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Dhyana in

Dhyana (IAST: Dhyāna) in Hinduism means contemplation and .[1] Dhyana is taken up in exercises, and is a means to and self- .[2]

The various concepts of dhyana and its practice originated in the Vedic era of Hinduism, and the practice has been influential within the diverse traditions of Hinduism.[3][4] It is, in Hinduism, a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which the realizes Self (, ), one's relationship with other living , and Ultimate .[3][5][6] Dhyana is also found in other Indian such as and . These developed along with dhyana in Hinduism, partly independently, partly influencing each other.[1]

The term Dhyana appears in and layers of the but with unclear meaning, while in the early it appears in the sense of "contemplation, meditation" and an important part of self-knowledge process.[3][7] It is described in numerous Upanishads of Hinduism,[8] and in 's Yogasutras - a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu .[9][10] A statue of a meditating man (Jammu and Kashmir, ). Contents

Etymology and meaning Origins Discussion in Vedas and Upanishads Sutras The Dharana Dhyana Samadhi Samapattih

Comparison of Dhyana in Hinduism, Related concept: See also Notes References Sources Published sources Web-sources Further reading External links Etymology and meaning

Dhyāna (: यान, : झान) means "contemplation, reflection" and "profound, abstract meditation".[11]

The root of the word is , which in the earliest layer of text of the Vedas refers to "imaginative vision" and associated with goddess with powers of knowledge, wisdom and poetic eloquence.[3][12] This term developed into the variant dhya- and dhyana, or "meditation".[3]

Thomas Berry states that Dhyana, is "sustained attention" and the "application of to the chosen point of concentration".[13] Dhyana is contemplating, reflecting on whatever Dharana has focused on.[14] If in the sixth limb of yoga one is concentrating on a personal deity, Dhyana is its contemplation. If the concentration was on one object, Dhyana is non-judgmental, non-presumptuous observation of that object.[15] If the focus was on a concept/idea, Dhyana is contemplating that concept/idea in all its aspects, forms and consequences. Dhyana is uninterrupted train of thought, current of cognition, of awareness.[16][17][18]

A related term is , the pondering over Upanishadic statements. It is a composite of three terms, namely dhyai, upasana ("dwelling upon"), and ("cultivating").[web 1]

Origins

The term dhyana is used in Jainism, , with somewhat different meanings.[2]

The origins of the practice of dhyana, which culminates into samadhi, are a matter of dispute.[20][21] According to Bronkhorst, the mainstream concept developed Vedic teachings hold that, since the universal divine Self dwells within the and is evidenced in Vedic era texts of Hinduism.[22] Dhyana, states Sagarmal Jain, heart, the way to and has been essential to Jaina religious practices, but the origins of Dhyana and Yoga recognize divinity is to turn one's in the pre-canonical era (before 6th-century BCE) is unclear, and it likely attention inward in a process of developed in the Sramanic culture of ancient India.[23] contemplative meditation. —William Mahony, The Artful Universe: The earliest Jaina texts, on Dhyana such as Sutrakranga, Antakrta-Dasanga and An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Rsibhashita, mention Uddaka Ramaputta[note 1] who is said to be the teacher of Imagination[19] some meditation methods to Buddha, as well as the originator of Vipassana and Preksha meditation techniques.[23] The Jaina tradition , the first Tirthankara, to have founded meditation, but there is no historical confirming evidence. The earliest mention of Dhyana in the canonical Jaina texts simply mention Dhyana as a means of emancipation, but in them ascetic practices are not emphasized nor is the discussion as systematic as in later Jaina texts or Hindu texts such as the Patanjali's Yogasutras.[25] There is no archeological or literary evidence, states Sagarmal Jain, about the origins of systems for Dhyana and Yoga, and there is a great deal of similarities between Jaina, Buddhist, Ajivika, , Yoga and other ancient Indian traditions.[23] The earliest texts, such asT attvarthasutra suggest that these ideas developed in parallel, sometimes with different terms for similar ideas in various Indian traditions, influencing each other.[25]

Buddhism introduced its own ideas, states Bronkhorst, such as the four dhyanas, which did not affect the mainstream meditation traditions in Jaina and Hindu traditions for a long time.[26][note 2] All traditions, Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, introduced unique aspects and context to Dhyana, and mutually influenced each other.[4] According to Bronkhorst, while Jaina and Hindu meditation traditions predate Buddhism, the Buddhist terminology such as Samadhi, may have influenced the wording found in one of the several types of Dhyana found in theMahabharata as well as parts of Patanjali's Yogasutras.[4]

