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AB SrlikAT Lis rho° kIO z libra Etclm a toms and Fedeza.-1 bray y ntaff ers the appaicat kin of m ;Bp utc3rs in Fede 11_1' br ar le n- and. o f-ers a r evie w of mi ni.co imptrto chnol gym tpxief OirerViallW of a-litc) atazon. e xpaal.no .coo pu tex techRoL ogy, ardwa_re, and so ft wa - The rof .e of co mp'uters in1,i_ bares exantned in. tin as th ehi 4t cry if co loputrs aid curirent evQl vvirugto chnology, 13..n anin ataora cf microcc mp ut rs asaso 'In ti qntc 1 ib=ary prot3le los fo cu se on hard wa ze and pezi ?he r&194 incl ding mash straqeci.49i4cia5 an dma micoachi_ne interface deivices.spy st cimn Hof= trf ar as disauusecl, with emphasis o n TrogValndeveiopnant aids4 f

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LU MIN COMM IN FEDERAL LIBRARI

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By MICK! JO YOUNG with FIRAMK A. PEZZANITE And J- CHRIS REISINGER

Prepared, under contract A76-234 . for the Fader-al Library Committee , ILIIirsry ofC4iofc Cots mh mk In VoniiK, Nikki Jo. itittioluttioli iniiiicomptitets Folef ill inrai les. "Prepared tinder colitrakt A7Ii-231 for theFegle141 Lila:fly Committee. Liformly of I:limiters." bibliography; p. %Wof. 11: 1.2: td Iiii/V I, tibia riesL.41nel "itates---A AN 2. Idinicompliters. 3. Libraries . Goverouter-mot, administrative, Stain, I.Pt.7ttaittle. Frank*.joint Atli /101,II. Iteisinfor,j, m. mm «uIL 131)441w4aFederal 111),yl; Committee, IV. Title. 7678,9.Vti.ti 027.5'023'5.1 78-1052

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TABLE lXi C9'E S Page PREFACE ...... 10 ..-ftVii

Vii

THE SCOPE .. , ...... L . VII TIMELINESS ......

TRE SPONSORS , .. . viii CHAPTER ONEt OVEIt VIEW OF AdTOMATION HOW A COMPUTER WORKS ; ...... HARDWARE ...... 1 Central Processing Ilnri ."; ... . 2 kfernory J. .. 6 Input , ...... 8 Output...... , .. B 77re Configuration , SOFTWARE; COMPUTER PROGRAMS 9 input/Wpm Instructions 13 Internal Data itlovement Instructrons ..

Anthrtrttic Instruction' . . Testini and Comparison Instractroar .. Jumping or 13ranching Instructions 14

Prograrnnang E-rample . . , Assembly Language Terms ...... 15 High-Level Language Terrus

OPERATING MODE t .. ..16 Dedicated, Shared or Time-Shared ...... = ...... ,...... 16

Batch, Remote Brack Online Interactive, or nue-Shanng . . . 16 ROLE OF THE COMPUTER,. . 16

CHAPTER TWO: ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN LIBILARIES._.. 19 DIRECTIIONS LIBRARY AUTONLATION . . .19- HISTORY OF COMPUTERS IN LIBRARIES . 20 CUR,RENT EVOLVING rEcHNoLocv . 22 Alancomputers ... . , \,...... 22 Cooperative Processing ...... , . 22 Online Files . .,...... 23 Packaged S'ofavare _ ...... 23 Commercial Services ...... , ...... , .... 23

Cominakr-Ouiput Microfrrrn . . Telecorranumcations FUTURE APPLICATION S OF NE RVORKS IN LIBRARIES 24 Communications ...... 25 Computers ...... 26 Information ...... , 26 PROBLEMS IN CURRENT LIBRARY APPLICATIONS. 27 Poor Aysterni Design...... 27 Poor Librarian/Computer Personnel Interface .. . 27 Poor Support _ _ _ A ...... 28 Other Problems ...... _ . . .. * .. 28 FEDERAL LIBRARY AUTOMATION API?LICATIONS .. 28 MitNic(i pu-ruis IN I I ARIES iv

I f()W THE N [COMPUTE, )U HISTORY AND DEVEI )PM ENT , .1 CI-IARAC"I*Elt 1STI(:S ...... , , DEFINITIONS , BASIC U(iES ANI) A1'111,1CATI( )N.9 . 30 Industrial l'rocess (.onirol , '31 1),TO/terra/Go/aro! ...... _ .. . ,/)aitlcquitifinra 31 Cnovnunications ... Corulailation ...... MINII:IONIPUTEItS IN( 1.11iltA RI ES 4R . 44433 . 4! 444, SUMMARY ..* . .. . , ...... 35 CHAPTEIt THREE: MINICOIVIPIJ'IT iti . . .. HARDWAR1'. . MAINFRAME 36 (:4011 ... . . Instruraion Set , ...... 37 Addreming Capabilities ,...... 37 Instruction Execution Screed ...... :t ...... ,...... , ., 37 Register- (,:unfigurittiOn .,...... , , . InternitAN . .. .. OptionaI,Eerrttires ...... Maio rilemoo, . ,, 39 . ,. hipt./014frut Coniroi .... 3() PElt IPIIERALS " 39 M ass Storage Dances 40 Punch Cards . 40 , Papei 'cape 40 +Casette or (:artridge 40 Indoitry-litanriarcl Magnetic Irtpt- ... .* . 41 1)iskette, or floppy Disk ...... 41 . . .. . _ Fixed-bead [Ask 41 Movable.head 1)isk . . 41 ...... ,..... Man /Machine Interliste l)epor% 42 Punch Cards . 4o Paper 42 Key-tb-IVIarr,netic-rs:lediton Stations 42 Transaction Recoi den; 43 Printer; . , Interactive Niani'Machior- I Etter-11(r I )(Nice% ...... , . 45 r Ins . Input /Output 45 SOETW ARE S()111/VARE ...... 46 Progrojefr Derel4rorne ..1: 1 c ...... ,.... Assemblers ...... 46 ...... -., ..... - ...... Larariers...... 46 Ecli,torN ....,_ ...... 47 ...... _ ... -...... :..., ...... 1)r:buggers ... . 47 1-)iatznristics .. 47 15 tilitics 47 . ,...... _...,_.... _ .. . .. Srthroutine 1.ihr;trics... , ...... ,, ,...... r.- ... 47 ropi len ...... , ., ...... 413 Far Ifanagement Programs ...... -.... ._ ...... ,. * . Operoung Systron...... _ .. , cam- li \TAM", CONTENTS

. A I \Ari'LICA'FIONS S()VEINAltE 4 50 IL NFIGOLI RATIONS , , ,. ;...... ' ...... _ ...... ,...... 50 kILASSES M IN rcayrsirrnits. 50.

CI-IAPTIER. FOUR!: MIN icom Pi.ITEtsLIIIIIARY APPLICATIONS 53

SYSTEM SELECTION: THM BRIM; ...... 53

COLUMN ONE: DESIGN CHA RA TIERISTICS . . . . . 53 Meant of Inputting ...... Types of Oliipta Products ...... 55 File Sinicture and Size. .X).55 iiarisactioni Volume . j 56 1 'ons ...... 56 Itittiface with Other Systems ' .... 57 COLUMNS TWO AND THREE: HARDWARE ANDSOFPWARE IMPACTS.....: 57 COLUMN FIVE: CLASS OF MINICOMPUTER 65 COLUMN FOUR: LIBRARY SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS 65

.System Requirement (hle End of the Badge.. .65. .Systems Design Die Other End of the Bridge _17 J LIBRARY APPLICATIONS ef69 GENERAL ,...:.,..,,a,. 69

. , , ACQUISITIONS ...... ,. , 70 Case Study

Problem Area...... 82 Library linvilorilnent 7...... 82 Goals...... , ..... Q2

Proposed Flow' ...... 82 System Requirements . Alternative Designs ...... 82 The Bridge: Review of Design Characteristics find Their Impacts 82 The Analysis ... 86 CATALOGING , ...... ; 86 SERIALS , 88

CIRCULATION .,,,. - - INTERLI BRA ItLOAN . 91 REFERENCE A NEC)R MAT1ON SERVICES. .. , 92 ADM isnsTRAT re= 94 SUMMARY 95 CHAVIT,R FIVE: SELECTION CRITERIA- ...... 97

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DECISION . ., . 97 CONIPARISON Tf) A MANUAL SYSTEM...... 97 COMPARISON TO A LARGE-SCALE SYSTEM . 98 SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS ...... 98 cosribENEFrr ANALYSES - 98 SELECTING THE SYSTEM ...... _....:.,...a.,,,,. , REVIEW OF HARDWAREISOVIV4ARE ...... 100 CPU 101

Peripherals...... 102 Ma...m Storage Device_s 103

Ivian/Nlachine Interface Devices...... _ ...... , . 105 . °Apart 107 Systems .... EVALUATION 107 ...... =...... 108 Turrikg, Synerns ...... 110

REVI EW OF ocH ER RESOURCES/REWIREMENTS ...... 112 i MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERALLIBRAIHES

. ..II . . .. Physical &pummel , , ,,,, .... 112 Space 112 PowCr 112 No 11 Maintenance 111 ' Personnel Time Frame , `THE HDECISION 11$ Federal ADPPr, °carmen/ :1\7 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS PROJECTS IN FEDERAL INITIATING MINICOMPUTER 117 LIBRARIES 117 THE LIBRARY'S ROLE 117 . I .. . THE AGENCY'S ROLE ...... 1111 1 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ROLE 11 11 ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR OF MINICOMPUTERS TRENDS IN FUTUR APPLICATIONS 1111 IN FEDERAL IiIBRA IES 119 IN CLOSING " ...... APPENDIX A. GL ARY...... 133 PROCUREMENT OF MINICOMPUTRSYSTEMS ...... 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... vi I

PREFACE THE AUDIENCE detailed input to thesystem designers. It has been pointed out that often only the staff arc "in a position This book is directed to Federal libraries and th to recognize a serious flaw in an operating procedure. librarians who staff them. The main audience will 6c Unless they havebeen given the opportunity to sec library administrators; middle-level managers and what the "purposes are, .they can hardly begin to bring .1Vection heads also ivilIbenefit from this material. Parts out what would otherwise bo only intuitive feelings the book also may be of value for staff training late that 'something's not righ'."? To participate fully and in the development of minicomputer projects. me ningfully, the staff may have to be trained or at The library director, as the decisiontnaker,.should least briefed on systems analysis, library automation, In familiar with minicomputers and their applications and minicomputers. in libraries. After deciding to use minicomputers, the director 'must either direct the project personallyor a..Isign a project director. THE SCOPE The qualifications required for succetsful project direction arc not This book covers the application of minicomputers fiefid. However, the following characteristics arevery important: in Federal libraries. The first four chapters, Part I, IP Ability to conununioate well Sound knowledge of library operations form- a genal- teXtbook treatment of automation, * Familiarity with'at least sie fundamentals of data processing library autom. don, minicomputers, and library appli- technology cations of mini ompmers. In Part II, Chapters 5 and 6, * Ability to write eleAr y guidelines for secting and implementing a minicom- Sound constitution and steady,nerves,1 puter system are presented. The project will probably involve a systems team that includes data processing experts experienced with The chapters of PartIprovide dui necessary hardware, systems analysis, and programming. The backgrdund for reviewing library- needs and making m may draw from agency personnel or from outside decisions in applyinkthinicomputer technology. If the readeris actors. Whichever procedure-is used, the librati- alreadyfamiliar with automation and ust be a working member of the team and must minicomputers, he or she may begin at Part II. In- COntrof the major decisions. It is the intent of this book depth explanations of computer technology are not to prepare librarians for this role.. possible in this book, and are, indeed, unnecessary for The entire staff 'should be kept informed of the most of the librarians who will read this book. progress of the automation effort because their high An understanding of systems analysis is important to Morale and support of the system arcvital to the the, readers of this book bitt is not covered in depth crcessof the project.Lack of knowledge often here. The library director making the decisions on prompts fear of the unknown. In addition to constant applying minicomputers should have completed the communication, the staff should receive training, at initial stages of systems analysis before applying the least in the 'form of general orientation to library guidelines, inthis book:" The director may follow automation and minicomputers, Guidelines forLibraryAttioriation,3 sponsored by the Infact the library staff should' 'play an integral part Federal Library Committee, for a thorough treatment tributors to the development of the system. The of library systems analysis directed specifically to librarydirectoralone cannot give the necessary Federal libraries.

rbara Evans Markutrin et al , Cauritlinrr far Library illamnation ifandhoolc for Fidefal and Othtr Librann (Santa Monica, Calif.: System Developrden .k.yrpora ter ),p 21. R,ohert Ni. Hayes and Joseph Becker, //inalfreatMin rfncelitng Lthranti, ?d rd, Los Angeles: Melville publishing Co, 1974), p. 141. rkoson et Al., Guideline for Libra.)Automation MINICO P IT s IN MD lAL.L,II

InformaticsInc.'sInkrina t ionServices Group is TIMELINESS singularly qualified to perlonnthis task. Under the Director, Library has come. administration of Jack A. Speer, The time for minicomputers in libraries Information Services has suppliedlibrary technical maid, Review of Information Science andTechnology4 The services for a number of Federallibraries, including d a chapter on minicomputers for thefirst time in acquisitions services, fettsibility and designstudies, and The September 1976 issue ofLihray.Technology It has also :1" 'Mimed :a description 91 three commercial production of bibliographic products. developed a commercial minicomputersystem to library systems that use -minicomputers.There is a I maybe out of support 'cataloging. need for this book, though some sections by Mr. Speer to date before it is published. Tli is is true ofariy work, that Dr, Micki Jo Young was selected equipment. In write the book; The backgrourld of Dr.Young includes deals with specific makes and models of management; this case, the problem is compounded bythe state of expertise irk--iiary technical services trinicomputer technology. This infant- area isjust large-scale comter systems; minicomputers as a design. Frank A. beginning to mushroom and grow.Changes in basic cataloging utility tool; and systems of Informatics' senior methodologies or breakthroughs intechniques can Pczzan ire and J. Chris Reisinger this book. Mr. occur at arty moment anddrastically change capabili- staff provided technical expertise for is all for the better, but one is Pezzanite is the Technical Direcp r ofLibrary Infor- ties and applications. It ge of project develop- warned to stay on top of this dynamic field. rnation Services and was in ch anent for MINI-MARC, thefim's commercial minicomputer module for catalog' Mr. Reisinger is THE SPONSORS Technical Director for ElectronicComposition Servic- processing Services Division. He The Federal Library Committee (FLC),has recog- es in the Information nized the trend to minicomputerapplications in isresponsiblefor computer-based text-processing, libraries. In using both large-scale computer systemsand minicom- libraries and their value to Federal bring a response PLC has organized aWorking group on puteP systems. Together, these three persons of4inieomputers in minicomputerstoserveas a forum for Federal well-rounded professiOnal view librarians to share knowledge .andexperience; FLC Federal library applications. .write this also contracted with Informatics Inc. to uric 1977 book. The Library Information Servicessection of

c-0

and Ttchnolo 'arta, A. tundra And Ann W. Luke ar,,n, Jr., "Minicomputer, in theLibrary,- in ,latturi/ Rain-4, of Information S'ttrner 31: Amarl-can Sacirly for lryforrnation Science, 1975 ), pp.139-63. nd An3wt, n Department," Idanny reonnologyRepots 13 (SepternSee 1076):465-9. CHAPTER ONE OVERVIEW OF AUTOMATION HOW A COMPUTER WORKS suited to arithmetic and logical t ibns, in business and engineering applications. Because of the nature of In general there arc three possible modes for library library Operations, digital computers are used exclu- operations: manual, mechanized, and automated. At sivelyforlibrary automationrorldthe remaining one time all catalog cards were written by hand, and discussion will deal with digital computers only. penmanship called library hand was taught in library Tu. understand computers,oin,oroust consider both school. The typewriter, and then multilith, offset, and the equipment (hardware) and the instructions or photocopy processes mechanized card production. The programs that make them self - directing (software). next step, automation, involves use of a computer. Ned Chapin defined the computer as follows: "An HARDWARE. automatic computer is a machine that manipulates. symbols in accordance with given rules, in pre- Five separate functions can rmed by corn- determined and-self-directed manner."' The ke word fritter hardware:5 is "self-directed." This is what distinguishes automa- Coriusi-rionfro one form representation to tion from mechanization, Sometimes this concept is another called the "stored program." Cox, Dews, and Dolby Storage for varying periods oforate wrote, "A librarian interested in the potential useful - Communication by movement ofdata ness -of a computer must first have an idea of what the Logical and arithmeticprocetthigi machinery and associated'programs can do."2 It is for Display in human-sensible loan. this purpose that the following general deseripticin of No one machine performs all five Functions. Rather, computers, their functions and roles, is presented.3 a. number of devices are cornhitwd. The group of There, are two main types of computers: analog and components required to perform the five functions digital.4 An analog computer represents variables by consists eV analogies. That is, it represents numerical quantities An input unit by means of physical variableS such as translation, The memo?), rotation, voltage, or resistance. Analog computers are The control unit used mainly in industry and for scientific applications The arithmetic unit requiring simulation of nature or natural properties. A An output unit. digital computer expresses variables in discrete, count- Each of these 'components Blotnecessarily a able form usually by means ofcoded characters suchas separate piece of equipment. Some components have numbers, signs, or symbols, Digital computers arc best multiple uses (e.g., both input and output) combining. . 1 Ned Chapin, An huroduction to Automata Computers (New York: Van. Firebrand- 1957) cited by Robert M. Hayes andioseph Becker, Naturbook of Data Procuringfor Libraries, 2d ed. (Loa ,Angeles Melville Publishing Co., 1074), p. 237. 2 N. S. M. Cox, J. D. Dews, and J. L. Dolby,Th eC o m p ute rand the GibingThtRule of th, Computer in the Organabon and Handling of infaraMtam in Laninits (Newcasde4 upon Tyne, Eng.: University of Newcastle upon Tyne Library, 1966), p, 27. . ,5 7. A number of general textbooks on automation arc available for further study; for example, Marilyn !kohl, Information Procesring, 2des1, (ChicagoScience Reaearch Associates, 1976) and Elias M. Awad and Data Proce.ming Management c4mmiation, Automata Data Processing; Pnnetples and hoeedure,r, :kJ rat. (EnglewoodCliffs, NJ.: Prenitte-tfall, 1973). Hayes and Becker 's Ilandbookof Dais Procerung for Libraries 13a comprehemive tre_atinent of library automation41iir CmpiatreeSpwris;An Introduction for Likrarmnr by John Eyre and Peter Torilm (London: Clive Bingley, 1971) isa much simpler description. 4 Edward M. tfeiliger and Paul BA-fenders:Hi. Js,, barmy A lirofT14110,1' Erpenente, Methodology, and Technology of the Ltbravas an Informatron.,5)brarn (New York: McCraw- Dill BonkDO 1971),pp. 161.1. 173,, 5 Ibid.. p. 191. n Willimn R. Coffin, Compates, Rev., Understanding the Atom Series (ak Ridge, Tenn.: U.S., Atomic Energy Corrunission, Divitfo uni'rechninal Information, 1967), pp. 15 -14.. i IN 06,1P111 INWERAL Lill I I

alucti 'in ascending numerical Isi;,--under any one binary (arithmetic} More than one unit in one deVi code is sorted in ategory *re is a varietyof de front which to order; if data expressed in Awl' .1 types of input numerical order,itwill_resultin thissequence., Choose. For example:there Are Se manipulate data in Units: punched card . readers, paper tapeleaders, Programmers often, review and developed and corrected. optical character recognition &viers,and key-to-disk binary form as programs are Representing each character withseven digits would 1 among others. be cumbersome and slow. 'fprovide a shorthand entral, Processing Unit method of handling these binary patterns,hexadeci- is .a The central processing ion t(Cf1,1) is the heartof the mal notationis sometimes used. HexadceirriAl 15 decimal units- (rAtnputer. It combines twoof thcf, fire main functions; base-16 system in which there arc reached. Because it is composed of the arl'iblik01.e and thecontrol 'units before the 10 (no units, one 16) is all the units, kid is closely tiol to the main memory, there aren't enough numerals to express In 4 digitatcomputer the. Main, unitsof computation the letters A throughy areused:8 discrete, countable cOdo, in0,91: commonly num- TABLEIComparison of Decimal, Hexadecimal, f, 'hers, Even more basic thannumber codes is the simple and, Binary Systems. ttn..off distinction. This is the principle ottwhich digital Massy System COmputer operation is triiltd,Them and off states arc Dedisutt Hexadecimal System 8 4' 2Ililt value represented numerically by (I and I. System 0 (zero) w "ofi", 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 1 (one) 0 0 1 0 computations and 2 2 1.k digital computers arithmetic 3 0 0 1 1 binary (base- 3 tunnerical expressions are based on this 4 4 0 1 0 0 0 1 Iwo) number system rather than thedecimal system 5 5 0 1 1 0 because binary is easier to manipulateby computer. 6 0 1 7 7 9 1 1 1 Figure 1 shows a simple comparison ofthe binary 1 0 0 0 are 8 'nd decimal number systems, Further references 9 9 1 0 0 1 0 recommended for additional study of binarymathe- 1 0 A I 0 1 1 0 1 1 matics.7 At this point the thing to rememberis that the II 8 1 1 0 0 the basis of all computer 12 loff-on conditionis 1 1 0 1 of the 13 1 1 1 0- Operations. The instructions or commands 14 1 I 1 1 program that allow the con:)1,1'1-er tobe "self - directed" 15 arc represented by 0-1codes, as are the data to be processed or manipulated. When hexadecimal notation isused for ASCII code, There are several standard 0-1 codesin which every four bits arerepresented by a 'hexadecimal separatearithmetic values are usedtorepresent character. Since ASCII is a seven-bit code, the eighth codes have specific letters, numbers, or symbols. Some bit (reading from right to left) isassumed always to be been standardized throughout the computerindustry zero: and can be used on anymanufacturer's equipment: ASCII G _000IH Hex47 13Cb, EBCDIC, and ASCU arethethree most Hex 0111 7 4 Inman. ASCII (AmericanStandard Code for Infor- Hex 0100 throughout the Federal mation Interchange) is used ASCII k -1101011 Hex 68 CAovernment as the standard and is the codefor the 6 Library of Congress MARC 11distribution tapes. be reduced to two (seven-bit) binary This allows eight characters- to Table 1 gives the severe -digit be remembered number; and symbol in the characters for efficiency, but it must pattern for each letter, what reside in main ASCII code. The order of the codes representsthe that the eight-bit patterns are found in -Appendix A, Primer of irbing do nix binary mathematics.rwo particularly detailed treatments are Mint textbook, oncoMpkileei granlartng POP-11) (Englesseod Cliffs, Prenlice-Hall, 1975), pp, 277-99 Karnher Systems," Richard 11. IAhoi, nretrnprWn Systerin: Organization and Prn Association, Aurnisairr Data ProceJling, pp. imputer Arithmetic," _Assad and Data Proccsaing Management ;mad "chapter 5, Dais IicpmrntA6inh-to \, Siirecnr, 7d ed. (White Plains, N.Y.: InternationalBu sinffis Mach ma Corp., tiAieraitionat nwlincts NiAcsinti, .1:710 rcrt Int! to !MI Data Preens-trig TechnicAl Publicatioral)cparlartql,1C10), 0{i191 0 AILlinWiTION

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COMPUTER IMPULSE DECIMAL NUMBER BINARY NUMBER PATTERN (off---o, on-x)

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1 0001 000X 2 9010 3 0011 00XX 0100 0%00 5 0101 OX0X 6 0110 OXXO 7 0111 OXXx B 1000 x000

, 1001 X0OX 10 1010 X0X0 11 1011- X0xX 12 HBO XXOU 13 1101 XXOX 14 1110 XXX() 15 1111 XXX%

ADDITION FOLLOWS HE SAME RULES AS DECIMAL ADDING, INCLUDING CARRYING

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TMJE 2-1-lexadecimaI 'Notation forASCIICode

1000000 40 1 0100001 21 61 41 a 1100001 0100010 22 10001001 42 b 1100010 62 0100011 23 10010010 43 c 11000L1 63 0100100 24 1000011 44 d 1100100 64 0100101 25 1000100 45 c 110010 1 65 0100100 26 '1000101 46 I 1100110 66 0100111 27 1000110 47 8 1100111 67 0101000 28 1000111 48 h 1101 000 68 0101001 29 1001000 49 i 110100 1 69 2A 1 1001001 0101010 1 101016 6A 213 1001010 4A 1 0101011 j 611 413 it 1101011 0101100 2C K 1001011 6C 4C 1 1 101100 0101101 2D 1. 1001100 in 1 10110 1 61) 01011 10 2E M 1001101'-'i3, 40 4E n .1101110 6E 01011 11 2F N 100110 4F o 1 10111 1 6F 0110000 30 G 1001111 70 101 0000 50 p t, 1 110000 1 011 0001 31 71 101 0001 51 q 1 110001 2 01100 10 32 Q 72 1010010' 52 r 1 110010 3 01100 11 31 R, 73 S 1010011 '53 i 1 11001 1 4 0110100 34 74 T 1010100 54 I 1110100 5 0110101 35 75 31 1110101 U 1010101 55 6 01 101 10 36 76 1010110 56 v 1110110 7 01101 11 37 111011 1 77 1010111 57 w 8 0111000 311. w 78 1011000 58 x 11110M 9 01 11001 39 t X 1111001 79 1011001 59 y 01 11010 3A 111101 0 7A 1011010 5A z 01 11011 311 1 11101 1 711 1011011 58 ( 01 11i 00 3( 1 11 1100 7C 1011 100 5E I 01 111 01 311 111 1101 71) 1011101 50 01 111 10 3E 1 7E 5,E; 1 11 1110 01 111 11 3F 10 11110 10 11111 5F electronic brain but manipulated. Table 2givm detail; the computer is not an memory and are actually impact of this detail the hexadecimal notation for each ASt.:11code lather an electronic siave.'3 The The arithmetic unit is where themanipulation of will be discussed in the section onsoftware. instructions are the data occurs,o Whether the-original data wcte Four main classes of computer figures or words, the binary codes aremanipulated by rried out by the CPU!' 4 oft Airthrnrcrc and logical irocoiiion4.These instructions arithmetic or pseudo-arithmetic operations rhe on 1 combinations of the electronic impulses arc cAlIcti add numbers together, compare patternsof letters circuit elements and represent cornbioanollS(A the or iinnibeis, reorganizethe coding of characters, basic logical operations AND, OK, and N4Y1'.11 '1ticsc- eta!Sometimes this classis divided into two cireqit elements allow binary numbers tobe added classes, one strictly for arithmetic,and theother subtracted, multiplied, divided, and rompatedFigure fctr logical operations.1 2 shows severalcircuit elements, and thc Er1(11 and )(oretrtairukthztzt l lics, tout uctiuns drC operations they represent).- used for moving inforinti.in aboutin the memory Ord c The instructions or program ere store. mands that control the patternand sequenc circuit elements. These must be explicit tothe lot

214o,. Pusineff4Machinn, Snionno 0 pv,,,IPPI SP ',17 2internAtional 177 internAtional Busirstm ihtta r4.0 14,4 loonI 498 a.p Hecker, Hin1isco44 RAIf'roinnig firI Affit-t t 14249 -ttzwit, PP:Itrt} 1.1aymout LoTo -1-4 0044," 4.1thotiso3 trf " A mor [blot Ord (Imri pion of Or 44.otic Ingi ,,perioloon 305. 252 3 AIM Ail illii3i3031100 in Corlio, cotnput&,, zu. lq Figure= i3.bawd on Fig-nuc 107 in 1I,3yri 4citl kr. 13 Ci0)1,1*-333.3, kntlE401144, CoMpultrand Mr Likifiro, p " !bid VERVIEW OF AUTO N

Logi cal Venr; Truth Electron L c

Equalion Olagra re -Fable I mplern entatiOrl ®

C tIA B) C 11A, B) C= 0..13)

0 A

A C A B

0 A

C B C Icondem n B)

I nverter Dr a NO7 G ate

C -= A -4 B B -- 0 Gate

7C A g

C :A-B

2 NPUT AI%00 G ate

A AND B

IfA= I & B. I,C I ItA--I or B If irk.

