the table above. The samples derive from a range of funerary and domestic features and contexts which resulted from ‘off-site’ activity, which vary in date from early Neolithic to later Bronze Age. In addition, several alluvial and ploughsoil deposits of later (Iron Age and Roman) date were sampled in order to investigate post- depositional processes on the floodplain.

2.16.3 Potential

The geoarchaeological studies will address site-specific issues and also those associated with general floodplain soil development.

It may be possible to shed light on the form of funerary monuments. Variations were present in stone densities in the soil profile above the Neolithic long enclosure, although no obvious conclusions could be drawn from these. The results merit further consideration in the light of other analyses. The appearance of the Bronze Age ring ditch on Site 7 could be clarified by assessing whether turfs had fallen from the mound into the ditch, or possibly whether standing water surrounded the monument. The identification of the container placed in a pit beneath a human cremation deposit will contribute to an understanding of the nature of ritual associated with burial in the Neolithic.

Geoarchaeological work has the potential to contribute to an understanding of burnt mound activity, by looking at how burnt stone and charcoal was deposited within some of the very regular pits, and how adjacent waterholes were filled. The extent and intensity of burning events, particularly found on channel banks, will aid in an interpretation of how the wider landscape was used and cleared of woodland.

There is potential to assess the degree of alluvium in the ploughsoil and suggest the extent of truncation of prehistoric features by detecting alluvium as a separate particle size or heavy mineral signature from the sub-soil which covers the gravel of the floodplain.

54 Geoarchaeological techniques will help to validate other methods of analysis. For example, it is important in the interpretation of phosphate results to understand the possible impact of ancient collophane surviving in the floodplain gravels and potentially present in phosphate samples.

2.17 Phosphates

2.17.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Phosphate surveys were undertaken on four sites on the Yarnton Floodplain (Hacking and Hey 1996, 1997 and 1998; Bell 1999). It is believed that soils from many kinds of human activity (burials, food-processing, cooking, latrines, cattle compounds etc) become enriched with organic phosphates forming insoluble complexes at or near the point of deposition.

Samples were taken on a grid at a range of intervals (see below) and, occasionally, from sections. Some samples came from the modern ploughsoil, both above and away from sites.

Site No of samples Sampling interval Type of site Assessment ref.

Site 5 1016 2 x 2 m (635 samples) Neolithic long enclosure Hacking and Hey 1996 1 x 1 m intervals from sections (381) Site 7 718 0.5 x 0.5 m and 2 x 2 m Neolithic rectangular structure Hacking and Hey 1997

Site 7 120 2 x 2 m Area with no visible archaeological Hacking and Hey 1997 features Site 22 24 Spot samples from section Causeway over channel Hacking and Hey 1998

Site 21 1008 0.5 x 0.5 m Area of burnt mound activity Bell 1999

Total 2886

The samples were tested in a laboratory, in random order, using a qualitative spot-testing method described by Eidt (1977). Only a proportion of the total phosphate is measured by this technique and its limitations are acknowledged (Gurney 1985).

A 50 mg sub-sample of sieved soil was treated on a filter paper with an acid-molybdate solution (hydrochloric acid and ammonium molybdate) to form a molybdenum-blue complex, the intensity of which was read after two minutes and graded. Four possible readings were used: trace, weak, weak/positive and positive. Positive in this scheme was used to denote a strong colour reading. Some samples were ‘blind-tested’ twice and some locations were sampled twice. The results were plotted onto plans and sections.

2.17.2 Provenance of the samples and the range of results

The survey was initially set up to assess the possible use of the Neolithic long enclosure but it was extended explicitly to cover a range of different site types. Thus mortuary, ?domestic, burnt mound and channel causeway sites have been surveyed, in addition to

55 an area where no archaeological features were visible. These very different activities could be expected to provide a range of readings.

The sampling interval varied from the initial 2 x 2 m collection unit to that of 0.5 x 0.5 m which was designed to sample the reading points used in the magnetic susceptibility survey.

The assessment method relied on observing patterning within the data in plan or in section, and no statistical techniques have so far been employed. The results were variable. Concentrations of strong readings were present within the long enclosure, contrasting with weak readings beyond, although whether this can be attributed to Neolithic activity or to the presence of a late Bronze Age house is uncertain, even though the concentrations do not correspond to the structure. Strong readings were also found around the causeway near the bank, but the clearest correlation of positive readings with specific activity areas was present around the burnt stone features on Site 21. By contrast, the results from the Neolithic building and the area devoid of archaeological features on Site 7 appeared random and, in addition, there were no obvious differences in the results from these two, very different areas.

2.17.3 Potential

Variability in the data suggests that there is potential to shed light on activity areas, by identifying their location, extent and, possibly, intensity of use. However, the results must be validated by laboratory testing before any confidence can be placed in the patterning seen. The inconclusive outcome of the 1996 survey requires explanation, and shows that there is some uncertainty in interpreting the results.

The phosphate surveys at Yarnton will provide valuable information on the utility of this method of survey, which is seldom employed in this country. It may indicate the conditions in which phosphate is successful, the scale over which it can most appropriately be used and the sampling interval that is most suitable.

2.18 Geophysical survey

2.18.1 Method of assessment and quantification

Geophysical survey using a variety of methods was undertaken over all areas examined on the floodplain, on both the modern ground surface and the stripped excavation sites (see below). The surveys were undertaken by AML, with the exception of the detailed magnetic susceptibility which was conducted by Adrian Challands for English Heritage over Sites 5, 7 and 21. The caesium vapour total field magnetometry which was undertaken by Jörg Faßbinder of the Bayerischen Landesamt für Denkmalplege, München as part of a continuing collaborative project with AML. AML assessed the results (David and Linford 1993; Linford 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999), and details of the instruments used and survey methods and intervals employed can be found in these reports.

56 Site Magnetometer survey Magnetometer survey Earth resistance Magnetic susceptibility Mineral magnetic Assessment ref. (fluxgate gradiometer) (caesium vapour) profiling Site 3 2 ha on topsoil √ David and Linford 1993 Sites 4b 1.7 ha on topsoil 0.8 ha on topsoil Transect √ Linford 1994 and 5 Site 5 0.2 ha on stripped surface Linford 1996

Site 7 2.5 ha on topsoil 1 ha on stripped surface √ Linford 1997

Site 25 3 ha on topsoil √ Linford 1998

Sites 4c √ Linford 1999 and 9 Site 21 0.7 ha on topsoil (standard 0.7 ha on topsoil 0.4 ha on topsoil 0.2 ha on stripped surface √ Linford 1999 and high resolution) 0.2 ha on stripped surface

2.18.2 Variety of techniques, range of results and location of the surveys

A wide range of geophysical techniques has been employed on the Yarnton floodplain sites, covering an area of more than 10 ha. Magnetometer survey of various kinds has proved to be the most successful method, mainly undertaken using a fluxgate gradiometer, but also with a high-sensitivity caesium magnetometer. A variety of sample intervals and machine-operating heights were compared, and survey was carried out on both the modern ground surface and on archaeological sites stripped of overburden. In addition, earth resistance and magnetic susceptibility surveys were undertaken. Sample locations of magnetic susceptibility were the same as those for phosphate survey.

Generally there was poor response to archaeological features on the floodplain, in particular over the areas of posthole structures and clusters of pits which have been a notable aspect of prehistoric remains at Yarnton, but also features that would be expected to have been detectable, such as a Bronze Age linear ditch on Site 25. Survey over the modern ground surface, especially for magnetic susceptibility, was hampered by the presence of ferrous detritus which had been spread over the fields when the railway line, which transects the study area, was dismantled in the 1960s. However, features such as a Neolithic long enclosure and Bronze Age ring ditches did produce anomalies of varying magnitude, as did areas of intense burning on the banks of a channel on Site 21. The success of geophysical survey techniques can vary widely within a comparatively small area, and does not seem to be entirely attributable to the influence of alluvial overburden.

Survey over stripped surfaces was more successful than over the present ground surface, particularly magnetic susceptibility which picked up interesting anomalies associated with the long enclosure and considerable magnetic variation on Site 7. Resistivity survey responded only to gross geomorphological effects such as palaeochannels.

In addition to surface survey, sediments from individual features and the surrounding subsoil were sampled in order to measure their magnetic properties. This should provide a detailed understanding of the magnetic enhancement process within specific contexts and may help to explain why some features did not produce anomalies. It is possible that in some circumstances the enhancement mechanisms that normally lead to the

57 magnetisation of archaeological features have been suppressed, or that extensive post- depositional alteration of the magnetic minerals has occurred. The magnetic response of the ring ditches, on the other hand, shows that in some conditions a distinguishable magnetic enhancement did occur, and has survived under floodplain conditions for a significant period of time.

The geophysical surveys covered a wide range of site types, including funerary/ceremonial monuments on Sites 5 and 7, domestic features on Sites 3 and 7, areas of burnt-mound activity on Site 21 and causeways and other features associated with the palaeochannels on Sites 9 and 21. These sites were located on gravel islands within the floodplain, on the edges of channels and within the channels themselves, and had varying depths of deposit overlying them. The nature of the overburden also varied from friable silty ploughsoil to alluvial clay.

2.18.3 Potential

The geomorphological conditions within the floodplain and surrounding areas present a particular challenge to traditional geophysical techniques used to identify archaeological activity. The extent of survey at Yarnton, the range of sites surveyed and the variety of techniques employed provides an opportunity to investigate the conditions in which geophysics is most appropriate. The value of this study is enhanced by the ability to compare responses with the ‘ground truth’ as revealed on the archaeological sites.

Floodplain environments are increasingly under threat, and are difficult topographies to evaluate archaeologically. Investigating appropriate geophysical survey techniques for use in these conditions is of considerable strategic importance. It will be possible to compare the performance of different methods of survey in different circumstances and suggest the most suitable techniques for fieldwork in floodplain areas. Investigation of the relative success of different sampling intervals and machine-operating heights, and the benefits of survey over stripped as well as modern ground surfaces can be undertaken and recommendations made. Detailed mineral magnetic profiling of individual features will provide some understanding of why some features provide good and others only very weak responses, and a comparison with geophysical survey undertaken on the higher gravel terraces at Yarnton, which has been much more successful (Linford forthcoming), may also be revealing.

2.19 Evaluation techniques

2.19.1 Variety of techniques and location of the surveys

From 1990 to 1993 several methods were employed to evaluate the archaeological resource of the study area. This included fieldwalking over 182 hectares (Hey 1991; 1998), trenched evaluation of 2% of the study area (393 trenches; Hey 1991a; 1991b; 1992a; 1992b; 1994a) and three test-pit sieving transects (51 pits; Hey 1992a; 1994a). A survey was undertaken by the then RCHME of air photographic coverage of the study area and features around Worton were plotted (Featherstone and Dyer 1994). In addition, the various geophysical surveys described above were undertaken. The results

58 suggest a complex relationship between early features, their topographical location and later land use and geomorphological change (Hey 1998).

Excavation areas were selected on the basis of the results of these techniques, mainly to investigate the densest areas of archaeology covering a variety of activities undertaken in the past and a range of dates. However, three small sites covering one hectare in total were chosen in areas where no archaeological features had been detected in evaluation trenches (Sites 4a, 4c and 4d). The observation of topsoil stripping also enabled areas to be examined where low levels of early activity were anticipated (Sites 4b and 4e, and adjacent to Site 7).

2.19.2 Potential

It is rare to be able to compare such a range of techniques undertaken over such a large area with ground truth as provided by the substantial excavation areas stripped. There is great potential to compare the various methods used with the actual results and assess the relative merits of each. To what extent did the type of archaeology predicted match with expectations? Of particular potential will be the assessment of results from the areas which appeared to be ‘blank’ in the evaluation. How accurate were these predictions? Would a higher percentage sample have provided more accurate results, and what would the optimum array be? The outcome should be proposals for the most effective methods or suites of methods for different types of topography and archaeology.

3. OVERALL STATEMENT OF POTENTIAL AND THE NATIONAL CONTEXT

The outcome of fieldwork has been to realise and reinforce the research potential of the archaeological resource as expressed in the 1994 research design for the study area (Hey 1994). During the course of the investigations on the floodplain some new issues have also been raised which are of national significance.

3.1 The results measured against the original research objectives

Objective 1.1: Domestic settlement Domestic activity has been observed over extensive areas of the Yarnton floodplain and its remains span the early Neolithic to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age periods. Neolithic features were found only on the long central island (Sites 3, ?4b, and 7) and possibly also in the west of the gravel extraction area (Site 25 and evaluation trenches in this area). Bronze Age settlement was more widespread, being located on Sites 4c, 4e, and Site 5, as well as being found on Sites 3 and 7 and in evaluation trenches in the south-west of the study area. This suggests more intensive use of the floodplain through time. Groups of features which seem to represent domestic activity are discrete and appear to represent single episodes of use. However, it is apparent from the variability in the presence and number of houses, and in the range and size of associated features, that periods of occupation may have been of very different lengths. With the exception of

59 the Neolithic rectangular building on Site 7 (which may not have had a domestic function), the earliest visible houses are early to mid Bronze Age in date, and a greater range of features are associated with these through time. The presence of a group of circular structures on Site 7 may represent more long-lived settlement or the habitation of a larger family group, as proposed for a similar group on Site 1 (Chapter 9). By contrast, later Neolithic units suggest short-term occupation.

The range of finds and environmental evidence that has come from these features means that there is potential to investigate the nature of settlement and the physical appearance of these domestic spaces. The extent of external contacts, raw-material transport, territorial range and level of mobility of the occupants can be assessed from the examination of the character and source of flint, other worked stone, pottery and metalwork.

The discovery of a Neolithic rectangular building was unexpected and raises issues of the ways in which these large structures were used, and their relationship to contemporary activity. Does it imply greater permanence of occupation than that of the less substantial later Neolithic settlement evidence? Its presence also enables an investigation of changing house forms through time, the potential of which had not previously been appreciated.

The extent of early settlement and its relationship to tree clearance (as evidenced by tree- throw holes, some with burning and with finds) also has greater potential than was recognised before the floodplain excavations commenced.

Objective 1.2: Economy, landscape and land use Palaeoenvironmental and faunal remains have been recovered from across the floodplain area and from features which are associated with a broad range of human activities, as well as from palaeochannel sections away from known settlement. They derive from all periods of occupation. The extent of excavation and sampling that has been undertaken provides a good and representative sample of material from which to assess the economic basis of society, land use and human impact on the environment. Combining the different strands of evidence has particular potential for examining these issues. For example, the exploitation of gathered woodland plants; the paucity of charred cereals, cultivation soils and quernstones; the presence almost exclusively of domesticated not wild animals and indicators of grazed grassland from pollen, beetles and snails, provide compelling evidence of pastoral communities. When this is added to the absence of identifiable structures in the later Neolithic this might suggest that communities were mobile at this time. The importance of excavating over wide areas was demonstrated in the last season of fieldwork, when a substantial deposit of barley was recovered on Site 4e. This was in stark contrast to the small quantities of cereals that had previously been recovered, and provided a reminder of the variability that may exist across areas and through time, and the problems of the visibility of some types of material in the archaeological record.

Landscape variability and woodland clearance can be investigated as evidence is derived from across the floodplain area. The unexpected number of waterholes, which contain well-preserved environmental evidence, enhance the potential of this study, as does the more extensive evidence from tree-throw holes than had been anticipated.

60 Evidence of a rising water table is also more clearly demonstrated than was originally expected, both from a comparison of the changing depth of waterlogged deposits through time, and broader landscape evidence from middle Bronze Age ditches, for example that on Site 25.

Objective 1.3: ‘Off-site’ activity Features representing a wide range of tasks external or peripheral to settlement were examined on the Yarnton floodplain, which appear to be mainly Bronze Age in date. Areas with burnt stone deposits were investigated, especially on Sites 17 and 21, and a range of features were associated with these, the form of which may shed light on the activity undertaken in these locations. Finds, and particularly waterlogged remains from adjacent waterholes, will be of considerable value in this respect, as will the palaeoenvironmental evidence recovered.

Several lengths of palaeochannel were investigated (Sites 4, 4d, 9, 10, 17, 21 and 22) and evidence of human activity was found in, or immediately adjacent to, all. This includes several crossing places of sand and gravel (Sites 4, 9, 21 and 22), stone (Site 9) and wood (Sites 9 and 10), but also other wooden structures of uncertain purpose as represented by groups of uprights (for example on Site 10). Concentrations of artefacts were recovered in some parts of the channel which may indicate specific activities conducted on the adjacent banks or more simple refuse disposal. Analysis of the comparatively high proportion of flint tools in these locations will be of considerable interest; higher numbers of flints from areas next to the channels may suggest flint knapping in these areas.