Alexander Wynne interprets Bronkhorst as stating that dhyana was a Jaina tradition, from which both Hinduism and Buddhism borrowed ideas on meditation.[28] Wynne adds that Bronkhorst opinion "understates the role of meditation" in early Brahmanical tradition.[28] Dhyana was incorporated into Buddhism from Brahmanical practices, suggests Wynne, in the Nikayas ascribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta.[29] In early Brahamical yoga, the goal of meditation was considered to be a nondual state identical to unmanifest state of , where subject-object duality had been dissolved.[6] The early Buddhist practices adapted these old yogic methods, pairing it to and attainment of insight.[6] Kalupahana states that the Buddha "reverted to the meditational practices" he had learned from Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta.[30]

In Hinduism, state Jones and Ryan, the term first appears in the Upanishads.[2] Techniques of concentration or meditation are a Vedic tradition, states Frits Staal, because these ideas are found in the early Upanishads as dhyana or abhidhyana.[7] In most of the later Hindu yoga traditions, which derive form Patanjali's , dhyana is "a refined meditative practice",[2] a "deeper concentration of the mind",[2] which is taken up after preceding exercises such as mastering (breath control) and dharana (mental focus).[2]

Discussion in Hindu texts

Vedas and Upanishads The term dhyanam appears in Vedic literature, such as hymn 4.36.2 of the and verse 10.11.1 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[31][32] The term, in the sense of meditation, appears in the Upanishads.[1][32][33] The Kaushitaki Upanishad uses it in the context of mind and meditation in verses 3.2 to 3.6, for example as follows:[34]

मनसा यानिमयेकभूयं वै ाणाः With mind, meditate on me as beingprana

— Kaushitaki Upanishad, 3.2[34][35]

The term appears in the context of "contemplate, reflect, meditate" in verses of chapters 1.3, 2.22, 5.1, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.26 of the , chapters 3.5, 4.5 and 4.6 of the and verses 6.9 to 6.24 of the Maitri Upanishad.[33][36] The word Dhyana refers to meditation in Chandogya Upanishad, while the asserts that the meditation on AUM (ॐ) leads to the world of Brahman (Ultimate Reality).[7]

The development of meditation in the Vedic era paralleled the ideas of "interiorization", where social, external fire () were replaced with meditative, internalized rituals (-agnihotra).[7][37][38] This interiorization of Vedic fire- into yogic meditation ideas from Hinduism, that are mentioned in the and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas and more clearly in chapter 5 of the Chandogya Upanishad (~800 to 600 BCE),[note 3] are also found in later and esoteric variations such as the Dighanikaya, Mahavairocana- and the Jyotirmnjari, wherein the Buddhist texts describe meditation as "inner forms of fire oblation/".[40][41] This interiorization of fire rituals, where life is conceptualized as an unceasing sacrifice and emphasis is placed on meditation occurs in the classic Vedic world, in the early Upanishads and other texts such as the Shrauta Sutras and verse 2.18 of Vedic Vaikhanasa Smarta Sutra.[42]

Beyond the early Upanishads composed before 5th-century BCE, the termDhyana and the related terms such as Dhyai (Sanskrit: यै, deeply meditate)[43] appears in numerous Upanishads composed after the 5th-century BCE, such as: chapter 1 of , chapters 2 and 3 of , chapter 3 of , chapter 11 of Mahanarayana Upanishad, and in various verses of Upanishad, Chulika Upanishad, Atharvasikha Upanishad, , Brahmabindu Upanishad, , Tejobindu Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Kshuriki Upanishad, Dhyana- Upanishad, Atharvasiras Upanishad, Maha Upanishad, Pranagnihotra Upanishad, Yogasikha Upanishad, Yogatattva Upanishad, Kathasruti Upanishad, Upanishad, Atmaprabodha Upanishad and Visudeva Upanishad.[8]

Brahma Sutras Dhyana as Dharma

The Brahma-sutras, which distills the teachings of the Upanishads and is one of Practice (dharma), not three foundational texts of the school of Hinduism, states that Dhyana is unrighteousness. Speak the , not not Prativedam (or, one for each Veda), and meditation belongs to all Vedic the untruth. Look at what is distant, not what's near at hand. Look at the schools.[7] highest, not at what's less than highest. (...) The fire is meditation (dhyana), dedicates an extensive chapter on meditation, in his commentary on the firewood is truthfulness (), the the Brahma-sutras, in as essential to .[46] His discussion is patience (kshanta), the Sruva spoon is modesty (hri), the there is similar to his extensive commentary on Dhyana in his Bhasya on sacrificial cake is not causing injury to [46] Bhagavad Gita and the early Upanishads. living beings (), and the priestly fee is the arduous gift of safety to all creatures. Dharma Sutras —Vasistha Dharmasutras 30.1-30.8 The verse 30.8 of the ancient Vasistha Dharma-sutra declares meditation as a [44][45] , and interiorized substitute equivalent of a fire sacrifice.[47]