Other Q,cC 0 C If AI.

wma ±L a mi mr Arir-140d +IN t(111A.116.11-0, Can ti-A ,mot+wuide ierti § t Ma IC N FED ER rL-1011-eidtrES' 6

-vviihou a being cletroyed. 19 There are twokinds of 3. 'rap for bran r _ "Vane instructiorris main mernory, also called allow theserf uerrce operations to vary accord- niernor-y or storage, 0-ne _is .or.invrital siorage, atic1 tIte other -'is iris to the data being c larnin ed. -mor kin'g storage 4.Irsput and output entrtActiorzr. These instructions axe truss storage or att;feel Dlock of informationinto the art of memory ,frotra inputunits andsend information tic and control_ uni ts. 1-1 is sometimes considered re from thekricnnory to output d cvic es. the central processing Unit or mainframe (see y The actual data or cocks manipulated the By The main mernory holds the data manipulatt d of proce jog, ati thoittic amid logicunit ari generally held inthat the ari 3hrrretic uni n, Beeanse c f the speed in a regisier. A regis-ter is a semiconductor cleykc the data rttustbe reaclAly available, so they are rn vd The data tvrid of electroniechani calflip-flop switches t-hatholds tale front mass stowage nt o main memory, da1a.15. The register is where the actual operations ©n instructions are gi wen unique addresses, or-locatieins. the data are - perfortried, such a3 analyzing, Thc instrisctioms inch).* the address ofthe data to Joe the next anti puerformi_oigaritlimetic on the noinbeis i n the tnaziptilated as wellas the address of tegistez.16 Usually there are inualtiple regi_sters, and instruction The computez, thus, issclf-clirecting, Irt a these can he called aegontulaton. A register has at(is.cd few processors, arithmeti c &aidlogic operations are size and I-3 referred to by na_rne,notby its location in perforrited directly ort the data in the main Mettic,rty. the rric_snory, In gen eral , howev-er, data are moved from the main The control_ unit irr- the CPU handles theswi cchimg rnertiory to a register i neither the arithmetic and logic anti flow of ate irtstrttetions and data in the CPCJarid uyrir (for data) or thecoratc,i unit (for insiructiorts). inthe coinpinteras a whole. It sets that sequenceof The main inter nory in Most current compti lets is op.eratioas; clmeo.desinstructions, and provides the p ref magnetic cores (small ringscf a ferrvmag- control aignain to coordinate the vazions unitsof the ne rill) wired together- in an ou-ray.20 Each core counpitter= I/ Atut a simplistic level thedata represent ed can hold one h'inarydigit either zero atone by its) as a patternof oroff electronicimpulses trowel magne tic slate. Jac inter-nal inernoryalso is call ed-lie through a series cI circuits or gores Ellin alters the flow core.) ari d thus the patterns of the impulses.The cireciits or 'The main inernory is clezeriffied in two ways: ter-ins to to be gatesare chosen_ ac.eorcling the variation ofits addressabdily and its size.At the lowest Level a p&rforrrted single EUnary code (either one or zero) iscalled a bit. "To The contreA un it regulate.the Nov,/ of ins pikes a _rid express logietLE characters such as anumber or a, letter, tine setting of the glates in xesp.onse to the i_ nst ruct ons in severaD bits are grouped i n a unit called a ink.A byte (hie proper order. There aretwo ma in rtgisiersin the has a fixed length depending on the hardwaredesign; Co ntro I unit: theinstruction rekcisie r an

16. Corntis-iff,, P p 22 24

L sOVERViCEW,,. A4!O

chirre-rmada.ble loran. 'The storage Ineditarn -canvary. P0511104 Posivati Posdir211 Ph$Ii1011 R)S1110.11 'The storage may beinmechanical, electronic, or 1024 1025 102 8 10211 1028

rnagi4tic /form: The standard pumch card iscorzrnon Record 1 Record 2 Record 3 Record 4 Record 5 rnecliattieal_ storage median. Ilectronic storage is now .2305 4346 =2341 =2348 .2356 generalkylirnitedlostoiagedmring trx_nspcnottion, telecomenunicationts. 1"ylag7tic storage Es rrtostconi- FIGURE 3.a. Records irk a sequential file structure nlort-iincl uses tapes, dit.ks, drurns, 4or strips. PoSilion POWOn Position Pool ion Position ,Mass storage data generally are organized in files. 1024 1025 1024L. 1027 1028 'Mere is a hiera_rch3, of dat_a.21 5 lidcof d I -R cord2 RecOrd3 Rucoc Record 5 gr-t a single binary digit, either 0 orI. 4305 =2305 -2340 -2351 =2350 Rye., a group of llits(usuall-y eight) than reresents a logicalcha;acter such as a letter, nbe-r, or FlouRE 3.b. Updated record sequence syrrabol. Fi.ek eharacters core bin id into logical uni is or data elernents, c...anbe divided into suhfie Idsif appropriate to the intellectual cornea t of thedata. 1221 For example, Field personal ngarrie Ficoot 4.a. Records in a linked File serj tune

nbfield I name Snblicld 2 first name and m_ iddle iitial Fields can be defies ed by the p7ograrnen_r as f iscrl- length (alwaysmumber ofcharact rs) orvari- able-length- any characters astoessa..ry to Flouts .b. Updated file expzess the logic] Amity Rexord- related Li Ids combinedintoa complete, 3. Indexed Sequinticit The records are stored sequen- logical unit tially in units, or blocks, and the locations of key \Fire Ii fee records bine-id forth< sy-slerri records are entered in an index (Figure 5). This index bass ...base.-agr of films related to a sylIctri shortens the time required to locate a record, With the

1 application. methods described above, each record had to be The order of the file and thereto,n scanned or read either to snatch the control number or th rnairt nienvory is called ft le orga niza-to to read the address of the link. With index sequential Pr.vi iable methods gat ization inel-udeu organization the index is scanned by a key, and a Segt-ientral(done allocation) The records cxcur pointer is given to the area of the file where the record in lalinearorder need usually b-y a coallrol is located. The computer then reads only those records nannber (Figure 3aro ttyda se t he file by addirig of in the unit or range. To allow convenient addition of deinetinga record, anew sequ nice would have t o he new records, space is usually left in the file at various co piled. For examle , deleting X2341 and ad ding points :23 On multiolat ter disks, the block or unit where Pfz.t2350 would prodtie s.orriethizig I i ke Figs re 3t)

2, Linked(liraect 1 tidlaeahern). -The records dc_ in any order n the file-, hi.,Et the address (-Ft the nestlogicalireecrd islczeried i n dee record IC' liticK the ts.../0 togellipt (Figure 4a). To Lt pda_ te the file by arf.lding or deletifig a. record, tyre need modify only tIBC-' addires.s of the nest record c 1r re,linl1 the records. For xaratple, delc 'ig#2341 amid adding X2350 v.911141 pi-AL:lee a FotaattE 5. Records in an in segmental file Ill,/ ilte tlat shosan in Figure 4b. 4tructuee

Cr rilServir-4,Cf.wrinik5 0441eAca ,1111-1---a1111*-NA1 14.,Ageollen I '11. -rviAn 104.04101:11c 4 _ lava 11 n tun, D. C, l'itionwoRraiphed Ecithortile,Alioworwrae Spirpvf, pp, 2211 31 gatiakytIo-ald fic.tker,iirraltor Er/Aura Pnveung 1.,e,idqrj= P s.11 4 , MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERAL urn

-q-

sequenced rec?rds are ed of en. is tied to the earn be accessed, and the storagecapacity all vary, and cylinder, or sector, size of the disk-. these factors must be considered when' a'computer 4. Direct Access. 'The record is stored at any available conf iorationis being assembled. location a_nd the key to the record awl iLs adelfe (location) are entered in art index 6),24 IrliPlii he discussions of manipulation and storage of data so far, data have been described asbeing in binary (on -off) or machine-,readable form Aperson who vishes the data to be processed'begins with informationinits'.`natural,"original's' form.- This infotrnation is htiman-readable and is generally called be thesource doament. . The information 'must converted to machine-readable form, and this stepis accomplished via an input device. Two processes are involved: converting the human symbol intoCode and Fievai 6. Records ilk a direct access rile stene ut-e converting the code into electronic impulses. The illustrations to this point have been rudelinear Numerous techniques-e used, and many pieces of for clarity, but disks are two-di inetisioaal ; rna random equipment are available Some require a two- or three- file ,a recorcl, could be stored in any position an any stageconversion,att others a.low direct- input. track, as illustrated in Figure Punched holes in cards or paper tape are "read" by a machine that allows current-to flow wherever there is a hole, givi an "on" or "one" impulse. Magnetic inkis used andread" by machine to produce impulses. A light pccan be used to "read" a bar code;the lines

ilecOrd 1 e Curti 2 are used, to produce impulse patterns.Optical character reebgnition is more complicated,but it is similar to the light-pen system. The lines of the characterat ottte 8 fiecoql 8 "read" onto a matrix and the resulting pattern -- compared to a reference table; when a match is ma _ the impulses for that character are created_ 7 fie tl 3 A human symbol, a letter or number, must ap ea 4.5 an electronic impulse in thebinary, on-off schet clion 19 78 I the computer. Most input devices allow the pe_n to list: 'human symbols and then convertthe sync-1

KeY machine-readable codes and ultimately toi ulses. Fileinitial lout device used isoften offli e and OCOrd (1928 itidermendent (Standalone), like a keypunch achine. Record 2 1921 rile converted data it produces can be d" and Record 3 44ided to the computer storage desired, rim( 18( 12 Recent ti 119 2 I Output d5 Or 2? 8ecor d 7 417-4) Just as Aur datamust\he convened o.maehine- (Record 8 88 14 teadable form to be manipulated by thePU, so too the processed data must be converted tohuman- Flaw. 7. Two-dimensional depie-o,,, m user. In file structure sensible form to be meaningful tcethe the system is The physical arrangementof (Loa v most lases only a portion of the datait he selective, inedium, the form they take, the speed with whichTory noon --(1at any one time. output

I4Eck hokne, Al,,' entartr 229 4.1101Ard I T Kirribet A taiP,Lcilio ed nOIl,, 1 F a.t,- OVIERVILIW OF AUTOMATION 9

forrnated as required, and expressed in a suitable not true, howeverhecomputer operates in a linear, medium. The output is also called a "display. "s6 Most one-step-at-a- time manner. The CPU instructs an displays are visual and in a printed form (although input/output controller to-read or write information, computers can produce oral responses). The most and the I/O controller performs the actual transfer of common isthe printout on continuous-form paper, data betweer_ internal memory and the peripheral printed on a fast, computer-driven printer. Photocom-.. devices. There actually may be several 1/0 controllers position is possible as an output. A computer tape is in a system, each suitedto a particular class of produced that isforrnatell and ready to use in an input/astput device, Sometimes the controller is an automatic typesetting machine like the Governtrient integral part of the input/output device A 'buffer is Printing Office's Linotron. Computer-output micro- often used as part of the interface. It is a means of forms (CQfvI) arc also a form o!' printed display, "Soft" temporarily storing data until they are needed. The displays are produced on a cathode-ray tube like a buffer storage can be designated as part of the main tele-vision screen. This gives the user human- sensible' memory or as part of the controller.Inall,the data immediately but leaves no permanent record of Interface physically connects the units of the configu- the data, ration and serves to compensate for differences in the speed of data flow, in the tirniiig of the movement of The Configuration data front one device to another, and in the kinds of codes or formats involved. The input, output, and storage units, together (anti thecentral procming unit, einnInne to form the SOFTWARE: COMPUTER PROGRAMS computer hardware system or configurationhi the

literature, systems are describedI11 vaiii,lus %,-1, ( omputer is directed to manipulate data through sources shoxxv the entire system [es -the computer-, predefined sequences of instructions called programs." otherscall' onlythe centralprocestangunitthe Computer instructions at their most fundamental level' edmputeroand all the other devices peripherals. The are expressed in binary codes and are referred to as the CPU, encompassing the arithmetic and logic unit, the machine's language control unit, and main memory, isalso called the Machine lanpage is extremely crude (low seman- mainframe. The block diagrams in Eigure 8 represent tic), and itis difficult and tune- consuming to manipu- some common depletions of computer configuration 'r? late, ease the burden of prograrn preparation, However, the computer 'is -clepii ted,the system special programs are- provided to allbw humans to operated by the CPU, specifically the control tutu express problem solutions in functiynal terms with the I The connection nt these units and then ottr- -r fa. Ing object of constructing the machine language required can be very complicated and involve both hardware to implement t he program. These special programs are and software control, The speed of operation crf the called assemblers, compilers, or interpreters, and the seaveral units can vary. within Out' SyStrill A (aid r ro.del statements one codes to express problem solutions are may input fi0 characters of data at a ninth sIoaci tale themselves carted programming language. Some pro- than a tape drive (an r'e'ad them, one ',lintelouts va attuninglatipailgt-ziarc very close to thatof a print 3i limes per minute, while another «pciates ai ((minuet 's II language and are suited for use only

1250 linespc,minute.Some devises are(al t'-1 , IhaIoutput these are called assembly tangoag=r removed physically from the( :1'l I Wail .111(1 the het progtamming languages are structured to time required for their electri, al ['liplike.; to (lac( Iis expressA Fot1111r1 S solution in humanOf neat -human greater Some processing operations tAlse Potosi th.oi language l'heseCLIC the compilers and interpreters others.'1-hecontrolunitmust t,,,tsitti illtheme and are,_,tiledhigh level ['mg-rimming languages, elements and must seqberne and Mau- th, impulses :(8-tr/1 FOE IRAN, and BASIC are among the and events accordingly hit'sm( oinmonly used high-level languages.

To the human, the speed of trio-4 (11- k languages hare die advantages ofCart('Of prograin operations may seen) to rx-ciut sunultancomlsI1ris is development and machine itadependencr prirain tircr arkl tiendrrion. tell,' 1 olormizefi, p l`P) Nei T1 Jrneph Ilerker atid Rohrer! i13vea. br/erenatte, 1 k\114 S Nice, I Itekormipaift Sparerr, p4, 1.1.ye, And F1,-r ker. Ihteak,,or 11til !Wit H preliArrAl A WA-4101,41A (Al.= tAl 1,11 pi, .10 A!1".I1 I I F11#1 1.1r1T, iqe11-113111rt , t)ileciffirnifif tOW 11bFa,le1Stieritri EvaMpiFiAu' IPII ontpitom pe,1,11p ,qt11..11( =0101 I0

IN PUT OUTPUT

CONTROOL = r UNIT

INPUT INTERNAL OUTPUT UNIT STORAGE UNIT

A-RITHMETIC UNIT'

ARITHMETIC & CONTROL UNIT

BUFFERS & INPUT & BUF FERS & INTERNAL FILES MEMORY CONTROL OUTPUT CONTROL

L:EMOTE CREVICES

FI1 LI111.: 8. Sarni& blo4.14, di- KrivA", nI tic mpuitir Errriiliu_ratincs

=7 OVERVIEW OF A ON 11

written in one of the high-level languages may be run based on decisions (Figure 10). Some require repetitive on any computer having a compiler or interpreter for steps, accomplished by using a loop (Figure 1 that language. In preparing a computer program, the objective must be defined and the procedure to accomplish the INPUT objective established. These items usually are expressed in a flow chart. Using the flow chart, the steps to be followed to accomplish the objective can be expressed graphically. Some procedures are simple PROCESS-, linear paths (Figure 9). 'Some call for branch logic

/ INPUT PROCESS LOOP

DECISION

'PROCESS

UTPUT

Fl6tritEI Loop flow dart Fhe more complicated the procedure the more complex the flow chart (Figure 12).29

Through a series of flOw charts, each more specific - and detailed, the procedure finally is reduced to the elementary steps in the proper sequence. This final flow chartis what is expressed in the terms of the programming language.Severalroutine(unctions mint be considered i.vith,every program; their form depends on the conventionsofthe programming language used. WhetheritiswrittennI assembly or high-level language, a program 1 mustultimately beinthe machine's language Computers uriclerstand five types instructions. input /output instructions _ Internal data movement It-1st 111ions Arithmetic instructions Testing and comparison instructions netted logic Rath,!low jumping or branching instructions.

Ti! Ittillgrr11110I17.7111,,,,, 1//1 MIN1CQi49PUTT AIS IN FED_

the addr ess(es) part defines the memory location ofthe data to be rnanipulate'cl. Some operations mayrequire a single address, and others mayrequire two or more.

r- OP I ANFIESS IE $1

LMemory loceltOtt tit date to lot mantOu101ed Wootoritti

taper obeli to Ge pettotnted Ftntritt. 13. Basic structure of computer tr etion Instruction addresses in some computers may be expressed in terms of the sum of two or more values. Typically thee types of addresses cause the content of the address portion to be incremented or decremented SKIP by one or more special machine accumulatorscalled indexor generalregisters.Stillother computers INNER OUTER provide for specification of an addrein that locates not LOOP LOOP the data to be manipulated but rathiaddressof the data. This feature is called an indirect address. Thus a computer instruction address may appear as in Figure 14.

LOC

Memory tottOott loditeol trlditto inattot on Reolitor sutitootion indication FIGURE 14. Address portion of a computer instruction using the -indirect addressing technique Soave computers have no provision for R or I, and others provide for only oner the other. If neither indexing nor indirect address g is provided, program- .ming can be very difficult ind In high-level programming 1 ages the ability at the computer to index or incl. address is unim- portant to the progn-arnmer the high-level language requests functional o rather than 11_14.1W t.I.A, detailed machine-level instructions. _P compiler or interpreter produces the code required to perform the requested functions, based on the capabilities and limitations of the computer for which it compiles or The number and Rowe itr,str category vary significant')horn one compti,.:1 interprets. another, While one computer may understand 21) Certain computer instructions co 11:3C activity that arithmetic instructions, another may understand ()lily most be communicated to the program.As an exam- 2. The complete set of instructions in each category ple, a data input instruction should cornmunic,ate to plays a major role in the suitability of a computer for a the program whether or not al error has occurred particular application. during the reading of data. Thus, computers generally The basic structure of a computer instrui tioo IN as maintain a special internal status indicator called the shown in Figure13. The op pan of o computer condition code. Usually the condition code is only four instruction defines the operation to be performed, and hits long, and each bit indicates a special condition V W OF A MA ON

wed onthelastinstruction executed_ Table 3 With high-level language, instructions to transfer lustrates the meaning of the bits of the condition code datatoor from registers are not necessary. The aSed on rep_ resentative instructions_ computer makes the transfers automatically. There- TABLE 3Breakdown of Condition Codes for fore, high-level languages do not need to distinguish Representative Instructions these differences. The high-level language program- trier need only specify the requirement for a transfer, and the compiler or interpreter will produce the to ustruction Bit 0' BitI Bit 2 Bit 3 machine-level instructions to see that it occurs. Fur- thermore, the high -level language programmer need Input End of File Error Output End of Media Error not be concerned with the fact that some computers Compare A B A B A B must move data a single character or word at a time Add Result 0 Remit + ReZtlit )"vcrilow while others may move blocks. Again, the compiler or Rel.:11.11i 0 Rezult +Rmult Subtract interpreter produces the requisite machine instructions- In machine-level or assembly language the condi- as needed. tion code may he tested 'following an instruction, and the sequence of executing instructions may be altered Arithmetic Instructions as a result. The condition code is not apparent to the Arithmetic instructions perform addition, subtrac high-level programmer because the functional state= lion, multiplication, division, and at machine level, el-tents make no specific reference to it. certainotherfunctions such as °banging sign or shifting. Some computers provide special instructions Input/Output Instructions for floating-point operations. Data are transferred between memory and I. 0 Arithmetic typically is performed in specially de- devices through specially designed 1/0 instructions signed accumulators or registers (see above in index- Machine language and assembler language pro- ing) but sometimes may be performed in memory. All gramming can become very difficult in this area unless modem computers perform binary arithmetic, and the programmer has access to preprogrammed routines most provide decimal arithmetic or conversion from that performthese functions. Most I/0 processes one form to the other. require that the operation go through the h Mowing High-level languages allow programmers to define phases: their own accumulators upon which arithmetic func- I. Ready the device tions are to be performed. The compiler or interpreter 2. Start the transfer will provide the necessary binary-decimal conversidit . Wait for completion machine instructions,Further, high-level languages Verify successful transfer usually provide statements that define the equation to Unless preprogrammed root toy:, al,' ,tsatlal,lc ( be solved, including sine, cosine, and square root functions. The machine-level solution to these state- processes must be programmed I lir%l at, be ioorc r difficultIce program act uratels than (Le apply, di ion merits may be very complex and may require literally dozens of individual instructions. High-level latiguagcs specified ata functional evil Pi Witt Ir. Testing and Comparison Instructions with the compi ler or Intel ct 41,1011Jan, all) Inodu. Mese instructions are used to establish the condition ietlthe machine-level code required fur phases of ridereflectingtherelationshipof one datum to the operation another. At the machine and assembler levels, programming these instructions would be follo.wed by' ernal Data Movement conditional jump or branch instructions that aft& dig Data may be III( n't'd tilt IA it an till sequence of program execution based on the settings in other, f rorli incrnory to rc,glsttis,.11(.11I1I comers to the condition code; ntcrttcsry, and\froin register to registerHie con,purer High-level languages provide sophisticated testing Mtist therefort.'' lave instriar noes its pvi form cat h t y Irc and comparison techniques, which typically allow the'

movement,is d the ma( hinc Irvel rrasseinl-ilor programmer to write such statements as IF, THEN, guage prograrn ricr must lx- aware` (4 1 iirNAZ' and ELSE to express conditional processes. Typically, 14 MINIGOMPUTF S IN FEDERAL 1_1 the IF statern.crlt allow construction of AND and OR (01 -12) to a three - character- abbreviation for the functionsthatestablishcomplexrelationships to month an-Dec). Program this function using ma- determine processing. Such functions require many chine, assembly, and high-level languages. The lan- separate machine- or assembler-level instructions that guages used are not actual but are rep_ resentative of successively test and jump, those available. Figure 15 is a flow chart of the program in machine Jumping or Branching Instructions language terms. Tables 4 and 5 give the basic elements Jumping, or branching, instructions are used to of this program_ The text following explains their alter, conditionally or unconditionally, the sequence of significance. program execution by the CPU. For example, one may follow an instruction to COMPARE with an instruction to JUMP IF EQUAL or JUMP IF HIGH.' Memory Unomditional jumps are used to transfer control Location Content regardless of the setting ofthe,condition code, 001 OMAN High-level languages usually provide a GO TO type 006 02FE13 of instruction to perform unconditional changes in processing sequences, but handle conditional changes TABLE OF MONTHS through IF, THEN, and ELSE instructions. 056 I2DEC 061 03 TWO DIGITS FOR CONVER- Programming Example SION 063 OUTPUT OF CONVERSION To il/ustrati the concepts of programming, consider the problem ot converting a two-digit month number TABLE 5Machine Language Program Elements