Two aspects of channel-related activity were not anticipated and augment the research potential of the site. Waterholes had been cut into the base of shallow palaeochannels on Sites 17 and 21, or on the edge of the channel on Site 9, presumably at a time before water flowed along the channels year-round, and organic artefacts and environmental material have been excellently preserved in these contexts. Human remains were recovered from features that appear to have been preferentially sited on the banks of the channel (Sites 4d and 10, and possibly Site 21) enhancing a study of funerary practices for these early periods.

Some pits and hearths were located away from settlements, including some within tree- throw holes, and a comparison their contents will be of great interest. The amplify the range and type of activities undertaken away from occupation sites.

The extent of evidence for prehistoric movement through the landscape, in the form of paths, trackways and crossing places will make a considerable contribution to understanding how sites were linked and how different topographies were utilised. The potential of this area of research was not appreciated before excavations took place.

Objective 1.4: Funerary and ceremonial sites A long mortuary enclosure and two ring ditches have been investigated during the course of the floodplain fieldwork, associated with pits with special deposits. Although these monuments lie near to domestic sites, it is apparent that they were segregated from them,

61 at least until the end of the Bronze Age. This separation of the living and the dead merits further investigation. The recovery of some artefacts that may have been made specifically for deposition in funerary locations, for example the macehead and arrowheads around the long enclosure on Site 5, will enhance an understanding of burial practices, as will the use of burnt stone, tubers and particular species of wood in cremation pyres.

In addition to these sites the Neolithic rectangular post-built structure on Site 7 may be a building for ceremonies rather than domestic habitation, and the stone causeway excavated on Site 9 may have been constructed for processions and other activities of a special nature. Neither site was located in the evaluation and both have potential for understanding the range of ceremonies that took place. It is also apparent that many pit deposits comprising substantial and fine assemblages of artefacts and ecofacts, particularly pottery, were deliberately placed. They mostly lay in domestic areas but do not seem to be rubbish per se; they probably represent small localised ceremonies (Hey et al. forthcoming).

An understanding of funerary practices will also be enhanced by the discovery of unmarked human burials placed away from monuments, some partial and some deposited with animal bone. The extent of these and their character was not previously realised.

Objective 1.5: Relationship between different types of site The range of sites examined and the finds recovered from them means that there is considerable potential to explore the relationship between domestic, other utilitarian, ceremonial and burial sites. Indeed, the more complex relationships that clearly exist between domestic and ceremony/ritual makes this both a more difficult and a more exciting field of research.

Objective 1.6: Chronological and functional relationship of major pottery styles The recovery of assemblages of all the major prehistoric pottery styles and their substyles excavated from many different context types, including domestic, funerary and ‘off-site’, will allow the investigation of their chronological and functional relationship. For some wares (particularly Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker) these groups are substantial. Variability within assemblages, for example the range of vessel types in Peterborough Ware and different decorative techniques on Grooved Ware pots, will also enhance an understanding of the use of particular wares and the differences between them. In addition, there is potential to examine development within styles, for example in Beaker pottery where some Domestic Beaker groups seem to be particularly early.

The recovery of much of this pottery from discrete pit deposits means that problems of redeposition and residuality are minimal. However, direct physical relationships between contexts containing different styles are very rare and radiocarbon dating will produce only broad chronological ranges which cannot be constrained by the application of mathematical modelling of results from stratified sequences.

62 Objective 2.1: Comparing late Bronze Age/early Iron Age settlement on the floodplain and gravel terrace. Several late Bronze Age sites were excavated on the floodplain, including one of the feature groups on Site 4c and the building on Site 5 which may be late Bronze Age/early Iron Age in date. Their character and material recovered from them can be compared with the earliest known permanent settlement on the gravel terrace in the Iron Age, excavated on Cresswell Field. Provisional results suggest that there is more of a chronological overlap between the sites on these two topographies than was initially believed, enhancing the potential for this study.

The excavation of wooden structures and sand-and-gravel causeways on the floodplain, and potentially some ceremonial features, including pit alignments on Site 2 (already written up in Chapter 8), probably post-date occupation in these locations and will shed light on the continuing use of low-lying ground at the very beginning of the Iron Age.

Objective 2.2: Comparing contemporary sites across the floodplain area There are several groups of features on the floodplain which produced apparently contemporary material, including late Neolithic pits and Bronze Age settlement sites. It will be possible to compare their character and investigate the physical relationship between them.

Objective 2.3: The earliest land boundaries Land boundaries predating the Roman period are not common at Yarnton and it increasingly seems that their absence is a characteristic feature of this locality in the Bronze Age to Iron Age. However, a linear boundary ditch was found in the west of the study area (Site 25), and this provided interesting information on its form, extent of recutting and the character of the vegetation in the surrounding areas. It was dug at a time when the water table began to rise and this may be significant. Short pit alignments on Site 7 may be incipient land boundaries.

Objective 3.1: Comparing a 2% sampling strategy with ‘ground truth’ A sampling strategy of 2% is used on many archaeological evaluations in advance of development. A rare opportunity has been taken at Yarnton to critically assess this method by exposing areas where archaeological features appeared to be absent as well as those where they were dense or moderate. This work will inform strategic planning decisions.

Objective 3.2: Comparing geophysical survey techniques with ‘ground truth’ The results of a suite of geophysical surveys undertaken on a range of topographies and on both the modern surface and stripped excavation areas can be compared to ‘ground truth’ as revealed in the excavations. Alluvial floodplains are notoriously difficult locations on which to undertake such surveys. The results on the floodplain can be compared with similar surveys undertaken on the adjacent gravel terrace, which is much more susceptible to these techniques.

Objective 3.3: Magnetic properties of soils Extensive sampling of individual features and surrounding natural soils, in conjunction with the geophysical surveys, will provide a considerable body of data on the magnetic properties of soils and enable an assessment of their susceptibility to the variety of

63 methods of geophysical detection. Is the poor performance of geophysics on the floodplain a result of the character of occupation with poor enhancement of soils, its short duration and/or post-depositional processes such as gradual leaching of magnetism?

3.2 The national research context

The national context of the landscape project at Yarnton was described in the research design for the study area (Hey 1994b). The comparatively small size of the study area (at 200 ha) for a landscape project has enabled much more intensive investigations than would ordinarily be the case, and the varied topography, good preservation of features, finds and environmental remains, and the longevity of the settlement record has enhanced the value of the excavations. The fieldwork has been conducted within an explicit research framework.

Detailed and extensive examination of Neolithic and Bronze Age landscapes which do not have a ceremonial focus is still extremely rare in this country. Reports of single or small groups of pits of this date are common in the archaeological record and occasionally groups of pits have been excavated, for example in East Anglia, where pits of early Neolithic date have been recognised as representing persistent use of particular sites for short periods of time (eg Healy 1996). Such feature groups are increasingly coming to light in developer-funded work, for example in the south-west and the London area (Jacky Nowakowski pers. comm.; Ken Whittaker pers. comm.). At Yarnton it is possible to put these discoveries into context, as the scale of the work is such that there is considerable potential to shed light on the dynamics of early settlement, its character, range, intensity and duration, issues which are at present poorly understood.

Rectangular structures of Neolithic date have only rarely been found in Britain, and examples from south-east England are very scarce (Darvill 1996). The closest parallels for the Yarnton structure lie in the early Neolithic (for example at Lismore Fields, Derbyshire, Darvill 1996, fig. 6.4; and a recently excavated example on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link at Whitehorse Stone in Kent, Stuart Foreman pers. comm.). The extent to which such buildings were special, representing specific activities, or were more mundane remains uncertain. Analysis of the Yarnton house will contribute to the national record of such structures.

It is seldom possible to examine Neolithic and Bronze Age domestic and funerary sites in juxtaposition. Evidence from Wessex indicates that they lay in close proximity (Richards 1990; Barrett et al. 1991), although this has been contested for some areas (Whittle 1998; Parker Pearson and Ramilisona 1998). The ritual landscape at Raunds seems devoid of settlement (Jon Humble pers. comm.), and it is possible that variation between regions has been masked by a past concentration on the prehistory of Wessex (Bradley 1992). The recovery of domestic activity over an extensive area on the floodplain at Yarnton, a Neolithic long enclosure and associated burials, ring ditches and unmarked burials in the wider landscape offers an important opportunity, not only to examine the character of both kinds of activity in the Neolithic and Bronze Age, but also to assess the relationship between them. How were these activities perceived and to what extent were they differentiated?

64 It is only within the last 50 years that long mortuary enclosures have been a recognised class of monument, following the work of Atkinson at Dorchester-on-Thames and Vatcher on Normanton Down, both in the 1950s (Vatcher 1961; Whittle et al. 1992). They are often found in river valleys, especially in the Midlands (Kinnes 1992, 90), areas where long barrows are scarce. To what extent are long mortuary enclosures a widely spread form of monument associated with burial, which in some regions became subsumed within long barrows; or are they part of a separate funerary tradition? Few long enclosures have been excavated and those examined have often yielded few datable finds. The excavation and observation of such a large part of the Yarnton enclosure provides valuable information on the form of the monument and associated finds and features, which will enhance the study of these monuments on a national level, especially an assessment of the extent to which they were of similar appearance and purpose. The continued significance of the site as a special place may also be significant.

The class of features known as ‘burnt mounds’ is most commonly known from Ireland and the north and west of Britain, and until recently this distribution was believed to be genuine (cf Hedges 1974-5). However, these deposits are now being discovered with increasing regularity throughout the country including the Thames Valley, for example Staines Road, Surrey (Jones 1990), partly because gravel extraction and other development moving onto floodplain topographies has prompted archaeological investigation. These sites are preferentially located on the banks of former stream or river channels, in lower-lying areas away from settlement, where they have been buried beneath alluvium. Despite recent work there is still controversy about the purpose of burnt mounds. They were first identified as `prehistoric cooking places' (Cantrill and Jones 1911), and this interpretation has largely persisted; numerous detailed historical and ethnographic parallels have been cited for the use of burnt stone in cooking (eg Hedges 1974-75, 71-5). However, very little direct archaeological evidence has been produced in England to demonstrate that these deposits were associated with cooking. On the contrary, as on Yarnton Site 17, charred food remains (plants and animal bones) from burnt mounds are usually absent, and pottery is uncommon. It has been suggested recently that burnt mounds could be associated with textile production (Jeffery 1991), and historical and ethnographic parallels have also be found for the use of burnt stone to heat water and create steam for a range of textile preparation processes. Their interpretation as the remains of prehistoric saunas is also a popular current theory. It is possible that they represent a range of different processes rather than a single activity. The Yarnton deposits, with their range of features and associated waterlogged remains, provide an opportunity to bring a fresh suite of evidence to bear on the problem, and to examine the chronological span of this activity and changes in its character over time.

The frequency and extent of these deposits suggests that burnt mound activity formed an important part of prehistoric settlement and their significance for providing evidence of the overall character, organisation and economy of early settlement has probably been underestimated. Burnt mounds are often excavated in isolation and treated as distinct class of site from those of settlements, but at Yarnton it is possible to examine the distribution and spatial relationship of these deposits in relation to settlement, and compare their environmental setting.

65 Although there are examples of Bronze Age wooden bridges or causeways, including those recently discovered at Testwood, Hampshire (Wessex Archaeology 1996) and at Dorney, Buckinghamshire (Allen and Welsh 1998), no parallels appear to exist for the substantial stone causeway found on Site 9. If the suggested mid to late Bronze Age date of the causeway is borne out by radiocarbon dating, this structure will be of national significance, perhaps representing the earliest stone-built ‘bridge’ or ford yet found in Britain, and also the earliest example of a metalled surface. Analysis of the causeway will therefore contribute important evidence on the range and character of Bronze Age structures and construction techniques. It may be part of a class of ceremonial crossing places of this date with for example Flag Fen (Pryor in press) and the slightly later Fiskerton site in Lincolnshire (Field and Parker Pearson forthcoming), though less exotic than these. The analysis of the metal finds associated with the Yarnton causeway and quantities of animal bone, will be of considerable importance in its interpretation.

A good deal of attention has recently been focused on human movement through ritual landscapes (eg Barrett 1994; Tilley 1994), but much less is known about traversing domestic landscapes. This is partly because it has rarely been possible to investigate settlement within a largely intact environment on the scale at which the Yarnton excavations have been conducted. The excavation of numerous stone, wood and sand and gravel causeways across long stretches of two palaeochannels at Yarnton will make a significant contribution to understanding how sites were linked and how different topographies were utilised.

Investigation of the processes of change from a landscape within which the only fixed points were ceremonial and funerary sites to one dominated by settlements and fields is one of continuing national importance (English Heritage 1991, 36; Barrett 1994, 132-53; Pryor 1999). There is some evidence to suggest that in the Stanton Harcourt to Oxford area these transformations happened only slowly, in contrast to other parts of the Thames Valley and southern England generally (Barclay et al. 1996, 20; Barclay and Hey in prep.). The recovery of sites and features spanning the middle Bronze Age to Iron Age periods at Yarnton, and the associated landscape evidence, enables this process to be thoroughly examined in this locality and comparisons made within the region and nationally. The differences between small-scale floodplain settlement and more permanent occupation on the gravel terrace at the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age interface will be particularly interesting.

Research into the prehistoric landscape has been hampered in the past by being either site-based or undertaken in no known association with settlement. This situation is changing. The evidence from Yarnton will contribute to the national picture by integrating evidence from occupation and funerary sites with that from the wider landscape, for example the palaeochannels and areas of tree clearance. The link between clearance, cultivation and flooding can be investigated by examining tree-throw pits, waterlogging and alluviation, and the changing strategies adopted for crossing the river channels. There is also potential to examine the impact causeways may have had on silt deposition and localised flooding.

Knowledge of changes in techniques and expertise in manufacture is important for understanding social development and the links between sites and regions in all periods (English Heritage 1991, 42-3). Evidence of craft production has been accumulating from the Yarnton floodplain excavations and will allow many aspects of pottery

66 production, flint procurement and technology, wood working (including bark) and woodland management, bone tool manufacture and bronze working to be investigated, as well as illuminating the containers and tools used in domestic life. Burnt stone deposits may be the residue of small-scale industrial processes.

3.3 The regional and local context

Although isolated prehistoric pits or small pit groups have been excavated in the Upper Thames valley, for example at Sutton Courtenay and in the Stanton Harcourt area (Leeds 1934; Barclay et al. 1996), Neolithic activity is mostly known through examination of monument complexes. Yarnton is the first site on which domestic activity has been examined on any scale and will provide a major contribution to the understanding early settlement of this area. Bronze Age settlement sites, although known, are also scarce and small-scale. The importance of the extensive Bronze Age landscape at Yarnton to knowledge of regional patterns is considerable.

Evidence of extensive deposits of burnt stone in low-lying areas of the Thames valley is increasingly coming to light (Bell and Hey 1998). The evidence from Yarnton will enable an assessment of how these deposits formed part of the wider settlement pattern.

Evidence of Neolithic and Bronze Age landscapes in the Upper Thames valley is limited and has not been recovered over large areas in a consistent manner. The work at Yarnton and Cassington will greatly enhance knowledge of the impact of Neolithic and Bronze Age communities upon their environment and the strategies they adopted to exploit it.

Although Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement in the Evenlode to Cherwell confluence areas is well known, it is poorly understood. Neolithic pits have been excavated, for example at Cassington Mill (Case and Whittle 1982, 121-9) and a Neolithic burial enclosure was dug north of Eynsham in 1968 (Kenward 1982), but it has not been possible to set these features within a wider settlement pattern. No major monument complexes have been located. Excavations in the Yarnton-Cassington study area will provide a well-excavated context within which to re-assess previous work and gain a clearer understanding of the dynamics of early settlement of this area.

67 4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

4.1 National research aims

The Yarnton Floodplain B excavation results form a substantial element of the landscape-wide, multi-period Yarnton-Cassington Project, contributing to many of its overall research aims (Hey 1994b) and benefiting from information on the wider context of the site. The national research issues of this project remain as defined in Hey 1994b (31-3):

1. Processes of change, of which the changing character of Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement, has particular relevance to the Yarnton floodplain excavations. The other issue highlighted as being of national significance to the investigations on the floodplain is the transformation of the landscape at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.

2. The character of early settlement and inter-relationships between contemporary sites, as there is diversity in the location of settlement sites in the study area and in the settlement pattern between periods. The Neolithic and early Bronze Age occupation of the study area offers outstanding opportunities to examine aspects for prehistoric society which are poorly documented elsewhere. The middle and later Bronze Age settlements allow us to assess relationships between sites which are potentially contemporary. Boundaries associated with some occupation sites can be investigated.

