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Bighorn Sheep Ritual in Northeast California

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Bighorn Sheep Ritual in Northeast California BIGHORN SHEEP RITUAL IN NORTHEAST CALIFORNIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE LOYALTON ROCKSHELTER CACHES ____________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Chico ____________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Anthropology ____________ by © Christine C. O'Neill 2015 Fall 2015 BIGHORN SHEEP RITUAL IN NORTHEAST CALIFORNIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE LOYALTON ROCKSHELTER CACHES A Thesis by Christine C. O'Neill Fall 2015 APPROVED BY THE INTERIM DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES: _________________________________ Sharon Barrios, Ph.D. APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE: ______________________________ _________________________________ Guy Q. King, Ph.D. Frank Bayham, Ph.D., Chair Graduate Coordinator _________________________________ Antoinette Martinez, Ph.D. PUBLICATION RIGHTS No portion of this thesis may be reprinted or reproduced in any manner unacceptable to the usual copyright restrictions without the written permission of the author. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to thank my professors and mentors, Dr. Frank Bayham and Dr. Antoinette Martinez. You both have challenged me to become a better and more thoughtful anthropologist. Dr. Bayham, thank you for providing me with this research opportunity. You handed me the Loyalton Rockshelter faunal assemblage on a silver platter my first year, and I have been obsessed with fetal bighorn sheep ever since. You have certainly added to my weirdness. Dr. Martinez, you have been provided an incredible amount of support and kindness through this process. I would also like to thank Kevin Dalton for all the time that he took answering all my crazy, ridiculous questions. Thank you to the students and professors assisting in faunal identifications. This research would not have been possible without your help. A special thanks to Brook Harder for deciphering and illustrating Norman Wilson’s excavation notes. I would also like to recognize Sharynn-Marie Blood and Marilla Martin of the Bureau of Land Management, Eagle Lake Field Office. The Loyalton Rockshelter assemblage would not be available for research without Sharynn. Thank you to Darrel Cruz of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California for taking the time to visit the site and provide insight into bighorn sheep hunting in Sierra Valley. I would like to thank the students of my cohort, especially Aimee VanHavermaat-Snyder and Jake Martin. You have opened my eyes to new and exciting ideas. Thank you for bringing all your insights to class, and all your crazy stories to the iv bar. I am so grateful for your friendship. I also want to express my deepest gratitude to Laura Cirillo. Thank you for your friendship and adding some sparkle to the day-to-day grind of grad school. You are truly an incredible person and I am honored to call you a friend. Thank you to my parents, Brian O’Neill and Jane McMillin-O’Neill, who fostered in me a love for education and learning. I would not be the person I am today without your unconditional love, support, and kindness. And finally, John Mullen, what would I do without you? Even in Chicago, 2,075 miles away, you have been my biggest fan, my protector, my clown, my confidant, my editor, my rock. You have shown me so much love and support, constantly encouraging me to pursue my dreams. Thanks boo. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Publication Rights ...................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iv List of Tables.............................................................................................................. ix List of Figures............................................................................................................. x Abstract....................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER I. Introduction to Ritual and the Human-Animal Relationship ................... 1 The Caches at Loyalton Rockshelter............................................ 1 Purpose of Study........................................................................... 2 Ritual in Anthropology................................................................. 3 Thesis Organization...................................................................... 6 II. Ritual, Archaeology, and Animals ........................................................... 8 Introduction .................................................................................. 8 What is Ritual? ............................................................................. 11 Animals as Symbols ..................................................................... 13 Ritual, Archaeology, and Animals ............................................... 15 Bighorn Sheep Ritual in the Western United States..................... 18 Identifying Ritual through Zooarchaeology ................................. 22 Evaluating the Loyalton Rockshelter Caches............................... 30 Summary....................................................................................... 34 III. Environment and Archaeology of Sierra Valley ...................................... 36 Introduction .................................................................................. 36 Environmental Context of Sierra Valley ...................................... 37 Bighorn Sheep Ecology................................................................ 40 vi CHAPTER PAGE Regional Prehistory and Paleoenvironment ................................. 45 Sierra Valley Archaeology and Prehistory................................... 54 Numic Expansion and the Washoe on the Edge of Sierra Valley ......................................................................... 61 Summary....................................................................................... 63 IV. The Washoe: Ethnographic Background.................................................. 64 Introduction .................................................................................. 64 Issues Concerning Ethnographic Literature ................................. 64 Washoe Ethnographic Background .............................................. 72 Summary....................................................................................... 86 V. Loyalton Rockshelter: History, Methodology, and Stratigraphy ............. 87 Introduction .................................................................................. 87 Excavation Background, Data Collection, and Assemblage History................................................................................... 88 Summary....................................................................................... 99 VI. Methods and Results: Report of Faunal Remains from Loyalton Rockshelter................................................................................ 100 Introduction .................................................................................. 100 Methods for Examining Faunal Materials.................................... 100 Loyalton Rockshelter Faunal Assemblage: Taxonomic Overview............................................................................... 105 Summary....................................................................................... 117 VII. The Caches: Taxonomic Overview and Radiocarbon Dates.................... 119 Introduction .................................................................................. 119 Reconstructing the Caches ........................................................... 120 Taxonomic Overview of the Loyalton Rockshelter Caches......... 121 Radiocarbon Dating: Sampling and Results................................. 129 Summary....................................................................................... 133 VIII. The Use of Faunal Remains in Ritual....................................................... 135 Introduction .................................................................................. 135 Interpretation and Discussion....................................................... 135 Limitations of Research................................................................ 145 vii CHAPTER PAGE Future Studies............................................................................... 145 Conclusions .................................................................................. 146 References .................................................................................................................. 148 Appendices A. Loyalton Rockshelter Archaeological Assemblage Transfer and Loan Documents................................................................................ 161 B. Radiocarbon Results (Beta Analytic, Inc.)............................................... 166 viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Characteristics of Ritual Animal Use Expressed in Western North America Bighorn Sheep Ritual Sites........................................ 32 2. Climactic and Cultural Phases.................................................................. 47 3. Radiocarbon Dates in Sierra Valley ......................................................... 56 4. Loyalton Rockshelter Identified Taxa and Their Common Names.......... 107 5. Loyalton Rockshelter Taxonomic NIPS and Frequency Values.............. 108 6. Summary of Loyalton Rockshelter Cache Contents and Locations......... 123 7. Faunal Identification
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