Instruction Memory Data Be6m Number Location Of" Length Address(es)

100 02 2 110 130 Compare 3 115 AE) 107 Code to 4 125 Ju 100 CtAVIVQi SION 5 130 MV 03 107 154 6 140 AD 03 203 154 7 150 MV 03 000 063 005 002 Pullet move to Y et Ceever5em 'UP Ccmparr Entry JE Jump it equal AI) Addition fu Imo uncoodwooally NIV Move data In this program, memory lie anions ()1-060 contain e,10 table of two digit months with their three-character at,bi emulous Memory, locations 061-062 contain the two digit code (03) to be r,:ou verted, and locations063- 00 Are reserved to wraithn the converted results. The IIIMIUCtIOEIN begin at locatimi 100, and are performed III4; IDIVer MON a_, follows: Ares 1 Compote two positions at 061 On2 with the data at the address shown (initially 001). Jurnp if equal to location 130 LIQ I Add the three-digit code in locations 20202 (005) to the second address of instruction I, thus FYMUalr 15. Program Dow _ .imniti nonit-c., losing the instruction to compare on the next month abbreviation ..onversion entry in the month table. OVERVIEW OF A -ON 15

4. Unconditionally jump'to location 100 (the com- 4. LOOP isthe symbolic tiatne given to the pare instruction as now modified by instruction compare instruction. Note that the instruction is 3). coded using the symbolic rltrmes of the fields it 5. When the appropriate conversion table entry is acts upon. Also note the) defining the len- located, move the second address of instruction 1.. of the fields to be compared, (locations 107 .-109) to the first address in instruc- 5. JE alters control if the con.dition code is set to tion 7. Thus instruction 7 is constructed to point EQUAL after the comparison. Note the use of to the month abbreviation table entry. the symbolic name FOUND instead of an 6. Add locations 203-205 (002) to the first address actual memory address. of instruction 7. Thus instruction 7 locates the 6. Here add 5 to the second address of LOOP. abbreviation. These instructions parallel exactly those 're- 7. Move the abbreviation to Iocations 063-065. quired by the computer in the machine language example, However, the memory address- Assembly Language Terms es in symbolic terms can be written, using Table 6 gives the elements ofthis program in LOOP ± 7to locate the positions to be assembly language terms. incremented and FIVE to locate the amount of the addition. TABLE6Assembly Language I rogrant Elements 7. Here return to LOOP for continued searching. ymbol GP Ad ,(ca) Match the code in INCODE to one in TABLE, TABLE DC 0IJAd' and move the second address of the compare DC '02FEB' instruction to the first address of the SAVE DEFINE MONTH IABLE instruction. 9, Add 2 to the address in SAVE to locate the first 2 INCODE D. 1MEC' OUT- RESULT FIELD of the three characters to be saved. CODE 10. Move the abbreviation to the result area. Note 4 LOOP CP INCODE(2),TABLE JE FOUND that this instruction is filled in by instructions 8 6 AD FIVE(3),LOOP + andr9. 7 iLl LOOP FOUND MV LOOP + 7(3),LC)D +4 1 1 , 1 2 . These are the numeric values needed to 9 AD TWO,SAVE +4 perform the additions in instructions 6 and 9. 10 SAVE MV 0(3),OUTCODE I I FIVE '005' High-Level Language Terms 12 TWO '002' Table 7 gives the elements of program in terms This assembly language program parallelsthe of a high-level language. machine language coding required in the first example. Notice, however, that the actual memory locations TABLE 7 High -Level Language Program Elements of data in the addresses need not be coded_ Instead, Reit-mice assign symbolic names tothe data the assembly MONTH DEFINE MONTH CODE language program willusetnsupplythe actual 2 RESULT DEFINE RESULT FIELD memory addresses. Still, one assembler instruction for TABLE DEFINE (2,3) of ' each machine instruction must be coded, and only '02FEB' instructions that are actually part of the repertoire for H TABLE the computer can be coded. The following explains the program: 4 LOOKUP tvIONEH GIVING RESULT I. The symbol TABLE is assigned t, the first eno y DC (define characters) for the Month Table Using the high-level language concept this problem Thisisfollowed by eleven other I)Us that be solved through functionally related statements complete the table, as follows. 2. INCODE is the symbol4-5.-41glicd to the Define the monthcode to be converted. ters representing the code to be converted. 2 Define the conversion output location. 3. OUTCODE is the symbol assigned to the result Define the conversion table with the characteris- field. tics of two-digit code three-character output. MINICOMPUTERS IN _SEDER LIU

priority 4. Specifytheconversi,t nby LOOKUP of performed in a batch mode according to a MONTH IN TABLE OtVING RESULT. That schedule. is, the compiler will produce the code necessary In an online operation, the input and output units are the central to search TABLE and move the locatedabbrevi- in direct, continuous communication with ation to RESULT. the code will be essentially processing unit.31 The data are acquired online and that shown in the Machine Terms example. used in conjunction with direct-access files so that, as a transaction is received by the computer, relevantdata OPERATING MODE are retrieved from the filesand processed, and the results are transmitted immediately to the user.Most In all computer systems tht hardware and software online system are interactive:the user and the work together to perform the functions. However, the computer are in direct communication,and a dialog way they work together can vary. The system canbe. can occur in real time. hatch, remote batch, online interactive, or time-shar- The typeof computer operation,the type of 'rig. The facility can be dedicated, shared, or time- computer facility, the hardwareconfiguration, and the shared. These conditions all affect the final outcome or softwareall are interrelated and each affects the product. others. The entire system must be kept in balanceand harmony. For example, some input devices areinap- Dedicated, Shared, or Ti me- Shared propriate_ for online or interactive operations.Some storage devices are too slow for onlineoperations. A dedicated facility is one used for only one custorrier Some prograrruning languages are for batch operations tounit. only. Some operating systems are suited for one typeof A shared facility serves more than one customer or processing only. The structure of the filesfor batch the unit, The computer must be scheduled to meet processing may be inappropriate for onlineprocessing. various customers' requirements. The equipment con- In computer operations such factors as thespeed of figuration: the software, and the staff must be able to the computer, the size of the storage capacity,the size eisers, which can be meet 'the requirements of all of the internal memory, the speed andcapabilities of diverse. the peripheral units, the mode of computeroperation, A time-shared facility is often a corrriercial service or the software equal basis. and the flexibility and sophistication of company in business to serve users on an should be considered. These items must be evaluated The computer is removed from the user, and access or in terms of cost and measured against theobjectives and Control is remote. The software is very general and requirements of the system applications. Often not suited to special Applications. Batch, Remote Balch, Online ROLE OF THE COMPUTER Interactive, or Time-Sharing i;computers were developed to do complexnumerical and is o wh haittailLA.:1of analyses and computations in the scientific A batch operation in transactions to be processed illatCd4.1d engineering fields.32 Their next application was of data together.Usuallytheyaresortedinto business and industry for routine processing processed but many Sequential order and ritatched against affectedfiles involving little sophisticated computation in the In most facilities a computer operatorloillatcrn repetitive operations. The third application was operation: he calls up the ptoerarie mounts the ie pea area of symbol or languagemanipulation, including 401- auxiliary storage, starts the input Jr , iceanti natural language, which is based on logicaloperations. has . output device( s) When pr ri. CNN I 1 This area is still being developed, and its potential readies the also complete, the operator wraps op the or:Nitwitnoel IRAbeen realized. Heuristic applications are alter goes on to the next customer's at peeesible, due to a computer's speed and ability to includes A remote batch operat ion k% c-k.111,11, t h.olk its stored programs. This type of application and batch processing. [he data ale gatliel,d triilinir the use of computers to play chess and checkersand to application is in and held in a queue; then the proccs.sing of the citta is write music and poetry. The final

I outiiAyM and Becker.lanifIrroA tSar MM t,ikik " Mid p 664 " (hid , pp 241 -4 0 w W OF Ai I OMA I ON

4 I Computers are used to control 'industrial 5.Cost reduction. fnmost apphcatians the use If a processes, military systems, anc( even learning, as in coi-nprifter is cost-effective when compared with computer-assisted instruction. More applications no. the cost of the same tasks perforrnedrpauttatik. doubt Will be developed as the human imagination F.Control.Because a Computer-, stem is' tightly expands and technology advances. ordered by the software, control of the kw is The use of computers has become pervasive in possible,thestatus ofthe system' isithlays y and commonplace in daily life.Paychecks, determinable, and exception reporting is easily bank statements, creditcard bills, form letters, and accomplished. buik mail are computer-produced. Computer termi- Acc'ountability.Because of the way computer nals are used in airlorts and hotels to make reserva- 41 the computer can easily cOunt ions, and grocery stores and department stores have grams work, cash register terminals. Names on tax rolls, voting lists, operations. Statistics are easily gathered, social security lists, census lists, and car registration can give management valuable information for! lisp are all in computer files. The electricity in homes decisionmaking. is controlled by a computer system, and the telephone 8.Efficient use of human skills.Because data CAM system is totally automated. entered once and used over and over, as It all these cases the computer provides accuracy, producing address labels for repeated maife'ut cy,reduction of duplicated efforts, speed, _human time can be put to more productive use, lcost reductions, increased accountability, and Clerical staff can usually be 'reduced 'or reas- dent use of human skills. signed to new tasks. .41 mrary. Once data are entered .correctly, they Yet computers are not a cure-all for the illsf the am correct-and precise. The human errors of world. The computer is only as smart as fts ying, misfiling, nnsadding, or transposing liner. Output data are only as valid as the inpu letters or numbers are eliminated the expressionis"garbagein, garbage out. An stency.The same type of data will be handled operation can be paralyzed if equipment brea,ks or a _ same way every time The same logicis system gip down and backup is not available, Systems applied and the same decisions made everytime. can be misapplied; software designed for one purpose Reductionofduplicated effort.The data in a comput- can be recorded once in a master file and is sometimes used for another purpose, with the result nipulatcd and sorted repeatedly as tequired. of a mismatch of requirements and results. Ultimately, 4, red, The speed of the computer is unequalled. the computer is as effective as the human beings who _lapin is faster on a computer than most manage it. r kinds of manual output would he CHAPTER TWO ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN LIBRARIES DIRECTIONS IN LIORARY catalog, the rules and schemes applied to the materials AUTOMATION and catalog, and services to the users, Swihart and Hefley conclude that "automation is of most value and Like other segments of society, libraries have used is applied primarily to [library administration]." computers in a number of ways. In general, though, Hayes and Becker place computer applications in full utilization of automation in libraries is yet to come. librariesintothreecategories:clericalfunctiOns, The question of how to apply computers tothe information storage and retrieval, and, operations 'functions of a library is answered differently by various researchComputers can be applied to the routine - writers. Usually, though, the traditional division of the clerical functions of technical processing and circula- librarY into public services, technical services, and tion work to reduce the clerical burden and increase: administration is replaced by new arrangeMents of the library's ability to perform more work. Cotnputers roles. are applied to reference work in the field ofinforma-nforma- Cox, Dews, and. Dolby classify library activities as tion storage, and retrieval. At the most cOm lex level acquisition,processing, and dissemination.' The library "the objective is to develop new methods fo automati- acqurres materials, processes them to reveal astrnuch as cAly aiding various intellectual process,, such as possibleof the information_ they contain, And then extracting meaning from text and correlating facts or makes the information available to those who need it, inferringsubjectrelationships from the complete and even to some who never knew they needed it. The content of articles and bOoks." The areas of operations major effoli involved is in handling the, records of the research and systems analysis require the useof "the materials rather than the materials themselves, and computer as an aid in using the principles of scientific ' there, are many different records foreach item.2 "The management in library administration" through pro- functioning of the library depends on the speedy and vision of mathematical models and computer simula- efficient handling of these records their creation, tion. consultation, amendment and updat11464:'3which Heiliger and Henderson see the library as not one creates an enormous data handling problem and one system, but threes that is well-suited for computer application. 1.Technical processes are Concerned directly with the Swihart and Hefley recognize three main areas of acquisition of library materials and their catalog- libraryoperations:library administration,library , ing, preparation for later use, and reference to management, and library science.4 Library adminis- the accumulated holdings. tration encompasses acquisition, cataloging, and circu- 2. Control processes are applied to the library's relation. Library management -involves the staffing, sources and to.the handling of library materials budget, and reporting aspects of acquisition; catalog- and the processing of data about them, such as ing, and circulation, as well as the other areas of the circulation, inventory, and work control informa.- library. Library science involves the materials, the tion.

'N. S. M. co., J. D. Dews, and j, L Dolby, The Computer and the Librab,; The Ralf COMPliff in the Organtza I InfatTnation 1, Libra tie upon Tyne, Eng.: University 01 Newcastle upon Tyne Library, 1966), pp, I t v Ibid., p. I I. 3 Ibid.. p. 15. 4Stanleyf. Swih- and Beryl F. Hefley; Cmputer, yeier -sin the Library A Handbaoh fer Managers and D Los Angeles: Melville Priblishing Co., 197pp. II-

a Robert M. Hayes anti Joseph Becker, ,-Ilandhaoh of Patti Prneessing far ',thrones, 2d ed. (Las Angeles: Meleille Publishing Co., 1974), pp. a FAiward M, Heiliger and Paul n. Henderson, jr., ',throe', A utarnattaru fleperteare Adertiodologr, and -Technology aphe Libra!) as an Infarrnattan System (New york ittll Bank Co., 197 t ), pp. 7-13; MINICOMP

3: Administraiive processes arc- toncerned with the HISTORY OF COMPUTERS IN organizational structure of the library and its LIBRARIES on providing operations; the main emphasis is In 1962 a study was made of thepotential, of quick and accurate access to basic records and applying advanced data processing in a university statistics for sound dccisionmaking, library. It was noted that") They further suggest that the 'organization ofthe machine tochniquci have been applied successfully to a numberof those library reflect these systems: a professional services data handling and service problems that appear similar to found in libraries, and it seems worthwhile to study thepotential department, a data services department, and an of routines that may suitably be applied to libraries. administrative services department, as well as aliaison" The study concluded that II services department to reach the library's public more the speed,of .computers and the wide range of routines thatthey effectively. They propose that if computer applications can handle offer possibilities for alleviatingthe pressures of. would follow this new pattern of functions and services, personnel shortages and turnover, of increased volumesof invento- for more up-to-date records. automation could be used to better advantage.'' ry and usef activity, and of demand libraries all theseapproaches is that a library In general this rationale explains why The essence of libraries had should not use a computer simply to automate an become Involved in automation, Many their first experiences with automation in thefarrnof existing manual system. Thc library must look beyond the- payroll, perscionel, and-budget control systems tradition and txpancl its thinking to take best advan- , used by their parent organizations. Eventoday these Cage of automation!' business applications are the only computer usesfound Thisleadstothe question:. Why do libraries in Many libraries. automate? Allen Veaner wrote that there arc three There VasHittle library automation beforethe1960s. major practical reason/ for automating libraryfunc- used ADP(automated data . Untilthen libraries tions:9 ' processin0 equipment such aspunchcard readers, 1. .To do something 'less expensively, more accu- sorters, and collators. This approachwas used in a of rately, or more rapidly:1. library by Ralph Shaw as early as 1948. A survey 2. To do something that can no longer be done Federal ,libraries showed only five automated systems through effectively in the manual systems because of in operation in 1960 or before)? The survey, 1970, showed applications throughout thelibrary. increased complexity or overwhelmingvolumeof, Table 8 list's these applications and the numbersof operations; libraries' using computers to serve them.13 be 3. To perform some function that cannot now (academic, meviding A 1971 survey of all types of libraries performed in the manual system pUblic, school, special, State, and Federal) also showed actually-wants to always that theadministrator applications throughout the library (Table 9).H perform the service; has the resources to pay for Markuson and her collaborators evaluated the two it,and is not endangering the performance of surveys and concluded,tk isan established existing services for which there most large - scale library automation activities occurin an demand. environment that has relatively sophisticated Computer equipment and a fairly large and active computing center,and is partly inthe library The ultimate goal of all automation oriented towards research activity. aimpr(we the service should be, directly or indirectly, These conditions occurred most often in academic supplied to the library user. libraries and in Federal techniCal libraries. In these facilities, computers were alreadyonhand 'and inuse

7 Mitt, pp, 9995. will never combine effectively into a complete, integrated system in alibrary unlem the 8 Gerard Salton contentIA.that information science and computer sr fence Prentice-, library processes are totally restructured based nit romp_ uter efficiency requirements; seebyname Information and Libroma Prorersing (Englewrv/-rd ChM, NJ.: 1975). Palmer, Cale Studio. 9 Allen 13: Vearter,'.tefa Joe I rei.,inh Mints in Library Automation,"Corky and &wroth Libranct 31 (September 1970), cited by Richard Phillips Co., Xerox, 1973), pf 210. m Library Computer 3)oftest (New York: R. R. ltowker Press, 1%2), p. 22, 117 Louis A. Schultheis, Den S. Culbertson, and Edroarri,,M.Fieiliger, Adomred Dam- Proteming ea r3r Untimmity Library (New York: Scarecrow " Ibid., p. 20, Federal and Other Lthrarim (Santa Monica, Calif_! SystemDeVelopment " Barbara Evans fvlarktoon et al., Guathnet for LIO fitrift10,1 Ilandlumk Jr o Corporation, 1972), p. 154. " Ibid., p. 153. is Ibid., p. 32G " Ibid., p: 327. ROtE OF COMPUTERS IN 21

TAgi, 8Auinmation Applications in information, abstracting and indexing, and indexes to Federal Libraries cial collections, These systems dealt mainly with Number of nonbook materials, such as "research and development Operational reports; journalarticles;patents; trade, literature, Applicadons Libraries Systems including catalogs; laboratory notebooks; pictures and Acquisitions 10 '7, photographs; mar; _reprints;archivalitems; and ,Cataloging 32 27 technical correspondence."IG,- Many of these -early Circulation 18 -13 efforts were performed in documentation centers or Serials 31 25 Information -Retrieval 18 14 information centers, not libraries. The techniques used Bibliographic Publications 13 10 were those of documentation and indexing rather than Selective Diamination of cataloging. The two important standaidized develop- Information 12 7 . Abstracting and Indexing 4 3 ments in this area were (I) the ASTIA/DDC thesau- indeXes to Special Collections 9 6 rus of. descriptors and (2) the COATI standard for Other 3 document description. Total Libraries -59 Total operational systems G 115 Library automat ?on underwent evolutionary research and development.17 Standard btainess systems TAJLs 9Automation Applications could not be applied wholesale to the library; special All Types of Libraries. software had to be created. Complter personnel had Applications Total more experknce in areas such as book ordering and fund control, but librarians were more interested in Acquisitions 4. 129 automating circulation, serials control, and catalog- Cataloging 104 Circulation 149 ing.18 A substantial learning Period was required Scrim 169 before much progress could occur. Standard input and Administration and Management 39 output peripherals were often inadequate to handle Abstracting and indexing 23 Bibliography and Special Cataloging. 87 the library's data. For example, they lacked upper- Dissemination 40 and lower-casecharaders: and diacriticalmarks. Information Retrieval 34- tripment had to be adapted and new technology developed, jn some cases, e.g., the American Library for suppoof the research efforts generally sophisti- Association (ALA) print train. cated _'app 'cations in science and engineering. The In most of the earliest efforts each library worked research environment fostered a parent group recep- independently to develop its systems.'Redundant effort

I.Lye to the use of technolo .The library thils had to and incompatibility resulted. Several, developments helped advance library auto- ,serve. sophisticated, derna ding users. An. additional factor-contributing to the avorable conditions was the mation-efforts:0 (1) The organization of such groups infusion of funds for scientific research i ?the 1960s as the Council on Library Resources, the Qffice. of Much more than was available for the humanities or Science Information Service of the National Science publr: c service activitieS. Foundation, and the Committee on .Scientific and It should be pointed out that much of ,the early Technical Information: (2) appropriations from major library automationwas in nontraditional areas, that is, Fedeilallibrarylegislation;(3) formation of such other than acquisitions, cataloging, and circulation of associations as the Information Science and Automa- books and periodicals. In fact more than one-third of tion Division of the Smerican Society for Information the operational systems in Federal libraries, as. report- Science; (4) development of the Library of Congress ed by Markuson, were classed as information retrieval, MARC II Communications Format for bibliographic bibliographic publications, selective dissemination of data and the National Library of Medicine's MtD-

18 Lucille J. Strauss, Irene M. Strieby, and Alberta 1 flrn .. n, Snrnce ascl Technic twiner; 77igir Organ eldrninir (New York: Intemience Publishers, John Wiley .& Sons, 19,54), p. 171. '1 Allen B. Yeanee, -Perspective: Review of 19O/1-1973 in Library Automation,- inLibrary Aularnabon_ The Stare of ihg Art 11, Eds.Susan K. Martin and Brett Butler, papers presented at the Preconference Institute on Library Automation sponsored bythe Information Science and Automation Division of the American Library Association at 1,as Vegas, Nevada, 22-23 June 1973 (Chicago: American Library Association, 1975), pp. 2-5. tFHeiliger and Henderson, Library rlutarrtahon, pp. 13-14. Hayes and Becker, ilandhaah Thin PrOrelling for Lihramer pp. 28-73 MIAll:C0fHPMINICOMPUTERS IN PEOERAL LIBRARIES