3. Landscapes and past human impact on the environment. Reconstructing landscapes and land use across the study area.

4. Patterns of craft production, to elucidate social development and the links between sites and regions.

5. Methodological Issues. Exploring the most effective means to evaluate archaeological sites and landscapes is a critical conservation issue to which the Yarnton-Cassington project has particular potential to contribute.

4.2 Project objectives

The extent and diversity of the settlement evidence at Yarnton-Cassington have a significant contribution to make to national research aims, and the objectives are, as a result, wide ranging. They have been framed as a series of research questions, followed by the means by which they can be answered at Yarnton, as follows:

68 4.2.1 What is the nature of Neolithic and Bronze Age society in lowland Britain and, in particular, the nature of domestic settlement?

A. Domestic settlement

1. Clarify the nature and extent of the discrete and scattered Neolithic and Bronze Age features by examining their form, the material found within them and their spatial and chronological distribution 2. Establish the duration of occupation and persistence of use of the site through this period 3. Research the apparently increasing intensity of settlement evidence through the Bronze Age, examine the form and antiquity of the post-built structures, the character of features found around them and the morphology and function of associated late Bronze Age ditched boundaries 4. Examine fills and contents of pits containing ‘structured’ deposits and their incidence in domestic areas. Assess the extent of ritual deposition within waterholes 5. Investigate external contacts, particularly through flint and other stone procurement 6. Evaluate the range and purpose of tools and containers found on settlements in order to elucidate social and economic practices.

B The economy, land use and human impact on the landscape

1. Record the changing environment of the area and impact of human activity 2. Establish the extent to which wild plant foods played a role in the diet 3. Appraise the extent of arable farming in these periods and, in particular, chart the increasing frequency with which cultivated cereals appeared in Bronze Age 4. Assess the importance of pastoralism to the economy and the contribution different animal species made to the diet 5. Elucidate the economic strategies of Neolithic and Bronze Age communities and, so far as this is possible, the extent to which settlement was seasonal or permanent 6. Assess the variability of the environment across the floodplain through time 7. Assess the date of woodland clearance by examination of burnt tree-throw holes, and the material (often late Neolithic/early Bronze Age) found within them 8. Examine movement through the landscape by investigating tracks and the variety of palaeochannel crossings found 9. Record changing hydrological conditions through this period.

C Tasks external or peripheral to settlement

1. Characterise the tasks peripheral or external to settlement (for example burnt mound deposition, woodworking and the use of channels)

69 2. Investigate the location, composition, purpose and date of burnt-stone deposits which are found extensively over the study area and typically associated with channels 3. Further the understanding of Bronze Age woodworking technology, evidence for which is generally rare 4. Examine the ways in which river channels were used and how these practices were affected by changing hydrological conditions.

D Ceremonial and funerary evidence

1. Establish the character of the ceremonial areas excavated on the floodplain 2. Investigate deposition within river channels 3. Establish the character of funerary monuments 4. Investigate the locations selected for the burial of the dead, the nature of these deposits and the extent to which older monuments provided a focus for later funerary practices. Examine unmarked burials away from monuments 5. Compare the funerary evidence from the floodplain with that of ring ditches, some Beaker, found on the gravel terrace in the locality.

E The relationship between domestic, other utilitarian, ceremonial and burial sites

1. Determine whether there is zonation of domestic, other utilitarian, ceremonial and burial features 2. Verify the absence of charred plant foods in the ceremonial areas 3. Understand the significance of pits containing placed deposits and the contexts in which they are found 4. Compare the finds assemblages from pits, ploughsoils and buried ground surfaces. Do they indicate different uses of different topographic zones? 5. Compare finds assemblages from the floodplain and the second gravel terrace to assess whether the apparently greater intensity of domestic occupation on the floodplain is an artefact of better preservation.

F The chronological ranges of the various Neolithic and Bronze Age pottery styles and the extent to which their largely separate deposition is a product of chronology, cultural differentiation and function.

1. Analyse the ceramic assemblage, in which all the major Neolithic and early Bronze Age styles and many of their substyles are represented, and document changing potting techniques 2. Further analyse the spatial and functional differences revealed in excavation and establish the degree to which main styles occur separately 3. Consider the possibilities of independently dating these pottery styles, something which can rarely be accomplished in a single location.

70 4.2.2 What is the character of the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age transition and why and how did the landscape become permanently settled and bounded and the emphasis change from the monument-dominated landscape of earlier periods?

G Settlement and landscape

1. Assess the nature of the late Bronze Age settlement evidence on the floodplain at Yarnton and any differences with its earlier Bronze Age antecedents 2. Validate the absence of Iron Age settlement on floodplain at Yarnton 3. Compare late Bronze Age settlement on the floodplain with the earliest Iron Age occupation on the gravel terraces 4. Investigate changing environmental conditions at the end of the Bronze Age and assess the extent to which they influenced a shift in settlement location.

4.2.3 How can well-preserved but fragile landscapes (especially those on the floodplain) be effectively evaluated and how can scattered but important remains be adequately and cost-effectively investigated?

H Methodologies

1. Assess the results of fieldwalking over 182 hectares and study the complex interrelationships between sites, later land use and soil deposition 2. Evaluate the success of machine trenching undertaken over 105 hectares, in which 2% was sampled, against results revealed in area excavation and by assessing the extent of remains in areas where no archaeology had been exposed in evaluation trenches 3. Investigate the value of the test-pit sieving transects, especially for establishing early land use 4. Assess the effectiveness of geophysical survey and compare its success on the floodplain and second gravel terrace. Compare the different geophysical techniques used 5. Compare the success and the relative cost-efficiency of the above techniques, including air reconnaissance by RCHME, for the different topographies on which they have been tried against the evidence of area excavation 6. Compare prehistoric finds assemblages from stratified deposits, buried ground surfaces and within ploughsoils and contrast material from the gravel terrace and floodplain to enable an understanding of depositional and post-depositional processes and elucidate the meaning of unstratified assemblages elsewhere. 7. Evaluate the degree to which the fieldwork undertaken at Yarnton was an appropriate response to investigating the remains of small and possibly mobile groups of people. Could more cost-effective methods strategies be developed for this type of prehistoric landscape?

The various strands of evidence from the floodplain can be combined into a synthesis of continuity and change in the settlement record, and the extent to which periods of transition are marked by changes in settlement style, technology and subsistence base can be assessed. The site will be placed within the national, regional and local context of

71 both settlement and land use, and the extent to which it has enriched and modified the regional and national picture will be evaluated.

5. METHOD STATEMENT

The following methods are required to fulfil the research aims outlined above. The link between method and objectives is shown in Table 4.

5.1 Information and review

Information on site and context data will be provided for specialists at the beginning of the post-excavation project and a seminar will be held for the project team to introduce the sites and discuss the academic issues. Further seminars will be held after the analysis stage of each module and before report writing to present the revised phasing, discuss current results and allow cross-fertilisation of ideas. Regular project meetings will facilitate communication and allow progress to be reviewed. The regular project reviews will monitor progress internally.

5.2 Dating

Radiocarbon dating Obtaining independent chronological control for the main archaeological elements is vital for understanding processes of change through time, and the interrelation of stratigraphically unconnected features. As the site is so large and complex it will not be possible to submit radiocarbon samples as a single exercise. Instead a sequential sampling approach will be adopted, with two phases of submission in each module. Initial mathematical modelling of the chronological problems posed by each site will be performed by Alex Bayliss and OAU, taking into account of the range of samples present, as discussed in Section 2.2. If sufficient suitable material is available, the minimum number of samples required to resolve chronological questions will be submitted for conventional, AMS or high-precision dating depending on the size of the sample, its likely date and the necessity for precision. Further samples may be submitted if taphonomic or statistical criteria suggest that they are needed to adequately resolve a problem. Tables of simple calibrated dates and interim estimated date ranges, based on the initial model, will be generated along with probability distributions. Additional radiocarbon dating may also be needed during the overview stage of the project to address outstanding issues. Final and overall modelling will take place when all the results have been completed and the project-wide, as distinct from question-specific, dating problems have been defined.

Dendrochronology Alex Bayliss will advise on dendrochronological dating should any wood retain sufficient tree rings. This will be undertaken in accordance with English Heritage guidelines (Hillam undated). Particular attention will be given to assessing the potential

72 of the wooden uprights which formed part of the stone causeway discovered on Site 9 (Module 5).

Archaeomagnetic dating Samples taken from layers in a probably Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 produced a stable Natural Remanent Magnetisation which, plotted against the UK archaeomagnetic calibration curve, suggested a late 1st millennium BC date for the deposits. This may, however, be a date for a combination of greigite and biogenic magnetite that developed in situ some time after the deposit entered the ditch. The results will be compared with those of radiocarbon dating from the same layers.

5.3 Pottery

The pottery assemblage from Yarnton is substantial and most prehistoric pottery styles and their substyles are present. Study of this material and the different locations in which it was found can make a significant contribution to the understanding of pottery manufacture, acquisition and use through time. Some exciting trends are already apparent (see above, Section 2.3). For example, a wider range of Peterborough Ware vessels is present in domestic than in ceremonial contexts, including cups and dishes and vessels which cannot readily be ascribed to any one particular substyle (Barclay 1997, 26-7), and there is an early assemblage of ‘early’ Beaker Domestic pottery, challenging the assumption that Beaker pottery is downgraded from prestige ware to domestic ware by the early Bronze Age (Barclay 1999, 36-7).

The existing well-established OAU system will be employed for recording the prehistoric pottery. This has been developed to take account of guidelines and standards produced by the Prehistoric Ceramic Research Group (PCRG 1995). The consistent application of this system allows a degree of comparability with other data gathered from sites across the region. Quantification of the early prehistoric material will be by sherd count, weight and an estimate of the number of vessels represented.

All material will be examined through a x20 microscope. Fabrics will be defined in terms of principal inclusion types. Definition of forms and decorative attributes will follow accepted terminology.

The records will be computerised (using dBase IV), allowing not only manipulation of the pottery data itself but also correlation with databases for contexts and other material categories, with the potential for plotting a variety of distributions. Comparisons will be made with contemporary assemblages regionally and nationally.

Petrological analysis by polished or thin-section A programme of analysis by polished- or thin-section is proposed in order to characterise key fabrics and provide information on technology, aspects of manufacture and materials. It is proposed that 30 thin sections will be made, in addition to those already examined. The first phase of this work looked at grog- tempered pottery from Modules 1 and 2 and set out to identify and characterise local clay sources and to test whether all grog could be considered to be crushed pottery.

73 The preliminary results indicate that some fabrics contain fragments of dried clay rather than fired clay clasts (grog) as previously believed. The first stage of thin- section work concentrated on Beaker and early Bronze Age pottery that is mostly grog-tempered. Further work will focus on Neolithic Peterborough Ware (mostly quartz or flint tempered) and Grooved Ware (shell) and mid-late Bronze Age pottery (shell and quartzite). Some comparative work between similar fabrics of different ages will be attempted (eg shell used in Neolithic Grooved Ware and mid Bronze Age Deverel-Rimbury). These results will be integrated into the overall Yarnton-Cassington Project and will form a basis for regional research into long-term trends in fabric use and manufacture.

Chemical analysis Chemical analysis is designed to characterise the availability and use of local resources in the manufacture of Neolithic and Bronze Age pottery as well as identify non-local products or materials. The study will analyse the range of temper types, identify local and non-local clay matrices and materials. This work will form an integral part of the pottery report.

Clays will be analysed using ICP-AES, a rapid and widely-used method for determining multi-element concentrations in samples (Rice 1987, 391-6; Hart et al. 1987). The analysis and report writing will be undertaken by a student under Chris Doherty’s supervision. Attention will concentrate on the tradition of manufacturing grog-tempered fabrics that began in the late Neolithic with Grooved Ware and continued into the early Bronze Age, after which it was replaced by the use of shell temper. The analysis will focus on Beaker pottery from Yarnton, but will also look at some late Neolithic Durrington Walls style Grooved Ware and early Bronze Age pottery (mostly Biconical Urn). An integrated approach with the petrographic analysis (above) will be taken.

The following questions will be addressed: i: Were the same clays used for both domestic and fine Beaker? ii. Were the same clays used for early and late Beaker? iii. Were the same clays also used for late Neolithic Grooved Ware and early Bronze Age Biconical Urn? iv. What were the clay sources for those Beakers which petrographic analysis suggests were non-local?

In addition, a number of unusual vessels that are suspected to be non-local products will be analysed.

Residues The most commonly encountered organic residues in pottery correspond to degraded animal fats and these have proved very difficult to assign to particular species of animals with any degree of certainty. A new project at Bristol University (jointly funded by English Heritage and NERC) is exploring approaches to the identification of fats present in archaeological, especially prehistoric pottery. This has provided promising results, differentiating between ruminant fats in Peterborough Ware and pig fats in Grooved Ware in the Walton Basin (Dudd and Evershed 1999a). The analytical approach will combine a range of compositional criteria which have not previously been exploited to

74 determine the origins of animal fats, particularly the antiquity of dairying. The analytical strategy proposed is based primarily on the compositions of extractable acyl lipids and will consider:

i The compositions of total lipid extracts of ancient potsherds ii δ13C values for individual compounds determined by isotope ratio monitoring- GC/MS iii The distributions of monosaturated fatty acids iv The distributions of branched chain fatty acids v The overall fatty acid composition of intact triacylglycerols vi The fatty acid composition at the 2-position in intact triacylglycerols.

Experimental components will be included in the analytical programme to test the ability of the methodology to detect the use of vessels in connection with different animal products on different occasions (ie mixing or overprinting) and the possible changes in the compositions of fats from different types of animal submitted to degradation under conditions which simulate burial (under aerobic and anaerobic conditions).

Fifty samples of Neolithic and Bronze Age date were submitted in 1996 (Dudd and Evershed 1999b). Preliminary results suggest that animal fats are present (eg pig fats are present in Grooved Ware and cattle fat in Plain Bowl). The first stage was designed to test whether fatty residues were present. A second stage is proposed in which more specific questions will be addressed. A further 150 samples will be submitted, 50 each of Peterborough Ware, Grooved Ware and Beaker pottery.

Questions will include:

1) The identification of milk rather than just fat in a range of pottery. 2) The identification of different fats and how these correlate with vessel types, fabrics and styles. 3) The identification of fats in pottery recovered from funerary contexts.

5.4 Fired clay

Fired clay is a good indicator of domestic and industrial activities which include cooking, textile production and pottery manufacture. All of the material will be recorded using the standard OAU system. The material has already been quantified by weight and number. Fabrics will be defined in terms of principal inclusions. Forms and degree of firing will also be recorded. The fabrics of the moulded fragments will be compared with those from contemporary pottery. The records will be computerised as part of the overall site database, and in order to facilitate analysis and correlation with other categories of data. Approximately 10 thin sections of the fired clay will be made to enable comparison with the contemporary pottery from this and other sites within the Yarnton-Cassington project study area.

75 5.5 Flint

The large assemblage of mainly Neolithic and Bronze Age flintwork that has been recovered during the Yarnton-Cassington project will enable changes in lithic reduction sequences, raw material exploitation, use and discard over three millennia to be studied across this Thames Valley landscape. The numerous pit assemblages will be of particular importance. Many of these have good ceramic associations and are of national significance, for example the flintwork including a perforated implement, probably in association with Fengate Ware on Site 5, and the variety of Beaker-associated assemblages.

The flint will be examined; the records generated for the assessment will be used where possible and enhanced as necessary. Attribute analysis, including metrical work will be carried out on selected groups of material. This will include pit groups from Sites 3, 5 (Module 3), 7 (Module 4), 4e and 25 (Module 5). The analysis will consist of recording a number of traits such as hammer mode, butt type, position within reduction sequence, raw material and condition. It is hoped to refine the dating of the material. Use-wear analysis will take place if appropriate and possible sources of raw material will be identified

The attribute analysis will use dBase IV and will be compatible with the work already undertaken for Modules 1 and 2 of Yarnton Floodplain and with that undertaken for the sites excavated on the second gravel terrace in order to facilitate comparisons with these assemblages.

5.6 Worked stone

Worked stone from Yarnton makes a significant contribution to the growing corpus of information about local and longer distance trade and use of lithic materials in prehistoric Oxfordshire, especially in a domestic context. The function and technological traits of the stone implements will be investigated together with any light they may shed on crop processing and other activities. The source of the stone artefacts will be examined and comparative material from other local sites will be sought. A very small number of thin sections (five or six) will be needed in order to clarify the materials used for two stone axes and quern or rubber fragments of imported stone.

