L. Chandra Chandi Mendut and Pawon: a new interpretation
In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 136 (1980), no: 2/3, Leiden, 313-320
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Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 10:44:21PM via free access LOKESH CHANDRA
CHANDI MENDUT AND PAWON: A NEW INTERPRETATION
The Chandi Mendut and Pawon belong to the system of carya-tantras. The prevalence of the carya-tantras in Indonesia is proved by the San Hyan Kamahayanan Mantranaya (SHKM), which is a tan trie text from Indonesia including 42 Sanskrit verses, each verse followed by an Old Javanese commentary. Following the pioneering studies of Wogihara Unrai and Sakai Shiro, Prof, de Jong (1974) has demonstrated beyond a doubt that the verses of SHKM are derived from the Mahavairocana- sutra and the Adhyardha-satika Prajnaparamita. Verses l-5aib, 6-9, 16-18, and 20-22 are from the Maihavairocana-sutra (T.848, Nj.530, Toh.494); while verses 26-42 stem from the Adhyardha-satika (T.244, Nj.1037, Toh.488). The Mahavairocana-sutra belongs to the carya- tantras and the Adhyardha-satika. to the yoga-tantras. , The Sanskrit text of the Mahavairocana-sutra is lost. It is extant in two translations: (i) Chinese and (ii) Tibetan. It was translated into Chinese in A.D. 724 by Subhakarasirhha with the help of the Chinese teacher Yi-hsing under the title Ta-p'i-lu-che-na-ch'eng-fo-shen-pien- chia-c'h'ih-ching (Nj.530, T.848) = Mahavairocan-abnisambodhi-vikur- vit-adhisthana-vaipulya-sutra. It was rendered into Tibetan by Silendra- bodhi and Dpal-brtsegs (Toh.494). The Mahavairocana-sutra can be represented graphically on a scroll as a mandala in two dimensions or as a three-dimensional architectonic pura-mandala. There are two traditions of its representation: (i) Sino- Japanese and (ii) Tibetan. The Sino-Japanese is termed the Mahaka- runagarbha mandala or Garbhadhatu mandala, Taizokai mandara in
DR. LOKESH CHANDRA holds an M.A. from the University of Panjab, Lahore, and a D.Litt from the State University of Utrecht. A Member of Parliament and Director of the International Academy of Indian Culture, he is mainly interested in Buddhist Art. His publications include The Esoteric Iconography of Japanese Mandalas, Mongolian Kanjur vols. 1-90 (91-108 in press). He may currently be contacted at J 22 Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India.
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Japanese (reproduced by the author in 1972). The Tibetan thankas of the Nor monastery commissioned by Blo-gter-dban-po depicted 132 m'andalas of all the divisions of tantras (RaghuVira/ Lokesh Chandra 1967: 2). Among them the carya.Mantra is represented by the 122-deky Abhisambodhi-karun-odgata Bhagavad Vairocana "(mandala no. 20 in RaghuVira/Lokesh Chandra 1967), known for short as Mnon-byan = Abhisambodhi. This tantra belongs to the Tathagaita family, so we are informed by Mkhas-grub-rje (A.D. 1385-1438) in his survey of the fundamentals of Buddhist tantras (Lessing/Wayman 1968:207). The main deity is Abhisambodhi Vairocana, who is termed Garbha- dhaitu Vairocana (Jap. Taizokai Dainichi nyorai) in Japan. In the Japanese mandala he is sitting in the vajra-paryanka posture with his hands in dhyana mudra, as opposed to the Vajradhatu Vairocana, whose hands are in the bodhyagri mudra (Lokesh Chandra 1972: 1, 699). In the Japanese graphic representation, the Garbhadhatu mandala is divided into three enceintes: the first or inner enceinte, the second or middle enceinte and the third or outer enceinte. The inner enceinte comprises four quarters, of 1. Universal Knowledge, 2. Vidyadharas (with Prajnaparamita in the centre), 3. Avalokitesvara and 4. Vajra- pani. The second enceinte has six quarters, of 5. Sakyamuni, 6. Mafiju- sri, 7. Ksitigarbha, 8. Sarva-nlvarana-viskambhin, 9-10. Akasagarfoha and the allied Susiddhi. The outer enceinte of vajras has Hindu deities.