Bhagavad Gita The term Dhyana, and related words with the meaning of meditation appears in many chapters of the Bhagavad Gita, such as in chapters 2, 12, 13 and 18.[8] The chapter 6 of the Gita is titled as the "Yoga of Meditation".[48]

The Bhagavad Gita, one of the three key books of Vedanta school of Hinduism, states four Marga (paths) to purify one's mind and to reach the summit of – the path of Unselfish Work, the path of Knowledge, the path of Devotion and the path of Meditation (Dhyana).[49] summarizes the need and value of meditation in Gita, as follows (abridged):

To change the analogy, the mind is like a lake, and stones that are dropped into it (or winds) raise aves.w Those waves do not let us see who we are. (...) The waters must be calmed. If one remains quiet, eventually the winds that ruffle the water give up, and then one knows who one is. God is constantly within us, but the mind obscures that fact with agitated waves of worldly .Meditation quiets those waves (Bhagavad Gita V.28).

— Huston Smith, Foreword, The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition[49]

Dhyana along river in (left), in Tamil script as an instrument for meditation (right).

Meditation in the Bhagavad Gita is a means to one's spiritual journey, requiring three moral values – Satya (truthfulness), Ahimsa (non-violence) and Aparigraha (non-covetousness).[50] Dhyana in this ancient Hindu text, states Huston Smith, can be about whatever the person wants or finds spiritual, ranging from "the manifestation of divinity in a religious symbol in a human form", or an inspiration in such as "a snow-covered mountain, a serene lake in moonlight, or a colorful horizon at sunrise or sunset", or melodic sounds or syllables such as those that "are intoned as and rhythmically repeated" like Om that is audibly or silent contemplated on.[50] The direction of deep meditation, in the text, is towards detaching the mind from sensory distractions and disturbances outside of oneself, submerging it instead on the indwelling spirit and one's soul towards the state of Samadhi, a state of bliss (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 6: Yoga of Meditation).[48][50]

The Gita presents a synthesis[51][52] of the Brahmanical concept of Dharma[51][52][53] with ,[54][53] the yogic ideals[52] of liberation[52] through ,[54] and Samkhya philosophy.[web 2][note 4] It is the "locus classicus"[55] of the "Hindu synthesis"[55] which emerged around the beginning of the Common Era,[55] integrating Brahmanic and shramanic ideas with theistic devotion.[55][52][53][web 2]

The Bhagavad Gita talks of four branches of yoga:[49] Yoga: The yoga of work in the world Jnāna yoga: The yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor : The yoga of devotion Dhyāna Yoga: The yoga of meditation (sometimes called Raja yoga or Ashtanga yoga) The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by in chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita to .[49]

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (dated ca. 400 CE),[56] a key text of the Yoga school of , Dhyana is the seventh limb of this path, following Dharana and preceding Samadhi.[57] Dhyana is integrally related to Dharana, one leads to other. Dharana is a state of mind, Dhyana the process of mind. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes actively engaged with its focus.

Patanjali defines contemplation (Dhyana) as the mind process, where the mind is fixed on something, and then there is "a course of uniform modification of knowledge".[58] Bronkhorst states that Buddhist influences are noticeable in the first chapter of the Yogasutras, and confirmed by sutra 1.20 because it mentions asamprajnata samadhi is preceded by "trust (sraddha), (virya), mindfulness (), concentration (samadhi), and insight ()".[59] According to Bronkhorst, "the definition of Yoga given in the first chapter of the Yoga Sutra does not fit the descriptions contained in the same chapter,"[60] and this may suggest the sutra incorporated Buddhist elements as described in the four jhanas.[61] Wynne, in contrast to Bronkhorst's theory, states that the evidence in , such as those found in Suttapitaka, suggest that these foundational ideas on formless meditation and element meditation were borrowed from pre-Buddha Brahamanical sources attested in early Upanishads and ultimately the cosmological theory found in the Nasadiya-sukta of theRigveda .[28]

Adi Shankara, in his commentary on Yoga Sutras, distinguishes Dhyana from Dharana, by explaining Dhyana as the yoga state when there is only the "stream of continuous thought about the object, uninterrupted by other thoughts of different kind for the same object"; Dharana, states Shankara, is focussed on one object, but aware of its many aspects and ideas about the same object. Shankara gives the example of a yogin in a state of dharana on morning may be aware of its brilliance, color and orbit; the yogin in dhyana state contemplates on sun's orbit alone for example, without interrupted by its color, brilliance or other related ideas.[62]

In Patanjali's Raja Yoga, also called "meditation yoga",[63] dhyana is "a refined meditative practice", a "deeper concentration of the mind", which is taken up after preceding exercises. In Hinduism, dhyāna is considered to be an instrument to gain self-knowledge. It is a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which a world that by default is experienced as disjointed, comes to be experienced as Self, and an integrated oneness with Brahman.[3] The Brahman has been variously defined in Hinduism, ranging from non-theistic non-dualistic Ultimate Reality or supreme soul, to theistic dualistic God.[64][65][66]