5.7 Burnt unworked stone

Burnt stone is a good indicator of domestic and industrial activity and refuse deposition. It was probably used for a range of purposes, including water and food heating, seating pots on the fire and steam-curing hides. Comparisons will be made across the site of different types and quantities of burnt stone from features of different periods and with different functions in order to elucidate the contexts in which this material was used and the purpose for which it was employed. Possible differences through time in the source of the stone will also be assessed. The data has already been entered onto a database.

76 5.8 Wood

The waterlogged wood derived from palaeochannels on Sites 4, 9, 10 and 22, and from waterholes on Sites 4e, 7, 9, 17 and 21 is to be recorded and entered into a Microsoft Access database. Identifications of the different wood species present will be made and the potential for tree-ring studies will be assessed. Although these sites fall within all three modules of work (Table 2), recording and analysis will take place as soon as possible (within Module 3). This will ensure that the wood is examined while it is still relatively fresh and retains toolmarks, and will avoid problems of bacterial growth on potential radiocarbon samples.

Using these records, the technology of Bronze Age woodworking on the site will be investigated and evidence of coppicing and the management of woodland resources explored. Curvature-index analysis will be used to provide evidence of the type of tools used.

Several rare wooden objects were recovered from the Bronze Age waterholes on Sites 9, 17 and 21 (Module 5) and it is likely that more will be identified during detailed analysis. These will be recorded in detail and described. Parallels will be sought to establish the possible function of wooden implements where this is unclear.

The stone causeway found on Site 9 (Module 5) is of national importance, and the wooden posts, horizontal bearers, small roundwood uprights and pegs which formed an integral part of this structure will be studied in detail. Attention will be given to comparing the differential preservation and wear patterns which may help to shed light on the role and contemporaneity of the various contexts.

Concern about the deteriorating condition of the waterlogged wood led to an application to English Heritage to record this material immediately. This was granted in November 1999, as a variation to the Yarnton Floodplain B 1998 excavation project, and work commenced in December. Unfortunately some of this material was in tanks in the offices at Flag Fen when they burnt down in January 2000. Much of the wood had been recorded, and the paper and computer archive was stored elsewhere, but the condition of the wood is currently uncertain and is being assessed as part of an English Heritage project to evaluate the damage to archaeological material.

5.9 Bone and shale objects

Each object will be examined in detail with a view to full identification of material, type, date, function and technology where possible. The species of the bone and antler objects will be determined. A computerised catalogue will be produced. The material will be considered along with the artefacts recovered from the Floodplain Modules 1 and 2 and comparison will be made with similar sites in the region.

Parallels will be sought for the shale bead recovered from a Neolithic pit on Site 7 (Module 4), although it is acknowledged that a much larger assemblage is usually required for this type of analysis to be successful. Definitive sourcing will not be undertaken as this has been judged to be too destructive.

77 5.10 Metal objects

The metal objects recovered from the stone causeway and adjacent areas of the channel on Site 9 (Module 5) will be examined through standard metallographic and microprobe techniques, using optical microscopy and electron-probe microanalysis with wavelength dispersive spectrometry, in order to elucidate details of composition and method of manufacture and shed light on the date of the objects. Lead isotope analysis will be undertaken on the Bronze Age tin alloy strap end (Section 2.10; Rohl and Needham 1998). The objects can provide information on methods of manufacture, sources of raw materials and external contacts, as well as indicating depositional practices associated with a feature of national significance (cf Northover 1999b).

Parallels will be sought for the objects and consideration will be given to their possible use and the context of their deposition.

5.11 Artefact conservation

Artefacts will be examined to assist in identification, description and illustration. Scientific analysis will be undertaken where relevant. Finds identified during post- excavation assessment (see Section 2.11) will be stabilised or placed in controlled storage conditions.

Standard conservation methods will be used for examination, selective removal of accretions, and stabilisation. Selected waterlogged artefacts will be stabilised by freeze- drying. Standard analytical techniques will be employed for any related analysis (eg scanning electron microscopy).

5.12 Human bone

The prehistoric population of Yarnton will be studied by determining age, sex and existing pathologies of the human remains. The same methodologies will be used to record and analyse the skeletal material from the Yarnton floodplain excavations as those employed for the assemblages from the second gravel terrace sites (Cresswell Field and Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm), as far as this is possible, in order to facilitate comparison and understand changes through time and in different burial contexts. It is anticipated that many burials will be dated by radiocarbon.

All of the inhumations will be recorded in detail and the widest possible range of methodologies will be employed, including dental development and attrition, epiphyseal fusion, morphological and metric assessment of sex, auricular surface and pubic symphyseal change. The Beaker burial which lay adjacent to the Neolithic long enclosure on Site 5 (Module 3) merits detailed study in its own right given the range of associated objects and will be paralleled with others in the region.

78 With a few exceptions, most notably a deposit from Site 7 (Module 4), the majority of cremations recovered from Sites 5 (Module 3), 7 (Module 4) 10, and 4d (Module 5) are small, and several appear to include animal bone in addition to fragments identified as probably human. The context in which these mixed cremations occurred is of considerable interest; three such deposits were found associated with the Neolithic rectangular structure on Site 7 and others were found near the Neolithic long enclosure. For this reason a detailed examination of each deposit needs to be undertaken in consultation with the animal bone specialist (Jacqui Mulville), as it is particularly important to clarify in what proportion human bone is present in each. Where possible individual fragments of human bones will be identified. As these cremation deposits are small this is unlikely to be a time-consuming process.

5.13 Animal bone

Discussion between OAU and the faunal remains specialist will establish appropriate groupings of animal bone for analysis, based on the condition and quantity of bone and the significance of the context from which it was recovered. For example, bones recovered from the surface of the channel on Sites 9 and 10 (Module 5) may be grouped together for analysis, as these deposits appear quite mixed. Finds were recorded during post-excavation assessment to a level at which it is possible to evaluate redeposition and provide a good guide to dating. Attention will be given to how the faunal remains will best inform a discussion of diet, farming strategies and the composition of placed deposits and cremation burial.

As the results should be integrated with those from Yarnton Floodplain Modules 1 and 2 the recording methods used should be the same. The bones will be recorded using the system in use at FRU and entered onto three relational databases. Information on species, part of the skeleton, eruption/wear of teeth and state of epiphysial fusion of bones, presence of gnaw marks, burning, butchery and other taphonomic evidence will be recorded. Measurements of certain teeth and limb-bones will be taken. In addition the presence of non-metric variants/anomalies, and any relationship between bones (eg burials/articulations) will be noted. The context and site information will be entered following OAU guidelines to allow the integration of the animal bone data with the spatial analysis to be carried out. The bone will be analysed in the light of the different contexts in which it was found, for example burnt mound deposits, waterholes, channels and deliberate deposits within pits, and the date range of these contexts.

The bone assemblage will be compared with other contemporary sites such as Whitecross Farm (Clark and Powell 1996), Runnymede Bridge (Serjeantson 1996), Barrow Hills, Radley (Levitan and Serjeantson in press), Eton (Jones in prep.).

The 2-4 mm residues from soils samples should be looked at for identifiable bone. A sub-sample can be sorted and a decision made by the OAU staff whether the sample is likely to yield useful information. This has already been discussed with Greg Campbell, OAU environmental co-ordinator. Time will be allowed for the analysis by the specialist of the sieved material but this may not be necessary.

79 5.14 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains

Charred plant remains Full sorting and identification of the charred plant remains other than charcoal will be carried out for flots in which food plant remains were recorded in the assessments. This will enable further details to be added to the evidence from the site for particular activities being associated with different deposit types and areas. It will also add to the evidence from Yarnton for the transition from a mixed economy of small-scale cultivation and use of wild edible plants to a more intensive agricultural system. The results will be integrated with those from Modules 1 and 2 and compared with the results from the later prehistoric sites on the second gravel terrace.

The rich assemblage of grain from the middle Bronze Age pit on Site 4e (Module 5) is of particular importance because all the other cereal assemblages from the floodplain sites have been sparse. This material will be investigated in detail, even though sorting will be time-consuming because the sample also contains much charcoal.

Analysis of charred plant remains (excluding charcoal) would follow the conventional well-established procedures, making identifications by direct comparison with reference material.

Charcoal The most interesting assemblages of charcoal are those from the burnt-mound features, the tree-throw holes and the cremations because they can be more closely related to particular activities. Full charcoal identifications will be undertaken of this charcoal to confirm and refine the identifications. In addition, charcoal from the pit containing large quantities of cereal remains will be investigated. Some of the assemblages are large and will require sub-sampling. Identifications would be undertaken using high-power incident-light microscopy.

Analysis of charred plant remains and charcoal will be undertaken first to provide data stratigraphic and spatial analysis.

Waterlogged remains Well-preserved waterlogged plant and macrobotanical remains were recovered from a range of deposits, including waterholes associated with areas of settlement, palaeochannels, and waterholes associated burnt mounds and other off-site activities. Samples taken from the Bronze Age waterhole on Sites 7 (Module 4) and from a number of the waterholes on sites 4c, 4e, 9, 17, 21 (Module 5) gave interesting results on assessment. The waterhole found in the base of the channel on Site 21 was possibly the earliest waterlogged deposit found on the project and can give information on alder woodland growing on the site, and the waterholes on Sites 4c and 4e contained the only waterlogged deposits discovered with evidence of crop processing and nearby settlement. The material from the waterhole on Site 17 should provide information on the environmental setting of the burnt mound activity. Two samples will therefore be analysed in full for macroscopic plant and insect remains from each of these waterholes in order to demonstrate these aspects of the environmental sequence at Yarnton. The results from the Bronze Age waterhole on Site 7 will be compared with those from the waterhole on Site 17 because both were possibly set amidst localised scrub. Attention

80 will also be given to examining contrasts in the environmental evidence from deposits associated with areas of settlement with those from off-site.

The waterlogged macroscopic plant remains from the deposits associated with the stone causeway on Site 9 showed little potential so no further analysis will be undertaken. However, some sorting this material maybe required to provide material for radiocarbon dating. Samples from beneath the gravel causeways on Site 10 and 22 will be analysed for macroscopic plant remains to obtain further information about the environs of these channel crossings but the insects remains are not sufficiently well preserved for further analysis. Likewise, one of the samples from the bed of the palaeochannel in Site 21 will be analysed for macroscopic plant remains to give evidence for conditions after clearance but prior to the reactivation of the channel, even though insect remains are not well enough preserved for analysis.

The waterlogged macroscopic plant and insect remains from the Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 (Module 5) have the potential to fill in a gap in the environmental sequence of the floodplain. However, in view of the relatively poor preservation of material in the samples from the excavation, consideration will be given to the full analysis of the samples taken from this ditch during the 1993 evaluation.

As with the waterlogged wood, the condition of waterlogged plant and insect remains has been deteriorating, and money has been made available to begin processing this material. This is now underway. Analysis of the waterlogged samples is following the standard procedures, with a sub-sample being washed over onto a 0.2 mm sieve and sorted for macroscopic plant remains and, where necessary, a larger sub-sample similarly washed over and then subjected to paraffin flotation to recover insect remains. Identifications will be made by comparison with reference specimens.

Molluscan analysis The mollusc samples from the Neolithic enclosure ditch on Site 5 (Module 3) will be analysed in full in order to elucidate the episodes of clearance and regeneration on this part of the gravel island during the Neolithic. The molluscs from the ring ditch on Site 7 (Module 4) will also be analysed in detail because they show a different environmental sequence from those from the Neolithic enclosure ditch. However, it will only be necessary to analyse a single sequence from this feature.

The woodland or scrub molluscan fauna from the Bronze Age waterholes on Site 7 (Module 4) adds another aspect to the environmental development of the site, and, therefore, this sequence will also be analysed in detail. Analysis of the possible scrub molluscan fauna from the Bronze Age waterhole on Site 17 (Module 5) will help provide information on the conditions against which the ‘burnt-mound’ activity took place. The molluscs from the waterlogged samples from the waterholes on Site 21 (Module 5) are only of local interest so no further analysis of them will be undertaken other than recording the results from those samples processed for the full range of macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains.

The molluscs from the Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 (Module 5) will be analysed in detail to show the relatively dry open conditions that prevailed on the floodplain before the wetter conditions of the Iron Age. Molluscan evidence of this episode is otherwise

81 lacking because shells are absent from the majority of features of this date. Samples will also be analysed from the gravel causeways on Sites 10 and 22 (Module 5) in an attempt to establish the conditions under which these structures were used. The flowing water molluscs in the gully of possible Iron Age date on Site 10 have the potential to help in the understanding of the archaeology. Two samples will be analysed from this feature. Two samples will also be analysed from the small posthole alignment on Site 9 in order to help characterise these enigmatic features.

Samples of 1 kg will be sieved to 0.5 mm, sorted and the shells identified by comparison with reference material.

Insects Insects were preserved within waterholes on Site 7 (Module 4), Site 17, Site 9, Site 21, 4c and 4e (Module 5). They were also found within a palaeochannel sequence on Site 22 and a Bronze Age ditch on Site 25 (Module 5). Samples from organic sediments will be analysed by washing a sub-sample over onto a 0.2 mm sieve and then undertaking paraffin flotation to recover insect remains. Identifications will be made by comparison with reference specimens.

General palaeoenvironmental observations

Results of field observations on channel morphology, sediment types, stratigraphic relationships, degree of waterlogging and biota will be integrated with the relevant material above.

5.15 Pollen

Palaeochannel, Module 3 Samples were taken from a palaeochannel on Site 22 by the palynologist, with the aim of sampling the same layers being analysed for plant macrofossils, molluscs and beetles, and providing a broader picture of the landscape. This material contained fairly well- preserved and abundant pollen for this kind of alluvial material. Full pollen counts will be made of the pollen slides taken from the samples. Further samples may need to be prepared. The results will be integrated with the other biological data.

A waterhole, Module 4 Two samples were taken from the waterlogged fills of a Bronze Age waterhole on Site 7. Pollen was well preserved and abundant in both samples and parasite ova were present. Further pollen from these samples will be counted to provide detailed counts of ca 400 grains, and to scan the whole slides for any less frequent pollen types. The pollen results will be integrated with those from plant macrofossils and beetles.

Waterholes, Module 5 The palynologist sampled material from Bronze Age waterholes on Site 4c, 17 and 21 in which organic material was preserved. In a large majority of the samples pollen was well preserved and abundant. Full counts will be made of the most successful samples, and the results will be given in tabular form.

82 Bronze Age ditch, Module 5 Samples were taken from the waterlogged fills of a Bronze Age ditch on Site 25. Although the pollen in the preliminary slides was not very abundant, there was enough potential to suggest that perfectly good counts could be obtained if denser slides are made up, and also if some of the preparations are re-sieved. The results will be presented in a table.

5.16 Geoarchaeology

Sampling undertaken during the course of the Yarnton Floodplain B projects was aimed at answering a series of separate questions about stratigraphic details and site formation processes.

Floodplain profile development and alluvium Better definition of the progress of alluviation, and the relation to it of specific episodes of activity, can be achieved by identifying alluvium, or the lack of it in layers and feature fills. It may help to answer questions of critical importance for understanding the post-depositional history of the site, particularly the extent to which Roman ploughsoils on the floodplain comprise alluvium or truncated prehistoric ground surface. Four sets of samples were taken to this end, the first to define the characteristics of early alluvium and its possible presence in Roman ploughsoils, the remainder to see whether it can be identified in selected contexts.

1. Samples were taken from Site 5 (Module 3) to see if it is possible to detect the alluvium as a separate particle size or heavy mineral signature. The samples will be tested for particle size using a mixture of sieves and Sedigraph and the heavy mineral percentages in a selected fraction depending on the particle size results.

2. Samples were taken also taken from the Neolithic long enclosure ditch on Site 5 to determine whether it was alluvium. The methods used to test the samples will be as above and data from the two profiles analysed under floodplain profile development will be utilised.

3. A single sample was taken from the upper fill of two pits on Site 7 (Module 4) which were questionably alluvial, and sampling was carried out in order to compare their particle-size curves with other Yarnton examples of known and uncertain alluvial origin.

4. Around 20 pairs of shallow postholes/slots aligned approximately north-east – south-west lay to the north of the channel on Site 9 (Module 5). Sampling was carried out with the aim of determining whether: a) the fills were of similar material and, b) whether the overlying material sealing the postholes and the matrix was the same as the pit fills or different. Similarity will be tested using particle size analysis to provide evidence of the character and form of these enigmatic features in order to shed light on their possible function.