LARS. These developments focused attention on operating and management syitems allowmore,effi- library,,1 automation, pirmoted new efforts, made dent use of the storage and CPU. Onlinedata existing efforts more visible, exposed more librarians to processing is widespread, and multiprocessing is com- automation and educated them initsuses, and mon. Advanced and economicaltelecommunications isrovided the methods Arid fundsto allow more techniques have been developed. Output printers now print font for upper- libraries to participate in antOmation.. can be equipped with a special The single development with the most impact on and lower-case characters and diacritical marks. library automation is the MARC II format. The Computel--output' microfilm (COM) equipment to MARC format is a standard, and standardization, is handle upper- and lower,casecharacters is available termi- tfi' key to future advances. from more sources. Reliable, economical CRT library data Without a standardized format for the transmiaiion of biblio- nals that can handle the idiosyncracies of graphic data, we might not exactly he no'place in library are aVailable. Light-pen andoptical- character- recog- automation, but we would certainly all be riding oft in d Berm nition technologies have been refined. For the library directionai diatipating our ratourca, and enjoying not the these advances mean mom efficient andeconomical posibility of interchanging bibliographic data or builch automated services. dra,0 I In a state-of-the-art review of library automation, 'MARC allows .full expression of the naturef the Diana Delapoy identified (oar trends of the1970s.22 bibliographic entity being described and is struc used I. Minicomputers forlibrary applications'pplications as turn- So that full access iii, possible. The tag struct re is key systems designed for maximum flexibility and allows each- 2. Cooperative processing using networks librftry to manipulate bibliographic data as it ch roses. 3. OnlirTlarge filesearching of majorbiblicp. The avilability of Library of Congress cataloging in . graphic files 43. MARC forrnat through the distribution system las 4. Packaged software for library applications. caused more libraries to accept Library of Coness cataloging anhas reduced the amount nf duplic ted Minicomputers effort in librAies thibildhout the United States.he level of effort necessary to convert catalog data n to Minicomputers are used in libraries in the formof machine-readable form has been reduced. The av li- both turnkey and custom - designed systems.This book ability of library cataloging in MARC format has expresses the importance ofminicomputers to the 17 made it incumbent on most libraries to have their trend toward library automation. Subsequentsections computer systems designed to handlethe MARC will detail the uses of minicomputers in libraries. 'format. This brings about more compatibility among computes systems, at least as a means of sharingdata, Cooperative Processing and it allows greater cooperationamong libraries. The network approach to processing has beentried Acquisitions has a standard = the Iniernational by academic libraries and by State andregional Standard book Number (ISBN). The ISBN is not as organizations. The end of the 1960s saw the formation well developed and widely implemented as MARC' of the Colorado Academic Libraries'Book Processing and, likewise, automation in the acquisitions areais Center, the New England Library InformationNet- not as well developed as in cataloging, work (NELINET), and the. State ofWashington's automated State-library system. These networks were CURRENT EVOLVING T C.HNOLOGY- developed with economy in mind to -allow greater The last 4 or 5 years have greatly advanced library numbers of libraries to benefit from the resources. Computer 'hardware noweatures Development and operating costs of the networks can automation.21 'libraries that greater speed and storage capacity.Mote sop t 1 sticated be divided among all participants, and so Veaner, " "Perspective : Review of Library Automation.- . A Report Darn Foundation has .heerrealled the mostthotohtful, authoritative, and compreheriiivo 21 HCIMAIM H.Footer's book,Rezeareh Librorrel and,reclutol refer ty the Iasitwo Mils treatment of Olio subject: (chic20.- univemity,or chicagr Pre,1973): To review the more recent history ofl branutornation, (London: Aslib, 19) andMaxtrichlacCafferty, compiler, bibliographies for sources: LynneTinker, 'compiler, An ',named Bibliography of !Army .4 womatiod /968-1972 ANksaastodBibliography of Automation as Lthratio and Information Systems /972-1975 (London:A,slib, 1976). Status and Trends in Computers,- in Wpm) Atdotnation 771, Stage of L14 Art//, esh; Susan K. Martin and Brett .2"Diana Delsnoy, "Technology: \ Present Division of the American Library it the Preconference Institute on Library Automationsponsoredby the Information Science and Automation papers preaented also Robert DeCrennaro's four mainlines of 22=23 June 1973(Chicago: Arnefican Libiary Association; 1975), pp. 20-23. See Awociation at Las Vegas, Nevada, Patterns and New Directions," Libto7journal development in library automation in the mid-1970's which closely parallelDelanoy: -Library'Autornation: Changing 101 (January 1976): 100-1 ROLE OF COMPUTE IN LIBI 23

could not afford their own systems now haveaccess to Development Corporition d Lockheed in making the speed and efficiency of automated systems. multiple' data bases availat le through one terminal The early networlddid not all succeed. Some lasted and one hookup: The c mpetition among these only by changing course alting the way. Thesuccess commercial services. has k pt prices within reach of the Ohio College Library Center (OCLC)was the almost any library witka to minal.28 single most : important factor that eatablished the feasibility of networks. The reasons for its success. can Packaged' Sothvai be debated.23 Factors mentioned, include the dynamic There still is not much personality of Frederick Kilgour, the "father" of _kaged software for library applications. The presentof any, however, is a step OCLC. The initial participation of top administrators forward. Previously, each library had to bear all of its of the organizations whose libraries were to be involved own development cost& ansferring software,between had an effect. Other reasons cited are that standard libraries has own but not without problems. products and procedures were ,provided with few Programs developed manufacturers and made individual user choices and that outside funds and available to other mist° have been used, but again grants were infused at propitious times OCLC mono- without widespread sic tics. An example is the Systeni graphic cataloging services arc well established, and 7 software developed b IBM forka circulation system serials cataloging services, arc being implemented. thatisavailable as a FieldI eveloped,. Program Acquisitions and serials control services have been (FDP).27 In most addition programming is studied but are not yet underway." required for the indi dual library application. Soft- ware developed :for Federal government, and thus Online Files in the public dom is available at no cost, For Online large-file searching bf major bibliographic example, the NASAbrary package is available from files is available to almost all libraries. The develops: COSM IC.28 Corium'al firms offer software packag- went of this technology depended on several factors.25 es for lease or sale BlaGkwell North America has Important hardware developMents inclado the on!' library processing re that can be purchased, as .time sharing, third-generation computer, expan ed do Baker and Taor and Systems Development direct access storage capacity, acoustical couplefor Corporation, with thr acquisitions modules. reliabledirect-distance-dialtelephone connec icing, and cable and microwave communications f7/trans- -Commercial S ices mitting data over great distaticeiAmportant software Closely related tothe packaged software available developments are in the area of- natural language forlibrariesis thenumber, of software packages (nonnumerica.1) processing as 'Well as tech iques. The commercial firms pport the library services availability of large machinereadable dat,a bases they sell. Most thmajor library jobbers and book originally built to support publication efforts was vital. wholesalers$ e acess to the MARC tapes and sell Commercial, service bureau telecomthunieation sys- computer-prodoced alog card sets with Overtyped terns such as TYMSHARE rand Telenet made* access headings, spine labe s, and circulation book cards at available by telephone lines with local or nearby long- rrZsonable prices, ge erally less than $1 per title: The distance charges; the leasing of costly dedicated lines /smallest library thus can benefit from library automa-, became unnecessary, ting. A set of car ordered from the Library of The factor drawing these =elements together is the Congress currentlyosts $.45 for eight unit cards commercial intervention of 'such firms as Systems (which may or may ot, be enough), all of which must 23 Brett But presented his %kW" on the reasons of OCre's sUCCIM in "State of the Nation in. Networkirg,"fis ktiontoilon 8 (September 1975)%2I-6. 24 De Gen- "Library Automatin," p. 181. Joieph cker. "A, BrieMistory of On-Line Bibliographic Syste speech given at the UCLA Contemn Information Systems and Networks, 22-/9 March 1974. Delanoy, "TeChnology," p. 22. " Lois M. Kershner,- -Management Aspects of the Use of the IBM System/7 in Circulation Control," in A leoneof ttfinit010,410Y1 to !Alley and Refold Problems, eft- F- Wilfrid Lancaster. papers ,preisnted at the 1974 Clinic on Library Applications of Data Promising, 2prif to I May 1974 (Urbana-Champaign, University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library Science, 1974), p.44, 2" Gfarit3 were g1Vel1 10 two libraritm, for automation projeco to be designed for transfer to other libraries, ifirallythe University of Chicago cistern and the University of Minnesota BM-Medical Library system. DeGennaro, "Library Automation," pp. 177. 182. w9 David I.. Weishrod, "Acquisitions System,: 1073 Applications Status," in blowy Automation..v. Stott ofatA ,oth. Susan K. Martin and Brett Butler, papers presented AI the Preconference Institute on Library Automation sponsored by the Information Science and Auto ion Division of the American Library Association at Let Vegas, Nevada, 22=2:i June 197:1(Chicago: American Library Amociation, 1975), p. 91. ' MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDEKAL LIBRARIES 24 have file headings added, entdiling the effort of typing over voice-grade telephonelines, Commercial vendors and proofreading' each. A little figuring showsthe are entering the field,and the faulting competition services, and saving from the commercial sets. Adtlitionallibrary speedsedvances in technology, improves automated services from commercial vendors arethe lowers prices. Microwave transmission andcommuni- book and COM catalogs. Several vendors, such as cations satellites, as well as cable television,Are in use. Science PreSs, use MARC tapes for input to computer- What does this mean forlibraries? For many produced catalogs. The input keying requiredis libraries, the telephone is the sole method ofcommuni cations. Some libraries within the framework of larger decreased, saving time and effort. ,t- for interlibrary loan . , systems have Teletype terminals Computer-Output Microform transactions. For example, some States linkacademic libraries and State libraries via Teletype lines.OCLC Computer-output microform (COM) is growing in studies of uses of its terminals in _icate heavy useof the imponaiice in libraries." COM is a cheaper, faster data base as a finding toolr union catalog for substitute for computer hardcopy putput. COM cata- interlibrary loan searching. T is connection among logs arc replacing card catalogs and book catalogs.'" libraries will grow stronger.35 T csharingot resources Elimination of binding and printing costs and of by facsimile transmission is inevi ablemclue to increas- production turnaround' tiMe makes COM attractive ing production of information ( he so-calledinforma- and cost- effective compared to book catalogs, even tion- explosion) and decreasinfunds for libraries. considering the initial costof,purchasing viewers. The Facsimile transmission equipme t has beentested in availability of COM with'? upper- andlowe'r-ease libraries but its use has been limit d by its costsand the characters, bold_ and light ram, and .alternatefonts small number of libraries witthe needed eguip- such as italics has, improved the- quality of theimage ment.37 and made users more satisfied. COM reports areused in circulation systems and in acquisitions systems(for FUTURE APPLICATION OF staff use where operations are batch or where perma- NETWORKS IN LIBRARI -S nent copy is needed for archivalpurposes).32 IIsomeone walked up to you on the stIcetand asked "What's happening in library automation today?t and you werelimited to Telecommunications a one-word answer, your responsewould probably be NET- The latest technology in library automationis WdRK.S.38 telecommunications.33 Mention has been made of this The word -"network" means different things to network technology in tefrns of networks and onlinedata base different people. By its Most basic dfinition, a of nodes," searching, for it is a major component of each. It is "an interconnected or interrelatd group telecommunications arc developing to a pointwhere- where a node is "an end pointOf any branch of a Means of network, or a junctionco_mrnbilho two or more further library applications are possible. disciplinary or sending data efficiently and effectively arebeing branches of a network."39 It can be the time.'" Computerm data can be sent problem-prOble-oriented oriented or serve a general function. A Melville Publishing do., 1974). " For more detail on COM; refer to a book such asRobert F. Gildenberg, Cerninarr-Ougruitafirrefilin Sp frau (Los Angeles: 'in Librav Automattan: Vie State nJtke A ritl, eds. Susan R. Martin andBre0 Butler, papers presented 3' 1.4013 M, Rerihner, "Wei Services: 1973 Applications Stat tn, of the American Library Association at Las at the Freconferenca Institute on Library Automationnionsored by the Information Science and Automation Division Vegas, Nevada, 22-23 June 1973 (Chicago. Annericarrlibrary Association,1975), pp. 45-47. 33 Weisbroti, "Acquisitions Systems," pp, 93-94. CIN- L. Simms and Edward Fuchs, "Cornmunication Technology," inAnnual 33 AR/ST has feature-el two mays that provide a background oninkconuntinications: R. Britannica,1970, pp:113-39, and DonaldA. ino of Infonnahan Some and TA:Analogy, val. 5,eds. Carlos A. Cuadra and Ann W. Luke (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Rea 10, eds. CarlosA. Cuadraand Ann W. Luke (Washington. D.C.: -Communicatiori3Technology," in Arena! Review of Information Sootfe and Takao/Rey, vol. American Society for Information Science, 1975),pp_ 31 Delanoy, "Technology,- pp.21-22. information network applications as 33 Hayes and Recker, handbook of Data Prace.rang far LIAranti, pp 6-24,discuss the concepts of library network applications and two approaches for connection among libraries. Is Ibid., p. 23. in Fussier, Ifesovoi Librarier and 37 Fussier devoted a chapter to this 31 pier 4, Shared Photocopying,andFacsimile Tian mission," pp. lielinalagy. Cuadra and Ann W. Luke (Washington. D.C.: Automation," inAnnul-1111mm of Information Science and Terhaabgp, vol. 10.,,as. Carlon A. 3,1BruceH. Alper, "Library proceedings of the 10th Clinic on Library Applications of American Society for information 1975), pp 205-ii. For an overview of library networks, s the School of Library Science! F. Wilfrid Lancaster, ed., NetworkIngand Other Forms, of Cooperation, papers Data Procesaing held by the University 01:114inois Graduate Universityof Illinois,Graduate School of prevented at the 1973 Clinic on Library Application of DataProcessing, 29 April to 2 May 1973 (Urbana-Champaign, Library Science, 1973). Introduction la Minn-ampler hentnrk,f (Maynard, Mass.. Equipment 'torpor-at ion, 1974), p. C- la 'sta R OF CO 25

computer network, which is the main interest of this processes. The communications, part of a network book, is "an interconnection of assemblies of computer Connects, coordinates, and integrates the network's systems, terminals, and communications facilities.''tn various nodes. Itconsists -of links and nodes arrarfged in a given Each node can be made up of any configuration of topology. At the simplest level a computer network processors, terminals, controllers, and 4software; the may consist of a point-to-point connection of a host -,nodes may vary considerably in speed,interfaces, computer and a single communicatiOns input/output -languages, and other charaeteristics. These difference. ,device. At the other end of the scale of complexity,a are handled by the three basic types of functions of it computer network can be made up of an interconnect- . communications system: terminal functions, transrnis- group of computers, including processing systems skin functions, and switching functions." r main-site, computers and remote computers), At each source terminal, the originating information must be c munications control systems (e.g.-, data coneentra- conversed to a form suitable for tranAmission to the remote point. to massage switchers, and front-end pr(teeskrs), and "l'he signals must travel throughWhhtever transmission media are a .v riety of remote terminals and the transmission in the path of the information flow so that, when they math a chit_ nets that connect the components.41 destination' terminal; itis possible torecoverthe form of the Ineneral, networks can be said to provide a means information sent with some reasonable precision.... Switching is needed when information mist be., sent to any number of forresource sharingthat increases economy, and destinations and it is advantageous to allocate use of parts of the convenience. Various- kinds of resource Sharingare transmission path to users only when they need them. powible.42 The communications network must bring- all these Device sharing.The ability connect to and use the components into an efficient system. The arrangement resources of a remotely located computing device as or topology of tie network can valy.45` It can be point- if it were local. to-point, multipoitn, centralized (or "star"), hierarchi- File sharing. The ability to read from, write to, or cal' (or "tree"), loop (or "ring"),. distributed (or update files on a remotely located computing system multistar"); or fully distributed. For a .library, any of as if it local. Program sharing. Theability to send a loadable these topologies is possible. The main impact on libraries is due to the existence prio gram to a remotely located computing system to of commercial 'communication systems. Instead of be loaded and executed by that system. Program data sharing.The ability to open a data path having to own point-to-point private lines, libraries between programs on an interactive basis, so that can use a public-switched telephone network such `as large tasks may be divided, into smaller units for Data -Phone 50 or can lease private lines. from the execution' at different computer sites in the network. telephone company or a specialized common carrier (WATS, TELPAK, TELEX, TWX, and MCI).4" Of Communications real value is afcommercial service like TYMSHARE's TYMNET which provides a networVonly service to /The basis ofany computer network is the communi- customers who wish to attach their own computers to cationslinkthatallows interconnection between the network and offer serviceto their ownuser' remote points. Networks have emetged as communica- group.47 Users can dial one of 80 metropolitan areas in tions technology and computer technology have be-. the United States, Canada, and Europe without come integrated.43 A computer network requires incurring charges for long-distance calls.48 The Na- communications teelMolowf to function, and a data tionalLibrary of Medicine has attachedseveral communications network uses computers ,to control its computers to TYMNET 4'' SDC and Lockheed data

14 A. j. Neumann, Apode to Networking Teminotogy'(Washingnin. U.S. , Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, 1974), p. 7. 7 41 fistredurtion to Alinitonigrider Networki, pp. IA I -5. 4' Belidm the mays on communications technology (see reference number 33 above), eIRIST presented two essays on computer technology; all four prride baCkgrOund on this subject: Harry D. iluskey, -Computer Technology,- in Annual Review of Inflonnation Science and Technology, vol.5, eds. Carlos A. Cuadra and Ann W. Luke (Chicago : Encyclopaedia I/Timm-lira, 1970), pp. 73-85, and Philip L Long, "Computer 'Erclinology ---An Update," in Annual Review of Woo-nation &tent' and reetnialogr, vol. 1 li ed, Martha E. Williams (Washington, D American Society for Information Science, 1976), pp. 211-22. sienms and Fuchs; "Communications Technology:" p. 114. 43 turrodocroas to Minteorngirwer Nettriorkr, pp 2-1 -- 2-11. a Ibid., =Appendik B, Guthman Currier Of tetium," pp. 11-1 -- 074, T,plum "CommlittnicatiOrISTrO11-1010Wy,-p! 177. ik"Tynishare,- Krochure prepared by the -ryrnshare Informatioli Services Division 76, p. 4. su ,?term. "Communications Technology,-p. 177 FEDERAL LIBRARIES

two. A library can participatein any of the three ways. bases are.accessible through TYMNET."The Federal subscriber to the library -OCLC project also has used TYMNET. When a library signs up as a Lockheed or SDC data bases, it issigning on as a user OCLC, it functioa as a Computers only. When a library joins user and a provider,for', a member library ,can If communications is the "how" of thenetwork, the contribute records to the data base. computer is the "what." A computernetwork 'can Brett Butler, in his article "State ofthe Nation in provide ,device sharing, file sharing,and program ' Networking,"59 defined a library network verystrictly, sharing. The ARIA network of the Departmentof but his main point was thedistinction between' the Defense's Advanced Research ProjectsAgency was network itself and the network resource.The network planned and developed as an experimental computer is the organization and the"network resource ii the network to demonstrate the feasibility ofinterconnect- computer system, data base,: orservice which is ing and sharing hardware and software,sysfem.s.51 available for use by thatorganizatiort."r In general When additional resources are required(e.g., addi- terns, OCLC, BALLOTS,SOLINET, Washington tiSnal storage or a faster printer), the process isshifted State Library, NELINET, andAMIGOS, to name 'a to another available node in thenetwork. few, are all considered functioninglibrary networks. A' time-sharing computernetwork such as the Most of the network resources forlibraries allow GeneralElectricInformationServices Network52 access to bibhographicdata on library materials rather allows many remote users to have access to a computer than to the materialsthetriselves.58 Future library facility which simultaneously processes many co_ rn. networks probably will expand toalloW access to the pletely different problems and allowseach user to act full text of library materials, andultimatelrfacsimile as if he= or she had solecontro03 A library can use a transmission of the texts.59 Butleraddressed some time-sharing service to access a computerif it hasn't problems that must be resolved iflibrary networks are one of its own, assuming of coursethat the pecessary to succeed and advance.Grosch selected 'the following software is offered by the service bureau. as the majortechnical issues mentioned byButler:" Authority controls on network databases Information Interfacing of multiple data bases'created by different institutions Infinite variety is possible-ia the scope andApplica ft Direct networkcommunications computer to tion of networks. Informationnetworks are used by schedules and computer airlines to search data basis of flight Access/docurnent delivery coupling Bureau reservations. There is a network of Census Data base ownership and standards. data. There is also a network of stockmarket infomia! of the future of library tion, including Dow Jones- averages,,stock prices, Grosch adds her own assessment statistics on the most active stocks,and historical networks.61 Library of lip to now, network!' have addressed, forthe most part, the statistical data on Stocks.54 The National won& or document Medicine's MEDLAR network is. made upof journal provision of standardized bibliographic delivery system. The really significant castbenefit of networks themselves. and report citations, not the materials will come when they ciiin effectivelyhandle the following: the The major determining factor in thetopology of coordination and development of collections amongtheir mem- such' a network is the type of participation ofthe bers; inter-communication of bibliographic requestsboth within nodes.35 They can be providers of resourcesexclusive- the network 'and to adjoining networks;and delivery of significant levels of integrated services of anonline nature to their metn- ly, users of resources exclusively, orcombinations of the $s neknoy,'-isxiinoi4ry,"p. 22. vi ol Simms and Fuchs, "Communications Technology," pp.127-9. 32 Dunn, 'Communications Technoloiry," p. 172. Inlrodualo logiatessapair Networks,p. 1.2. Iy 1973): 43-46, asJoseph C. 1WirstutIVDistributed Proceoinion WallStreet~Defamation 19 a 55 bdreallailM t Minicornpnakfr hIriuerb, pp.2-1-2-2. Butler, "State of the Nation in Networking, pp.201220. 3T Mkt, p. ZOI. copies through line terminal ofthe itema whose that! 31" DeCennirowrote of a nervier wfriere it ispcmible to order Automation,"p. 191. Becker,Handbook of Data Amount for Librana, p. 23, Am "Hayes and Tichnolo E. Williams (Washinvon. D.C.: to AudreyN. Crotch, "Library Automation,"in Annual Review of Info S,rittyforInformation Science,1976). p. 233. " Paid:, pp, 245-. ROLE OF CONIELMER IN LIBRARIES 27

ben..(racy mustj come to grips with the following new systems obvious. This problem can be eliminated if a proper, concept.; the new genterration of mini- and rnidicomputee ware; distributive data processing wherein those functioni better thorough systems design is performed, and a complete performed loerdly are done at the user's location; and develop-. systems document is prepared. The following pitfalls resent of replicable multipurpose software/hardware packages have occurred from improper planning for library available kr Maar or purchase. automation." Setting improper goals PROBLEMS IN CURRENT LIBRARY Making an incomplete analysis APPLICATIONS Selecting wrong applications Allowing too little time to eomple'te all phases of Literature reviews indicate that library automation the system application of the computer to routine operations' Underrating the cost of the installationlor and services in a library system is firmly established in the Not keeping employees infOrmed library world." The decision fora library is not so much whether to automate, but rather when and how. Related to poor systems design is the mistake of Alper suggeststhatthis continued apitication of automating manual' procedures instead of automating computers in libraries is an evolutionary process that with a view to what the computer can do and to what dictates sontintiat review of past efforts to determine expanded services and applications are possible." the characteristics that m_ ade them succeedor fail." This information then can be applied in future Poor LlbrarlaniComptiter Personnel applications." Interlace Most of the problemshe past have in beentn threei sinareas: poor or isystemsirate sySte design; poor is abundantly clear that elegant technology cannot be exploited and complex systems cannot be communications and misunderstandings between l=' brarians and data prbcessing professionals; and-pooF sustained by hostile, fearful, or untrained personnel."70 inadequate data _processing assignment, software, Both library and computer center personnel have r' and access to personnel and equipment. been guilty. Computer firms have not recognized the peculiarities of library operations and have to tried to Poor Systems Design install "another address list program" or "another parts inventory system." Librarians feel ill7prepared to Poor systems design and resulting project failure is cope with the mechanical, the mathematical, and even not unique to library autornation:63 Libraries do have the logical aspects of library au tomation.7' They often a propensity for systems problems because librarians in avoid automation in order to avoid feeling uncomfort- the past often have used informal and unscientific able or inferior..They often defer too much to technical planning and management techniques. ,Dataprocess- people, which leads to poorly conceived systems. As ing systems require a much higher degree of standard- Markuson says, a librarian cannot say to someone, ization, centralization, and uniformity than manual "Come automate- my library."72 A team approach systems." Cox, Dews, and Dolby spoke ofa great mustbe used wit' all team Members doing their cause of misunderstarlding between the library and the homework.1 For example, the different definitions and computer center being what is not said about the details meanings of such terms as "file," "list," and "iecord" of various library operations 87 The librarian assumes, in library and computer jargons must beg recognized that the implicit details of a library procedure are and dealt-with. 97 Ibid.. p. 225. 99 Alper, "Library Automation," p. 226. Chapter 9 of Salthon's bobk is entitled 'Problems of Library Automation Systems. ' Patrinastro's hook isa series of statements on library automation problems submitted by 55 different libraries. Stephen R. Salmon, Library Attlamatran Syrreur (New York: Ntarcel Dekker, 1975) and Frank S. Patrinastro, compiler, A Sumo of Carneumplaer Prableni is Libra!), Ationtatier, The LARD Amociation's World Survey Series, vol. 1 / (Peoria, ill,: LARD Press, 1973). -5' Alper, "Library Automation." p. 223. Schulthes, Hultienson, and Het liger, A do:laced para Profeming, p. 21. eraCox, Dews, and Dolby, rote ran ere 1.hi 1.4bra0. p. 10, 99 John Nicolaus, "Library Automation How to Begin: Initiating A Library Automation PrOgiani, in Initiatinga Library titaarnation Program:, papers presented at the 1965-1966 meetings a the Documentation Group, WASingion, D.(:. Chapter, Special Libraries As lion (Waabington, D.C. : Special Library Association, Washington, D.C. Chapter, 1%6), p.-1,1. 69 It(iehartijT, !Umber, Alliainalitra ran Lt &ann., 2d Ed. (t)xford: Pergamon Press, 1974),p. Ili. Heiliger and Henderson, Librani.4wornation, p. 239, 7, Palmer, Cue Shawl, p. Markuson et al., C-wdeltnel far)7i-bran, Awareaften. p 20 COMPUTERS IN' FEDERAL

AUTOMATION Poor Support FEDERAL LIBRARY APPLICATIti* Libraries often have suffered from arni Match al libraries is'at many differen een their needs andsoftware capabilities hard - Automation in Fe stages, of development,from nonexistent to' avant are and access time. At .oneI cl, the ' eral libraries varies, from I had garde. The purpose of entire industry could not meet theneeds, supporting the \most aracter-set providing leisure reading to develop and engineer anextended- ation, size of staff, and develop. scholarly research. Size of all CRT termina1,13 and ALA had to spa sor libt\arytolibrary, and diacritical marks' size of budget vary from [Pent of a print train with the proper administrative structures varyfrbm one single' endr- cards/Most standard 154 for printing library catalog mouslibrary,to a branchstructure of more than software packages cannothandle library filing. Most small units. The problems ofautomation inthe' service bureaus do not provideprograms for library Federal libDries arc the same asthose in other operations. libraries slIW the addition of afew peculiar circum- At a local level, the data processingfacility used by a Federal libraries have strictbudget and have the stances. library's' parent organization often did not staffing requirements,for example, and -complex proper hardware orsoftware -to support the lib; my s procurement and contractingprocedures., It is this requirements. Librariesftcn found their access to the environment this book addresses. equipment limited ancrtheir priority low.Agency data Processing staff had little time andlitter expertise for, HOW THE MINICOMPUTER librarysystems. Library systemsiis`ve suffered when hardware configurations haVe be changed without COULD HELP have affect- considering library needs. These problems What` is a minicomputer? How is itdifferent from a ed all types of libraries:, aeademic,research, Federal, regular cornputeq How canminicomputers help meet all libraries ;that must rely on outside and public a 's automation requirements?74These are Bair data processing support. Yet few libraries canafford question, but,they are not easilyanswered. their own computer facility., What is a minicomputer? Itis a computer machine that' manipulates symbolsin accordance with Other Problems givenrules in a predeterminedand self-directed processing unit, a several Prob- manner. It is made up of a central In existing automated library systems, memory, and inputand output devices. It operates lems have arisen that must be resolvedbefore further What then makes a ,under the control of its program: will be possible. One growth of library automation computer a minicomputer?The distinction is one of economically feasible need is for a technically and size physical size, size of memory, sizeof words, size means to convert catalogingrecords to machine-read- of storage capacity, size of repertoire,size of price. The to those able form and 'to make widespread access problem is one of drawing theboundary to distinguish converted records possible.Independent efforts are too between' sizes. One must ask,"Compared to what?" slow and costly, bur full use ofonline bibliographic Definitions of Minicomputers varyaccording to the files as union catalogs is impossibleWithout conversion. range or boundaries set. Another need is for a means totransfer data and Auerbach (1974):75 systems between libraries andbetween networks. This A minicomputer is a small,stored-program digital computer that problem arises from lack of standardization,which is a can be programmed in artassembly or higher-level language and rtult of the typical librarian's mind setand approach which has the following attributes: to management.It can be predicted safelythat I. Sellsfor le a than $25,000 for aminimum, stand-alone will arrive configuration compiised of a centralprocessing 'unit, memory, technology to accomplish such transfer input/output equipment, and system software. before the human mind ispsychologitally prepared to 2. Contains a memory of at least4000 eight-bit words, use it.