Dharana The stage of meditation preceding dhyāna is called dharana.[67][68] Dharana, which means "holding on", is the focusing and holding one's awareness to one object for a long period of time. In Yogasutras, the term implies fixing one's mind on an object of meditation, which could be one's breath or the tip of one's nose or the image of one's personal deity or anything of the yogi's choice.[69]

In the Jangama Dhyāna technique, for example, the meditator concentrates the mind to a spot between the eyebrows. According to Patañjali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration (dhāraṇā: Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to become introverted in meditation (dhyāna: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the technique, the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. This step prepares one to begin the practice of Dhyana.

Dhyana The Yogasutras in verse 3.2 and elsewhere, states , defines Dhyana as the "continuous flow of the same thought or image of the object of meditation, without being distracted by any other thought".[70] Vivekananda explains Dhyana in Patanjali's Yogasutras as, "When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called Dhyana".[71]

While Dharana was the stage in yoga where the yogi held one's awareness to one object for a long period of time, Dhyana is concentrated meditation where he or she contemplates without interruption the object of meditation, beyond any memory of ego or anything else.[69]

In Dhyana, the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that he/she is meditating) but is only aware that he/she exists ( of being), his mind and the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana, in that the yogi contemplates on the object of meditation and the object's aspects only, free from distractions, with his mind during Dhyana. With practice, the process of Dhyana awakens self-awareness (soul, the orAtman ), the fundamental level of and Ultimate Reality in Hinduism, the non-afflicted, conflictless and blissful state of freedom and liberation ().[72][73] Vivekananda in meditating yogic posture.

Samadhi The Dhyana step prepares a yogi to proceed towards practicing Samadhi. describes the teachings of Yogasutras in the following way:

When one has so intensified the power of dhyana as to be able to reject the external part of and remain meditating only on the internal part, the meaning, that state is calledSamadhi .[note 5]

Michael Washburn states that the Yogasutras text identifies stepwise stages for meditative practice progress, and that "Patanjali distinguishes between Dharana which is effortful focusing of attention, Dhyana which is easy continuous one-pointedness, and Samadhi which is absorption, ecstasy, contemplation".[74] A person who begins meditation practice, usually practices Dharana.[74] With practice he is able to gain ease in which he learns how to contemplate in a sharply focussed fashion, and then "he is able more and more easily to give uninterrupted attention to the meditation object; that is to say, he attains Dhyana".[74] With further practice, the yogi "ceases being detachedly vigilant" and enters "a state of fusion with the meditation object" which is Samadhi.[75]

Samadhi is oneness with the object of meditation. There is no distinction between act of meditation and the object of meditation. Samadhi is of two kinds,[76][web 3] with and without support or an object of meditation:[77]

Samprajnata Samadhi, also called savikalpa samadhi and Sabija Samadhi, is object-centered, and is associated with deliberation, reflection, blissful ecstasy that has been assisted by an object or anchor point.[78][77] The first two, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types ofsamapatti :[78][79]

Savitarka, "deliberative":[78] The (िच)is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation, and the yogi's deliberates and fuses with it, unaware of everything else.[80][note 6] Conceptualization (vikalpa) here is in the form of perception and the knowledge of the object of meditation.[78] When the deliberation is ended this is called nirvitaka samadhi.[81][note 7] Savichara, "reflective":[80] the citta(िच)is concentrated upon an abstract object of meditation, which is not perceptible to the senses, but arrived at through .[80] The object of meditation can be inferred from the senses, the process of cognition, the mind, the I-am-ness, or the (intellect).[80][note 8] The stilling of reflection is called nirvichara samapatti.[80][note 9] Asamprajnata Samadhi, also called Nirvikalpa Samadhi[web 3] and Nirbija Samadhi:[web 3] the state achieved when the meditation is without the help of a support or an object.[80] Both object-centered and objectless-centered meditative practice, in Hindu texts, leads to progressively more bright, pellucid and poised state of "powerful, pure, Sattvic" state of blissful Self, ultimately leading to the knowledge of purusha or Atman-Brahman (soul), states Michael Washburn.[77][82] This is the state, in Hindu tradition, where states Gregor Maehle, the yogi or realizes "the Atman in you is the Atman in everyone", and leading to the realization of Self.[83] Samyama