CHANDI MENDUT Now let us come to Chandi Menduit. It was constructed by the Sailendra king Indra (A.D. 782-812). The Inscription of Karantenah dated A.D. 824 (De Casparis 1950: 39) names it as Venuvana: venuvandbhi- khyam ... jinamandiram, in line 21. According to De Casparis (1950: 204) it is "one complex whole with Pawon and Borobudur", and "chronologically speaking, it is the oldest of the three". He further staites: "When Indra built 'the Venuvana, he realised 'that he belonged to the Family of the Tathagata, identified with the Cailendra ancestors". King Indra himself has provided a key to the identification of the Mendut by using the expression Tathdgata-kula. It is a technical term of the carya-tantras, which are classified into three families (kula): Tathagata-kula, padma-kula, arid vajra-kula (Wayman 1973: 237). The Tathagata-kula comprises two tantras, namely the Mahavairocan-abhi- sambodhi-tantra and the Acala-kalpa (Toh.494, comm. Toh.2662-9). The Mahavairocan-abhisambodhi-tantra is the source of the Garbha-
Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 10:44:21PM via free access Chandi Mendut and Pawon: a New Interpretation 31,5 dhatu mandala, which has been known to European scholars in its Japanese version since die last century. The identification of the central deity in the temple of Mendut vacillated (and rightly so) between Sakyamuni and Vairocana. Bernet Kempers (1959:40) himself is conscious that "it is not the 'human Buddha' Sakyamuni who is meant". Though he came very close in his statement that "The first is known in Buddhist iconography as Garbha- dhatu, the second as Vajradhatu. This system or variety of systems was also known in Central Java", he was under the impression that "several systems of Buddhist mythology and cosmology" overlapped. This was inevitable in the absence of exact knowledge that the placement of the statues of deities inside and the reliefs outside corresponds to a particular mandala. The use of the term Tathagata-kula eluded precise inter- pretation which enables us to establish that the Mendut belongs to the family which is symbolised by the Garbhadhatu mandala. The Mendut temple has inside the cella: 1. the Five Tathagatas, viz. Vairocana flanked by Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani, while the remaining four Tathagatas once occupied the niches which are empty today. On the four walls outside we find: 2. eight bodhisattvas at the corners. 3. Prajfiaparamita on the large central panel on the right wall. 4. Akasagarbha/Khagarbha on the large central panel on the left wall. 5. Lokesvara on "the back wall. The arrangement of the Mendut corresponds to the Japanese mandala as follows: Mendut Japanese Mandala 1. The five Tathagatas In the eight-petalled lotus in the centre 2. Avalokitesvara Quarter 3 3. Vajrapani Quarter 4 4. Eight Bodhisattvas Four bodhisattvas are in the (Krom 1918:419-437) eight-petalled lotus Four bodhisattvas in Quarters 6, 7, 8 and 9-10 (Susiddhi represents 'the merits of Akasagarbha) 5. Prajfiaparamita Central deity in Quarter 2 6. Akasagarbha/Khagarbha Quarter 9
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7. The small relief representing Quarters 1 (Universal Know- a wheel between two deer, the ledge), and 5 (Sakyamuni) symbol of the First Sermon at Sarnath
Mahavairocana at Mendut is in the dharmacakra mudra. In the Nispan- nayogavall (text p. 66) Mahavairocana is in the dharmacakra mudra in the Durgati-parisodhana-mandala: Sn-Sdkyasimho bhagavdn Mahd- vairocanah suvarna-varno dhrta-dharmacakra-mudrah. The bronze image of Vairocana and VajradhatvTsvari in the Leiden Museum (no. 2862) has the dharmacakra mudra.