N library automation system. See: AubreyN. 73 in)ng, -Computer Technology," p. 213. largiAcalt copuler to develop an integrated 74 Grouch explained the rationale for selecting 11 minicomputer over a ramparrs to Infornalwn Ada rr. brofich,"MinW,oroputer Systerox for Litman; ManagementApplications; A New Apprcch to Bibliographic Brotectoink," (Mon&air, NJ.: Alq PS prises, 1973), pp. 25-33. Joe Ann Clifton and Mane Heigmon Books, 1974), pp. 2-3. 73 AntrinIth en Mmitpm,buser, (New York: Petroicelli rforms normal computer functioris inputs, transfers, stores, A number of technological advances made mini- procetaes, and outputs data) under stored= rogram control, computers possible. The main advance was the devel- 4. Is usable in a broad range of applications\ opment of integrated circuits that were 'extremely nil triades (1974):70 small and'could be mass-produced economically. The Wha is a minicomputer? In general terms, it isa physically small, electronics field advanced from mechanical switches relatily inexpensive, highly reliable computeithat has a stored and relays to vacuum, tubes to transistors and solid- progr capability and .requireslittle or no environmental control. °wester, the range in cost and capabilities is very state circuitry, and at each step computers became broad.... There is, however, a "moat common package" covering smaller and faster.89 The discrete components of approilma ely 00 percent of the minicomputers in today.Its transistors, resistors,, and capacitors were replaced by basic unit p 'cc range is from 32000 to $10,000; a wor _ble system an integrated circuit called a small-scale integration with memory and peripherals will cast about 520,000. a size of (SSI) chip, and then by the large -scale integration a television set. it 1011 store about 4000 words of 16-bit rriemory and process at about 5 millionths of a second. Its modular design 4 (LSI) chip. (Chips are extremely small. Theyare allows for easy add-on. usually about 5/8 by %,incb and about Y8 inch thick, Some definitions reflect the variedusesf the minis. and each chip can represent thousands of transistors.) Snyder(1975):77 This miniaturization did not lessen thepower of An acceptable definition of the minicomputer is elusive...Most minicomputers, which were more powerful than most tired of the suggested specifics arc: a core size of 4,000to 8,000 second-gcneration larn computers. The industrial words, and a selling price somewhere in the vicinity of $5,000. applicatiOns proved minis. to be powerful, fast, low in they're usuallyreferring toatentral proceteor, with 4 to BK of Wit,- and very reliable,81 The success of the mini as a core memory and possibly a teletype.... (However, it's. not a controller and monitor led to other uses. Eventually functional machinc.tWhcn you talk about a true mini business systeni, you have to include A generalpurpose computer and the minicomputers broke free of the special application normal input and output devices.. and considerably more core mold, and general-purpose minicomputers were devel- than ihe,4 to 8K. ...[The definition must be qualified to)any ped. computersystem,that is capable of handling typical business applications billing, payroll, inventory control, etc, and that CHARACTERISTICS can be ptirchased for a total o:ott of less than 5100,000 'or rented for less than $2,000 a month. Minicomputers are noted for their flexibility. In Pearson (l975):" fact, Vosatka suggested that "multicomputer" would A computer that, with its associated software and peripheral be a more appropriate name,82 The other major equipment, is priced low enough (from $65,000 or so) to be characteristic of minicomputers is low cost. In 1974, affordable by A medium-sized library, and with sufficient capabili- ._ Auerbach reviewed the characteristics of minicompu- ty to support most library data procesSing needs. ters that result in their lower cost compared to that of HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT large computers. 1. All have. simple, i.e., limited, instruction sets, The minicomputer was developed in the 1960sas an both inabsolute number and the power of outgrowth of third-generation computers.79 The first instructions provided. minicomputers were for special applications. That is, 2. All have small memories each was designed for one purpose only, The early 3. Word lengthisshort, which permits design applications were in industrial control; minicomputers economics in the central processor electronics. were used as low-cost controllers of discrete and 4. MI have simple input/output (I/O) control continuous processesin automated laboratory or capabilities, industrial equipment. Almost all of the miriisw 5. Elimination of such features as real-time clocks purchased by manufacturers to be incorporated in, and parity checking from the basic standard is their products. opposed to optional system is cost inhibitive. to Paul R. Dernittiadm, "Mini Update," flaw/ Syrteau Afstaigerries7 25( ember 1974): 77 Jame] E. Snyder, "Small Compuren for Small llosiness,"Jourissiefhy.ftenif t aag 26 (August 197541s 26, 28. 78 Karl M. Pearson, jr., "Minicompuien in the Library,' inAnnual Raw, ofinfoonotansSome mad Technology, vol. t0,eds. Carlos A. Cuadra and. Ann W. Luke (Whington,as D.C.; American moiety for Information Science, 1915), p. 142. 19 a J. Vosatka, "The MinicomputerEvolution or Revolution." in Afirlinutipuirr Ton& cudA pplicatiou 1973i Symp000nt Record, papers presented at tht IEEE Symposium held at National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 4 April 1973 (New York: Institute of Electricaland Electronics Engineers, 1973), p. I. ma William Barden, Jr., la Buy & thr Atinitornptiterl& r4f, ancomputeri (Indianappliv Howard W. oaths & Co., 1976), pp. sr Vosatka, MI nicOrripti tCr Ev9Iion or Revolution,- ,p. 3. R2 Ibid., p. 1, flaertfoon on Alonampotm.p. 3. MINICOMPUTERS INFEERAL LIRRARI ES

'scrip nal (lures. The entire system,hardware and software, must 6. Slow and relatively unsophisticated the system must be - be considered in the definition, and devices arc used. , require special is needed. functional. The hardware should not 7. Minimal system engineering support be usable comprehensive system environmental conditions. That is, it should B. A limited amount of of contact, but physical size or dimensions software is supplied free with a system, 0.. at the point .. the definition. That leaiies.the in some ma- are not necessary to These characteristics are disappearing following definition: A minicomputeris a physically small," chines due to advances that make greatercomputing that can operate leas money. For relatively inexpensive, general-purpose computer power possible for the same or in a regular environment with asmuch peripheral and .7sIern example, minis are available with moremain memory, the reqUirements of the supportasisnecessarytomeet longer'. riford lengths, largerinstruction sets, simpler and more system application. and more \ efficient 1/0 systems, n thoughminicomputers are only a little more software pr4ided. The distinctionbetween large -scale thah a decade old, they toohave'ave 'goner through blurring; system computers 4c1 minicomputersis development phases or generations(Figure 16).85 The and prices are inc' asing; The smaller large computers "micro" systems are smaller,cheaper, and less sophisti- erlap, and such names as "rnegarnini" larger minis overlap, cated than rninicornputers. by some to describe these and "super mint' are used Microcomputers, microprocessors,microchips the Burroughs 1700 machines. The IBM System 3 and these. terms often' are usedinterchangea.bly." A chip are two corntbore systemsin this borderline category. with all the CPU functions iecalled amicroprocessor. In general, the philosophy ofminicomputers cis chips that handle the The Frequently it is used with Other different from that of large-scale computers. I/O and memory functions. Amicrocomputer is a closeness' and minicomputer environment is one of 'computer built around'a microprocessor. Micro - contact.0Tirere is a "Minicomputerattitude," which is rip hers are often'used as controllers ofother descryd thus." devices,nd these often areCalled.microcontrollers. People with minis have time to get to knowthe computer. People with minisget to know their application an the computer.People BASIC USES ANDAPPLICATIONS with minis become intimate with the computer. Minicomphters have been used infive main areas o With the use of minicomputers,there is .a shift from centralization to distributed computing,from central'` applidation." control to local control. Astandalone computer can be 1. Industrial process control dedicated to a single use and placed atthe point of use. 2. Peripheral control Communicaticins delay_ s are eliminatedand data entry 1 Data acquisition problems minimized. Mini systems aremodular, and 4. Communications thus more easily configured to meetspecific require- 5. Computation. ments than are large. computers.The technological advances come faster in the minis becausethe develop- Industrial Process Control ment cycle -is abbreviatedand adjustments to new Minicomputers first were'used in theindustrial area. technology are easier. This all adds up to an open, The minis controlprocesses and machinetools; responsive atmosphere that makesautomation less operate equipment; and test systems,subsystems, and forboding and more approachable. components for quality'control or monitoring and maintenance in the field. A mathematicalmodel of the DEFINITIONS process is used.Minicomputers often are made a part machine by the original In ,choosing a definition for theword "minicompu- of a system assembly or other equipment manufacturer. Minis areused instead of ter," it seem wise to be inclusive ratherthan exclusive. traditional electromechanical control systemsbecause The dollar value is important but cannotbe definitive they can handle More complex systemsand can be due to inflation and Governmentprocurement proce- ed, David E. Debeao, proceedings of theAmerican Keynote Address," in Alinientoplery`]leeetephcationt apfosion, 1975), ri.p. Alter I,, Anderson, "Minis Are Beautiful!; Washington, MI, 17-19 November 1975 (teasAngeles: Management Education corporation, Institute of Industrial Engineers Ganterence held in ed. David E. Deheatr, proemlingsot the/AmericanInstitut of " Cay Weitzman: -Micren. Minis and Midis-[speech]." in Nfinitornpriters: Ihr Appricarthns eplosion, 1975),p,676. Washington, 1).C., 17-19 November.1975 (LosArigelm,.; Management Ddueation Corporation, Industrial Engineers :inference held in Designers, ed. Edward A. Torreeo (RochellePark,NJ,.. Hayden Book " Stanley Romani, "Microprocessors in `EntEquipment," in 41, ternftrecelsou Nett, Areetiont ftt Ctl, 1975), p. 22. at Atiirbech an Mintcomparri, pp. O9-75 INI SYSTEMS

MINICOMPUTER SYSTEMS

DEC PDP13 NONEyWELL 516 VARIAN 6201 HEWLETT PACKARD 2114

EARLY 1670'S MINICOMPUTER MIDI COMPUTER SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

DATA GENERAL NOVA DEC PDP.I1/45 !NrERDATA 70 NOVA 640 GENERAL AUTOM. SPC-16

MID 16761 MICRO MICRO MICRO STD MICROPROGRAMME MEGA (NOW) MP CARD MINI MIDI MINI MINI MINI

AMI I/O DEVICES MICRO.ONE NOVA II VARIAN 73 ECLIPSE MODCOMP IV GEN. INSTR. 10P-8 GA LSI 12116 LOCKHEED 1-85 HP 3000 'INTEROATA INTEL 8080 PR 0.LOG SUE POP -8/A HP-2100 XEROX 530 7/73 MOTOROLA M 81 'DEC MICRODATA 1600 PRIME 300 NAT.& 1MP-)6 MICRODATA RAYTHEON 3200 SIGNETICS

Gm.16, A decade of minicomputer development

adapted to changes in materials or'processors by Communications merely changing their software. Communications networks use-minicomputercoi Peripheral Control rnunications control processing in three differentwars: as front-end processors, as data, concentrators,, and as Minicomputers are used instead ofhard-wired message-switching units.' controllers , tocontrol peripheral devices suchas A front-end processor is located close to the host terminals, dataentry systems,or computer, in- computer and is, placed in the data flow between the put/output devices. The minican 'service interrupts; host and a number of remote data ter-Mina'sor other control input/output; and perform sequencing, data computers). The front-end processor performs. data transferspbuffering, editing, and forrnatingso that the communication control functions such as line control, main CPU's control unit neednot be used for these error checking, code conversion, automatic answering, purposes. This allows better CPU efficiency. polling and. addressing, and character-to-message assimbly and disa.ssetribly.88 The, host processor (the Data Acquisitions mainframe CPU)" thus makes more efficientuse of processing time and memory requirements. A mini- Minicomputers are used to acquire data in industri- computer used asia front-end processor is more flexible al and military applications, research and develop- and economical than a hardwired device andcan serve ment organizations, hospitals;and laboratories-. They to maintain network operations if the host computer provide a real-time interface, with sensors,counters, should go down. test or 'Measuring devices, satellites, 'or other data- A data concentrator is remote from thehoSt gathering instruments. They accept data frommulti- 63mputer and serves to coordinate and optirniz pie sources at high rates, and then store, log, edit, transmission of dit. It accepts messages, froth mart' format, and/or preprocess the data terminals via low - speed -lines and transmits themto the ratm4rtim N Almitimpage Netvarks,p.3-3 MINICOMPUTERS IFEDERAL LIBRARIES

minicom uters This reduces line costs Many libraries already have hoit via a single high-speed line, A Xerox 9000 has a minicomputer by more efficient use of thelines. A minicomputer: sonic unknowingly. as its control unit. Other commonlibrary equipment functioningas a data concentrator canbe pro. communications control with microprocessors includemagnetic-card typewrit- grammed to perform the data Some functionsas a front-end proCtssor; toaccommodate ers, desk calculators,and microfilm readers,; interfaces to special terminals; tobuffer input/output Jibraries that are part of large-scale computersystems differences; and to accommodatechanges in data have a mieroprodessorcontrolledperiiiheral,Te., ter- es, formats;Todes,communication procedures,and minal, or an intelligent terminalthat performs front- number of terminal devices." end editing and error control. A message-switching unit is anintermediate point in Pearson highlighted the earlyapplications of mini- is transmitted to a , the data flow, An entire message computers in libraries.91Minis were first used as data for a period messageswitching unit, where it is stored collection' units in batchcirculation Systems, Fri this of time.99 It is then,transmitted to its destination, for each transaction is header field in application the information which is designated by an address in a with other transac- from multi- recorded by the mini and stored each message. The unit accepts messages the host' computer therrs, to multiple tions to be transmitted in a group to ple sources, logs the messages, routes and production of the output lines, and verifiestheir transrinssion. Amini- for batch processing of the files used as remote processors, as Computer as a message switcherdoes more than route reports. Minis next were traffic. It lets a terminal send asingle message with , well as being used as locallyavailable small files (e.g., multiple addresses, eliminatingretransmissions for bad borrowers files and hold or reservebook, files): The each addresa, and it temporarilystoreg data on disks or major file updates and reportsstill are handled by the magnetic tape, converts codes, edits,logs, and polls host computer in a batchmode, Ultimately minis were and addresses,terminals. It savesline costs by allowing appli&I to circulation asstandalone units to handle messages to be transmitted attop speed and one line to transactions in an onlineenvironment. beshared`by several terminals. Minicomputers have been appliedin similar wayi tosupport acquisitions,technical processing, cataloging, Computation film booking, and selectivedissemination of inforrna- Minicomputers are used for computationsor prob- don. lem solving. This is a standaloneapplication in which Minis have also been used inlarger system configu- the mini is used as a large-scalecomputer it rations ,'asterminals, communicationcontrol units, performs input, manipulation, and outputoperations and/or remote computers.The Stanford Universi while independent of any other computer.It is used in BALLOTS system uses aminicotriputer.as a commu- applications that could be servedby a large-scale nications controller and as aprogrammable terminal, computer but are more efficientlyserved by themini. mainframe or host cornput- dedicated or time- connected to an IBM 360 The mode can be batch or online, er.92 The University of Chicago.Library data manage- sharing. Minicomputers havebeen applied thus in ment system uses aminicomputer as a remote concen- business, education, engineering,and research. trator. (communicationscontroller)to handle 'the MINICOMPUTERS IN LIBRARIES network's 50 terminals.93Information Dynamics Cor- poration's BIBNET systemused a 'dispersed comput- MipicompUters have many -potentialuses in a library. E'xept for data acquisition, anyof the five main areas of applicationcould be found in the library.

rs.Ibid., pp, 3-5-34. 0° Ibid., pp.,3-10-3,12. el Pearson, "Minicomputers in the Library." pp,142 -4. and Maud Probe Library Automation: The Stanford Experiertee,"in Applications of Miniconipion to Library 02 Wayne Davison, "Minicomputers and Processing, 20 April to I May 1974(Urbana-Chan-n*1;p, 111,l University of Wilfrid Lancaster. papers presented at the1974 Clinic on LibraryApplijations of Data Illinois, DraduateSchuol of Library. Science, 1974), p.00. Libroo, and Relier hobetm,Ceir.Wilfrid Chicago Library Dams Management System,"in elppliiatiernotalinicarrifteilers to 0, Chanel R. Payne, 'The University of 28fspril to 1 May 1974 (Urbana-Champaign,III.: University of Illinois, Lancaster, papers presented at the 1974Clinic nn Libraly Applications of Data Processing, Graduate School of Library Science, 1974), pp.114-4 ROLE OF COUR IIt LIB

ing approach, with minicomputers functioning Modular System Development.Because a mini lends remote processors 94 itself to small, discrete applications, a librarycan The last major type of library application is the build a total system on a modular block.by-block minicomputer "turnkey" -s"ystem.95 This etimrnercial basis. Individual systems can be integrated inch on-the-shelf package is complete and ready a to use on whole library system. installation.It includes minicomputers, peripherals, and software necessary to perform specific library Custom configurations.Minicomputer hardware and functions on a production basis. The Computer the minicomputer industry are such that a system Library. Services, Inc.'s (CLSI) LIB 100 circulation configuration can be tailored to meet individual system has been installed in more than 50 libraries. system requirements. There are few one-vendor shops in a minicomputer environment. Hybrid, SUMMARY mixed-breed systems are common. Adoptability. With large-computer systems Minicomputers, although not a panacea,can and do often so costly and time-consuming to change have a place inlibraries. Their toleinlibrary vendors or upgrade equipment or software that automation will increase. The attributes of minicom- systems remain stagnant or become out of date by puter systems contribute to the library automation default. This is not true of minicomputer systems. environment in a nurtiberofways. Changes can be handled much moreeasily. Local Control. Because minicomputers are small Low Cost.The main characteristic of, minicompu- and require no special environmental controls, ters,their low cost, allows more libraries to they can be installed in the point of use (that is, the normal library -'environment). The library automate. Although they are not cheap, mini- staff thus controls the operation of the system, computer systems are relatively inexpensive corn- reducing problems of access, long .queues, scheti- pared with large-scale computers, and they bring uling time, and low priorities. about a greater dollar return and cost/benefit The Mini Attitude.Because the mini is housed in the ratio. library, itis more approachable for the library No library can afford to ignore the possibility of staff. There is more hands-on use of the system, applying a minicomputer to its operations. This is true which encourages the staff to understand and for libraries with no experience with automation accept the system. well as for those with functioning, full-scale automated Smaller/Simpler System. Asa ruld, the minicomputer systems, for minicomputers do not have to compete is a smaller, simpler "machine," It lends itself to with large-scale computer or time-sharing systems. applications and environments that previously They can supplement or complement such systems were considered too small to justify automation. instead. Again, their keyword is flexibility. David id P. Waite, "The Miniconiputer Its Role in a Nationwide Uibliographit- and Infownation Network," in ,ipph-cdtwalitimcomplurs IsLibrary andRelated Problarru, d. F wiifrid 1..annaster, papers presented at the 1974 Clinic on Library Applicationsof Data Processing, 28 April to I May 1974 (Urbana=rharnpaign, 111.: :university of Illinois, Cliaduate School of Library Science,1974!, p40 93 Pearson, "Nlinit-vmputers inthe Library." p 144

Th\ CHAPTER 3 MINICOMPUTERS-DESCRIPTIONS

In general terms, minicomputersare functionally software also is basically the same as that of large-scale and operationally the same as large-scalecomputers. computers. It includes library subroutines, assemblers, There are differences,though, and this. chapter compilers, file management programs, and operating describes these .divergences from the general descrip- systems as well as the application programs. tion of computers in Chapter One. Thedifferences stem from the facts that (1) minis are smaller and therefore simpler, (2), they are "younger" and havenot ARITHMETIC, evolved as far as large-scale computers, and (3) they CPU are usually designed for single applications, whereas UNIT large-scale computers are general-purposesystems. Minicomputers are approachable. Userscan see and touch them. For thitTeason they neednot be viewed as "black boxes."-A Many people become interested in I 0 INTERNAL minicomputer systems as a hobby, muchas stereo buffs CONTROL MEMORY! get into audio components and systems. Manysystems are put together as hybrids with equipment from various manufaaturers. While thiscan be a strength, allowing the user to have a system that trulymeets his needs, it can make selection ofa system technically PERIPHERAL PERIPHERAL complicated.. DEVICE, DEVICE This chapter alone will not prepare librariansto assemble their own systems. Referencesto additional FIGURE17. Block diagram of a minicomputer sources are given for users who would like to take this configuration approach.1 The more general goalisto prepare The specific components and configurationare librarians to deal with system requirements,specifica- determined by the application. For data communications, and selection criteria as members ofteams that tions network applications the main distinction be- include data processing experts. jgrarians shouldseek tween configurations is in the physical location of the the advice of experts but shouldnot be intimidated equipment. For example, a minicomputer connected into deferring too much to them. to a host to serve the communications control process- A block diagram of a minicomputer configuration ing for a number of nodes or terminals can have has the same basic components as that ofa large-scale basically the same components whether it isa front- computer configuration (Figure 17). Minicomputer end processor or a remote concentrator (Figure 18). Cay Weitzman has written a basic test on Minicomputer% tin Prefacestatement defines the scope which is of the same philosophy to this book: "To insure Al the utter must not only take the time to determine what the system must armplish for bonbutAlso have a fundunental working knowledge of the qualitative and q antitative desipt approaches to minicomputer tystems evaluation,selection and interlacirtz and hardware, software, and firmware integration, Quick, suppo decisionscoup_ poorly led with lack of knowledge of the various details of minicomputersystemsanalysis anddesign will in all probability insult in an unsatisfactory selection Of solution to the problem. My purpose is therefore, to give the system designer and/or user an overview of latest minicomputerhardware and software technology, tools, procedures, and approaches used in evaluating and designing tuppon minicomputer systems as well as guidelines as to how to impletnent,maintain, and these systems" (pp. at ail); Aliateernpuro Systems, Strnatat, Inydernevaiton, and Appluanan(EnglewoodCliffs, Nj.: Prentice-Hall, 1974). Eckliouse's book is on Computer organisation and assembly language programming: It uses thePDp --Itasthe real machine the examples are based oni Richard H. Eckhouse, Jr., Alinieelessto -.5)qterst,Orgariirarion and Programming (Flip -II) (EnglewoodClifts, N. J.Prentice-ifall, 1975). llama and Porat have written anintroduction to microcumputers, Arpad Rama and Dan I. Porat, /at...vim-non to Afirrocionfutwr and Aftemorocittorr(NewYork john Wiley& Sons, 1976). The Alkiveammer Dichorkm and (laud, is a good reference book for micros and minis; Charles J. Sippl and DavidA: Kidd (Champaign, Ill. Maui's Publishers, 1975).