The practice of Dharana, Dhyana and Samādhi together is designated as Samyama (Sanskrit: संयम, holding together) in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[84] Samyama, asserts the text, is a powerful meditative tool and can be applied to a certain object, or entire class of objects.[84] A yogi who does Samyama on Pratyaya (notions, customs) of men, states sutra 3.19 of the text, knows the series of "psycho-mental states of other men".[84] A yogi after successfully completing Samyama on "distinction of object and idea" realizes the "cries of all creatures", states sutra 3.17.[84] A Samyama on friendliness, and joy leads to these powers emerging within the yogi, states sutra 3.23.[85] The meditation technique discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is thus, states , a means to knowledge andsiddhi (yogic power).[84][86]

Vācaspati Miśra, a scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, in his bhasya on the Yogasutra's 3.30 wrote, "Whatever the yogin desires to know, he should perform samyama in respect to that object".[87] Moksha (freedom, liberation) is one such practice, where the object of samyama is (pure existence), Atman (soul) and Purusha (Universal principle) or (God).[88] Adi Shankara, another scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, extensively commented on samyama as a means for Jnana-yoga (path of knowledge) to achieve the state ofJivanmukta (living liberation).[89][90]

Samapattih By the time the Yogasutras were compiled, the Hindu traditions had two broad forms of meditation, namely the ecstatic and enstatic types.[91][92]

Comparison of Dhyana in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism

According to Jianxin Li Samprajnata Samadhi of Hinduism may be compared to the rupa jhanas of Buddhism.[93] This interpretation may conflict with Gombrich and Wynne, according to whom the first and second jhana represent concentration, whereas the third and fourth jhana combine concentration with mindfulness.[94] According to Eddie Crangle, the first jhana resembles Patanjali's Samprajnata Samadhi, which both share the application of vitarka and vicara.[95]

Asamprajnata Samadhi, states Jianxin Li, may be compared to thearupa jhanas of Buddhism, and to -Samapatti.[93] Crangle and other scholars state that sabija-asamprajnata samadhi resembles the four formless jhanas, with the fourth jhana of Buddhism being analogous to Patanjali's "objectless dhyana and samadhi".[96][97]

The paths to be followed in order to attain enlightenment are remarkably uniform among all the Indian systems: each requires a foundation of moral purification leading eventually to similar meditation practices.

— , National University of Singapore[98]

According to Sarbacker and other scholars, while there are parallels between Dhyana in Hinduism and in Buddhism, the phenomenological states and the emancipation are described differently.[97][99] Dhyana in Buddhism is aiming towards cessation and realization of shunya (state of null), while Dhyana Hinduism is aiming towards realization of Atman (soul) and consequent union with Brahman.[97] (or Nibbana), the desired end through Dhyana in Buddhism, is the realization that there is no permanent self nor permanent consciousness; while Moksha, the desired end through Dhyana in Hinduism, is acceptance of Self, realization of liberating knowledge, the consciousness of Oneness with all existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self.[98][note 10][note 11] Nirvana of Buddhism starts with the premise that "Self is merely an illusion, there is no Self", Moksha of Hinduism on the other hand, starts with the premise that everything is the Self, states David Loy.[98] The soteriological emphasis in Dhyana, therefore is different in Buddhism and Hinduism.[100]

Jainism Ancient Jaina scholars developed their own theories on Dhyana like other ,[2] but little detail is mentioned in Jaina texts,[101] and the Dhyana practices varied by within the Jaina tradition.[102] Broadly, Jainism texts identify four types of meditation based on the nature of object.[101][103] Arta-dhyana, states Jaina meditation literature, occurs when one's focus is on anguish and unpleasant things.[2] Raudra-dhyana occurs when the focus is on or perverse ideas or objects.[103] Dharmya- dhyana focuses on religious ideas or virtuous objects, while Shukla-dhyana is the focus on pure ideas or bright objects.[2][103] This classification of four Dhyana types may have roots, suggests Paul Dundas, in the earlier Hindu texts related to Kashmir .[103]

Dundas states that Jaina tradition emphasized Dhyana, but its meditation-related literature likely went through two stages of formulation, the early stage independent of other Indian traditions, one which concerned itself with "cessation of mind and physical activities" rather than their transformation as in other Indian traditions; followed by a later stage, likely post-Yogasutras, where Jaina scholars of different sects restructured the contemplative model to assimilate elements of Hindu and Buddhist techniques on Dhyana.[103] The terminology used in some Jainism texts however, states John Cort, are different.[104]

The premise of Atman (soul) exists, that is found in Hinduism, is also present in Jainism. The soteriological goals of Jaina spiritual meditation are similar to Hindu spiritual meditation, aimed at experiential contact with the "ultimate self", wherein the yogi realizes the blissful, unfettered, formless soul and -hood – a totally liberated state of being.[101]

Related concept: Upasana

Two concepts associated with Dhyana found in ancient and medieval Hindu texts are Upasana and .[33] Upasana means "come near to something, some idea" and denotes the act and state of meditation, while Vidya means knowledge and is the consequence of Dhyana.[105] The term Upasana typically appears in the context of ritual meditative practices, such as before a devotional symbol such as deity or during a yajna type practice or community oriented bhakti singing, and is a subtype ofDhyana .[105][106]

The 11th-century Vedanta scholar noted that upasana and dhyana are equated in the Upanishads with other terms such as vedana (knowing) and smrti (remembrance). Ramanuja holds that all these are phases of meditation, adding that they must be done with love orbhakti.

