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The Ecology of Puha: Identity, Orientation, and Shifting Perceptions Reflected Through Material Culture and Socioreligious Practice

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The Ecology of Puha: Identity, Orientation, and Shifting Perceptions Reflected Through Material Culture and Socioreligious Practice University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2021 THE ECOLOGY OF PUHA: IDENTITY, ORIENTATION, AND SHIFTING PERCEPTIONS REFLECTED THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE AND SOCIORELIGIOUS PRACTICE Aaron Robert Atencio Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Atencio, Aaron Robert, "THE ECOLOGY OF PUHA: IDENTITY, ORIENTATION, AND SHIFTING PERCEPTIONS REFLECTED THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE AND SOCIORELIGIOUS PRACTICE" (2021). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 11734. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/11734 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE ECOLOGY OF PUHA: IDENTITY, ORIENTATION, AND SHIFTING PERCEPTIONS REFLECTED THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE AND SOCIORELIGIOUS PRACTICE By AARON ROBERT ATENCIO Anthropology, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, U.S.A., 2021 Dissertation Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Philosophy of Anthropology The University of Montana Missoula, MT Official Graduation Date (May 2021) Approved by: Scott Whittenburg, Dean of The Graduate School Graduate School Dr. Gregory Campbell, Chair Anthropology Dr. Douglas MacDonald Anthropology Dr. Kelly Dixon Anthropology Dr. John Douglas Anthropology Dr. Nathaniel Levtow History Dr. Julie Francis Honorary Member ii Atencio, Aaron, PhD, May 2021, Anthropology The Ecology of Puha Dr. Gregory Campbell, Chairman This dissertation explores the assertions that changes in form, function, practice, and perceptions of puha primarily arose from the dispossession of landscapes and oppression of specific religious practices due to Euro-American contact, resource depletion, and reservation confinement. The reservation era placed the indigenous populace into a state of purgatory where treaties and peace relations were consistently repositioned and reneged. The perceptions of the indigenous inhabitants pre and post Euro-American contact detail critical moments that assisted in shaping the dynamic relationship between socioreligious perceptions and the Eastern Shoshone’s identity. What is displayed is a unique set of circumstances that assisted in the development of the Eastern Shoshone socioreligious identity rooted in an ancient shamanistic concept of religious ecology that correlates with spiritual power. This dissertation cross- culturally examines the continuity and changes of relational puha practices extending back to the early Great Basin archeological record linking the concept to the broader relational Numic shamanic practices. This dissertation argues that puha is an ancient concept of healing and power reflected within the archeological record that displays fluidity, adaptability, and continuity. These reflections of puha — as seen in the Dinwoody Tradition — are delineated through rock art, mythology, and ecology, which builds a hierarchy of puha attainment and transference which solidified a distinct set of ceremonial and ritual practices identifiable in the material culture of the Eastern Shoshone. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It has taken years to finish this project. I would like to thank a select group of people who have supported me through my research and academic process. Thank you to my board for the guidance, input, criticism, and continued pressures to embody the research at the highest level. Greg Campbell, Douglas MacDonald, John Douglas, Kelly Dixon, Nathaniel Levtow, and Julie Francis, thank you for your consistency and willingness to participate in this research project. I am indebted to the Eastern Shoshone and their landscapes that assisted in a deeper understanding of the places and their importance. To my family and friends, thank you for your support, love, and guidance. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................ III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................... IV KEY OF FIGURES .......................................... VII KEY TERMS ................................................. X CHAPTER 1: COMPOSITION AND CONFIGURATION .................. 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1 1.2 SCOPE OF WORK .......................................... 5 1.3 CONSIDERATIONS ......................................... 7 1.4 BROADER IMPLICATIONS .................................... 9 1.5 LIMITS OF STUDY ....................................... 10 1.6 DESIGN OF STUDY ....................................... 13 1.7 DATA ORGANIZATION AND COMPARISON .......................... 16 CHAPTER 2: FOUNDATIONS ................................... 18 2.1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND METHODOLOGIES .................. 