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Cooking in Prehistory: Evidence from the Sugar Loaf

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Cooking in Prehistory: Evidence from the Sugar Loaf COOKING IN PREHISTORY: EVIDENCE FROM THE SUGAR LOAF SITE IN SIERRA VALLEY, CALIFORNIA AND THE EASTERN SIERRA ____________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Chico ____________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Anthropology ____________ by Marilla M. Martin Fall 2014 COOKING IN PREHISTORY: EVIDENCE FROM THE SUGAR LOAF SITE IN SIERRA VALLEY, CALIFORNIA AND THE EASTERN SIERRA A Thesis by Marilla M. Martin Fall 2014 APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH: _________________________________ Eun K. Park, Ph.D. APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE: ______________________________ _________________________________ Guy Q. King, Ph.D. Antoinette Martinez, Ph.D., Chair Graduate Coordinator _________________________________ Frank Bayham, Ph.D. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I must first thank my thesis committee, Dr. Antoinette Martinez and Dr. Frank Bayham for their constant encouragement from the beginning of my journey through graduate school until now. You have both made this process meaningful, fun, and productive. Next, I must recognize the enormous support and patience I have received from all the members of my work family at the Bureau of Land Management, Eagle Lake Field Office. Jill Poulsen, Amy King, Valda Lockie, and Missi Nelson, all your kind words and support got me through this process. David Jack Scott, thank you for frequently inquiring to see if my thesis was done yet, I’m happy to report that it finally is! Thank you to my work mentor, my friend, and one of many proofreaders, Sharynn-Marie Blood for your unwavering support, time, and patience. The BLM also provided financial assistance that made this thesis possible. I would also like to recognize Kevin Dalton and all the volunteers that came out in 2012, without your help the Sierra Valley excavation would not have been possible. Thank you to Darrel Cruz of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California, as well as members of the Susanville Indian Rancheria, the Reno Sparks Indian Colony, and all elders who visited the Sugar Loaf Site excavation. Your input was invaluable. My friends and family all encouraged and supported me throughout the entire graduate school process, especially when life put a few bumps in the road along the way. A huge thank you goes to my parents Helen and Ron Baker, who spent countless hours iii reading over this thesis. I would not be here today without your unconditional love, value of education, and constant support. Thank you to my best friend Catherine Davis, who constantly makes me laugh, encourages me, and believes in me. Last, a huge show of gratitude goes to my handsome husband Jake Martin. You truly believed in me when I could not believe in myself. All the discussion of cooking and theory, the reassurances, and the immense amount of love that you have shown me gave me the confidence to finish this thesis. Without you, all would be for not. Aut inveniam viam aut faciam I shall either find a way or make one. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iii List of Tables.............................................................................................................. vii List of Figures............................................................................................................. viii Abstract....................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER I. Introduction.............................................................................................. 1 Purpose of the Project................................................................... 5 Thesis Overview........................................................................... 6 Study Area.................................................................................... 7 II. Theoretical Background........................................................................... 15 Foodways and Cooking Systems.................................................. 17 Food and Heat Treatment ............................................................. 18 Resource Intensification and Expected Patterns of Cooking Technology Development..................................... 22 Women and the Site Formation Process....................................... 32 Expectations ................................................................................. 37 Summary....................................................................................... 41 III. Prehistory, Ethnography, and Cooking in the Washoe Territory ............. 43 Hot-Rock Cooking: The Beginning.............................................. 43 Prehistory...................................................................................... 45 The Washoe and Their Homeland................................................ 48 Subsistence and Social Organization............................................ 49 Washoe Language, Milling, and Cooking.................................... 53 Summary....................................................................................... 56 v CHAPTER PAGE IV. Sierra Valley and the Sugar Loaf Site ...................................................... 57 Environment of Sierra Valley....................................................... 57 Previous Archaeological Investigations ....................................... 59 Sugar Loaf Site............................................................................. 65 Summary....................................................................................... 77 V. Cooking in the Eastern Sierra: Data and Results...................................... 78 Overall Research Methods ........................................................... 78 Data............................................................................................... 80 Results .......................................................................................... 97 Summary....................................................................................... 100 VI. Interpretation and Discussion................................................................... 101 Interpretation and Discussion....................................................... 101 Limitations of Study..................................................................... 117 Areas for Further Study................................................................ 119 Conclusion.................................................................................... 121 References Cited......................................................................................................... 125 Appendices A. All Cooking Features Within the Study Area........................................... 139 B. Plant List from the Sugar Loaf Site Highlighting Ethnographically Important Plants........................................................... 151 C. Report of Radiocarbon Dating Analysis................................................... 154 vi LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. All Cook-Stone Features with Radiocarbon Dates in Sierra Valley, Including Sugar Loaf Site .................................................... 64 2. Fire Cracked/Fire Affected Rock and Ground Stone from Feature 10.......................................................................................... 73 3. List of Sites with Cooking Features in Study Area .................................. 81 4. Frequency of Cooking Feature by Type................................................... 98 5. Frequency of Cooking Feature Construction Method.............................. 98 vii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Maps Showing Territory Boundaries of the Washoe Tribe Including Core and Periphery Use Areas.......................................... 9 2. Donut-Stone Found at the Sugar Loaf Site............................................... 68 3. Feature 7, a Conical Mortar Located Within a Large Natural Basin on a Granite Boulder............................................................... 70 4. Feature 12, a Cluster of Mostly Unburnt Stone........................................ 71 5. Feature 10 During Excavation.................................................................. 72 6. Decomposing Granitic Bedrock After Removal of Feature 10................ 73 viii ABSTRACT COOKING IN PREHISTORY: EVIDENCE FROM THE SUGAR LOAF SITE IN SIERRA VALLEY, CALIFORNIA AND THE EASTERN SIERRA by Marilla M. Martin Master of Arts in Anthropology California State University, Chico Fall 2014 Cooking is an often neglected topic in studies of prehistoric California and the Great Basin. This is unfortunate because as this thesis demonstrates, cooking is prevalent throughout the archaeological record and can reflect on technological, social, and cultural change. The task-differentiation framework was utilized to study the role of women as it relates to cooking and food processing within the traditional Washoe territory. The results of a 2012 excavation at the Sugar Loaf Site in Sierra Valley, Plumas County, California are detailed. This excavation revealed a single rock-lined flat-oven dating to around 1300 B.P. A total of nine bedrock milling features with 36 milling slicks, mortars, and cupules were also recorded. In addition to the excavation, a total of 142 cooking features from 22 different sites within the Washoe territory were analyzed. These features were sorted into ix functional
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