35 MICNICO- LliRARIES

. .. REMOTE FRONT-ENO CONCENTRATOR PROCESSOR Muter l& Configuration of a front-endprocessor and a remoteconcentrator

Front-end minis are located at the same site asthe host Addressing capabilities minis are located at Instruction execution speed computer; remote concentrator of accumulators connected to the host by Number, size, and arrangement the remote site and are and/or index registers telecommunications lines.2 of handling concerned, the Number of interrupts and methods As far as library applications are them configuration varies according toinput requirements, demands, etc. The specific Optional features output needs, storage of each of these elements library applications and typicalconfigurations will be More technical definitions number of. texts. The impactof any reviewed in later sections. Inthis section the general can be found in a capabilities of the one of these elements canbe overcome by augmenting element of the Wardware and the hardware or by software software will be described, andtheir roles explained. the system with additional design; none can be taken asdefinitive or pivotal. HARDWARE Instruction Set The instruction set is composed the basic machine MAINFRAME language or commands that representthe simplest CPU tasks perforrned.4 They includelogic statements such OR; load/store statementssuch as The minicomputer mairdiame(CPUpkiN wain as AND and of the system. The MOVE DATA and LOADACCUMULATOR; memory) determines the power ADD, SUBTRACT, in describing and arithmetic statements such as main characteristics considered TWO'S COMPLEMENT, andSHIFT; and control evaluating the structure, orarchitecture, of the CPU statements :such asCOMPARE, SKIP IF EQUAL, include the following.3 UNCONDITIONAL JUMP, and TESTAND SKIP Instruction set 1..itnory and Rdatial Firoblonl. rd.F. WiliridLaneaster, papers procured iiturial,. in ippihntiant 4 At,,,r4ntywm is Univenitycf Pinola, Graduate &haulr)f Library _y, "Gatti tiratitrni and Software May 1974 (Urbana-Ctiatnpaip, t1I.. 974 Clinic on Library Applications of I7autFn.ming, 28 April to 1 , 1474), p 17 Nu-men, Rooks.1"74). p 1 7 Aaerbara aa7 Alinuoniputevi New N'ork Ibid., pp 26-28 MINIICOMP S-1]ERI ONS 37

IF SET OR RESEf. The simpler CPUs havevery few numbering scheme, only 4096 unique numbers can be instructions in their sets. In terms of the application, -specified, or, only 4096 memory locationscan be the number of instructions provided is less important addressed. When memory sizes are greater than 4096 than the kind of ins( 'Actions. In ahycase a program- locations, means of.0dressing,..mernory other than mer can write r owl to accomplish tlivse tasks-.., It direct addressing must be used. Different manufactur- simply takes more el weloprnent time and makes the ers use different methods. The most corn:orlon are direct program larger and slower,:, or absolute,immediate absolute, paged,relative, Addressing Capabilities indirect, and indexed addressing. "For these techniques, part of the address field (for example, 3 bits) The addressing capabilities of the CPUare deter= selects the addressing technique or mode and dierest mined by the length of the instruction word,the of the field (9 hits) operates as an address,an address processor logic, and the memory sire.''lbe word displacement, or an operand:go Some techniquesuse length is the amount of data thatcan be stored in one specialregisters, counters, or stacks to extend the memory location;itranges from flto 24 bits: The number oflocations that can be addressed. The means of identifying the data in each memory location technique used affects the memory size thatcan be and making it available for use is called the addressing used,the speedofprocessing (number ofcycles scheme. The Sams hook presentsa simple eyiplana required to support an operation and the difficulty of of addressing:7 programming the system. Memory cells very' similar it, postfire b4)xr, boxes are numbered in sequence on the outside of the box will Instruction Execution Speed number our memory cells from 0 to list, a total of 64 memory cells, The instruction execution -'speed depends each one bolding 16 bits of data When we IAN al snit theCImtrniN on memo- of memory cell 17, we may visualize a past=office clerkgoing over ry cycle time as well as on the CPU's internal logic (the to box number 17 anal withdrawingpose card with a lb lot value way the cycles are used to perform the operations), As pruned on o. rhe er4 memory wits contain either data valum .1 basisfor comparing CPUs, the speedisoften or trastruetroos tor nothing meaningful a cell is Mit 1,1-ti rtie measured in terms of performing a standard operation, data values might be used by add or saki-act instructions,or for comparisons. Gelb might also be set aside, or reserved, lottfic such as the add time as well as the cycle time Cycle results of operationsI f there were Ito pier r,s of k 'ma or cerx-cril line can br defined as "the time to readOnd restore)a cells in memory, there would be room for telmstoll limb If tier single word in Memory-" or the "minimum time were lastructions In locations to through 2 i, there- orpoorpelv rook] interval,inmicroseconds, between two successive be no data in these Inc autos at the %ethic their ;tact .s.ses to a particular storage local ion."12 Add timeis The instruction word t_x-t_ tunes the kt-sIt III variously defined, but in general it represents the time explained initaptiahie slit t iii iii, opt-tam', reinotrd to perform an add operation (C=, A +13), be performed and (2) where Iii (litcite HMIIN ttl including thr time used in accessing both operands iti be Iti_teratell III)While ItINIII b11, it ale(' liciog from memo' !,and storing the resultsin working operated on. and '.slim in th menhir\isflitni xl slot age 13 Even these times are not always directly instrut-tionI hat int'llits an instil. non vo;til of In lids onipot Ate due de, the ss.i y the manufacturer pa- Is (11xIcIct1 Itibw a tsscpait fiamid Ilie hid 1 t,. ti lots to' mcd the irst ritat that affect speed in are assigned .Ls the operation t ode and Ow itllilie tits -et .5V}i(arili the load tin the system and the 10 to 12 hits arc fin addic-s.sitig use tit such techniques as time-slicing

N4ost room intiptiters use ,nicit I W111(171 !Deans that one iiilili. t HifiI rill Register Contiorautiii memory lie " ;01 [HZ har=k 11, stitch !tic ,If 1(t flit' innnber. size. and A.,1 II angrilicrit of at t umulattas SindingV rat 115 MIMI ,t I1,4IIItk arid or index reivsnr, [calk drier mini; the arclutet- as its addics ith Infs rpics, hun' co lulu of the UP11Flirt r are two basic types of f

' 1 p 17 ' 1, 14/Ir/Nli hOftthrnh,olp p ti,irlp Ibiti !!t ;rtil ..trrttilo ft, t,

14.10,01 P , p ,tod 111111liw it Sam u+.n -Ito tt.o11

17 MINICOMP_ iN FED 'LIBRMLIES

are by comparison veryslow, the processor performs special-register processors and general- register proces- peripheral sends an interrupt "one of the oper- other functions until the sors." In special-register processors character is ready to be ands specified by the instructionresides in a main signal to say the input or a other resides in either the transferred. Once the transferis completed, the memory location and the it was executing when accumulator or some other special-purposeregister." processor returns to the program such as the interrupt occurred. Generallythe external inter For special functions there are special registers, condition that triggered the accumulators; extend registers, which maybe logically rupt expresses the cause or interrupt, such as error, malfunction,character ready linked to accumulators; indexregisters, which are used linkage, etc. for transfer, operation finished,end of block, etc. The in addressing; and others for program called the vectoring General-register processors do not definethe func- complexity of the interrupt system, them to be used as mechanism, depends on the numberof lines, the tions of the registers but allow and any priority accumulators, stack pointers, orindex registers de- number and, nature of the deices, pending on program requirements, Thisgives greater structure used -'9 flexibility. Most processors also have nonprogramrna- Optional Features ble registers that operate as buffers tohold a word temporarily for the processor hardware(e.g., program Optional features available from manymanufactur- counters).15 A variation has been introducedwith a 'ers may be appropriate for specificapplications. The mechanism called a stack. is Thestack is an ordered types of featuresoffered include powerfail /safes collection of memory locations orhardware registers memory protection, memoryparity, floating-point with a top or first element, a secondelement, and so arithmetic, decimal arithmetic,and byte manipula- forth, in which only the firstelement can be accessed. tion.2° A "pushing" operation loadsthe elements one at a time in sequence, and a "poppingoperation" takes the Main Memory every element up one top element off and moves minicomputer is described of the registers The main memory of a position. The number and arrangement The word length is the affect programming ease andflexibility as well as by its word size and capacity. amount of data that canbe stored in one memory execution efficiency.' 7 location, and the capacityis the total number of interrupts memory locations orwords available. Common capac- The number of interrupts andmethods of handling ity sizes are 4K, BK, 16K,32K, 64K, 128K, and so on, in actual measure each them allow the processor tointeract' with the entire where K is nominally 1000, but be thought of in terms computer system. "Aninterrupt IN a signal that causes K represents 1024. The size can capacity, and a choice the processor to suspend executionof (mu-tit-lions in oford capacity or character the current program and tobrawn to a se(of canbe made based on thebest, mostefficient instructions that deal with the interruptcondition. combination (e.g., 8K 8-bit words or4K 16-bit words). When the interrupt has been taken careof,the Fable 10 shows some representativecombinations. processor continues to execute_the sos'pended pro, TAIILE 10Common Sizes ofMain Memory Units' gram,"" There are two types of interruptslittrnal anti anti Length Word Capacity Chtcter Capacity deal mainly 32,76 external. Internal interrupts, or traps, 13 bits 4K with abnormal, error, or occasionalcooditions (e 4.; llbin El K 65,536 131,072 illegal address, powerfailure, mernory parity error, itbits itK bits 4 K 65,536 arithmetic opera t ) Ili and overflbw from fixed-point It) bits IlK 131,072 External interrupts dealwitl addevices external to the lb tilts IliK 262,144 processor, such as theperipheral (ley tkrs attse the lb bits 12K 524,2118 processor speed is very greatand the peripheral devices

iraingwormus.,,,,,,p,..1,,. pi,7/I " ,tuotsult p toIkIthoitse. Miniempuse Syantu, p II IT 440/kw§ dMAlinicortiplitert p I7 " Ibid., p. "1 I IOU thirWOrlh,limiomplatfpp. 24 2'4 Ainetnuoi on Minittnlinirn, pp. In I MINICO

The available types of tnory are ferrous-core and controls the larger activity required to synchronize semiconductor." Ferrous-c_ Memory is the kind data transfer by performing such functionsas level described in Chapter One. It- is nonvolatile, which conversion, command decoding_, multiplexing, and means that if power is lost the contents remainstable. data request lo0c).23 The averagelpeed of core memo.ryfina minicomputer The actual data are transferred byone of two main ranges from 0.8 to 1.5 microseconds. A semiconduCtor methods: programmed I/O (PIO) or directmemory memory is a solid-state, integrated circuit module access (DMA)," All minicomputers have PI15, which usually called a chip. The density of the chip is is a software technique. Input/output instructions expressed as 1.,SI (large-scale integration). The materi- transfer the data and are device-dependent. That is, al of which the chip is made constitutesan additional the instructions are peculiar to each kind of device. means of classification (e.g., bipolar semiconductor PIO is slow and is appropriate for data transfers with memory and metal oxide semiconductor, or MOS, slow-speed devices such as paper tape equipment, memory). Semiconductor memory is faster thancore hard-copy terminals, and low -speed line printers.25 (MOS averages 0.45 microseconds and bipolaraverag- DMA, a hardware feature, is not on all minis,28 It es 0.3 microseconds), but it is volatile the contents of allows data to be transferred at high speed between the memory are lost in the event of a power failure. Most device and the memory itself. The DMA interface is memory has both read and write capability. A special sometimes called a channel. This channel contains (1) kind of chip is used in some equipment that has read- a memory address register, (2) a word counter to keep only capability. track of the number M transfers performed, and (3) The ROM (read-only memory)isa memory logic for gaining access to the memory and pr9viding containing permanently available, frequently used the nece.s.saryitirrring and control signals. The DMA is programs and/or data. It is designed and sequenced as used for high-speed devices such itis manufactured.It cannot be changed and as magnetic tapes, is disks, and drums. A multiplexer channel is usedto relatively slow. A ROM is nonvolatile in that the handle DMA for several devices. It is somewhat slower. contents will remain evenifthe power source is than DMA, but it allows a number of data operations interrupted. A new modification now availableis a to occur simultaneously.27 The interrupt system de- PROM chip, or a programmable ROM The pro- scribed aboveisalso an integral part of the I/O granuner can decide on the subroutines, which arc control. entered electronically at the beginning butare not easily changed and are not under program controlas PERIPHERALS other memory is. ROMs and PROMs have figured heavily in miniature syStems, controllers, and micro- The peripherals are made up of anything attached computers. to the mainframe. Generally classed as, input/output devices, they function as mass storage or man/machine Input/Output Control interface devices; some can serve both funetions.28 Input/output control transfers mitanta ion Mass Storage Devices the processor Of memory and I(devices In re to signals from the control unit and the ex cr.' --I Mass storage serves as art extension ofomputer peripheral devices An 1 /0 system is made up of (I main memory. The media range from punch card and a controller, which controls suchfeatures ofth_ paper tape to magnetic tape and disks. Each medium peripheral device itself as electrorms for print-flea has different speed, capacity, and storage characteris- selection, paper motion, and print timing; (2)one )r_.- tics. Selecting the proper device for mass (file) storage several buses (the actual lines that connect the devices iscriticaltotheefficiencyofa data processing or units); and (3) an interface (the logic circuitry that application pin D.Iii .11rtrAratarl,41trptomittarrt. p it) " A .4. jliptintatt, Robert 1.Frenrh, ti 360 tai 1.ttitt ottAptliFf1 ilieft !FEE Siva" 11 (Febriti 1974). 64 " Aorttimill on AfIRMIniptarri, p ra11611p4rworib, 3646074prit", p Anvrenni,1 finliornindrvn. p 41 lbillintrworth 4fint,r4p1401, " 1-hrre Are entire 14106 on eeriptiera14.11n e4.116111e, bbtir4, n",IPAffat 7-9R1rw97),17=1" N J11reittwe-Hra 19711 1ruxlwals re two st-=cy3 per,pherall, for rX.0111)1e. Alike tiqt h1.11/thtrertt 701rmaii Stir-Vey iit Plug 7:ompatilile Mptiperiellera14,",46tdori Ada ri-Cefil 1975)::14 --4S. MINICONIP IN FED LIBIIARIEs

the simple, b rograms used to start upand operate Cards the CPU. The punch cards contain datarepresented by patterns of h6fes punched inthe 80 colurneg of each Cassette or Cartridge Tape card. Each column can represent acharacter. The Magnetic tape cassettes thatlook like common cards are stored in boxes and can behandled manually audio cassettes are used on minis.3tThey are recorded humans can read the interpretedheaders and can and read sequentially, like papertape. They are remove or add cards asdesired. Punch cards are compact and relativelyinexpensive. Typical recording inexpensive, but it takes many cards tohold a given capacity for a cassette ranges from110,000 to 400,000 number of characters (i.e.:, records)and therefore a characters. The cassette tapedrive reads and records large amount of physical storage spaceand much on the cassette. Thespeed of data transfer on a cassette manual handling are needed.Data on cards are drive varies from 500 to 1600characters per second. entered into the system by meansof a card reader, Once the tape is mounted,little human interface is which reads the holes arid convertsthem into bit required, The-drive that advances orrewinds the tape patterns. Card readers arelow -speed devices that read is program controlled. Some systemsuse two tape 100 to 600 cards per minute. Cards canbe prepared by cassettes,e one for the programand one for the data or a keypunch machineoffline. Computer- driven, card file. punches' can be uct ed to punchcards as computer Cartridge tapes are similar to homeaudio cartridges output. Card rea ?iv for minis arecommon and but operate in binary as do computercassette tapes.32 inexpensive. Card punches forminis arc rare and They generally have multipletracks and greater allow greater Storage expensive, length than cassette tapts, which capacity, A cartridge drive isrequired to record and Paper, Tape read the cartridges. called a paper tape A continuous ribbon of paper Industry-Standard Magnetic Tape can be punched likecards with hobs representing _ patternsin The paper tape The common computer tapeis 1/rinch-wide mag.. data.30 Unique hole is represent the symbols.Six-, seven-, and eight-hole netictape wound onreels.33 The information paper tape devices are in common use.The number of formated so that each bit of acharacter fits into a position on a nine-track holes ayailable determines thenumber of unique theoretical "track." A single symbols that may be coded onto the paperlapel Most tape is typically divided into'eight data tracks (using recording paper tape devicesprovide for extension of code an eight-bit code)and a ninth track used for technique used by some manufacturers meaning through a techniquecalled shifting. Shifting a parity bit (a with all tape, informationis requires that a special hole patternbe used to indicate for error checking). As shift. A paper tape recorded and read sequentially.Reels are commonly the use of upper-case or lower-case 1200, and 2400 feet. The printing device will recognize theshift codes and take wound in lengths of 200, 600, in densities of 556, 800, or1600 appropriate action. Software inthe computer also tape drives record data because the symbols can bits per inch (BPI), andrecording capacities thus must recognize shift-codes 9600 characters per foot, have one of two Meanings according tothe shift. range from 6672 to magnetic tapeis continuous and the The tapes are continuous, unlikecards wt, arc A reel of is smaller. more duusity of a tape is constant,but determining capacity limited to 80 columns. The tape of multiplying characters per compact, and requiresless manual handling than is not always a matter correcting errors on foot times the number of feet.The data on the tape is cards. The problem is in editing or each side by intent- work .similarly to recorded in blocks, separated on the tape. The papc!,tape readers in searching the tape to higher speeds, cord gaps (I KGs) which help punch card readers but operate at The number of the 1RGs although they are still classed aslosysperd devices. locate particular records. reduces the character capacityof each tape. l'hereel? Paper tapes commonly are used withminis for storing Melville l'illilithingGii , 1'174). pp 210-9Sc.! also. David C. INor, .1:1NIil.ri AiiNelei '9 kobei I M. I laycv Ai111 j(lArii,1Ikti,-;, Ibm,in.,,A q Am, N., 01.Iq /.., / for Ow Fun' lird t :Ard." if.!,,,, Paw lilt 1, toher1'12`) IIA, 711 fl.o II (( I.tuber 1!171). 7i= 72, Ilditcy,Rewiien, ..114 '1 ISee .11,-..,I Itirm rLyntict -Wake (or Pert Vapc?",ifiderri w IlAyes Anil Becker,/ landKviA '/ Pahl l',..11inc lof 1 ,M, !n. pi, Alevitrn 1111,1 /I (01.101-wr 1975)511 GI Ste p heil N C., will. rd ,"I :AsArt(c DriveN And Srocrfo, IiIlArderL ,Vouompwrri Cr1Gt,,,,Illpitit11. 1111 .7 4111 See .t1.41 " Barden Almitigninur, I Cif Atli ,,,,,,Infiarri, ilph7 (01 " 110 , IV /6-40 CO NS' 41

of .tape can be handled easily and stared manually, Fixed-head Disk .and they are relatively inexpensive.34 Becausetape is a These disks are rigid, circular plates andare larger sequential or serial device,itis most efficient as a than diskettes. The read/write heads are designedso storage medium for data that are to be used ina serial' that each track has its own head. Theprogram fashion. Inserting new data on a tape requires that a determines which track to read. Disks are the fastest. new tape be produced. To locate a record the tape mass storage medium, but not the largest in storage drive winds tar rewinds the tape until thedata are capacity, and are more expensiveon a cost per found. This process is time-consuming and inefficient character basis. Fixed-head disks are mounted individ- if data are to be used ina random fashion. The tape ually, like floppy disks, and are used in multiples if the drives are considered high-speed devices (thetape is application warrants. read at up to 150 inches per second), but they are still Movable-head Disk slower than the internal processing speed. Tapedrive can be used singly, but two or threetape drives are A movable-head diskisso called because one more commonifthe data manipulation requires read/write head moves across the disk to the track producing new file tapes or sorting data. desired.37 Then the data are read or written. The time it takes to move the head makes this type slower than Diskette, or Floppy 'Disk fixed-head disks, but once the head is locatedover the track the data transfer rate is thesame. Movable-head Disks are also magnetic storage devices, but rather disks are generally packaged with multiple disksper than being serial and linear liket tape, theyuse two- unit.'" A disk cartridge usually hastwo or four dimensional surfaces, usuallylike circular plates, 35 surfaces, and disk packs have 10 or 12 surfaces, Each Data are stored on both surface's, top and bottom, and surface has its own read/write head mountedon an each surface is divided into tracks, whichare concen- arm assembly. This arm moves as a unit when a track ,cireles around the axis.36 The two-dimensional is selected, which means that ifone head is over track shape is reflected in the way the read/write heads of two on one surface, all arms are over track two on all the drive operate; they canmove or be positioned over surfaces. This amount of data one track of data any part of the surface of the plate (that is, overany from each disk surface .is calleda cylinder. The track), which allows direct 'Sr 'random,as opposed to storage capacity of each unit can vary up to more than 20 million words_39 sequential, access, This freedom allowsgreater speed and flexibility in accessing stored data Man/Machine Interface Devices The simplest disk medium is the diskette, also called the floppy disk. This single, flexible (hence -floppy-) Man /machine interface devices areso named to plate is made of a Mylar material. Apaper or plastic avoid confusion with the general class of peripherals envelope or jacket houses the disk andisnever called input/output devices. In computer jargon,an removed, even when the disk is mountedon the disk I/O device is anything that introduces digitized data drive. The disk is rotated inside its jacket, anda slot in into the mainframe (CPU and main memory) for processing ( I )from the mass storage device that the jacket exposes the tracks to the recordinghead. reintroduces the data, (2) from another system viaa Floppy disk drives vary in sophistication andcost from low-speed, low-capacity units telecommunications line, or (3) from a terminal device to high-speed, high= with a keyboard to allow a human to introduce capacity units with a top capacity of 350,000 hits and dta a into tin system. To the layman, input is not definedso transfer rate Of 1.2 million bits per second. Disk drive broadly; it means converting source-or human data units are commonly sold for one, two, three, or four into machine-readable form and transmitting itto the floppy disks, The choice dependson the application. computer for storing and/or processing. There are isvm , p IninIrworth, atm, ..!4Sr,' a is) Dan (k1llrrwetn'1, "1101inV ttitk pri- at ntewn, Part 1. lli ntoneol retopective." Afing-AIn a - tysirrrir 10 (February 1977): 36-51 34 llairden,MIRILVIVILMI.if tenvomputirt, 1 ni Myra and lievIter. Handbook of Dam rnkevrin r 1.1hrarmi pp 11 41t iitrOnfi Cvl4irwrrry rd, "Reit-loyal* tiimk Su)gWhere it Where k's Going," Modern Data 9 (1.untary 1926) Conte Finn and ,uteri Ilaiktra A Roynnlibi, rd -FIelnovable Ihnk:artriclor lirtvr 16,ifern Alta 9 (January 1916)- 31b-43. as ehorilauk on afinnoropnieTi, p.5 : I as flollingnynith, afintionqinitri:p troyes and lirekri, tiorid6,0A rf /5 err P""''" of haronii. p 2110 MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERALLIRRARJES 42 -- These stations can be used forkey-to-mass-storage-file several ways to categorizeman/machine interface purposes if their outputis compatible with the system devices: low-speed or high-speed;hardcopy or softco- Multistation units feed the batch or conversational; input mass storage device(s). py; offline or online; input into a single storagemedium (e.g., tape or disk). only, output only, or a combination. Because inpUt generally mustbe sequenced before Punch Cards or as it is enteredinto the host system,multistation efficient (it is difficult to interface function key-to-tape units are not aft Punch cards as a man/machine stations to achieve discussion. Keypunch control the input from the various as described in the mass storage key-to-disk units. machines dre used to convert the sourcedata into card the proper sequence) as multistation Originally called keypunch replacementequipment, format. The machines are slow andcostly in staff time. keystrokes per hour_ One key-to-magietic-medium stations ha 'e many more An average speed is 6,000 They perform such should be designed capabilities than keypunches. article states that no new system editing, forrnating, and The use of punch carers functions error deletion, around keypunch machincs.41 When the shared processor for transaction records or reentryrecords still does merging ew and old data. reader usually is used in a mule tation key-to-disk unitis a microcomputer, have merit, however. The card b.Terformed, especially in the terminal and, as described earlier,is more functions can as a remote batch datk-itito formats: positioning, It can be used for input only.The area of arranging a low-speed device. generation of blank or skipfields, left zero filling, urd punch must be used forpunch card output. This duplication, and code conversion. se would be limitedfor mass storage or reentry documents, such as those used inserial and circulation Transaction Recorders systems. A number of devices are used tocapture data at the contact.43 They make use of already Paper Tape source or point of prepared material, although notall can be called For convening source data tomachine-roidable light pen that reads bar-encoded the Flexowriter are just reentry records. A form, paper tape punches like ("zebra") labels is one example.A unique number is as. outdated as thekeypunches. (Paper tape is some- book, or movie units;this will be assigned to each item (e.g., order, times combined with Teletype projector) and is recordedin a machine-readable file discussed later.) Paper tape does nothave the transac- numbers are thatispartof the data base. The tion or reentry capabilities ofpunch cards and is not printed on labels than many expressed in unique patterns that are human-readable. The readers arc faster affixed to the items. To record atransaction, a light card readers (2,000 characters persecond for the top of ispassed over the label andthe pattern is the line) bur are still consideredlow-speed devices. Pen which are matched lower-case charac. translated,into electrical impulses, Paper tape can handle ..upper- and against a reference table.The number is then trans- ters but must useshift codes, which slow down processing. One available complicated. mitted to the mainframe for conversion and make software more optical-character-recognition (OCR)wand allows Paper tape punches driven by the computerare suited documents (or for interface with other online OCR data input from source only for mass storage or labels) printed in specialoptical-character-recognition systems_ type. Key-to-Magnetic-Medium Stations Some data collection stationsread reentry records transaction records. magnetic - medium and combine the data to create The two main types of key -to- reader used in circulation key-to-disk stations_42 One type is the badge/card stations are key-to-tape. and systems_ The patron'sbadge is prepunched with a There are now key-to-cassette-tapeunits and key -to- used as user's number, and thebook information on an floppy -diskunits. These stations can be card is housed in the book standalone, independent units orin a multistation already prepared punch The data from these two sourcedocuments are re configuration with a shared processor.They operate The input data are and transmitted alongwith any preset or/manually offline from the host computer. different capabilities gathered andAen read into thehost system in a batch. keyed data Several models have Data Entry,- Atudent Para tl (lung 1975): 44. Curnput It', !Mir to Get Wnhthr !Aimee, Part Part 2," pp. 43-49, and Malcolm I- ..betel, ed., " Dan M. Bowen. rd.. "Small-Swale 21111 Sier MASI iknvCr", "Smiti1=Scale Computing; and Becker, ilandtvokfAA]Prot-mingfur 1.11 Moto, p " tiArN Sydentc 9 tjuric 197b)tit 41 "Source Data Automation; Part 7-.1(tut,.iitter, 114-41, and Sowera, "Small Swale Computing;Pan 2:" pp. 43-49.. 33 Fora Mixt/Aston of muree t1ata entry, lerStleirl, 'howl e Data Autotimitott, Part 2." pp MINICOMY- ON 43