18 2.2 RITUAL............................................... 20 2.3 MATERIAL CULTURE STUDIES ................................ 28 2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES................................... 36 2.5 CULTURAL BORROWING AND HYBRIDITY .......................... 41 2.6 ASSIMILATION .......................................... 46 CHAPTER 3: PLACE, STRUCTURE, AND IDENTITIES .............. 51 3.1 THE SHOSHONE .......................................... 51 3.2 SHOSHONEAN LANDSCAPES OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER ............... 57 3.3 SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION .............................. 66 3.4 KINSHIP .............................................. 75 3.5 EASTERN SHOSHONE; WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ..................... 77 3.6 KUCUNDÏKA ............................................ 79 3.7 TUKUDÏKA ............................................. 82 3.8 HAIVODÏKA ............................................ 84 3.9 EASTERN SHOSHONE LIFEWAYS ............................... 87 CHAPTER 4: RESERVATION ERA AND SHIFTING PERCEPTIONS OF IDENTITY AND PLACE ................................................ 95 4.1 TREATIES ............................................. 95 4.2 CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE EASTERN SHOSHONE AS A COHESIVE NATION .. 103 CHAPTER 5: RELIGION, SPIRITUALITY, AND BELIEF ........... 120 5.1 COSMOLOGY ........................................... 120 5.2 PUHA ............................................... 137 5.3 HIERARCHY OF GUARDIAN SPIRITS .......................... 144 5.4 THE GIFT OF PUHA ..................................... 155 v CHAPTER 6: PUHA FORM AND FUNCTION IN MATERIAL CULTURE AND SOCIORELIGIOUS PRACTICE ................................. 162 6.1 PRAYERSTONES AND PUHA IN THE GREAT BASIN .................. 162 6.2 DINWOODY TRADITION .................................... 170 6.3 SOCIORELIGIOUS POWER IN PLAINS CEREMONIAL ROCK ART .......... 223 6.4 SOCIORELIGIOUS PERCEPTIONS IN THE BIOGRAPHIC TRADITION ....... 234 6.5 MEDICINE AND POWER IN LEDGER AND ROBE ART ................. 244 CHAPTER 7: PROPHETIC MESSAGES AND A REENVISIONED PUHA IN DANCE CEREMONIALISM ........................................... 255 7.1 GHOST DANCE ......................................... 255 7.2 SUN DANCE ........................................... 264 7.3 CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN THE SHOSHONE SUN DANCE ............ 274 7.4 SUN DANCE VISIONS AND SYMBOLISM ......................... 279 7.5 HISTORIC IMPACTS ON THE SUN DANCE ........................ 289 CHAPTER 8: REFLECTIONS .................................. 295 REFERENCES .............................................. 307 END NOTES ............................................... 348 vi KEY OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 (P. 63): MUMMY CAVE: REPRODUCED FROM, THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF MUMMY CAVE. WILFRED M. HUSTED AND ROBERT EDGAR (P. XXI). FIGURE 2 (P. 96): TRADITIONAL SHOSHONEAN LANDSCAPES: RETRIEVED FROM, PERSONAL ARCHIVES. GREGORY CAMPBELL, THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA. FIGURE 3 (P. 108): ORIGINAL SHOSHONE RESERVATION TREATY OF 1863: RETRIEVED FROM, PERSONAL ARCHIVES. GREGORY CAMPBELL, THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA. FIGURE 4 (P. 111): CEDED TREATY LANDS: RETRIEVED FROM, PERSONAL ARCHIVES. GREGORY CAMPBELL, THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA. FIGURE 5 (P. 126): TRIPARTITE BELIEF STRUCTURE: REPRODUCED FROM, ANCIENT VISIONS: PETROGLYPHS AND PICTOGRAPHS FROM THE WIND RIVER AND BIGHORN COUNTRY, WYOMING AND MONTANA. FRANCIS, JULIE E., AND LAWRENCE L. LOENDORF (P. 121). FIGURE 6 (P. 148): VALERIAN ROOT (LEFT) AND DINWOODY FIGURE FROM PANEL 48HO469: REPRODUCED FROM, DINWOODY DISSECTED: LOOKING AT THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CENTRAL WYOMING PETROGLYPHS. SUNDSTROM (P. 49). FIGURE 7 (P. 156): MUGWA DINWOODY ANTHROPOMORPH: REPRODUCED FROM, DINWOODY DISSECTED: LOOKING AT THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CENTRAL WYOMING PETROGLYPHS. JAMES KEYSER (P. 115). FIGURE 8 (P. 165): INCISED STONE DISTRIBUTION: REPRODUCED FROM, A SHOSHONEAN PRAYERSTONE HYPOTHESIS: RITUAL CARTOGRAPHIES OF GREAT BASIN INCISED STONES. DAVID HURST THOMAS (P. 3). FIGURE 9 (P. 172): DINWOODY TRADITION DISTRIBUTION: REPRODUCED FROM, DINWOODY DISSECTED: LOOKING AT THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CENTRAL WYOMING PETROGLYPHS. BIES & SUNDSTROM (P. 78). FIGURE 10 (P. 175): DINWOODY TRADITION ANTHROPOMORPHS: REPRODUCED FROM, DINWOODY DISSECTED: LOOKING AT THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CENTRAL WYOMING PETROGLYPHS. BIES & SUNDSTROM (P. 101). FIGURE 11 (P. 178): DINWOODY EYES, HEAD, AND APPENDAGES: REPRODUCED FROM, DINWOODY DISSECTED: LOOKING AT THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CENTRAL WYOMING PETROGLYPHS. BIES &
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