See also

Sahaja Yoga Samādhi Ashtanga Yoga Samyama Yoga (philosophy) Dhyāna in Buddhism Raja Yoga

Notes

1. Scholars such as Hans Wolfgang Schumann state that Uddaka Ramaputta was a Vedic era teacher of Upanishadic ideas.[24] 2. According to Bronkhorst, Buddhism probably had a marginal influence before Asoka, while this mainstreamdid influence Buddhism; but the specific Buddhist form of meditation, with the four dhyanas, are considered to be an authentic Buddhist development.[27] 3. See 6.1.4 of Taittiriya Samhita, 3.2 of Aitareya Aranyaka, 8.11 of Satapatha Aranyaka, sections 5.18 through 5.24 of Chandogya Upanishad. Also see discussion on Agnihotra to Pranagnihotra evolution by Staal.[39] 4. The Bhagavad Gita also integratestheism and [web 2] or spiritual ,[53] and identifies a God of personal characteristics with the Brahman of the Vedic tradition.[web 2] 5. See Swami Vivekenanda on Dhyana and Samadhi in Raja Yoga. 6. Yoga Sutra 1.42: "Deliberative (savitarka) samapatti is that samadhi in which words, objects, and knowledge are commingled through conceptualization."[78] 7. Yoga Sutra 1.43: "When memory is purified, het mind appears to be emptied of its own nature and only the object shines forth. This is superdeliberative nirvitaka( ) samapatti."[81] 8. Following Yoga Sutra 1.17, meditation on the sense of "I-am-ness" is also grouped, in other descriptions 9. Yoga Sutra 1.44: "In this way, reflective (savichara) and super-reflective (nirvichara) samapatti, which are based on subtle objects, are also explained."[80] 10. Loy's discussion covers Samkhya-Yoga, -Vaishesika and schools of Hindu . 11. Crangle states, "Buddhists denied the authenticity of any claim by non-Buddhists to the attainment of the ninth state which is the release of Nirvana: the destruction of consciousness and sensation which was specifically a discovery of the Buddha".[99]