and levels of sophistication. IBM produces a number of characters per line. As a character passes in fr,nt of the these units, including the 1031, 2790, and 5230. hammer for the column in whichitis to a pear, the Printers hammer is activated and the character, pressed against Printers are one-way (output only) devices.a: They the ribbon, leaving the impression of the character on the paper. provide human-readable hardcopy information, often Because chalk printers have separate harrimers for in batches. There are many variations of techniques to each column of print, it is possible to increase the speed achieve printed output; each has its particularadva bf print by Increasing the availability/of characters tage in cost or quality. There are also many variatio on the chain. That is, if the chain contains the complete in the fonts of the printers. Not only is the designof set of symbols a single time, each hammer position characters quite different, but the selection of symbols potentially could require a complete chain revolution available also varies.For example, some printers before the character it requires wouldappear before it. cannot display lower-case data and tmostcannot By increasing- the chain to two complete display the diacritics required in library applications. sets of syrribols, the maximum tyht fiber of potential There are two basic types.of printers: impact rotations (where isreduced by half. ink or carbon is caused by pressureto adhere to paper) There are limits on physical length of the chain and nonimpact (where electricalor electrostatic mech- which limit the num anisms are used) 45 of 'complete sets that can be The simplest impact printer is placed on the train. Alt the serial or character printer which is the number of symbols to be basically a represented affects the number of character computer-operated typewriter. The characters sets and are therefore the speed. Printers with limited fonts printed one at a time, and these printers are are very slow faster than those with more extensive fonts. (10 to 180 characters per second). Typical printing. speeds for minicomputer chain Line printers are so called because they print printers are an 100, 200, 300, and 400 lines per minute. Speeds entire line at a time instead of in a single charactee This excess 41,100 lines Per minute generally are limited to is accomplished by using multipleprint "heads" or large-scale computers. elements, A drum, oeprine wheel, printer is composed Impact matrix printers use rows and columns of of= asmany-p-ria-traeWs-asAhere are possible character wires, the tips of which compose a matriof dots, to positions in a line.46 For example, if 120 charactersper construct the print images. Each eh line were possible there would be 120rotary print rented as a specific arrangement of do wheels, each with all the possible characters, each s, produced b extending the appropriate wires in the matrix agains capable of rotating independently, and each withits an inked fabric ribbon to print the characters own hammer mechanism. At the time of printing, all paper. Common units have 120 characters per line a d 120 print wheels would be positionedto represent the printata rate of 500 or 1,000 lines per minute. data to be printed in the line. These devicesprint Nonimpact dot matrix printers commonly about 150 lines per minute. Because of the use a heat- inherently sensitive print head, A matrix of dotscomposes the limited dimensions of a drum wheel, theseprinters are characters, The dots are produced by electrically usually limited to upper-case fonts only. Further, the charging the wire tips, which darkensa special heat- printisgenerally oflower quality clueto poor sensitive paper, leaving the outline of the symbol. alinement (the lines usually wave). Chain, or train, printers generally provide die best Interactive 1Vlan/Machine Interface Devices print quality at the highest speed.17 In thistype of Interactive man/machine interface devicesare a printer, the print mechanism hasa continuous chain of / class in themselves in that they mustmeet certain charactCrs which rotates between the iibbonand requirements, An interactive terminalmust handle hammering mechanism. The number oif hanirnering means for inputting information and displaying infor- positions determines the number of print columns that mation back from the mainframe almost immediately.._ may be displayed most commonly there arc 132 To be interactive means to be under direct controlof ink-inflation printing snrl proilten, seeIrving L Vies.elmito. "Pouter TcchtioloRy and ter Future; A hinter tinnier." :13-42;, flute tot, Bowen, fatiern Data El (Nove.nilvr 1975): ("C'omi)Hier Printtvil MAntthu curer'I)-ma.- ifoa m Dahl HIN,,,embtv 43--45; oaf) M. Howeri, Afini.ftfkraSpeeto 11)(january 1977)' :11) 5:1. "Ptinteri Arld TOtprioters," flAyes'alit1 Becke.r, ifarulbooA of alto (wresting for 1.15Tarvi,pi Ill. IntrrIliktit)flai Ita,-,x111,11o,1fie 11141 %Iru,, kite Publicatiorpi1lepartmetit, MOIL p 17 Inure tnnal 1115inms Maclane3 Corp., 41 Ibid., I)511. le D_

forrnated output product, such as aprinted report, the CPU. To be online means that thetransaction is going into the system and being proemsed atthat time table, stencil, etc. (as opposed to batches of transactionsgathered and Keyboard/Display Termirtals. Thedisplay for these entered later). It often -means being in atime-sharing terminals is "softcopy," -or images that appear ona vironment with multiple users. cathode-ray tube (CRT) screen.51 Theprinciple is To be conversational means that adialog is being similar to that of a television setwhere electronic executed betWeen the man and the computer programs impulses are painted on a screen by a "gun."There are questions are asked and answered; .prompts are two types: alphanumericand graphic. The alphanu- given to aid and control theinpt; errors are detected meric type uses a matrix on amask, to format the and corrections accommodated onthe spot. As a images on the screen. Only apredetermined character group, interactive terminals arenot suited for high- set can be displayed; someCRTs can display upper- display upper- and lower- volume capability for either input or output. An case letters only, some can individual7 one-transaction-at-a-time mode isthe most case letters and a fewspecial characters, and only a common and most efficient few can handle diacritics. In general, CRTs are moreflexible, faster, and Keyboard /Printer Terminals. The most common quieter than printers. CRTs have a greatrange of interactive terminal, and indeed the most common capabilities and sophistication. Thesimplest are peripheral used on minicomputers, is theTeletype." nothing more than Teletype replacements.They are keyboard and a The Teletype unit is made up of a character-oriented,receiving and transmitting one typewriterlike printer.5° The keys print in responseto character at a time. In fact, theseCRTs plug into the the manual keyboard or on signalfrom the computer. TTY control board, and the mainframeis unaware The Teletype is a low-speed device thatperforms serial that the device is not a Teletype.Data are displayed data transfer (one character at a time)with full or half faster on the .CRT than if they wereprinted on -the duplex transmission. The speed is 110BAUD for the TTY, because the print mechanismdoes not -slow it transmission or 10 characters per secondfor printing. down. The input rate is limited by the speedof the keyboard The various features or options aCRT can have operator, which averages aboutfour characters per include the ability to "buffer" charactersinto blocks second. The Teletype controller convertsthe serial for faster, more efficient transmissionand the ability to data into parallel for transfer to theCPU and back display an entire page at onceinstead of using the from parallel to serial to transferdata from the CPU to "scroll" method, which displays oneline at a time from (pushing the top line off the Teletype.. the bottom of the screen up Teletype units come with various options.Some are when the screen is full and .a newline is displayed). A symbol, that may equipped with punch tape reader/punches,allowing cRT may have a cursor, or special buffer-type input, which can increase the rateof input appear as an underline, areversed image character, or line position that and allow offline data preparation.Some are equipped other symbol superimposed over a position on the line and with faster printers, such as hall-typeSelectric printers. indicates the current operative. keyboard/printer can bc"spaccd forward orbackward to position the There are other manufacturers of input. Another CRT feature is a terminals, and their units vary in options,functions, next character to be directional-controlled cursor combinedwith an inter- speednoise, and cost. Sonic arc portableand are allow telepltt rmes nal mernory to perform edit routinessuch as equipped with acoustical couplers to (:haracter deletion (the ability to delete: one or the Mainframe, Some use I. to be used to connect to the CRT memory) cassette tapes fur even moresophisticated buffering; more characters from hardcopy 2. Character insertion (theability to insert one or this type of terminal allows a permanent CRT memory) record of the dialog with the system aswell as any, more characters in the 48 Hayes and Recker, ihnsisook of /)seta Pro. et 'mg b. I 4brarr,r prut; lig a Terminal cur lark S RadwIn. "The Intelligent Pei)'s (ionic to " For a description of and dm1mm on intera.sireierrinosk ii,tlibrar April 1977). W-7 also: Ihnerts, S(adoot I snow a Terminal, Part 2." Online I O Pre Interactive Use. Par I" 01111fUMMiry ig7 I and Ntsr, "P'ince'rftand Trleprintem- pp 10 53 Motinviptitm & Af 1,010MP/17M 1)fl I ermiltais, Part I flee (3-3T Lihrritiri, pp!IP!15 Ikrr".1(1, ere "Alphanumeric Display Ftayei and Eltarr, ilandbook J73rrta 1%k, tfilng jr II.rha" , ",AlphanninericDisplay Terminals. Part 2 Where they Stand Now" 3bsins I I ebru.ler pt71,1.14 51, Barhara A I3eynolds, etI Adel And Teehnolop Ratiwili, 31(.611iR .1 Ternn,t il, Part Radv.In,-(1)11111IfIg ho'a Who in CRT* and Mere the Market tildern /)at .1( Mar, h In76),11 Terminal; Pan 2," pp 61 Ti MIN1CO S DEge RU ONS 45

character substitution (the ability to substitute perform expanded editing functions, and data com- characters in the CRT memory) monly are transmitted to the mainframe only when

or to move to any location within the screen in a completely edited. Also,.intelligent terminals often format mode to enter data, as with a form to "fill out" perform the communications control functions, freeing for data input., A CRT may also have program- the mainframe processor for other tasks. controlled use of visual effects such as reverse video, Input/Output Connections blinking, and foreground-background contrast (high and low intensitY). CRTs vary in number of characters In the most basic minicomputer systems, the peri- per line and number of lines per screen, Some CRTs pherals are connected to the mainframe by cables or have no control functions- at all and are controlled hardwire lines because the mainframe is small and cornpltely by the CPU. Some havesome control usually located close to the peripherals. Even when the functions that are hardwired (for example, function terminal is in another room, a cable connection can be keys). Some have chips (R,Orvls or PROMS) that have made, Theoretically, there is no limit to the length of predetermined control functions. Some have address- the cable or the distance between the peripherals and able internal memory and logictobe user-pro- the mainframe, although some devices have maximum gradihed bya programming language. limits. Over great distances, boosters or repeaters are The CRTs slide over into the category of intelligent used to amplify the signals. terminalsorevenmicrocomputers_ Somekey-, There are times when a direct cable connection is board/CRT terminals have the ability to havean feasible'; instead, data munications or telecom- additional peripheral "hung on" to them. Onecom- manications are used.53hathat is,the connection is mon option is a printer, so that what is displayed on made over telegraph- or telephone-type lines. The the screen can be printed on reqiiest. Input devices computer signals have to be formated or structured so such as OCR wands or light pens often are combined that they can be transmitted over these lines. In most with keyboard/CRT terminals for special applica- cases, the lines handle analog-type frequency waves, tions, and the digital signals must be converted. A modem (modulator-demodulator) or data set is used to convert-- limelligent TermFruits. The intelligent termi- the signals at each end, The transmission must match nal" is used in many ways. The following are often the bandwidth and the range of allowable bit rates of called "intelligent terminals": programmable interac- the line. tive CRT terminals, shared processors for rnultisttion The mode of communications can be asynchronous key-to-disksystems, and small,single-application (start-stop) or bisynchronous (binary synchronous.), minicomputer or microcomputer systems. For the term and the transmission can be duplex or half-duplex to be accurately applied these minimum characteris- (one-way or simultaneous two-way communication). tics must be met.52 The connection of the lines can be on a switched or Self-contained storage; random access mentry nonswitched (point' -to- point) basis, and contact be- User interaction with the terminal itself tween "stations" can be established through a conten- St`ored program capability tion system or a polling system. The entire data Processing capability at the termin I through a communications process requires special I/O control- user-written program lers; interfaces, channels, acoustical couplers and/or Capability of online communicationsith h- riaxlems, proper CPU instruction sets, and special, er intelligent terminal systems software. Human-oriented input, such as a keyboard Human-oriented output, such as a printer or CRT SOFTWARE Intelligent terminals allow son or Minicomputer vare has been notoriously lack- localsprocmsing. Small files can be ace -d on the ing for general consumption. Until the last 2 or 3 years, spot before data input. An intelligent terminal can limited amount of software was commercially A, Robert() kiichi,7111telligent l retthotal, mut I )r,tram it'd Pro, work, Cmipt.tef Ddemotu 7 ( Vehmary 1975) 311 31 For a lieneral tleg:(tpt19n and glryman. ;lir data L./11111110M 1=liten Mliet21.111y for Mark S. tea twin, "From No4 to Modea=auplex and I 1411-Ehiplex," Oribrit 1 (jaoliAry I'M)i 1 I9 For Miffr detarIrti rirsuripoorm [Tier i. ircbrokal triatioAls such as' international 7u Irav rvtachitut,i, IBM Syltent_160 Operatint . }Tire,, )!note Trttcpprirmonnavn, Lieth.d,l,i err . 11151 Refererrr Library (Whirr N Y :lotcrnational Boaster relstOrlrW4 Corp,. Data Pt-od-mmg M681, pp 9- 17 MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERAL LIBRARIES

production of a relocatable format oraddress that can available; most had to be preparedfor each system be loaded into and executedfrom any area in main application. System software providedwith the equip- additional modules had to memory.57 ment was often sparse, and option, a maeroas- condition has changed Some manufacturers have, as an be purchased as options. This the user-defined somewhat, but on the smaller systems(such as sembler. For this type of assembler, mnemonic codes for operations representmultiple Microcomputers) there isstilllittic -compreh'ensive instructions in machine 'language. A macrorepresents software available. coded instructions and, when The amount of software availableaffects the devel- a formal sequence of evoked, results in the entire sequencebeing entered in opment time in preparing anapplication system. The machine lang-uage.58 The lengthof the program in sophistication of the system software can affectthe uses memory is not shortenedbut it does save some of the of an installed, ongoing system, eventhough much of programmer's tiMe. Cross-systemassemblers are avail- the support sofrwareisfor use by the program- . able from some manufacturers.59These .allow the mer/designer. and actual assembly of minicomputerprorams to be There are two basic kinds of software: systems and then umbrella term performed on a large-scale computer system applications. Systems software is an execution. This process is software, assemblers, mounted on the mini for that covers programmer-support faster and more efficient and can save memoryin the compilers, and operating systems.Application software includes general-purpose packages and thefinal user- mint.6" specific program. Loaders not SYSTEMS SOFTWARE The computer hardware "knowsnothing how to useprogram, and not everyhow to accept Corey explained minicomputermanufacturers' soft- input of the program.°When a minicomputer is ware, starting with the simplest versionsand moving to turned off, or powered down, it returns tothisignorant the simplest software the most complex," He classed state. A hardware device canbe used to load memory as being made upof four programs: the bootstrap with a program, or a sofaWare programcalled -a loader, the loader, the assembler, andthe debugger. bootstrap loader-can be used. Thebootstrap loader is liststhe minimum The GNU __in:computerAR Review used to specify the data tobe deposited and the programs for a minicomputer asdiagnostics, binary memory address wherethe data are to go. It is a short loaders, debugging and utilityroutines, and editors.sa program and actuallyis used to load the absolute or The most basic types of programs areused by the relocatable loader program, whichis a longer, more programmer to make thehardware work and a) create comprehensive system program usedby the program. a new program. mer toload programs into (he memorylocations. When this loading is complete,the control is taken Program Dave'pn4nt Aids over by the regular(i.e., newly loaded) program.A used to keep track Assemblers linker-loader or a linkage editor is internally of where the various programsare located in An assembler relieves the prog,ranancrof the task of be linked into in binary or main memory had allows them to coding a machine language program modules as required for a total program. octal." The assembler translates arather low-14e1 mneeionic soul-Cc language program into anobject Editors language program, which isthe machine language - An editor is of value ing programs. A setof usually on a one-for-one ,instruction.foHosinwrion they represent in an absolute command Words and the instructions basis. The object code is allow the prograirarkr to create a new program(more address (that is, a specifically assigned memorylava- accurately toe-Fuer a new programpreviously designed tion). An enhancement available for aname!tubler is 54 Curly. "Clonfiglirittionti and Sottwat(. F '27 35 GML. Aftottompute /Mutt, /')7) p f'rvfilr- I " rxkfinttle At'inteartpcar Sidtermt, it: 41) 1144-rtmw4 un AfttitromPlart. p b4 an Fre k htlklAt ifmatarprar Sraretta, p 2(17 Flollintiworth, AfolteamputEtt, p 60 i_ :arty, "Caaftguraftona and software, ntFckhou:+e, Aftatatertittife, Sytfreat p It)/ MINICOMPUTERS$InERI IONS '47

and coded) with aids and prompts or to make changes Utilities to the program previously written without starting from scratch (without reassembling).. One type of Utility programs are programmer aids that handle certain recurring functions, such as67 editor is the line editor which allows lines of thesource Moving data from cards to program to be added, deleted, or rnoclified.62 Another tape or vice versa wing data from cards to disk or vice versa. type is the string editor which allows the programmer Moving data from tape to disk or vice versa to add, delete, or modify character strings. The most Moving data from cards, tape, or disk eto the comp_rehensive is the text editor which retrieves lines of printer. text from a' file, allows the programmer to correct the text by inserting or deleting characters or whole lines, These programs generally perform such routine operations as moving, printing (listing), and returns the corrected lilies to the file.6Text or dumping data, editors are used online in an interactive mode, which is which can be performed without manipulationor any the most sophisticated mode. recognition of specific file format. For example,an 80/80 listing is one in which data on 80-column cards Debuggers are printed as punched. The programs also perform -general system maintenance, such as disk space A debugger program helps the programmer deter- allocation, system utilization accounting, andcon- mine what is wrong with the program. Although the struction of program libraries. assembler can check far and detect syntacticerrors, logical errors are usually found only whenrun on the Subroutine Libraries computer,'" The debugger program allows the pro- Some small programs or subroutines are written to , grammer to view the internal processes and conditions handle mathematical functions and are called upor of the computer as the program is run. For example, if linked to the application program as needed.68 The the program stops due to' a fatal error, the debugger common ones for minis are .for fixed-point arithmetic program provides "extensive information about the (multiply, divide, double precision), floating-point state of the machine at the time of ths:failure."65 An arithmetic, conversion of data formats (decimal to online, or dynamic, debugging program allows the binary, fixed point to floating point), and trigonomet- progranuner to perform the following tasks.''!' ric functions. These are especially important in minis I. Start a program becausethey 'enable software optionstoreplace Suspend its execution at predeterminedpoints unavailable hardware features. 3_ Examine and modify the contents. of memory words and registers Compilers 4. Make additions and corrections to the run Although a compileis- definitely a program devel- program using-either symbolic or octal code opment aid,itisnot a requirement of a support This is the most efficient way to debuga new program software system. A compiler is similar to an assembler or repair problems in an existing program itj that it translates asource language into object,or machine, language. Compiler languages are Iligher Diagnostics level and often designed to be used on any _type' of machine. The common standard languages areFOR- A diagnostics program is used to lest the equipmein TRAN, BASIC, and COBOL, Each is designedfora and determine if it is functioning cor4-( tly. Itcan be certain area of application: FORTRAN is designed used aspart . ofa maintenance -caiiireor,if. for scientific applications and any other area requiring problems have arisen,to determineifthere arc high-level mathematical computations; COBOL is a hardware stresses or malfunctions or memorystresses business-oriented language and handles words, text, or problems and to locate and identify the problem etc,, with great input/output and file format flexibili- areas- ty. Some manufacturers have created their own high- "! Barden, ,Strnrrrrrn p I 53 ClOrey, "(;t7lifigUrfitiOtil and StjftWgrr,.' p Ekk hotrae, Alf fluurn/man Synermt, p " Corry. "( 'Alorihrtirat iont and Software" p EckhOilse. Afinicorripttio Sypyirtl, p 22:1 "Gorey,"1 ktrifittareattoott and Softwarep 2'1 Atterhuth an taftturetepwraa p 1:0