83 Phosphate levels The presence of collophane has been suggested as a possible explanation for variation in phosphate levels in the ground (see below). Heavy mineral extraction will be carried out on the five strongest and the five weakest of the phosphate samples. Collophane will then be quantified optically in each sample. This will be undertaken on samples submitted to Bournemouth University for full phosphate analysis (see below), if these prove to be sufficiently large.

The ring ditch A section of the ring ditch at the western end of the southern site boundary (Site 7) contained a layer with strong organic staining, which was interpreted in the field as turfs. Positive identification of this deposit is important for interpreting the form of this monument. A single micromorphological sample was taken across this layer after it had been sampled for pollen analysis. The sample will be used to search for any further evidence, such as organic or mineralised plant remains, which could help confirm or deny the interpretation as turfs.

A second section of the ring ditch contained a similar but more poorly-preserved layer. Two alternative processes suggested for its formation were turfs falling in from the sides, or fine sedimentation resulting from standing water. Evidence will be sought to decide between these two hypotheses, such as organic/mineralised plant remains or preserved layers from water-sorting.

Unusual pit with possible container This was a roughly 1m wide flat-bottomed pit which, in section, had an unusual staining pattern suggestive of a container (perhaps wood) having decayed in situ. Sampling was carried out to determine if any light could be shed on the nature of the stained deposit which is probably part of a special deposit associated with the Neolithic long house. A single Kubiena tin was taken for thin-sectioning, along with a comparable bulk sample. To act as controls, additional bulk samples were taken from three other positions in the available section.

Micromorphology, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDXRA) will be used as appropriate to determine what exactly is stained and what the stain is composed of. Preliminary XRF work suggests that stained samples are slightly enriched in iron and manganese relative to samples in the unstained areas. In the field, a textural difference was recorded between the different parts of the unusual fill. It was decided to check the field-textures in order to assist in forming further hypotheses as to how the fill built up. This will utilise the same bulk samples as the chemical tests.

Waterhole The fill of the waterhole next to burnt mound activity on Site 17 (Module 5) was uniformly organic throughout, and waterlogged towards the base. An unusual pale mottling and faint greenish coloration suggested a cess component. An unoriented, but intact lump of fill was sampled. This sample will be thin sectioned to examine the components to see if indicative materials are present.

84 Burnt stone feature The fill of a burnt stone feature on Site 17 (Module 5) consisted of large and small lumps of charcoal in a matrix of very dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2) soil. It is likely that this soil was transported into the spaces between the charcoal lumps by biological activity and/or wash from above. Three undisturbed samples (whole profiles) of the pit fill were taken along the length of the half-sectioning. These will be sub-sampled, and tested in a furnace to determine the maximum temperature they could have reached while retaining their current colouration. This will then be related to temperatures in soil/sediment under fires.

Burnt treethrow holes An area of soil-reddening was exposed on the south bank of the channel on Site 9 (Module 5). The high degree of reddening was assumed to be due to high temperatures (ie above 600°C), as is usually the case for most sediments and soils. It is intended to clarify this issue by heating gravel samples to a range of temperatures for different times and comparing the colour. This will be done in conjunction with a broader range of heating experiments needed for magnetic work. A thin section of the samples taken from the burnt treethrow holes will also be compared with the thin section taken after one of the experimental fires on gravel.

5.17 Phosphates

Phosphate surveys were undertaken over the Neolithic long enclosure on Site 5 (Module 3), the Neolithic building and an area with no visible archaeological activity on Site 7 (Module 4) and an area with spreads of burnt stone on Site 21 (Module 5). The surveys on Sites 5 and 21 appeared to reveal patterning which might suggest areas of activity which have left no subsoil features. Spot samples were also taken above and below a sand and gravel causeway on Site 22 (Module 5). In order to validate the findings of the survey approximately 10% of the 2886 samples taken will be subjected to full laboratory analysis at Bournemouth University and the results from the different sites will be compared. The readings will be compared with other classes of evidence such as the distribution of features and finds and the results of the magnetic susceptibility survey, feeding in to the project aim of assessing evaluation techniques in floodplain areas. The varying success of different sampling intervals used on these sites will also be assessed.

5.18 Geophysical survey

A more thorough analysis of the geophysical results in direct relation to the digitised site plans will be conducted. The initial phase of this work will be to register the two digital datasets to allow a spatial comparison between magnetic anomalies and recorded archaeological features. The magnetometer data can then be treated to a variety of classification regimes and the success, in terms of significant archaeological anomalies, quantified with respect to the digital site plans. An example of such a regime would be to compare the spatial incidence of positive magnetic readings within a certain numerical range, say between 1 and 2 nT, with the occurrence of cut features, such as ditches or pits likely to produce anomalies of this magnitude. More advanced classifications based 85 on the characteristic response caused by certain archaeological features will then be tested in the hope that an improved interpretation of subsequent ‘blind’ magnetometer datasets will result.

Further comparison will be made between magnetometer data collected at the present ground surface and repeat surveys conducted over the topsoil-stripped excavation surface. Results from magnetic susceptibility surveys conducted over the same surfaces will also be compared to the magnetometer datasets. Such comparisons will identify the relative contribution of induced to remanent magnetisation for the various classes of identified features.

Mineral magnetic profiling Bulk magnetic properties including natural remanent magnetisation, susceptibility, isothermal and anhysteretic magnetisations have been determined for all samples collected from a range of archaeological features and underlying natural sediments. More detailed analysis will be performed on representative samples and magnetic extracts.

5.19 Spatial and Structural Analysis

Following recording and analysis of the finds and the first phase of radiocarbon dating, the character and date of deposits and spatial and stratigraphic relationships will be examined. Context groupings devised in the various post-excavation assessments will be scrutinised.

Features will be categorised by form, size and fill in order to define feature groups, compare these across site and understand site-formation processes. This analysis will use the context database and hand-drawn sections in order to create a new database of key information that can be interrogated using query forms and a GSys package. The analysis will contribute to appreciating different activities and acts of deposition in different contexts and at different times. Post-depositional histories can also be constructed. Definition of this analysis will generate tables, plans and some sections, as well as notes from which site descriptions and drawing briefs can be written.

More detailed stratigraphic analysis will be undertaken in those circumstances where sequences survive (see above, Section 2.1.5), in order to understand relationships between features, environmental sequences, the impact of earlier landscapes on the form and location of later features, the ways in which monuments were used and evidence of later land use. The principal sources of information to be examined will be the context database, sections and the results of finds analysis. Interpretative sections will be produced with notes which will form the basis of site descriptions and drawing briefs.

As already indicated above (Section 2.1.5), the greatest potential of this data lies in spatial analysis. The distribution of feature groups by type and period will be analysed, using Gsys and other site databases, particularly the context database and those generated during finds analysis. This will take into account evidence on topography and the surrounding environment. At the level of feature groups the analysis will attempt to

86 gain an understanding of the form of different activity areas and the kinds of actions that took place there. At a landscape-wide scale it will seek to reconstruct the range of activities undertaken at any period across the floodplain area. The relationship between different types of activity and changes through time will be investigated. The outcome of this work will mainly be a series of plans, along with notes for site descriptions and drawing briefs.

The forms of the identified buildings will be examined more fully and further structures will be sought within the numerous unassigned postholes using digitised plans, more detailed hand-drawn site plans and the database of key information deriving from the analysis of the form and fill of features. Comparisons will be made which will shed light on the different uses of structures and the way architecture changed from the Neolithic to the late Bronze Age. Possible reconstructions will be considered.

Distributions of all categories of artefacts will be analysed, and their occurrence in different types of feature, and with other categories of finds and ecofacts will be investigated. Particular attention will be paid to deposits that may have been deliberately placed. Distributions of artefacts and feature types will be produced using GSys.

More than 300 site plans of all the areas examined have been digitised to facilitate this analysis but, over the seven years of the project, different software packages have been employed. They will be edited for use in both GSys for spatial analysis and Illustrator for use in publication plans.

The provisional phasing will be revised once the analysis has been completed, drawing on specialist databases/catalogues, the results of the spatial analysis and radiocarbon dating. This will result in the final phasing which specialists can use in their finds reports. It will also produce the structure of each site description chapter so that specialists will know how to organise their text to fit into the integrated format of the monograph (see below).

5.20 Analysis of evaluation techniques

The evaluation sampling methods (fieldwalking, test-pit sieving and 2% machine trenching) will be appraised, comparing the results with excavated areas. The results of the various geophysical surveys will be examined and compared to the results of the excavations. The reasons why some features showed up better on the magnetometer survey than others, regardless of their depths and date, will be of some importance here. The field survey results will be compared with air photography and multi-spectral imagery.

5.21 Descriptive text and illustration

Finally, each module of post-excavation analysis will generate illustrated descriptive text in which the evidence of the finds will be integrated with the description of the archaeological contexts from which they came. This has already been achieved in Modules 1 and 2 by the production of Chapters 8 and 9. Illustrations will be largely

87 computer-generated and estimates of drawing requirements and word lengths are shown in Appendix 1. Selected artefacts will be drawn. The descriptive sections of Modules 3 - 5 will comprise Part III of the monograph (Appendix 1, Chapters 8-15). Chapter 7 (Prehistoric activity on the gravel terrace) is being written as part of the Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm and Yarnton Cresswell Field post-excavation projects.

5.22 Overview

On completion of all modules of post-excavation analysis, the evidence for each material category will be reviewed in order to gain a picture of the totality of the evidence for the area. This short phase of work will also enable specialists to re-acquaint themselves with the results of earlier phases in the project. This will lead directly to writing the synthetic sections of the volume.

5.23 Synthetic and introductory text and illustration

Part II of the monograph will provide an overview of the earlier prehistoric developments in the study area (Appendix 1, Chapters 2 - 6). Contributions to this section will be provided by specialists as well as the main author, as shown in the appendix; lengths of time are dependent upon likely input to the different chapters. Interpretative illustrations will reinforce the conclusions. The introductory chapter will be written (Appendix 1, Chapter 1).

5.24 General project tasks

Research and training: Time is allowed for limited library research and collection visits. The excellent library facilities in Oxford (Ashmolean and Bodleian) will be used. Training will be provided internally.

Project management and monitoring: The project will be managed by Gill Hey and monitored internally by Carol Allen. During the most intensive parts of the work programme this has been calculated at 2 days per month for management and 0.5 days per month for internal monitoring/quality control, with less time allocated during periods when few people are active or when reports are awaited (approximately 10% and 3% of non-illustration time respectively). Drawing office management will be undertaken by Paul Hughes (at 3% of illustration time). Professor Richard Bradley will provide academic advice as part of an agreement for the entire project.

IT support will be provided by Paul Miles. Finds and archive administration will be undertaken by Leigh Allen, Anne Dodd and Nicky Scott.

Report assembly and proof reading The report will be compiled, edited and checked against the drawings by Gill Hey and Francis Healy. Draft publication texts will be checked by individual contributors.

88 5.25 Research Questions and Methods

The provision of information and writing the descriptive and synthetic text contribute to all of the major research objectives. The general research aims also apply to all of the methods. The interrelation of the specific project research objectives (Section 4.2) and the methods (Section 5) is summarised in Table 4.

5.26 Archives

All site records have been microfiched at the National Monuments record, and a copy is held there. On completion of analysis, the research archive will be microfiched in the same way. The site paper and digital archive will be deposited with the Oxfordshire County Museum Service at the end of the project. Consultations are in progress with the landowner to encourage him to donate the finds to the Oxfordshire County Museum Service.

5.27 Health and safety

All work will be carried out in accordance with OAU's Health and Safety Policy (OAU 1992).

89

Table 4: Methods and research objectives

Research Methods (see section 5.1-5.24) objectives 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (see section 4.2) Date Pot Fired Flint Worked Burnt Wood Bone and Metal Cons Human Animal Env. Pollen Soils Phosphate Geophys Spatial & Evaluation clay stone stone shale finds finds bone bone strat analysis techniques

A1 √√√√√√√√ √√ √√ √ √

A2 √√ √ √

A3 √√ √√

A4 √√√√√√√ √√√ √

A5 √√√√√√

A6 √√√√ √√ √√ √

B1 √√ √√√

B2 √

B3 √ √√

B4 √√√

B5 √√√

B6 √ √√

B7 √√ √ √√ √

B8 √ √√

B9 √ √√ √

C1 √√√√√√√√ √ √√ √ √

91 Research Methods (see section 5.1-5.24) objectives 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (see section 4.2) Date Pot Fired Flint Worked Burnt Wood Bone and Metal Cons Human Animal Env. Pollen Soils Phosphate Geophys Spatial & Evaluation clay stone stone shale finds finds bone bone strat analysis techniques

C2 √√√√ √ √√ √√ √ √

C3 √√

C4 √ √√√√√√

D1 √√√√√√√√√

D2 √√ √√√√ √

D3 √√ √ √√√√

D4 √√√√ √√√√√

D5 √√ √ √√ √

E1 √√ √√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

E2 √√

E3 √√ √√ √ √ √ √ √ √

E4 √√√√√ √ √

E5 √√ √√ √ √ √ √ √ √

F1 √√√ √

F2 √ √

F3 √√

G1 √√√√√√√ √√ √

92 Research Methods (see section 5.1-5.24) objectives 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (see section 4.2) Date Pot Fired Flint Worked Burnt Wood Bone and Metal Cons Human Animal Env. Pollen Soils Phosphate Geophys Spatial & Evaluation clay stone stone shale finds finds bone bone strat analysis techniques G2 √ √√ √

G3 √√ √ √ √ √ √

G4 √√ √

H1 √√ √ √√√

H2 √ √

H3 √√ √ √

H4 √√ √

H5 √√ √

H6 √√√√√√√√ √√

H7 √ √

93 6 PROGRAMMING AND RESOURCES

6.1 Personnel

Carol Allen, Senior Research Officer, OAU

Leigh Allen, Finds Administrator, OAU

Alistair Barclay, Senior Research Officer and prehistoric pottery specialist, OAU

Alex Bayliss, Scientific Dating Co-ordinator, Ancient Monuments Laboratory

Christopher Bell, Field Officer, OAU

Angela Boyle, Human bone specialist, OAU

Philippa Bradley, Lithics specialist

Professor Richard Bradley, Department of Archaeology, University of Reading

Matthew Canti, Soil Scientist, AML

Anne Dodd, Deputy post-excavation manager, OAU

Chris Doherty, Petrologist, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford

Stephanie Dudd, Residue Analysis, University of Bristol

Environmental technician OAU

Richard Evershed, Residue Analysis, University of Bristol

Vanessa Fell, English Heritage-funded conservator, Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford

James Greig, English Heritage-funded palynologist, University of Birmingham

Frances Healy, freelance archaeologist

Gill Hey, Senior Archaeologist, OAU

Paul Hughes, Principal Illustrator, OAU

Illustrators, OAU

Neil Linford, Geophysics, Archaeometry Branch, Ancient Monuments Laboratory

Paul Miles, Computer Officer, OAU

94 Jacqui Mulville, English Heritage regional advisor for archaeological science, Oxford University Museum

Peter Northover, Department of Materials, Oxford University

Simon Palmer, Unit Manager, OAU

Phillip Powell, University Museum, Oxford

Research assistants, OAU

Mark Robinson, English Heritage-funded Environmental Archaeologist, University Museum, Oxford

Fiona Roe, Worked Stone specialist

Nicola Scott, Archives Officer, OAU

Maisie Taylor, worked wood specialist, Fenland Archaeological Trust

95 6.2 Task List

Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) MODULE 3 Information and seminar 3 Seminar preparation and information G Hey 2 5.1 for specialists C Bell 5 Research assistant 3 4 Review interpretation record structures G Hey 3 5.19 5 Seminar C Allen 1 5.1 A Barclay 1 A Bayliss [1] C Bell 1 A Boyle 1 P Bradley 1 R Bradley 1 C Doherty 1 S Dudd 1 R Evershed 1 V Fell [1] J Greig [1] F Healy 1 G Hey 1 P Hughes 1 H Keeley [1] P Miles 1 J Mulville [1] Research assistant 1 M Robinson [1] F Roe 1 M Taylor 1 Finds recording and analysis 7 Discuss 14 C samples to be submitted A Bayliss [2] 5.2 G Hey 2 C Bell 2 8 Submit 1st round of 14C samples G Hey 2 5.2 C Bell 5 Research assistant 5 9 Retrieve samples for 14C dating M Robinson [3] 5.2 M Taylor 2 10 Edit digital plans Research assistant 15 5.19 11 Pottery from Sites 3, 4, 4a, 4b A Barclay 13 5.3 12 Pottery from Site 5 A Barclay 10 5.3 13 Input pottery data Technician 3 5.3 14 Pottery thin sections and chemical A Barclay 1 5.3 analysis and reports C Doherty £750 + £600 15 Residues on pottery A Barclay 15.3 R Evershed 16 Fired clay from Module 3 A Barclay 1 5.4 17 Fired clay thin sections and report C Doherty £250 5.4 18 Flint from Module 3 P Bradley 11 5.5 19 Worked Stone F Roe 1 5.6 20 Bone and shale small finds (all sites) A Barclay 2 5.9 J Mulville [1] 21 Artefact conservation V Fell [1] 5.11 22 Human bone from Module 3 A Boyle 3 5.12