References

1. Jones & Ryan 2006, pp. 283-284. 2. Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 283. 3. William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the edicV Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791435809, pages 171-177, 222 4. Bronkhorst 1993, pp. 65-83. 5. Edwin Bryant (2009), The Yoga sūtras of Patañjali: a new edition, translation, and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators, North Point Press,ISBN 978-0865477360, pages xxii, xxix-xxx 6. Wynne 2007, p. 94. 7. Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin,ISBN 978-0143099864, pages 182-184 8. GA Jacob (1963), A concordance of and Bhagavad Gita, , OCLC 1827024 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1827024), pages 472-474 9. Ian Whicher (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791438152, page 49 10. Stuart Sarbacker (2011), Yoga Powers (Editor: Knut A. Jacobsen), Brill,ISBN 978-9004212145, page 195 11. dhyAna (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html), Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany 12. Jan Gonda (1963), The Vision of Vedic Poets, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110153156, pages 289-301 13. Thomas Berry (1992), Religions of India: Hinduism, oga,Y Buddhism, Columbia University Press,ISBN 978- 0231107815, page 101 14. Jan Gonda (1963), The Vision of Vedic Poets, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110153156, pages 289-290 15. Charlotte Bell (2007), , Mindful Life: A Guide for Everyday Practice, Rodmell Press,ISBN 978- 1930485204, pages 151-159 16. GN Jha (Translator)(1907), The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of - Book 3 (https://arc hive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n112/mode/2up) ; Harvard University Archives, pages 94-95 17. K Rao (2005), Consciousness Studies: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, McFarland,ISBN 978- 0786422784, page 315 18. TR Anantharaman (1996), Ancient Yoga and Modern Science, PHISPC monograph, Volume 14, Issue 7, ISBN 978- 8121507523, pages 44-45 19. William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the edicV Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791435809, page 170 20. Bronkhorst 1993. 21. Wynne 2007. 22. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 31-67. 23. Sagarmal Jain (2015), Yoga in Jainism (Editor: Christopher Key Chapple), Routledge,ISBN 978-1138829077, pages 14-15 24. Hans Wolfgang Schumann (2004), The Historical Buddha: The Times, Life, and Teachings of the Founder of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120818170, page 49 25. Sagarmal Jain (2015), Yoga in Jainism (Editor: Christopher Key Chapple), Routledge,ISBN 978-1138829077, pages 14-28 26. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 68-77. 27. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 95; 122-123. 28. Wynne 2007, pp. 96-97. 29. 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Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 645-646 39. JF Staal (2008 Reprint, Original: 1961), Advaita and , DBNL,OCLC 2026357 (https://www.worldcat.or g/oclc/2026357), pages 72-73 40. Tsunehiko Sugiki (2015), Variations: The Study of Ritual Change across the Longue Duree (Editors: Richard Payne and Michael Witzel), Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0199351589, pages 167-169, 176-177, 186, 193-194 41. Yael Bentor (2000), Interiorized Fire Rituals in India and in , Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 120, No. 4, pages 594-613 42. Yael Bentor (2000), Interiorized Fire Rituals in India and in Tibet, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 120, No. 4, pages 596-597 43. Dhyai (http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dhyai&script=&direction=SE&link=yes) Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany 44. Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford World Classics, Oxford University Press,ISBN 0-192838822, pages 325-326; For Sanskrit manuscript original: seeArchive (http://www.hinduonline.co/vedicreserve/kalpa/dharma/vasish tha_dharma_sutra.pdf) 45. Georg Buhler, The Sacred Books of the East (https://books.google.com/books?id=nNE2AQAAMAAJ) at Google Books, Volume XIV Part II, Editor: Max Muller, Oxford University Press, pages 138-139 46. William Cenkner (1995), A Tradition of Teachers, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120809321, pages 71-82 with footnotes 47. Henk Bodewitz (1999), Violence Denied (Editors: Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij), BRILL,ISBN 978- 9004113442, page 28 footnote 19 48. Easwaran (2011), Essence of the Bhagavad Gita, Nilgiri,ISBN 978-1586380687, pages 126-146, 280 49. Winthrop Sargeant (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition (Editor: ), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, page xv 50. Winthrop Sargeant (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition (Editor: Christopher Chapple), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages xvi, 272-321, 331 51. Deutsch & Dalvi 2004, p. 61. 52. Scheepers 2000. 53. Raju 1992, p. 211. 54. Deutsch & Dalvi 2004, p. 61-62. 55. Hiltebeitel 2002. 56. Maas 2006. 57. Lochtefeld 2002, p. 196, 585. 58. The Yoga Philosophy (https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n144/mode/2up) TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 94-95 59. Bronkhorst 1993, pp. 49, 71. 60. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 73. 61. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 74. 62. Trevor Leggett (1983), Shankara on the Yoga Sutras, Volume 2, Routledge, ISBN 978-0710095398, pages 283-284 63. Vyn Bailey (2009), Patanjali's Meditation Yoga, Simon & Schuster Australia,ISBN 978-0731806485 64. Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1-4 65. Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of Nework Y Press, ISBN 978- 0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman - Self and All 66. Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124-127 67. Underwood 2005. 68. Smith 2005. 69. The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2003 Edition), Volume 4, ISBN 978-0852299616, page 56, Article on Yoga (htt p://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoga-philosophy) 70. Edwin Bryant (2009), The Yoga sūtras of Patañjali: a new edition, translation, and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators, North Point Press,ISBN 978-0865477360, pages 303-305 71. Swami Vivekananda (1915), The Complete Works of the Swami Vivekananda (https://books.google.com/books?id=0 30TAAAAQAAJ) at Google Books, Volume 1, 2nd Edition, Harvard University Archives, page 206; Archive 2: Vedânta Philosophy: Lectures (https://books.google.com/books?id=VIIwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA82), p. 82, at Google Books 72. Basant Pradhan (2014), Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, Springer Academic, ISBN 978- 3319091044, pages 49-50 73. RS Bajpai (2002), The Splendours And Dimensions Of oga,Y Atlantic Publishers, ISBN 978-8171569649, pages 189-196 74. Michael Washburn (1988), The Ego and the Dynamic Ground: A Transpersonal Theory of Human Development, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887066115, page 219 75. Michael Washburn (1988), The Ego and the Dynamic Ground: A Transpersonal Theory of Human Development, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887066115, page 220 76. Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 377. 77. Michael Washburn (1988), The Ego and the Dynamic Ground: A Transpersonal Theory of Human Development, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887066115, pages 220-221 78. Maehle 2007, p. 177. 79. Whicher 1998, p. 254. 80. Maehle 2007, p. 179. 81. Maehle 2007, p. 178. 82. Maehle 2007, pp. 179-180, 237-240. 83. Maehle 2007, pp. 239-240 with discussion on sutra 3.8. 84. Mircea Eliade, Willard Ropes Trask and (2009), Yoga: and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, pages 85-87 85. Maehle 2007, pp. 251-252. 86. Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and : A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, pages 141-142 87. Mircea Eliade, Willard Ropes Trask and David Gordon White (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, page 88 with footnote 119 88. TS Rukmani (1993), Researches in Indian and (Editor: Rāma Karaṇa Śarmā), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120809949, pages 218-220, also 217-224 89. Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex University Press,ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 53, 83-85, 148-149 90. Jonathan Bader (1990), Meditation in Śaṅkara's Vedānta, Aditya Prakashan,ISBN 978-8185179513, pages 42-46 91. Stuart Ray Sarbacker (2006), Samadhi, State University of New orkY Press, ISBN 978-0791465547, pages 53-60 92. Frits Staal (1975), Exploring : A Methodological Essay, University of California Press,ISBN 978- 0520031197, pages 86-91 93. Jianxin Li & year unknown. 94. Wynne 2007, p. 106; 140, note 58. 95. Crangle 1984, p. 191. 96. Crangle 1984, pp. 191-194. 97. Stuart Ray Sarbacker (2006), Samadhi, SUNY Press,ISBN 978-0791465547, pages 104-106 98. David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita edanta:V Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, 23(1), pp 65-74 99. Crangle 1984, p. 194. 100. Stuart Ray Sarbacker (2006), Samadhi, SUNY Press,ISBN 978-0791465547, pages 106-108 101. Padmanabh S Jaini (2014), The Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120815780, pages 251- 258 102. Kurt Titze (2001), Jainism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815346, page 266 103. Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains, Routledge,ISBN 978-0415266055, pages 166-169 104. John Cort (1998), Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791437865, pages 17-20 105. William Cenkner (1995), A Tradition of Teachers, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120809321, pages 23-25, 74-75 106. John C Plott (1974), A Philosophy of Devotion, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-0842606196, pages 70-71