CHANDI PAWON Between Mendut and Borobudur, in a straight line, stands the Pawon, 1150 metres from Mendut and 1750 metres from Borobudur. It is also called Brajanalan. It is "often regarded as a porch-temple to Bara- budur, dedicated to Kuvera, the god of riches. The bearded dwarfs above the entrance, pouring out rings and other trinkets from bags, are consistent with this view" (Kempers 1959:41 pi. 65-66). There is no clear indication that it should be considered as being dedicated to Kubera. It has small windows, which "are a feature seldom if ever met with in temples with the exception of those of the type of Sari [Kempers 1959, pi. 117]. Here they are merely decorative". The word pawon means kitchen (De Casparis 1950: 203). In Bali, there are five stanzas to Vajranala, entitled (Paiica)-Bajra- nala-stava (Hooykaas 1973:86), in which he is described as seated in a mandorla of flames, pure as die autumnal moon, with three eyes and four arms holding a staff (danda), abhayada mudra, rosary (aksa- sutra) and vase (kamandalu). Each of the four Nepalese mudra. manuals that I have consulted illustrate mudras to Vajranala. The Pawon seems to have been a temple to Vajranala, who is connected with fire: sar- vdgneya, sdnti-karmani samiddha (in the Balinese stotra). The word sdnti-karmani is a clear reference to santika homa. Vajranala was the presiding deity of homa, which explains idie presence of small windows as an escape for the smoke of homa ceremonies. Homa is a distinctive characteristic of vajrayana. It 'had to be provided for with a special temple, because of the smoke. In the vajrayana (Shingon) monasteries of Japan, special halls are constructed for the performance of homa. As the vajrayana of both Japan and Indonesia go back to the same sources, it is but natural that both should follow the same pattern of
Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 10:44:21PM via free access Chandi Mendut and Pawon: a New Interpretation 317 giving such a prominent place to homa, to the extent that a separate temple was erected for it. The prominence of homa in vajrayana is also evident in its ritual. In the Japanese text Shi-d64n-zu, 'mudras of the four rites', the four rites are: (1) the preliminary ceremony of 18 steps {juhachido), (2) Vajradhatu (Kongokai), (3) Garbhadhatu (Taizokai), and (4) homa or Fudo (Acala). We see that a special section has been provided for the eleven mudras performed during homa. The first mudra is the Kongokaruma-bosatsu-in, which is executed before the sacred fire is lit. The second is ka-ten cho sho in, 'mudra to invite the god Agni'. This is the first act of the celebration of homa, an invitation to Agni to come to take his place in the middle of the hearth for his share in the offerings. The third mudra is to the nine planets (navagraha), Signs of the Zodiac (rdsi); and the fourth mudra is to the constellations. The fifth mudra. is to the principal deity (Jap. horizon) of the homa ceremony, Acala, who is invited to take his place in the hearth (Toki 1899: 142). It is the most important act of the entire ceremony. Acala (Jap. Fudo) is surrounded by flames, and in Japanese symbolic repre- sentations he is portrayed by his flames and emblems alone, evocative of his designation Vajra-jval-anal-arka (abbreviated to Vajranala and Jvalanala). In the lamaist pantheon Chu Fo P'u-sa Sheng Hsiang Tsan, ascribed to the Lcan-skya qutuytu Rol-pahi-rdo-rje (Clark 1937:2.311, 312). Jvalanala (Tib. Me-ka-hbar-ba) is illustrated as a manifestation of Acala: 348 Astakapi Acala 349 Jvalanala = Vajrajvalanalarka 350 Caturbhuja Acala. Jvalanala or Vajrajvalanalarka coincides with Vajranala, on which Bajranalan — the alternative name of Chandi Pawon — was based. Chandi Pawon must have been a homa temple whose presiding deity was Acala. The agnisala, or structure for homa, is also called vajra- jvala in Japanese vajrayana in the rites of the juhachido (Shingon- mikkyo-zu-in-shu, ed. Lokesh Chandra/Sharada Rani 1978: 1.29) as well as of the Vajradhatu-mandala (Lokesh Chandra/Sharada Rani 1978:2.101). Acala (Pawon) and the Garbhadhatu mandala (Mendut) belong to the carya-tantras, and Vajradhatu mandala (Borobudur) to the yoga- tantras. Hence Pawon is closer to Mendut than to Borobudur. The
Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 10:44:21PM via free access 318 Lokesh Chandra distance of 1750 metres between Pawon and Borobudur is one and a half times the distance of 1150 metres between Pawon and Mendut. So also in Japan, Acala and Garbhadhatu are intimately interconnected. In the ritual manuals as well as mudra handbooks of the four rites of Japanese vajrayana referred to above, the Garbhadhatu is invariably supplemented by an addendum pertaining to Acala. In the Tibetan tradition, too, the Mahavairocana-
Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 10:44:21PM via free access Chandi Mendut and Pawon: a New Interpretation 319 mandalas of both (ryo) the divisions (bu) of the carya and yoga tantras. The Mendut-Pawon-Borobudur complex epitomizes not only Buddhist art and architecture, thought and ritual, but also the dynasty that erected 'this magnificent monument to Indonesian glory: the Sailendras, 'Kings of the Mountain' (Frederic 1965: 160). Sailendra authority faded from Java not long after A.D. 824 (De Casparis 1950:200). The in- stability must have been felt quite early, and the Mendut and Boro- budur would have been erected to anticipate any such eventuality. The Mahavairocana-sutra was the basis for the dharani on the protection of the realm (Nakamiura 1976: 79). This was much more the case with the role of the Vajradhatu mandala with regard to a cakravartin (Tajima 1959:152). The Mendut representing the Garbhadhatu man- dala of the Mahavairocana-sutra and the Borobudur symbolizing the Vajradhatu mandala of the Tattva-sangraha were intended 'to fully sanction and stabilise the cakravartin sovereignty of the Sailendras in a sacred syndrome of philosophy, cosmology, aesthetics and hieratics of the Twin Mandalas of Vairocana, who is also known as the Ekaksara Cakravartin.
LITERATURE CITED
Casparis, J. G. de 1950 Prasasti Indonesia, I (Inscripties uit de Cailendra-Tijd), Bandung: A. C. Nix & Co. Clark, Walter Eugene 1937 Two Lamaistic Pantheons, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Uni- versity Press. Fr6d£ric, Louis 1965 The Temples and Sculpture of Southeast Asia, London: Thames and Hudson. Hooykaas, C. 1973 Balinese Bauddha Brahmans, Amsterdam-London: North-Holland Pub- lishing Company. Jong, J. W. de 1974 'Notes on the Sources and the Text of the Sang Hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya', BK1 130-4: 465-482. Kempers, A. J. Bernet 1959 Ancient Indonesian Art, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Krom, N. J. 1918 'De Bodhisattva's van den Mendut', BKI 74: 419-437.
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Lessing, Ferdinand D., and Alex Wayman 1968 Mkhas grub rje's Fundamentals of the Buddhist Tantras, The Hague- Paris: Mouton. Lokesh Chandra 1972 The Esoteric Iconography of Japanese Mandalas, New Delhi: Inter- national Academy of Indian Culture. Lokesh Chandra and Sharada Rani 1978 Mudras in Japan, New Delhi: Sharada Rani. Moron, Eleanor 1977 'Configurations of Time and Space at Angkor Wat', in: Lokesh Chandra and Perala Ratnam (ed.), Studies in Indo-Asian Art and Culture, 5: 217, New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture. Nakamura, Hajime 1976 'A Survey of Mahayana Buddhism with bibliographical notes', The Journal of Intercultural Studies 3: 60-145, Tokyo: KUFS Publication. RaghuVira and Lokesh Chandra 1967 A New Tibeto-Mongol Pantheon, parts 13-15, New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture. Tajima, Ryujun 1959 Les Deux Grands Mandalas et la Doctrine de I'Esoterisme Shingon, Tokyo: Maison Franco-Japonaise. Toki, Horiou 1899 'Si-do-in-dzou: gestes de l'officiant dans les ceremonies mystiques des sectes Tendai et Singon', Annals du Mus&e Guimet VIII: 1-2. Wayman, Alex 1973 The Buddhist Tantras, New York: Samuel Weiser.
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