96 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 23 Human/animal cremations on Site 5 A Boyle 1 5.12,5.13 J Mulville [1] 24 Sorting residues for animal bone technician 2 5.13 25 Animal bone J Mulville [3] 5.13 26 Sort non-waterlogged environmental technician 20 5.14 samples 27 Identify waterlogged plant and M Robinson [3] 5.14 invertebrate remains from channel on Site 22 28 Identify charred plant remains and M Robinson [15] 5.14 charcoal 29 Identify waterlogged plant and M Robinson [6.5] 5.14 invertebrate remains 30 Pollen from channel on Site 22 J Greig [15] 5.15 31 Geoarchaeology of Site 5 M Canti [20] 5.16 32 Select and send phosphate samples for G Hey 1 5.17 detailed analysis technician 3 33 Phosphate analysis Bournemouth £2000 5.17 University 34 Data entry of phosphate results technician 2 5.17 35 Assessment of phosphate for Site 5 G Hey 1 5.17 36 Geophysical survey: Site 3 N Linford [20] 5.18 37 Geophysical survey: Site 5 N Linford [10] 5.18 38 Discuss geophysical survey results in N Linford [2] 5.18, 5.20 relation to archaeological evidence G Hey 2 Site analysis 40 Site 3: spatial, structural and C Bell 12 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 41 Site 3: finds distribution analysis C Bell 10 5.19 42 Site 3:define results of analysis C Bell 5 5.19 43 Site 4: spatial, structural and C Bell 8 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 44 Site 4: finds distribution analysis C Bell 3 5.19 45 Site 4: define results of analysis C Bell 2 5.19 46 Sites 4a and 4b: spatial, structural and C Bell 4 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 47 Sites 4a and 4b: finds distribution C Bell 2 5.19 analysis 48 Sites 4a and 4b: define results of C Bell 2 5.19 analysis 49 Site 5: spatial, structural and Research assistant 1 15 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 50 Site 5: finds distribution analysis Research assistant 1 7 5.19 51 Site 5: define results of analysis Research assistant 1 5 5.19 52 Site 22: spatial, structural and Research assistant 1 5 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 53 Site 22: finds distribution analysis Research assistant 1 1 5.19 54 Site 22: define results of analysis Research assistant 1 2 5.19 55 Sites 5 and 22 analysis (direct input into G Hey 7 5.19 Tasks 50-5) 56 Evaluation techniques G Hey 5 5.20 57 Define evaluation techniques G Hey 2 5.20 Revised phasing and review 59 Assess Module 3 14C results G Hey 2 5.2

97 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) C Bell 2 A Bayliss [1] 60 Revise Module 3 phasing G Hey 2 5.19 C Bell 5 Research assistant 3 61 Project review G Hey 2 5.1 C Bell 2 C Allen 2 62 Seminar preparation and information C Bell 2 5.1 for specialists Research assistant 2 63 Seminar C Allen 1 5.1 A Barclay 1 A Bayliss [1] C Bell 1 A Boyle 1 P Bradley 1 R Bradley 1 C Doherty 1 S Dudd 1 R Evershed 1 V Fell [1] J Greig [1] F Healy 1 G Hey 1 P Hughes 1 H Keeley [1] P Miles 1 J Mulville [1] Research assistant 1 M Robinson [1] F Roe 1 M Taylor 1 64 Submit 2nd round of 14C results G Hey 1 5.2 Research assistant 3 M Robinson [2] S0ecialist reports and drawing preparation 66 Pottery : Sites 3, 4, 4a, 4b (Chapter 13) A Barclay 10 5.21 67 Pottery : Site 5 (Chapter 14) A Barclay 5 5.21 68 Results of residue analysis R Evershed £500 5.21 69 Fired clay: Module 3 A Barclay 1 5.21 70 Flint: Sites 3, 4, 4a, 4b (Chapter 13) P Bradley 7 5.21 71 Flint: Site 5 (Chapter 14) P Bradley 3 5.21 72 Worked Stone F Roe 1 5.21 73 Burnt unworked stone Research Assistant 1 5.21 74 Worked wood (all sites) M Taylor 10 5.21 75 Bone and shale small finds (all sites) A Barclay 3 5.21 J Mulville [1] 76 Human bone A Boyle 2 5.21 77 Animal bone J Mulville [1] 5.21 78 Iron Age and Roman macroscopic plant M Robinson [1] 5.21 and invertebrate remains from Site 22 channel 79 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate M Robinson [12] 5.21 remains from Neolithic and Bronze Age deposits

98 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 80 Pollen: Iron Age and Roman from Site J Greig [5] 5.21 22 81 Pollen: Neolithic and Bronze Age J Greig [5] 5.21 82 Geoarchaeology M Canti [5] 5.21 83 Phosphate G Hey 1 5.21 84 Geophysical survey N Linford [10] 5.21 Site description and assembly 86 Receive and review specialist reports G Hey 4 5.1 C Bell 2 87 Site 3: write description C Bell 15 5.21 88 Site 4: write description C Bell 5 5.21 89 Sites 4a and 4b: write description C Bell 5 5.21 90 Sites 3, 4, 4a and 4b: prepare drawing C Bell 10 5.21 briefs 91 Site 5: write description Research assistant 1 20 5.21 92 Site 5: prepare drawing briefs Research assistant 1 5 5.21 93 Site 22: write description Research assistant 1 4 5.21 94 Site 22: prepare drawing briefs Research assistant 1 1 5.21 95 Discuss and define 14C results A Bayliss [2] 5.2 G Hey 2 96 Sites 3, 4, 4a and 4b (Chapter 13): C Bell 10 5.21 integrate specialist reports G Hey 5 97 Site 5 (Chapter 14): edit and integrate G Hey 10 5.21 specialist reports 98 Site 22: edit and integrate specialist G Hey 3 5.21 reports 99 Project review G Hey 2 5.1 C Bell 2 C Allen 2 Illustrations Modules 1 and 2 101 Site description illustration Illustrator 10 5.21 102 Pottery illustration Illustrator 10 5.21 103 Flint illustration Illustrator 15 5.21 Illustrations Module 3 105 Pottery illustration Illustrator 30 5.21 106 Fired clay illustrations Illustrator 1 5.21 107 Flint illustration: Module 3 Illustrator 15 5.21 108 Worked stone illustration Illustrator 1 5.21 109 Illustrate worked wood (all sites) Illustrator 12 5.21 110 Bone and shale small finds illustration Illustrator 4 5.21 111 Site description illustration: Chapter 13 Illustrator 15 5.21 112 Site description illustration: Chapter 14 Illustrator 12 5.21 113 Site description: Site 22 Illustrator 3 5.21

MODULE 4 Finds recording and analysis 116 Discuss 14 C samples to be A Bayliss [1] 5.2 submitted G Hey 1 Research assistant 1 117 Submit 14C samples G Hey 1 5.2 Research assistant 5 M Robinson [2] 118 Pottery A Barclay 35 5.3

99 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 119 Input pottery data Technician 4 5.3 120 Fired clay A Barclay 1 5.4 121 Flint P Bradley 10 5.5 122 Worked Stone F Roe 2 5.6 123 Human Bone A Boyle 3 5.12 124 Human/animal cremations A Boyle 1 5.12, 5.13 J Mulville [1] 125 Animal bone J Mulville [6] 5.13 126 Sort non-waterlogged environmental Technician 15 5.14 samples 127 Identify charred plants and charcoal M Robinson [10] 5.14 128 Identify waterlogged plant and M Robinson [3] 5.14 invertebrate remains 129 Pollen J Greig [4] 5.15 130 Geoarchaeology M Canti [6] 5.16 131 Phosphate G Hey 1 5.17 132 Geophysical survey N Linford [10] 5.18 133 Discuss geophysical survey results N Linford [2] 5.18, 5.20 in relation to archaeological G Hey 2 evidence Site analysis 135 Spatial, structural and stratigraphic Research assistant 2 35 5.19 analysis 136 Finds distribution analysis Research assistant 2 15 5.19 137 Define results of analysis Research assistant 2 10 5.19 138 Module 4 analysis (direct input into G Hey 13 5.19 Tasks 136-8) 139 Evaluation techniques G Hey 2 5.20 140 Define evaluation techniques G Hey 1 5.20 Revised phasing and review 142 Assess results and select further G Hey 2 5.2 samples Research assistant 2 A Bayliss [1] 143 Revise Module 4 phasing G Hey 3 5.19 Research assistant 7 144 Project review G Hey 2 5.1 C Bell 2 C Allen 2 145 Seminar preparation and information G Hey 1 5.1 for specialists Research assistant 3 146 Seminar C Allen 1 5.1 A Barclay 1 A Bayliss [1] C Bell 1 A Boyle 1 P Bradley 1 R Bradley 1 S Dudd 1 R Evershed 1 J Greig [1] F Healy 1 G Hey 1 P Hughes 1 P Miles 1 J Mulville [1]

100 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) Research assistant 1 M Robinson [1] F Roe 1 M Taylor 1 147 Submit 2nd round of 14C results G Hey 1 5.2 Research assistant 3 M Robinson [2] Specialist reports and drawing preparation 149 Pottery A Barclay 17 5.21 150 Fired clay A Barclay 1 5.21 151 Flint P Bradley 5 5.21 152 Worked Stone F Roe 2 5.21 153 Burnt unworked stone Research Assistant 1 5.21 154 Human Bone A Boyle 1 5.21 155 Animal bone J Mulville [4] 5.21 156 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate M Robinson [6] 5.21 remains 157 Pollen J Greig [1] 5.22 158 Geoarchaeology M Canti [3] 5.22 159 Phosphate G Hey 1 5.22 160 Geophysical survey N Linford [5] 5.22 Site description and assembly 162 Receive and review specialist reports G Hey 5 5.1 163 Site description Research assistant 2 35 5.21 164 Drawing briefs Research assistant 2 15 5.21 165 Discuss and define 14C results A Bayliss [2] 5.2 G Hey 2 166 Edit and integrate specialist reports G Hey 15 5.21 167 Project review G Hey 2 5.1 C Bell 2 C Allen 2 Illustrations 169 Pottery illustration Illustrator 40 5.21 170 Flint illustration Illustrator 10 5.21 171 Worked stone illustration Illustrator 1 5.21 172 Site description illustration Illustrator 30 5.21

MODULE 5 Finds recording and analysis 175 Discuss 14 C samples to be submitted A Bayliss [1] 5.2 G Hey 1 C Bell 1 176 Submit 1st round of 14C samples G Hey 1 5.2 Research assistant 5 M Robinson [2] M Taylor 2 177 Pottery : excavation and evaluation A Barclay 10 5.3 178 Input pottery data Technician 3 5.3 179 Fired clay A Barclay 4 5.4 180 Flint: excavation and evaluation P Bradley 20 5.5 181 Worked Stone F Roe 1 5.6 182 Metal artefacts P Northover £340 5.10

101 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 183 Artefact conservation V Fell [10] 5.11 184 Human bone A Boyle 1 5.12 185 Animal\human cremations A Boyle 1 5.12, 5.13 J Mulville [1] 186 Animal bone J Mulville [10] 5.13 187 Sort non-waterlogged environmental Technician 6 5.14 samples 188 Identify charred plant remains and M Robinson [10] 5.14 charcoal 189 Identify waterlogged plant and M Robinson [22.5] 5.14 invertebrate remains 190 Pollen J Greig [10] 5.15 191 Geoarchaeology M Canti [16] 5.16 192 Phosphate G Hey 1 5.17 193 Geophysical survey N Linford [35] 5.18 194 Discuss geophysical survey results in N Linford [2] 5,18, 5.20 relation to archaeological evidence G Hey 2 Site analysis 196 Site 9: spatial, structural and Research assistant 1 12 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 197 Site 9: finds distribution analysis Research assistant 1 7 5.19 198 Site 9:define results of analysis Research assistant 1 5 5.19 199 Site 10: spatial, structural and Research assistant 1 6 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 200 Site 10: finds distribution analysis Research assistant 1 4 5.19 201 Site 10: define results of analysis Research assistant 1 2 5.19 202 Site 4d analysis and definition Research assistant 1 1 5.19 203 Sites 9, 10 and 4d analysis (direct G Hey 8 5.19 input into Tasks 197-203) 204 Site 17: spatial, structural and Research assistant 2 8 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 205 Site 17: finds distribution analysis Research assistant 2 4 5.19 206 Site 17: define results of analysis Research assistant 2 3 5.19 207 Site 21: spatial, structural and Research assistant 2 8 5.19 stratigraphic analysis 208 Site 21: finds distribution analysis Research assistant 2 4 5.19 209 Site 21:define results of analysis Research assistant 2 3 5.19 210 Sites 4c and 4e: spatial, structural Research assistant 2 10 5.19 and stratigraphic analysis 211 Sites 4c and 4e: finds distribution Research assistant 2 3 5.19 analysis 212 Sites 4c and 4e: define results of Research assistant 2 2 5.19 analysis 213 Sites 17, 21, 4c and 4e analysis G Hey 10 5.19 (direct input into Tasks 205-13) 214 Site 25 and evaluation trenches: Research assistant 1 10 5.19 spatial, structural and stratigraphic analysis 215 Site 25 and evaluation trenches: finds Research assistant 1 3 5.19 distribution analysis 216 Site 25 and evaluation trenches: Research assistant 1 2 5.19 define results of analysis 217 Site 25 analysis (direct input into G Hey 3 5.19 Tasks 215-7)

102 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 218 Evaluation techniques G Hey 3 5.20 219 Define evaluation techniques G Hey 1 5.20 Revised phasing and review 221 Assess results and select further G Hey 2 5.2 samples C Bell 2 A Bayliss [1] 222 Revise Module 5 phasing G Hey 2 5.19 C Bell 5 Research assistant 3 223 Project review G Hey 2 5.1 C Bell 2 C Allen 2 224 Seminar preparation and information G Hey 1 5.1 for specialists Research assistant 3 225 Seminar C Allen 1 5.1 A Barclay 1 A Bayliss [1] C Bell 1 A Boyle 1 P Bradley 1 R Bradley 1 S Dudd 1 R Evershed 1 J Greig [1] F Healy 1 G Hey 1 P Hughes 1 P Miles 1 J Mulville [1] Research assistants 2 M Robinson [1] F Roe 1 M Taylor 1 226 Submit 2nd round of 14C results G Hey 1 5.2 Research assistant 3 M Robinson [2] Specialist reports and drawing preparation 228 Pottery A Barclay 8 5.21 229 Fired clay A Barclay 2 5.21 230 Flint P Bradley 15 5.21 231 Worked Stone F Roe 1 5.21 232 Stone from the causeway P Powell [1] 5.21 233 Burnt unworked stone Research Assistant 2 5.21 234 Metal artefacts P Northover £375 5.21 235 Human bone A Boyle 2.5 5.21 236 Animal bone J Mulville [11] 5.21 237 Macroscopic plant and invertebrate M Robinson [13] 5.21 remains 238 Pollen J Greig [4] 5.21 239 Geoarchaeology M Canti [7] 5.21 240 Phosphate G Hey 1 5.21 241 Geophysical survey N Linford [17] 5.21 Site description and assembly 243 Receive and review specialist reports G Hey 5 5.1 244 Site 9: write description Research assistant 1 15 5.21