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Published sources Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Comans, Michael (1993),The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita edanta.V In: Philosophy East and West Vol. 43, No. 1 (Jan. 1993), pp. 19–38. Comans, Michael (2000),The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda, : Motilal Banarsidass Crangle, Eddie (1984), "A Comparison of Hindu and Buddhist echniquesT of Attaining Samādhi",in Hutch, R.A.; Fenner, P.G. (eds.), Under The Shade of the Coolibah Tree: Australian Studies in Consciousness (PDF), University Press of America David, John (1914), The Yoga System of Patanjali with commentary Yogabhashya attributed to Veda Vyasa and Vaicharadi by Vacaspati Misra, Harvard University Press Dense, Christian D. Von (1999), and Religious Leaders, Greenwood Publishing Group Deutsch, Eliot; Dalvi, Rohit (2004),The Essential Vedānta: A New Source Bookof Advaita Vedānta, World Wisdom, Inc, ISBN 978-0-941532-52-5 Farquhar, John Nicol (1920), An outline of the religious literature of India, Oxford University Press Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: , History, and Culture", Routledge Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006),, Infobase Publishing Kalupahana, David J. (1994),A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited King, Richard (1999), " and the Modern Myth of "Hinduism" ", NUMEN, Vol. 46, pp 146-185, BRILL King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East", Taylor & Francis e-Library Lochtefeld, James G. (2002),The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M and N-Z (Vol 1 & 2), The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 0-823922871 Maas, Philipp A. (2006), Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten kritisch ediert, Aachen: Shaker, ISBN 3832249877 Maehle, Gregor (2007), Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy, New World Library Mukerji, Mādhava Bithika (1983),Neo-V edanta and Modernity, Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan Raju, P.T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited Scheepers, Alfred (2000),De Wortels van het Indiase Denken, Olive Press Smith, Brian (2005), Yoga. In: "New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. ol.V 6.", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005 Thurman, Robert (1984),The Central Philosophy of Tibet, Princeton University Press Underwood, Frederic B. (2005),Meditation. In: "Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Lindsay Jones. 2nd ed. ol.V 9., Macmillan Reference USA. 5816-822. Gale Virtual Reference Library Werner, Karel (1994), The Yogi and the Mystic, Routledge Whicher, Ian (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press White, David Gordon (2014),The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography, Princeton University Press Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of , Routledge

Web-sources

1. George Feuerstein, Nididhyasitavyah - the deep pondering of self (atman), whereupon the Self (Brahman) become known (http://www.adishakti.org/_/yoga_and_meditation_dhyana_by_georg_feuerstein.htm) 2. ,Hinduism - The Bhagavad Gita, Encyclopædia Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/EBch ecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/59830/The-Bhagavadgita) 3. Sri Swami Sivananda, Raja Yoga Samadhi (http://www.dlshq.org/discourse/feb2005.htm)

Further reading

Whicher, Ian (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press

External links

George Feuerstein, Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana) Yogi Baba Prem Yogacharya, The Myths of Meditation!Light on Dhyana. Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati,Integrating 50+ Varieties of Yoga Meditation

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