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Carranza Franco, Francy (2016) Building citizens : demobilisation, disarmament and reintegration (DDR) process in Colombia, 2002-2010. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/id/eprint/23801 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this PhD Thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This PhD Thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this PhD Thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the PhD Thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full PhD Thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD PhD Thesis, pagination. BUILDING CITIZENS. Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR) Process in Colombia, 2002-2010. FRANCY CARRANZA FRANCO Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in Development Studies 2016 Department of Development Studies SOAS, University of London Declaration for SOAS PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. Signed: ____________________________ Date: __24 October 2016______ 2 Abstract In the literature on Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR), security problems in post-conflict settings are too readily attributed to the personality traits or economic ambitions of the ex-combatants. Alternatively, this thesis analyses the challenges and dilemmas they have to face as part of the reintegration process. Drawing on the DDR process that took place in Colombia under Alvaro Uribe's government (2002-2010), this research questions how the Colombian Agency for Reintegration (ACR) contributed to the economic, social and political reintegration of former guerrilla and paramilitary members. The thesis is divided into two parts: the first aims to understand how the Colombian DDR originated and evolved. The third chapter illustrates how the initial DDR design responded to a national security strategy that established differential treatment towards the guerrillas and paramilitaries, yet neglected the long-term reintegration of rank-and-file ex-combatants and the need for assistance to the receiving communities. Moreover, the entire DDR policy was fiercely contested and adjusted by the country‟s judicial institutions, which pushed the ex-combatants into both legal and institutional uncertainty. The fourth chapter highlights the extent to which responsibility for the reintegration was assumed by the municipal authorities of Medellín and Bogotá, which in turn encouraged and underpinned the creation of a DDR programme beyond its initially narrow, security-centric goals. The second part of this thesis explores the personal experiences of ex-combatants across three key dimensions: although the ACR programme seems to have had little success in terms of economic reintegration, social reintegration emerges as a more important organising element thanks to the creation of social fabric between the families, the communities and the overarching ACR bureaucracy. In particular, a positive experience with the reintegration officers had a ameliorative effect on political reintegration: by facilitating access to the mechanisms of democracy, new forms of interacting with the state were opened up to the ex-combatants, which would ultimately contribute to their forging of a new identity as citizens. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 11 International DDR programmes and the Colombian DDR 13 process Negotiation, Demobilisation and Reintegration, 2002-2010 17 Many demobilisations but no peace 24 Research purpose and thesis outline 29 Chapter 1. Ex-combatants in Demobilisation, Disarmament and 32 Reintegration (DDR) Programmes: Citizens or Civilians? 1.1. The scope of assistance: minimalist and maximalist 33 approaches 1.2. Targeting: community-based and combatant-based 37 approaches 1.3. Ownership and state-building 40 1.4. Reintegration: economic, social and political 43 Economic reintegration 44 Social reintegration 47 Political reintegration 49 1.5. Ex-combatants as a security risk 51 1.6. Ex-combatants: citizens or civilians 54 1.7. Conclusion 58 Chapter 2. Methodology and data 61 2.1. Methodological approach 61 Research question and aims 62 Research design 63 Research scope and limits 65 2.2. Methods and data collection 68 Written data: printed and online sources 68 Verbal data: interviews and focus groups 69 Instruments 75 2.3. Thematic analysis 76 2.4. Access and trust 78 2.5. Ethical considerations and risk assessment 80 Chapter 3. DDR design: targeting drug-lords and guerrilla deserters 82 3.1. Policy of Defence and Democratic Security: stressing 84 security, neglecting development 3.2. Collective negotiation and demobilisation of paramilitary 87 groups Negotiating their political status 91 Neglecting child-soldiers 94 4 Targeting drug-lords 96 Demobilisations as part of negotiating the political status 100 3.3. Individual demobilisations 103 Targeting deserters 106 3.4. Conclusion 110 Chapter 4. Ownership from Sub-national Institutions: the role of the 112 Bogotá and Medellín Municipalities 4.1. The PRVC Short-term Reinsertion Strategy 114 4.2. Reintegration at the Sub-National Level 116 Peace and Reconciliation Programme – Mayoral Office of 119 Medellín Programme of Services to the Process of Demobilisation and 123 Reintegration in Bogotá D.C. – PAPDRB 4.3. Legitimacy, ownership and security at the sub-national level 129 4.4. The ACR programme 132 4.4. Conclusion 136 Chapter 5. Economic Reintegration: the real value of economic 139 incentives 5.1 Short- and long term economic reintegration strategies 140 Short-term: cash hand-outs and monthly allowances 140 Long-term: vocational training, employment seeking and 142 Business Plans The private sector 150 5.2. The ex-combatants‟ problems: reintegration into poverty? 153 The real economic outlook of the demobilised 157 5.3. Recidivism 158 5.4 Conclusion 169 Chapter 6. Social Reintegration: Psychosocial Services and Community 171 Programmes 6.1. Breaking away from the armed group. 172 6.2. Creating family and community relationships. 176 Family, personal development, freedom and the value of life 176 Community: invisibility, acceptance and rejection 180 6.3. Psychosocial reintegration 188 Psycho-social models for ex-combatant reintegration 191 The role of the tutors 195 6.4.Conclusion 204 5 Chapter 7. Political Reintegration: Building Citizens 207 7.1. The (failed) political project of the paramilitary leaders 208 7.2. Other grass roots organizations 212 7.3. Levels of political participation 214 7.4. Expectations on the authorities versus personal expectations 217 7.5. Building citizens 228 Access Mechanisms: Citizenship Education 229 Interpretative Mechanisms: Changing Hierarchies 231 7.6. Conclusion 238 Conclusion and findings 241 Recommendations for the FARC peace process 250 Annex A. Interviews with reintegration officers 255 Annex B. Interviews and focus groups with the ex-combatants 257 Annex C. Interviews with IOM contractors and experts 259 Annex D. Instruments 260 Annex E. Timeline of the negotiations and the demobilisation 262 process. Annex F. Present situation of the paramilitary leaders 265 Annex G. What kind of problems have you faced during the 267 reintegration process? Annex H. Motivation for no recidivism 268 Annex I. Motivation for recidivism 269 Annex J. Did you learn something in the groups that is useful to you 270 now? Is there anything you miss? Annex K. Motivations for demobilising (Paramilitaries) 271 Annex L. Motivations for demobilising (Guerrillas) 272 Annex M. What do you value the most? 273 Annex N. Do you feel accepted by the recipient communities? 274 Annex O. When you have a complaint about the reintegration 275 programme, who do you talk to? Annex P. How do you find the psychosocial services? 276 Annex Q. Have you had any form of political participation? 277 Annex R. What expectations do you have of the authorities? 278 Annex S. What do you expect from this reintegration process? 279 Annex T. Their experience on the reintegration process has been… 280 References 281 6 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Figure 1. Map of cities represented in the fieldwork. 71 Table 1. Distribution of interviews and focus groups to reintegration 74 officers and ex-combatants divided by city, gender and armed group affiliation. Table 2. Example of frequency tables presenting answers by category, 78 denoting interviews and focus groups, disaggregating type of demobilisation and city. Table 3. Examples of the interplay between the negotiations, the legal 100 sphere and the demobilisations. Table 4. Individual demobilisations 2002-2010 per group 105 Figure 2. Comparison between the stages of individual and collective 107 demobilisations. Table 5. Reinsertion and Reintegration Programmes in Colombia 117 Table 6. Evolution of short-term economic aid for collective and 142 individual demobilizations