103 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 245 Site 10: write description Research assistant 1 10 5.21 246 Site 4d: write description Research assistant 1 1 5.21 247 Sites 9, 10 and 4d (Chapter 16): prepare Research assistant 1 10 5.21 drawing briefs 248 Sites 9, 10 and 4d (Chapter 16): edit G Hey 10 5.21 and integrate specialist reports 249 Site 17: write description Research assistant 2 8 5.21 250 Site 21: write description Research assistant 2 8 5.21 251 Sites 4c and 4e: write description Research assistant 2 4 5.21 252 Sites 17, 21, 4c and 4e (Chapter 17): Research assistant 2 8 5.21 prepare drawing briefs 253 Sites 17, 21, 4c and 4e (Chapter 17): G Hey 10 5.21 edit and integrate specialist reports 254 Site 25 and evaluation trenches: write Research assistant 1 15 5.21 description 255 Site 25 and evaluation trenches Research assistant 1 3 5.21 (Chapter 18): prepare drawing briefs 256 Site 25 (Chapter 18): edit and integrate G Hey 5 5.21 specialist reports 257 Discuss and define 14C results A Bayliss [2] 5.2 G Hey 2 258 Project review G Hey 2 5.1 C Bell 2 C Allen 2 Illustrations 260 Pottery illustration Illustrator 15 5.21 261 Fired clay illustration Illustrator 2 5.21 262 Flint illustration Illustrator 35 5.21 263 Worked stone illustration Illustrator 1 5.21 264 Finds illustration – metalwork Illustrator 3 5.21 265 Site description illustration Chapter 16 Illustrator 15 5.21 266 Site description illustration Chapter 17 Illustrator 15 5.21 267 Site description Chapter 18 Illustrator 5 5.21 OVERVIEW Information and seminar 270 Seminar preparation and information G Hey 2 5.1 for specialists C Bell 2 271 Seminar A Barclay 1 5.1 A Bayliss [1] C Bell 1 A Boyle 1 P Bradley 1 R Bradley 1 J Greig [1] F Healy 1 G Hey 1 P Hughes 1 P Miles 1 J Mulville [1] M Robinson [1] F Roe 1 M Taylor 1 Review and additional analysis 273 Review 14C results and select further A Bayliss [1] 5.2 samples G Hey 1

104 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) C Bell 1 274 Submit 14C samples G Hey 1 5.2 Research assistant 5 M Robinson [2] 275 Review pottery A Barclay 5 5.22 276 Review flint P Bradley 5 5.22 277 Review worked stone F Roe 2 5.22 278 Review burnt unworked stone G Hey 1 5.22 279 Review human bone A Boyle 1 5.22 280 Review animal bone J Mulville [1] 5.22 281 Review charred plant remains and M Robinson [5] 5.22 charcoal 282 Review waterlogged remains and M Robinson [5] 5.22 invertebrates 283 Review pollen J Greig [3] 5.22 284 Synthesis of site and finds evidence G Hey 10 5.22 285 Review evaluation techniques G Hey 5 5.22 286 Receive and assess 14C results G Hey 1 5.2 C Bell 1 287 Discuss and define 14C results A Bayliss [1] 5.2 G Hey 1 C Bell 1 Write overview and appendices 289 Write dating chapter A Bayliss [20] 5.23 G Hey 20 290 Pottery chronology for introduction A Barclay 2 5.23 291 Pottery for Chapter 5 A Barclay 14 5.23 292 Pottery for Chapter 6 A Barclay 4 5.23 293 Pottery technical appendix A Barclay 1 5.23 294 Fired clay for Chapter 5 A Barclay 1 5.23 295 Fired clay technical appendix A Barclay 1 5.23 296 Flint for Chapter 5 P Bradley 15 5.23 297 Flint for Chapter 6 P Bradley 3 5.23 298 Flint technical appendix P Bradley 1 5.23 299 Worked stone for Chapters 5 and 6 F Roe 1 5.23 300 Burnt unworked stone for Chapters 3 G Hey 2 5.23 and 5 301 Worked wood for Chapter 5 M Taylor 2 5.23 302 Worked wood technical appendix M Taylor 1 5.23 303 Artefact conservation appendix V Fell [2] 5.23 304 Human bone for Chapters 2 and 3 A Boyle 3 5.23 305 Human bone technical appendix A Boyle 1 5.23 306 Animals for Chapter 4 J Mulville [2] 5.23 307 Animal bone technical appendix J Mulville [1] 5.23 308 Environmental evidence for Chapter 2 M Robinson [35] 5.23 309 Environmental evidence for Chapter 4 M Robinson [20] 5.23 310 Environmental technical appendix M Robinson [1] 5.23 311 Pollen for Chapters 2 and 4 J Greig [6] 5.23 312 Pollen technical appendix J Greig [1] 5.23 313 Phosphate survey for Chapter 17 G Hey 2 5.23 314 Evaluation techniques for Chapter 18 G Hey 15 5.23 315 Write Chapter 2 G Hey 25 5.23 316 Integrate Chapter 2 G Hey 5 5.23 317 Write Chapter 3 G Hey 35 5.23

105 Task List. Yarnton Floodplain post-excavation Modules 3, 4 and 5 Task Description By Days Methods (see section 5) 318 Integrate Chapter 3 G Hey 2 5.23 319 Write Chapter 4 G Hey 5 5.23 320 Integrate Chapter 4 G Hey 10 5.23 321 Write Chapter 5 G Hey 5 5.23 322 Integrate Chapter 5 G Hey 10 5.23 323 Write Chapter 6 G Hey 25 5.23 324 Prepare drawing briefs for overview G Hey 10 5.23 325 Write Chapter 1 G Hey 15 5.23 326 Prepare drawing briefs for introduction G Hey 5 5.23 Illustrations for overview 328 Illustrate Chapter 18 (evaluation and Illustrator 5 5.23 excavation techniques) 329 Illustrate overview Illustrator 15 5.23 330 Illustrate introduction Illustrator 10 5.23 General Project tasks 332 Meetings 1999/2000 Various 5 (in total) 5.1 333 Meetings 2000/01 Various 10 (in total) 5.1 334 Meetings 2001/02 Various 10 (in total) 5.1 335 Meetings 2002/03 Various 5 (in total) 5.1 336 1999/2000 Project management G Hey 24 5.24 Quality control C Allen 4 Drawing office management P Hughes 2 337 2000/01 Project management G Hey 24 5.24 Quality control C Allen 6 Drawing office management P Hughes 5 338 2001/02 Project management G Hey 24 5.24 Quality control C Allen 6 Drawing office management P Hughes 5 339 2002/03 Project management G Hey 12 5.24 Quality control C Allen 4 Drawing office management P Hughes 2 340 2003/04 Project management G Hey 6 5.24 Quality control C Allen 2 Drawing office management P Hughes 2 341 Finds administration: Module 3 L Allen 2 5.24 342 Finds administration: Module 4 L Allen 2 5.24 343 Finds administration: Module 5 L Allen 2 5.24 344 Library time G Hey 20 5.24 C Bell 10 345 Training Research assistants 10 5.24 346 Computer support 1999/2000 P Miles 5 5.24 347 Computer support 2000/01 P Miles 5 5.24 348 Computer support 2001/02 P Miles 5 5.24 349 Computer support 2002/03 P Miles 5 5.24 350 Archive administration A Dodd 5 5.24 Producing volume 352 Checking and correcting illustrations G Hey 20 5.24 Illustrator 20 353 Checking and editing, liasing with F Healy 50 5.24 specialists G Hey 10 Academic refereeing

106 6.3 Cascade summary (main tasks)

107 6.4 Cascade

108 6.5 Costs

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

109 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, L, 1997 Other finds, in Hey and Muir 1997, 36-7

Allen, T, and Welsh, K, 1998 Eton Rowing Lake, Dorney, Buckinghamshire: third interim report, South Midlands Archaeology, 28, 75-84

Barclay, A, 1993a Pottery, in Yarnton Floodplain 1992 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 34-45

Barclay, A, 1993b Fired clay, in Yarnton Floodplain 1992 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 46-50

Barclay, A, 1994 Earlier prehistoric pottery, in Yarnton-Cassington evaluation 1993, internal OAU and English Heritage report, 70-3

Barclay, A, 1996a Pottery, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1995 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 32-8

Barclay, A, 1996b Fired clay, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1995 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 38-9

Barclay, A, 1997a Pottery, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1996 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey J and Muir), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 23-8

Barclay, A, 1997b The fired clay, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1996 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey J and Muir), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 29-30

Barclay, A, 1998a Pottery, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1997 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 26-30

Barclay, A, 1998b Fired clay, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1997 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 30-1

Barclay, A, 1999a Pottery, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1998 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 34-7

Barclay, A, 1999b Fired clay, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1998 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 38-40

Barclay, A, Bradley, R, Hey, G, and Lambrick, G, 1996 The earlier prehistory of the Oxford region in the light of recent research, Oxoniensia, 61, 1-20

135 Barclay, A and Halpin, C, 1999 Excavations at Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxfordshire, volume I. The Neolithic and Bronze Age monument complex, Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph 11, Oxford Archaeological Unit, Oxford

Barrett, J, 1994 Fragments from antiquity, Blackwell, Oxford

Barrett, J, Bradley, R and Green, M 1991 Landscape, Monuments and Society: the Prehistory of Cranborne Chase, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Bayliss, A, and Hey, G, forthcoming Scientific dating, in Yarnton: Saxon and medieval settlement and landscape, (G Hey), Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph

Bell, C, 1999 Phosphate, in Bell and Hey 1999, 73-5

Bell, C, and Bayliss, A, 1999 Dating, in Bell and Hey 1999, 85-6

Bell, C and Hey, G, 1998 Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1997 post-excavation assessment, internal OAU and English Heritage report

Bell, C and Hey, G, 1999 Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1998 post-excavation assessment, internal OAU and English Heritage report

Boyle, A, 1996a Human remains, in Hey 1996, 30-1

Boyle, A, 1996b, An assessment of the human skeletal assemblage, in Yarnton- Cassington Project: Yarnton Cresswell Field post-excavation assessment, (G Hey and C Bell), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 23-4

Boyle, A, 1997 The human skeletal assemblage, in Hey and Muir 1997, 39-41

Boyle, A, 1998 Human bone, in Bell and Hey 1998, 38

Boyle, A, 1999a Human bone, in Bell and Hey 1999, 49-50

Boyle, A, 1999b Human remains, in Excavations at Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxfordshire, volume I: The Neolithic and Bronze Age monument complex (A Barclay and C Halpin), Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph 11, Oxford Archaeological Unit, Oxford, 171- 85

Boyle, A, forthcoming Shedding new light on old bones: a modified approach to the analysis of prehistoric skeletal material, in The human body, (eds J Barrett, C Richards and J Sawday), Routledge One World Archaeology Series

Bradley, P, 1993 Flint, in Yarnton Floodplain 1992 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 50-61

Bradley, P, 1996 Flint, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1995 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 39-43

136 Bradley, P, 1997 The flint, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1996 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey J and Muir), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 31-3

Bradley, P, 1998 The flint, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1997 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 31-3

Bradley, P, 1999a The flint, in Bell and Hey 1999, 40-3

Bradley, P, 1999b Worked flint, in Excavations at Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxfordshire, volume I. The Neolithic and Bronze Age monument complex, (A Barclay and C Halpin), Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph 11, Oxford Archaeological Unit, Oxford, 211- 28

Bradley, P and Hey, G, 1996 The Yarnton-Cassington Project: Cresswell Field and the Iron Age to medieval landscape post-excavation analysis research design, internal OAU and English Heritage report, March 1996

Bradley, R, 1992 The gravels and British prehistory from the Neolithic to the Early Iron Age, in Developing landscapes of lowland Britain: the archaeology of the British gravels, a review (eds M Fulford and E Nichols), Soc of Antiq Occ Papers 14,

Canti, M, 1996 Geoarchaeological work, in Hey 1996, 21-5

Canti, M, 1997 The geoarchaeology, in Hey and Muir 1997, 58-64

Canti, M, 1998 Geoarchaeology, in Bell and Hey 1998, 58-9

Canti, M, 1999 Geoarchaeology, in Bell and Hey 1999, 75-7

Cantrill, T C and Jones O T, 1911 `Prehistoric cooking-places' in south Wales, Archaeol. Cambris., 11, 253-65

Case, H J, and Whittle, A W R, 1982 Cassington, 1950-2: late Neolithic pits and the Big Enclosure, in Settlement patterns in the Oxford region: excavations at the Abingdon causewayed enclosure and other sites (eds H J Case and A W R Whittle), CBA and Dept of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, 118-51

Clark, K and Powell, A, 1996 The late Bronze Age animal bone from Whitecross Farm, Cholsey, Oxfordshire, Centre for Human Ecology, unpublished manuscript

Cleal, R, 1999 Prehistoric pottery, in Excavations at Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxfordshire, volume I: The Neolithic and Bronze Age monument complex (A Barclay and C Halpin), Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph 11, Oxford Archaeological Unit, Oxford, 195- 210

Darvill, T, 1996 Neolithic buildings in England, Wales and the Isle of Man, in Neolithic houses in northwest Europe and beyond (eds T Darvill and J Thomas), 77-111, Oxbow Books, Oxford

137 David, A, and Linford, N, 1993 Geophysics, in Yarnton Floodplain 1992: post- excavation assessment, (G Hey), 83-4

Dudd, S N and Evershed, R P 1999a The organic residue analysis of the Neolithic pottery, in The Walton Basin project: excavation and survey in a prehistoric landscape (A Gibson), CBA Research Report 118, 112-20

Dudd, S N, and Evershed, R P, 1999b Organic residue analysis of pottery residues from Yarnton Cresswell Field and Floodplain: progress report, internal Bristol University report, February 1999

Eidt, R C, 1977 Detection and examination of anthrosols by phosphate analysis. Science 197, 1327-33

English Heritage 1991 Exploring our past: strategies for the archaeology of England, English Heritage, London

Featherstone, R, and Dyer, C, 1994 RCHME cropmark plot in Hey 1994a, 56-9

Fell, V, 1997 Storage and curation in Hey and Muir 1997, 72

Fell, V, 1998 Conservation assessment report, in Bell and Hey 1998, 65-6

Fell, V, 1999 Conservation assessment report, in Bell and Hey 1999, 87-8

Field, N, and Parker Pearson, M, forthcoming Fiskerton: an Iron Age and Roman votive offering site and causeway, Oxbow Monograph

Garwood, P, 1999 Grooved Ware chronology, in Grooved Ware in context, (eds R Cleal and A MacSween), Oxbow Monograph, Oxford

Gibson, A, and Kinnes, I, 1997 On the urns of a dilemma: radiocarbon and the Peterborough problem, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 16(1), 65-72

Greig, J, 1997 The pollen, in Hey and Muir 1997, 55-8

Greig, J, 1998 The pollen, in Bell and Hey 1998, 52-5

Greig, J, 1999 Pollen, in Bell and Hey 1999, 70-2

Gurney, D A, 1985 Phosphate analysis of soils: a guide for the field archaeologist, IFA Technical Paper, 3

Hacking, P, and Hey, G, 1996 Phosphate, in Hey 1996, 26-9

Hacking, P, and Hey, G, 1997 Phosphate, in Hey and Muir 1997, 66-70

Hacking, P, and Hey, G, 1998 Phosphate, in Bell and Hey 1998, 56-7

138 Hart, F A, Storey, J, Adams, S J, Symonds, R P and Walsh J N, 1987 An analytical study using ICP spectrometry of Samian and colour-coated wares from the Roman town of Colchester and related continental Samian wares, Journal of Archaeological Science 14, 577-98

Healy, F, 1984 Lithic assemblage variation in the late third and early second millennium BC in eastern England, Lithics, 10-8

Healy, F, 1996 The Fenland Project, number 11: The Wissey Embayment: evidence for pre-Iron Age occupation accumulated prior to the Fenland Project, East Anglian Archaeology, rept. no. 78, Norfolk

Hedges, J, 1974-5 Excavation of two Orcadian burnt mounds at Liddle and Beaquoy, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., 106, 38-98

Hey, G, 1991a Yarnton & Cassington Worton Rectory Farm; 1990/91 assessments, internal OAU and English Heritage report, July 1991

Hey, G, 1991b Mead Farm, Yarnton: archaeological assessment, internal OAU client report, January 1991

Hey, G, 1992a Yarnton Floodplain; 1991 field evaluation, internal OAU and English Heritage report, January 1992

Hey, G, 1992b A40 Witney-Cassington dualling: an archaeological evaluation 1991/2, internal OAU and English Heritage report, April 1992

Hey, G, 1993a Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm: post-excavation assessment and research design, internal OAU and English Heritage report, February 1993

Hey, G, 1993b Yarnton Floodplain 1992 post-excavation assessment, internal OAU and English Heritage report, November 1993

Hey, G, 1994a Yarnton-Cassington evaluation 1993, internal OAU and English Heritage report, March 1994

Hey, G, 1994b Yarnton-Cassington Project: A Neolithic to Medieval landscape, internal OAU and English Heritage report, November 1994

Hey, G, 1995 Yarnton Floodplain: post-excavation analysis project design for modules 1 and 2, internal OAU and English Heritage report, October 1995

Hey, G, 1996 Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1995 post-excavation assessment, internal OAU and English Heritage report, February 1996

Hey, G, 1997 Neolithic settlement at Yarnton, Oxfordshire, in Neolithic landscapes (ed. P Topping), Oxbow Monograph 86, 99-111

Hey, G, 1998 The Yarnton-Cassington Project: evaluating a floodplain landscape, Lithics, 19, 47-60

139 Hey, G, forthcoming Yarnton: Saxon and medieval settlement and landscape. Results of excavations 1990-6, Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph, Oxford

Hey, G, and Bayliss, A, 1996 Dating, in Hey 1996, 53

Hey, G, and Bayliss, A, 1997 Dating, in Hey and Muir 1997, 71

Hey, G, and Bayliss, A, 1998 Dating, in Bell and Hey 1997, 62-4

Hey, G and Bell, C, 1996 Yarnton Cresswell Field post-excavation assessment, unpublished OAU and English Heritage report, January 1996

Hey, G and Muir, J, 1997a Yarnton Floodplain B 1996: Cassington Worton Rectory Farm Field Evaluation internal OAU and English Heritage report, March 1997

Hey, G, and Muir J, 1997b Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1996 post-excavation assessment, internal OAU and English Heritage report, March 1997

Hey, G, Mulville, J and Robinson, M, forthcoming Diet and culture in southern Britain: the evidence from Yarnton, in Food, identity and culture in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, (ed. M Parker Pearson), BAR

Hillam, J, undated Dendrochronology: guidelines on producing and interpreting dendrochronological dates, English Heritage, London

Holgate, R, forthcoming, Flintwork, in Gravelly Guy, Stanton Harcourt: the development of a prehistoric and Romano-British landscape, (G Lambrick, T Allen and F Healy) Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph

Jeffery, P, 1991 Burnt mounds, fulling and early textiles, in Burnt mounds and hot stone technology, Papers for the second international burnt mound conference (eds M A Hodder and L H Barfield), West Bromwich, 97-107

Jones, G, in prep. The animal bone in Ten thousand years of settlement: the archaeology of a Middle Thames landscape. Excavations at the Eton rowing lake, (T Allen and K Welsh), Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph

Jones, P, 1990 Neolithic field monuments and occupation at Staines Road Farm, Shepperton, Surrey Archaeological Society Bulletin 252, November 1990

Kenward, R, 1982 A Neolithic burial enclosure at New Wintles Farm in Settlement patterns in the Oxford region: excavations at the Abingdon causewayed enclosure and other sites, (eds H J Case and A W R Whittle), CBA and Dept of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, 51-4

Kinnes, I, 1992 Non-megalithic long barrows and allied structures in the British Neolithic, British Museum Department of Prehistoric and Romano-British Antiquities Occasional Paper 52, London

140 Lambrick, G, Allen, T, and Healy, F, forthcoming Gravelly Guy, Stanton Harcourt: the development of a prehistoric and Romano-British landscape, Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph

Leeds, E T, 1934 Recent Bronze Age discoveries in Berkshire and Oxfordshire, Antiquaries Journal 14, 264-276

Levitan, B and Serjeantson, D, 1999 The animal bone, in Excavations at Barrow Hills, Radley. 1: the Neolithic and Bronze Age monument complex (A Barclay and C Halpin), Thames Valley Landscapes monograph 11, Oxford

Linford, N, 1994 Geophysical survey, in Yarnton-Cassington evaluation 1993, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 53-5

Linford, N, 1996 Magnetic susceptibility survey, in Hey 1996, 25-6

Linford, N, 1997 Geophysical survey, in Hey and Muir 1997, 64-5

Linford, N, 1998 Magnetometer survey and magnetic mineral profiling, in Bell and Hey 1998, 60-2

Linford, N, 1999 Geophysical survey and mineral magnetic profiling, in Bell and Hey 1999, 77-84

Linford, N, forthcoming Geophysical survey, in Yarnton: Saxon and medieval settlement and landscape. Results of excavations 1990-6, (G Hey), Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph, Oxford

Moffett, L, Robinson, M A, and Straker, V, 1989 Cereals, fruit and nuts: charred plant remains from Neolithic sites in England and Wales and the Neolithic economy, in The beginnings of agriculture (eds A Milles, D Williams and N Gardener), BAR Int. Ser. 496, Oxford, 243-61

Mulville, J, 1997 The animal bone, in Hey and Muir 1997, 42-6

Mulville, J, 1998 The animal bone, in Bell and Hey 1998, 39-42

Mulville, J, 1999 The animal bone, in Bell and Hey 1999, 51-5

Northover, P, 1999a Metalwork, in Bell and Hey 1999, 46-7

Northover, P, 1999b Analysis of early Bronze Age metalwork from Barrow Hills, in A Barclay and C Halpin 1999, 192-5

OAU, 1992 Oxford Archaeological Unit Field Manual, August 1992, Appendix 9, 35-42

Osborne, P J, 1969 An insect fauna of late Bronze Age date from Wilsford, Wiltshire, Journal of Animal Ecology 38, 555-66

141 Osborne, P J, 1989 , in Wilsford Shaft excavations 1960-62, English Heritage Archaeological Reports, 11, London

Parker Pearson, M, and Ramilisonina, 1998 Stonehenge for the ancestors: the stones pass on the message, Antiquity, 276, 308-26

Powell, P, 1999 Stone from the causeway, in Bell and Hey 1999, 45

Prehistoric Ceramics Research Group, 1995 The study of later prehistoric pottery: general policies and guidelines for analysis and publication, Prehistoric Ceramics Research Group Occ. Paper Nos 1 and 2

Pryor, F, 1999 Farmers in prehistoric Britain, Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire Pryor, F M M, in press Archaeology environment of the Flag Fen Basin, English Heritage Monograph

Rice, P, 1987 Pottery analysis: a sourcebook, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London

Richards, J, 1990 The Stonehenge Environs Project, English Heritage Archaeological Report 16, London

Robinson, M, 1993 Macroscopic plants and invertebrate remains and the sedimentary sequence of the floodplain, in Hey 1993, 69-77

Robinson, M, 1996 Roe, F, 1996 Other worked stone, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1995 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 43-4

Robinson, M A, and Lambrick, G H, 1984 Holocene alluviation and hydrology in the Upper Thames basin, Nature 308, 809-14

Roe, F, 1997 The worked stone, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1996 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey J and Muir), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 33-4

Roe, F, 1998 The worked stone, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1997 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 33-5

Roe, F, 1999 The worked stone, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1998 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 43-4

Rohl, B and Needham, S, 1998 The circulation of metal in the British Bronze Age: the application of lead isotope analysis, British Museum Occasional Paper 2, London

Rolleston, G, 1884 Scientific papers and addresses Vol. II, 934-44, Oxford

142 Serjeantson, D, and Smith, P, 1993 Animal bone, in Hey 1993, 64-8

Serjeantson, D, 1996 The animal bones, in Refuse and disposal at Area 16 East Runnymede, in Runnymede Bridge Research Excavations, Vol. 2 (S Needham and T Spence), British Museum Press, London

Smith, P, 1996 Animal bones, in Hey 1996, 47-8

Taylor, M, 1993 The waterlogged wood, in Yarnton Floodplain 1992 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey) internal OAU and English Heritage report, 78-81

Taylor, M, 1997 Waterlogged wood, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1996 post-excavation assessment, (G Hey and J Muir), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 37-8

Taylor, M, 1998 Worked wood, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1997 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 37-8

Taylor, M, 1999a The worked wood, in Yarnton-Cassington Project: Yarnton Floodplain B 1998 post-excavation assessment, (C Bell and G Hey), internal OAU and English Heritage report, 48-9)

Tilley, C, 1994 A phenomenology of landscapes, Berg, Oxford

Vatcher, F, 1961 The excavation of the long mortuary enclosure on Normanton Down, Wiltshire, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 27, 160-73

Wessex Archaeology 1996, Testwood Lakes, Netley Marsh, Hampshire; Meadow Lake excavations: assessment report, internal client report, December 1996

Whittle, A, 1997 Sacred mound, holy rings. Silbury Hill and the West Kennet palisade enclosures: a later Neolithic complex in North Wiltshire, Oxbow Monograph 74, Oxford

Whittle, A W R, Atkinson, R J C, Chambers, R & Thomas, N, 1992 Excavations in the Neolithic and Bronze Age complex at Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, 1947-1952 and 1981, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, 143-201

143 Appendix 1: Revised publication synopses for Neolithic and Bronze volume

YARNTON: NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE

Contents List of Illustrations Summary Acknowledgements

PART I: INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 Introduction (Gill Hey) Layout of volume Site location Background to the project Previous work on the site and the locality Project objectives Summary of project methods and lessons of excavation and evaluation techniques Chronology and phasing (10,000 words; plans of site location, geology, topography, extent of fieldwork and methods undertaken)

PART II: AN OVERVIEW

Chapter 2 Landscape (Gill Hey and Mark Robinson with Angela Boyle and James Greig) History of landscape development (tree clearance, alluviation etc) in relation to changing settlement patterns, monuments and burials and depositional practices (25,000 words; 5 landscape and land use plans)

Chapter 3 Neolithic and Bronze Age society at Yarnton (Gill Hey with Angela Boyle) Structures Boundaries Pits Artefact spreads Human remains Animal burials Settlement form Funerary and ceremonial features (25,000 words; reconstruction drawings; other drawings to be extracted from descriptive sections)

Chapter 4 Food production and consumption (Mark Robinson, Jacqui Mulville and Gill Hey) (5,000 words; any drawings to be extrcted from descriptive sections)

Chapter 5 Artefacts and crafts (Alistair Barclay, Angela Boyle, Philippa Bradley, Gill Hey, Fiona Roe and Maisie Taylor) (each section divided into acquisition, production and consumption) (25,000 words; any drawings to be extrcted from descriptive sections)

Chapter 6 The wider view (Gill Hey with Alistair Barclay, Philippa Bradley and Fiona Roe) Yarnton in its national and regional context The evolution of social and economic practices External contacts (10,000 words; plans of contemporary sites in region and locality)

144 PART III: THE SITES

The sites will be described by area in order to deal with the many undated features examined and to tackle general site formation processes (redeposition etc). The text will integrate feature and artefact description and, thus, will be written by all team members.

Chapter 7 Prehistoric activity on the Gravel Terrace Fieldwalking results on the terrace The finds scatter on YWRF The U-shaped enclosure and burials on Cresswell Field The ring ditches (Yarnton and Worton) Features on YWRF Features on Cresswell Field Features at Worton and the rest of the terrace (5750 words; 2 sites plans, phase plans and 2 finds-distribution plans; 6 detailed plans; 10 sections; 3 plates)

Chapter 8 Site 2 Location, microtopography and soil conditions The buried ground surface The penannular enclosure The linear ditches Slots and posthole alignments Other features Causeways (25,000 words; site plan and finds-distribution plan; 4 detailed plans; 28 sections; 3 plates)

Chapter 9 Site 1 Location, microtopography and soil conditions Pits with deliberate deposits and the U-shaped enclosure The early Bronze Age structure and other domestic features The middle to late Bronze Age settlement, structures Burnt mound deposits Late Bronze Age boundaries and pits Channel deposits and woodworking (29,500 words; site plan, plans and sections of 8 posthole structures and 4 detailed plans; 31 sections; 4 plates)

Chapter 10 Sites 3, 4, 4a, 4b Neolithic domestic activity in the east of the gravel island Grooved ware pits and Beaker features Bronze Age domestic features The ring ditch (20,000 words; 3 site plans, 3 phase plans, 3 finds-distribution plans and 10 detailed plans; 30 sections; 4 plates) Chapter 11 Site 5 Neolithic long enclosure Beaker and Bronze Age burials and pits Late Bronze Age domestic features (15,000 words; 1 site plan, 1 phase plan, 3 finds- and feature-distribution plans, 1 plan and sections of posthole building and 5 detailed plans; 20 sections; 5 plates)

Chapter 12 Site 7 Neolithic and Bronze Age structures and pits in the west of the gravel island Bronze Age ring ditch (25,000 words; 1 site plan, 1 phase plan, 2 finds-distribution plans, plans and sections of 9 posthole buildings, 12 detailed plans; 20 sections; 5 plates)

145 Chapter 13 Sites 4c, 4e, 17, 21 Bronze Age structures, wells and pits Burnt stone spreads and associated waterholes (15,000 words; 3 site plans, 3 phase plans, 2 finds-distribution plans, plan and sections of posthole building and 10 other detailed plans; 2 channel sections and 15 other sections; 5 plates)

Chapter 14 Sites 4d, 9, 10 and 22 Channels and associated activity (15,000 words; 4 site plans, 4 phase plans, 4 finds-distribution plans, 8 detailed plans including phased plans of causeway; 5 channel sections and 15 other sections; 4 plates)

Chapter 15 Site 25 and evaluation features in west of study area Late Bronze Age settlement Boundary ditches (10,000 words; 2 site plans, 1 phase plan, 1 finds-distribution plan, 2 detailed plans; 10 sections; 2 plates)

PART IV: THE METHODS

Chapter 16 Dating (Alex Bayliss and Gill Hey) 15,000 Chapter 17 Geophysical survey (Neil Linford)

Chapter 18 Excavation and evaluation techniques: the lessons (Gill Hey with research assistants) (15,000 words; 3-4 plans)

PART V: TECHNICAL APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Pottery (Alistair Barclay) Appendix 2 Fired clay (Alistair Barclay) Appendix 3 Flint (Philippa Bradley) Appendix 4 Worked stone (Fiona Roe) Appendix 5 Worked wood (Maisie Taylor) Appendix 6 Artefact conservation (Vanessa Fell) Appendix 7 Human bone (Angela Boyle) Appendix 8 Animal bone (Jacqui Mulville) Appendix 9 Palaeoenvironment (Mark Robinson) Appendix 10 Pollen (James Greig)

146 Birmingham N

Oxford Cardiff Reading London

0 100 200 km

scale 1: 5000000

Bicester

R .Ev e nlo d e Woodstock R . C h Cotswolds e rwe ll Yarnton

Cassington Eynsham

Stanton R . W i Harcourt ndr u sh Oxford Bampton Standlake

e Lechlade m a R. Thames e h idg T n R . rallia Co R Abingdon

R. Ock

Dorchester R . T ham es

Wallingford 0 5 10km

Scale 1:250000

Figure 1 N

parish boundary Yarnton

212000

Edge of second gravel terrace

Church

Saxon cemetery YCF

YWRF 17 Tuckwell's Pit

32 211000 4b YFP 4e 1 21 4c 4a 3 Saxon cemetery 5 10 9 YFPB 4 1 4d 5 2 Cassington 7 25 22 4

Church A40

A40

es am Tolley's Pit Edge of second iver Th gravel terrace R 44600 448000 447000

YCF Yarnton Cresswell Field 05 km Excavated areas Gravel terrace Observation areas YWRF Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm YFP Yarnton Floodplain Project 1:10 000 Evaluated area Palaeochannels 1 Post-excavation modules Figure 2 YFPB Yarnton Floodplain B Project N Excavation areas 1 2 Evaluation trenches Yarnton 2 Fieldwalking survey field numbers

212000 3

4

Yarnton Manor woodland application 9 Cresswell Field

Worton 7 16 6 Worton 5 17 Excavations 18 Yarnton Worton Rectory Farm Tuckwell's 13 Pit 15 211000

K 8 in g s b r i d g 12 e B r o 11 Oxey Mead o 14 k Cassington

10

Tolley's Pit 0 100 500m es er Th am Riv Scale 1:10000 44600 448000 447000

Figure 3

Figure 7

palaeochannel N 46900 10800 46900 11000 100 m Site 9 50 scale 1:1000 Area 4e 0 Site 4c Site 10 Site 4d

46700 11000 el

el

eochann palaeochann

pala Site 21 KEY Cremations (Undated prehistoric) Beaker Early Age Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age Middle/Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Late Bronze Romano-British 46600 10800 Plate 1: The Neolithic building.

13 Plate 2: The Beaker Grave under excavation.

Plate 3: The Beaker Grave group

16 Stone and gravel causeway

Fallen timbers and animal bone lying on the surface of the causeway

Bronze spearhead found lying directly beneath the causeway. Scale 1:1 approx.

19 Plate 4 10 cm 0 10 cm

Site 21:Wooden trough recovered from the waterhole located in the base of the channel

22 Plate 5