,4- ttl N FEDErtwt. LIBRARIES level languages and compilers to best suittheirown Flle-Managerrieht Programs equipment (for example, DEC's 131801a). Another class of prograrraner supportsoftware is Each language has a set of standardwords or involved with a slightly higher levelof data processing instructions that represent commonfunctions or of arecurringCnattire the basic operations and tines these arc similar to macro-assemblerinstruc- management of files. Theseoperations include build- tions:, Working storage control. is handledby the ing or establishing a fife (includingdefinition of file language conventions, as arc file definitionsand file formats); maaipulating filesand parts of files, such as deleting parts handling. Compilers have checking feaitures todiag- combining files, splitting files, adding or language use, including of files; maintaining files(including adding, changing, -pose programmer errors in result of transac- both semantics (meaning) and syntax and deleting individual records as a errorsin tions); searching files to retrieveweified records or (form).69 Error messages arc displayed so the program- fields of data according toreques?7riteria phrased in code and the program can mer can correct the source Boolean forma and sorting files byspecific clement(s be recompiled into executable object code. within the records, using specifiedsequencing foram Compilers are used in several modes. The source las:" These operations are writtenin separate pro- program can be compiledOnce and stored ready to grams to that a programmer can useone or several` file execute. The source program canbe compiled and management programs asrequired for the application. then, larrnediatelyexecuted (this is calledcompile-and- The most comprehensive file management program mode, system (gO).Sortie compilers are ROW. interpretive package is ,called a' data base management where. each statement is individuallyexecuted. (This (DRMS)i2 It covers operations suchas73 organizational mode is typical in conversationallanguage compilers. erface of all 'applications to an A common interpreter is in(BASIC: specifically de- a base; Compilers take eating and maintaining files; signed for interactive programming.) Selectinga retrieving, sorting, and routingdata ft r icc . in main memory and usemain memory as compilers can applications; working, storage while executing. Sonic Managing and maintaining data files; be used only on CPUs of certainnanimum sizes. One Generating and forrnating utilization reports; 'source states that BASIC and FORTRANcompi so Providing for theintegrity of the data in the files. while _ require a CPU with 4K to 12K memory, Data base management systems areused for complex COBOL compiler requires UK to 16Kinemory.70 applications with many files and file structuresand When compilers remain resident in memory many users. times, a system designer must allowadditional memory for the ,other programsand data, or the peroory OperatingSystems would be compiler locked (bound).As stated earlier, Operating systems go beyond prram -support compilers are not necessary for systems.Without a programs but are riotapplications p °grams. In fact compiler the programmer could codethe programs in opeiating systems allow application programsto be assembler language. More effort wouldbe required executed efficiently on the computerhardware:74 An (more lines of instruction, morefile and memory operating system is not mandatory;the system can be but this is not very Location control, and leas subroutine use, aswell as operated manually by the user, software package more programm Mg expertisein eeneral), but often a efficient, ,An operating system is a that provides support in the areasof program coorcli, more efficient program callresult with maximum use internal and the CPU and main memory forthat specific naiithredevice communication, and of auxiliary storage organization. "Acomplete operating pro- apphca don. systemperfordliSt...J11functionsrequiredfor

Ibid., p. Aftnicemtpurre ketlett, /9.7lt, pi. tilt I Profile-I ong fr1,it frann, p. 71 (.-trev,..('Atrifigurit hum 4 nil Fioltwatr,p AO I far% and !let krr. //aralturtA tine 1570), 30, 14 er for the Mini Uwe," AftutAlicro ,yyrteirrt Wa_dongton 3 For rnnrr inforrnai ton on MINIS, r,c'el :Mier; ageruen I introduction Autontatrtt Data r? tl.8., Civil 7-krvich Bureau of 'Framing, A171' Nfahairerzierit 'Fratnine:( C. , Mirrtrographrd.) eripuier nutnufactuters; see! Philip I): tl., p of the ()Lycraiirtg noierni supplied. by Mitt 77 Stein and Shapiro first tilt how OperatioLi Myatt works and evaluate sow Ii (NtivemWr 1974 Strin and lovviird 54 Stuipirn,That Makes ( /lit gramrned system control. It communicates with the 3. iprogram batch.This operating system allows operator' to requeat parameters or to report status; several jobs'or more than one batch streams to be loads, links, and sequences programs for execution; run "at the same time," This seemingly simulta- assigns I/O devices to programs; performs all I/O neous processing of several programs is produced operations; and services interrupts," 75 , by the operating system's ability totransfer A complete operating system requiresa mass storage controlof the CPU between programs. For device to store programs and data, and each type of eiarnple, when one program must await the mass storage device requires its own specific type of completion of an I/O request, the other program operating system. Thus we have cassette tape operats can be executed by the CPU:Additional sophisti- ing systems (CTOS), tape operating systems (TOS), disk operating systems (DOS), and virtual (memory) , cation is achieved when an operating system has a operating systems (VOS or VS). feature for "quantum" or time-sliced program The heart of the operating system is the supervisor, _execution, Time-slicing involves establishing a or monitor, a master control program that remains fixed quantum of time for the execution of each resident in memory.76 It is responsible .for initiation, program, and when the quantum expires, the maintenance, and termination of all other programs. operating system transfers control to a different It processes the communications among theuser, the program already resident in memory:7R system, and the many control programs. It also acts on 4.()dine inleractives° The essence of an online monitor calls, validates and transmits 1/0 calls to environment is that the input data enter the device handlers, supervises data and file manipula- computer directly from the point of originand/or, tions, and provides error diagnostics. A main service the output data are transmitted directly to where provided by anoperating_system is file maintenance, it is used. Processing occurs in a single transaction especially in the area of creating and maintaininga as opposed to being deferred and gathered with directory that contains the location of all the files other transactions to be processed in a batch. This currently used by the program." It also protects files process requires the operating system to perform a so that data are not destroyed inadvertently. different kind of control and sequencing, because rating systems are, organized differently and there is not always a predeterm)ned sequence of function differently according to the mode of Opera- jobs or programs. Rather, the jobs are detenniried tion. by the user at the time of input or during 1. Simple executive, single process. This kind of system is processing through a conversation or dialog. designed to handle the program interrupts and 5. nrne-sliaring. This process allows multiple users to I/O control for one single application for one share system resources in such a way that each user. thinks he is the sole user. Time-sharing combines 2.Singlebatch.78 Batch processing. is a technique in which jobs are collected and grouped before the onultiprogarnming concept with the °dine processing._ A single batch operating system links interactive mode. The computer handles several serially the functions or programs required to jobs in a dynamic state by jumping back and forth perform one entire procedure for one user. For betWeen programs as required. A time-sharing ample, to update a serials holding file, a read operating system is made up of a sophisticated set Program, a sort program, a file maintenance of control programs_. "to handle the sharing of program (to update the file), and a print program system resources, the time-slicing, the storage may have- to be used sequentially. 'Fhe single allocation and program relocation, and the basic batch operating system would handle theexecs,- servicing of the users, besides the types of operation of these programs with little human interven- tions normally associated with an... operating tion. system."'" 73 alas/amen Alinicarnpunns, p.60.

is Eckbouric, AlituramptierSymmt, pp. 23 7-14. 17 Averbach on Minn-m/54m p. 61 -11 Introduction to Mifitcompsdir Network; ( Maynard Mai rnxital Equipment Corpor 1974), p. 0-2. le Eekhnuat, Manampute7 Sylirma, p. 247 Intcrnational ,11irtemi Machines. Data PrIX11 I ed. (Poughkeepsie, International 0usinc41htachir tog anirning' Sys' ins rohlications, 1971), p. 71. at ECkhOl.1.9e, Aft inuorrr,puter Syitenit p. 247. MINICOMPUMS IN FEDMAL l.IllfARMI I

general, an intelligent terminal as anetwork APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE node has a small main memoryand a CPU with To the user, of the computer, system,the only limited power.:11ere is little need for mass storage. soft are of interest is that which allows hisdata to be The display features arcimpdrtant,,as are the commu- processed to accomplish his or her objective. Thisuser-1 nications capabilities; data transfer rate,protocol, and specific, application-oriented softwareisdeveloped mode (cluplei or half-dtiplex), There maybe a and made requirement for hardcopy output. The systemssoft- through the use of the systems software' , functional by means of the operating system,but the ware can be limited if mostof the control is handled by success of the project depends onthe responsiveness, the network. efficacy, and efficiency of the applicationssoftware A data communications node haslittle need of a man/machine interface but will prfobablycontrol Applications softwareisthe end of the systems many 1/0 devices, bothterminals and other connpu- analysis/systems design/systems development process. ters. The CPU and theI/O controllers must be The flow charts and decision tables becorne more specially designed for cernmunicationscontrol, as must specific to the appliCation, until a programmer can also the systems software. There islittle requirement thZ:aettial programs: The take the material and write for mass stdrage. analyst/designer wil' have determined thehardware A data collection station can be anintelligent files and configuration, the system specifications, the terminal or a larger unit controllingmultiple stations. file structures, the operating mode, andthe system then The unit must have enough main memory, software that can be supplied. The programmer put /output controllers, and CPU power tosupport final uses any or of these to write and debug the multiple Stations, and it must have some mass storage. module. The need to output data inmachine-readable form Sometimes,itis more efficient to base the final devices or a communications module on a general purpose software packagethat may require special manufacturer or an hookup. The input method Must be fastand efficient can be purchased from the and error correction. independent software vendor. These packages varyin to handle both initial entry the A standalone system generallyrequires a balanced what they cover and to what degree they cover match the complexi- function. There are total, comprehensivedata base set of compOnents and software to the application. management systems, such asTOTAL, and there arc ty or sophistication of business application packages that provide80 to 85 MINICOMPUTERS percent of the programmingwith the remaining 15 to CLASSES OF 20 percent to be done by the user toachieve a user-- The range of 'equipment and offeatures available packages for specific module. There are also expanded allows almost unlimited patternsor combinations of data commu- text-processing, search and retrieval, and components. To provide aframe of reference, five nications. The programmer must decide if andwhen a classes of minicornputer systems havebeen 'developed. general purpose package is useful. They are designed to provide support tolibraries with 'Another option is the use of a qomplete,turnkey special: applications ranging from simple to complex. , applications package that can. be purchased. A minicomputers are little more thanintelli- purpose package requires the user toprovide only his Class gg,nt terminals used for clitacollection. This configaraa own format details andinformation. The problem is data and write meets allofthe system tion can do tale more tlrAi capture the locatinga module that them out in the same form.. It has noability to specifications for the user's needs. manipulate data (for example, to sort orupdate files by resequencing or merging). TheCPU is simple, with CONFIGURATIONS 8-bit words and an BK main memory.It can handle inpeft/output devices: one ofa only one user and only two As stated previously, the specific components mass storage device, such as papertape or a tape minicomputer system are determined by theapplica- cassette, and one man/machineinterface device, such tion. Four main types of configurations arcappropri- CRT/keyboard terminal- or a network node (often as an unbuffered ate for the library environment: a Teletype with a paper tape unit. Littlesoftware is arm intelligent terminal), adata communications node, provided, only an assembler and aBASIC c6rnpiler. a- data collection station,and a standalone station. DNS 51

lass 11 minicomputers can handleore general drives) can be:supported; and concurrent communica- applications for single users. Manipulation capabilities tions are possible with ahost computer over. a include tabulating or surnriraf' izing data from specific bisynchronous line. Maas storage devices can be tape fieldi in the records of the file; searching and printing cassettes, magnetic tape, or floppy disks. The 'operating data; and outputting in the same sequence ason the system would handle multiprocessing for distributed file but with the data retort-Dated if desired. No sorting networking. is possible. The CPU has either 0-bit Words andup to Class IV minicomputers introduce interactive pro-, 6141( main memory or 1G-bit words withup to 32K. cessing for multiple' online users with a single applica- main memory. The I/O controlcan handle both tion. They offer great versatility in manipulations such programmed 110 and DMA. 'Firm I/O devicescan as sorting and searching.Users can be remotely be supported: usually one man/machine interface located because there are four to eight asynchronous device, such as a buffered. CRT or a Teletype and lines and the, software necessary for controlling the printer, and two rna.ss storage device drives. This class telecommunicationa;The CPU has 16-bit words, and of minis can operate sequential files withpaper tape, the main memory is either 120K real memory or 641f punch 'cards, tape cassettes,or magnetic tapety or it virtual memory. The input/output controller includes can operate a direct-access file on a floppy disk (with . Aro, DMA, and a multiplexer. The mass -storage up to two drives). The only communications link devices now can include disks (fixed-head platters, possible is a direct line to a host computer. The support mOy le head disk cartridges, or disk packs). The software is somewhat more complete than that of Class oper ring system will probably be DOS (if the big disk I; the operating system 'is either a simple executive, devi es are used) or VOS and an online, interactive single-process system that must be totally attended,or type: The compiler can be for BASIC, FORTRAN, or a single batch syster in which one job stream can be COBOL The system software would be a complete: computer-controlled, The operating systqm type de omplement. pends on the mass storage device, e.g., tapeor diskette. Class V minico putera are e_largest, roost sophis- The complier can be for BASIC or FORTRAN. , - ticated systems. They can handle =.i, mg for ClassIII minicomputers are geheral-application multiple online users. They have large file capacity systems for single-users, They can handle single or and are very powerful. The top end of. this class multiple batch operations. The processing can handle overlaps large-scale computer classes. The CPU has sorting and any other manipulations possible ina 16-:hit words and 41( virtual memory. The operating' batch mode with a quite large file capacity. The CPU system would be a VOS of a time - sharing type. The has 16bit words and up to 641< main merm5ry. As system software would probably include a data base many as 'eight different 110 devices (or devices and management package. CHAPTER FOUR: MINICOMPUTERS LIBRARY APPLICATIONS SYSTEM SELECTION: THE Applications characteristics BRIDGE tri Interfaces to other systems. These design characteristics are not definitive. Not all With the variety of minicomputer cotnpor will be of interest in all applications. The categories de:Signs, and features to choose from, how does one represent, however, the kinds of considerations that select the proper system? Selection must start with the arise in system design. Table 12 lists these considellt specific application and itS requirements. A bridge tiOns in detail. -must be built connecting the specific requirements of a 'WLE 12 libraryoperation with the detailedspecifications prepared for an REP or a contract. This bridge must EANS OF INPUTTING Nature of the data be built each and every time a library chooses a system alphanumeric because each library's requirements differ from those upper and lower case of others. Every bridge is supported by five columns special characteristics _(Table-11): (1) design characteristics, (2) hardware One-way/conversational input impacts,(3) software impacts, (4) library system Combinations of input devices specifications, and (5) the specific class of minicompu- Vocation of input stations Multiples online users 'ter required. The following sections describe the Outside sources process of erecting these columns. TYPES OF OUTPUT PRODUCTS TABLE I 1 Design Model: The Bridge Hardcopy I umn I 2 Column 3Column 4Column 5 upper and lower case, diacritic, special formerequirernenp tcardstock moltipart fon-ns, - Daign I-lardy/areSoftware Library Class of multiple copia, etc.) Charac- . Impacts Impacu`. System Mini- Display teristics Specifi- computer character semi cations size of display features scroll or block COLUMN ONE; DESIGN Combination hardcopy and display CHARACTERISTICS Machine.readablc output outgoing communications line In looki6g at a potential minicomputer applica tion machine-readable form (offline) (or even automation in general), the first review must FILE sTR ticiu EUND SIZE be in conceptual terms that ignore the specific tasks Structure

involved. . sequential The design chala' tteristics of at system can be broken, direct scum down into six categories, which are not neceSsarG1/4 Size large number of characters discrete: number of character required n time (online) Means of inputting TRANSACTION/VOLUME of, Typesoutput products Expansion and growth File structure and size Peaks and pressure points of ac vs Transaction/volume Response time MINICOMPUTERS IN FE10ERAL LIBRARIES

TAJLZ ian Chrracteriulcs Continue d MEAN.S OF INPUTTING e Nature of the data APPLICATIONS CHARACTERISTiCS SerttlasidatA manipulation) One-way or conversationalinput minute numeric or bibliographic Cornbliiations of input devicea. mrinunt (number of records) Locationpf input stations' Starching Multiple online users hitch Boolean logic Outside sources, free text Library data are quite complicated in data process- , nOmerous accesspoints , ing terms. They are mainlyalphabetical with require- online interactive ments for upper and lower case,special eharacters such [Wean logic ronta such as hold, free text as diacritics, and different type numerous access point light, and italics. kayes and Becket' point outthat in multiple users the libr'iry a number of major categories ofdata can be Special input/output hardware compiled: management data, circulation data, cata- light pen, badge reader, OCRs net, ete, loging/indexing data, selectioh/aocestisi aorta data, and Reirsote amino gaspotie time (on nine) textual data,2 Analyzing die natureof the data WERFACE WITH SYSTEM involved in the new system may diciAte the use ofSome Offline interface equiPment or militate against the uSe ofother devices. Me interface One-way input' involves transininarigdata to the 1.anka to multiple systems computer without receiving transmissionhack at the time of input. One-way inputgenerally is used with' Means of Inputting hatch processing. The initial data conversiondoeu- The input to a system involve' getting the data from mein is prepared offline, and thedata are gathered its source into the computer from human- readable into a group or batch and thenread at entered intO the , form into machine-readable form. This is wherethe system as, high - volume input.Anothor, form of one-way human interfaces with the machine_ The realimpact input is the use of a light pen toread bar code labels in of any automation effort is felthere first and cannot be art online mode: Although alight is often used to flash eliminated entirely. The best that can be done is to an indication that the data werereceived, this method make the means of inputting as efficient aspossible, is bwically one way as OppOSecl to co rt versat'to n a I. data . Input in its larger sense, includes the .entire e.ronversattortalinput nput is afeature interactive handling process: data capture, transcription,keying, processing mode. Input often is in the fa fa dialog verification, error correcting, and sometimes transmis- between the user and the prograna. tlions are sion for processing. It has been estimated that up to50 asked and answered, display forms arefilial out, percent of a data processing budget canbe involved problems are noted and corrections prompted.This the with data handling. This proportion is true for type of input requires a devicethat can handle' two- that "in a library also. Cox, Dews, and Dolby wrote way communications both input and otstput- This computer system, the most time-constimingand expen- method can case the editing and' error-correction ve single operation isprobably the original prepara- probichts of input, but it is slower aud in some systems form."' Ways tion of the data in a rnachine readable ties up the CPU. 4 the volume ofinput is heavy, it can to reduce the costs include reducingthe amount of taken. data, hind up the system if precautions aro nOt manual handling and rehandling of the same of more than and data Sometimes applications call for the use reasing the ease of both data "keying" example, a light pen plus in ing /correction; and increasing the speed of data one type of input (for interactive terminal for circulation, acard reader for "keying," "reading," and "transmitting." for a serials Attention must be given_ to the. impact ofthe reentry records and a key-to-tape station system, or a magnetic tapereader for MARC inputting on the computer system as well as the impact terminal for perform it Sometimes .cdistributiontapes and an intelligent on the library staff who must deviectNsed one at a time, the two areas conflict, and comprolnises musthe made. cataloging input). Each Lthktrur (Neweauls J. tf tialby, Thr Compur and Ow tihrory, thr Computer in Mc ()Ionization and lfandlgag of Ittprominet iM IN.S. M. (dox, J. D..Dries. and ryne Library, 194i), F. 18. kipun Tyrr, Eng.: University of Newcwile upon 1971), pp 275-9, Bobcrt M Ham and Jooepli Becker, liamiteok ejP,44 ProttsPng forLthranei, 2d ed. (-411 Angelrn ttgdviilc.Publiehini C4., commit LIB BY APPLICATIONS

but the fact that there is more than one type must be re pc la it A and :are used by the public; they Considered. uire greater legibility ana better esthetics. If large The physical locations of the various input stations amounts of elcopy output are required, the speed of also must be considered. If the input is handled at a the output device becomes critical. The system can be point next to the mainframe, one kind of connection is output-Ixamdllf the devices arc too slow, proper. If itis handled at a remote location, snore Display output (a visual image on a screen) is often sophisticated connections May be required. usedinonline.,interactive systems.Itisusually If more than one user must enter data at the sasn combined with a keyboard device as an interactive time, the system must be designed to handle more than terminal. The display device must match the require- one input line. This problem occurs in the online ments of 'the nature of the output data and the interactive mode ;and is really, a sophisticated require- requirements of the system frt expres;ing or f rrnating resent. From the User's standpdint, however, it may be that data, the key to a truly useful system. A combination of hardcopy and chsplay output is Because of the time and expanie involved in data used when there is a need for a permanent record or a, conversion,itis important to enter information in special hardeopr fonts in an online interactive system machine-readable form available from outside sources that uses to CRT-type keyboard/display terminal for whenever possible.Input may be inataonline, conversation. A printeriscombinedwiththe computer-to-computer, or an offline, read - on-request CRTYkeyboard utak sometimesfor simultaneous environment. output and sometimes as a print-on-request slave. Machine-readable outputis used to allow ,two Types of .Output Products computer systems to "talk" to each other, Output from the system alsois used to send toother,systems for The output products of a computer system make the further pr+4ing, such as COM production or results of data processing available for use by humans photocompositior or by another computer system. The forM of the ou and the amount, format, sequence, frequency, aid File Structure and Size permanence oftheinformation supplied bythe computer all have bearing on the system itself. As with The intellectual content of the system, the data that input, the special requirements of library data roust be are input, ptoomsed, referenced, maintained, created, considered in selecting output devices, It isimportant and -output,, is made up of data elements handled as that the products called for be thought:out carefully in sUbfields or :fields, Related fields are combined into a terms of the new system, and that they not be mere complete, logical' unit called a record. Similar records replications of current manual products. For example, are combined into a file. The order of the rccords'on is there any need fur a weekly books-on-order list if the the file is called the file structure. Common structures on-order file is available through online, direct access aresequerniai,linked, indexed sequential, direct at any time? access, and random access. TYPES OF OUTPUT PRODUCTS The type of file structure selected usually depends Hardcopy on the size of the file (extremely large files almost Display always are maintained on magnetic tape and therefore tsr Combination hardcopy and display in a type of secrential structure) and the nature of the Machine-teadablc operations conducted on the file (the kind of posting, The best known type of hardcopy output is the I I- referencing, and updating). A programmer can define by-14-inch continuous-form printout produced by a the files as reoulired for the roost efficient processing for computer - driven printer. Other types of hardcopy the application, There are different types of filet: products are appropriate for scene applications: card- master file.s, 'transaction files, input files, output files, stock, stencils, multipart forms, standard 81/2-by-I I intermediate files, and reference files. One enormous bond stationery, and 2-, 4-, or 6-up continuous-feed file can be defined if desired, or a series of files can be paper, The quality of the type can be cr tical. Most defined withno redundancy and. linked into an hardcopy output is used internally by theaff and for integrated data base. The way the files work against limited periods of time, but such products as ccImputer- one another during processing also must be considered. produced book catalog pages and catalog ealrds arc In any case the file do affect the-computer design. MINICOMPUTERS FADERAL LIBRARI

the SIZE required and the hardware cannot accommodate FILE STRUCTURE A (hardware and Structute changes, an entirely new system software) may be needed. Sequential of a Diteet Access The peaks and. pressure points in activities but they are very difficult i system arc of vital concern, far as CPU cycle Total aurnber of characters to determine correctly in advance as access time, I/O interrupt -response Numbs" of characters required at one , nictnory and pressure A sequential file can be handled on any type of in etc., are concerned. The peaks man/machine storage device, The device selected.depends on such points must be considered for the of printing elements as spca. ease of .handling, and cost. Sequin, interface devices also., The number of lines reqatired at one time must be used to computeprinting tial files typicatibtAreused in the batch mode. The number of A direct -acCeta file generally is used in the oaline time based on different printer speeds. time must be interactive Mode andcanbe handled only nu a disk- documents to be keyboarded at any one how many tyise mass storage Unit: floppy disk, fixed-head click, or used with a unit time for entry to determine input units are required for one work shift, twowork disk pack. shifts, and so on. - The size 011 afile can affect the system design. all systems. If - Although a hardware configuration can be puttagetli- Response time must be consideredfor the batch er to support an- enormousfile online on disks,it mediatestatus information is required, online interactive becomes iuordirtately and prohibitively expensive. ode may be eliminated andgn but cheaper, magnetic tape is often system may be needed. Then,with an online system, Instead, of time the user used. E storage device has a maxim urn response time involves the amount an answerfrom the system. capac of the file in characters can be waits at the terminal for tised to c c number of mass storageunits Sometimes heavy loads in a time-sharing system can -slow down-icapoase.-These can be inthe I/Geontrol, required, me system, the -charaeL For example, some tcrs that must' be accessible at one time caninfluence memory access, or proeessor areas. capacity for eight users, but the decision about which mass storage device to use. systems are stated to, have any more thanfour online at atime canslow 'the Transaction/Volume system downsignificantly.

The cap a system,oritstotal . is Applications Characteristics, important of course. However, in many cases a. more What is wanted' from the system? What canthe critical con is the peak load at any one time. questions are impor- for 'example,itisimportant to know the total system do? The answers to these circulation transactions per year, for counters;and. tant in describing the applicationthe system wilLserve. the nature statistics parameters, but more important `figures arc The type df operations to beperformed and the largest number of transactions Outstanding at any of each must be reviewed. one time (for file capacity)and the greatest number of APPLICATIONS CHARAGTEWIST borrowers at any tans riffle (for input device.load). Sorting TRANSACT1QN/VOLUME ' Searching Expansion and growth Special I/O hardware Peaks and pressure points ofactivities Remote access Response time Response time - Although minicomputers need not have thelifespan Reliability the of large-scale computes and therefore do nothave, to Ifthe files require much manipulation to sort hardware be installed with a capacity to handlelong-range data,thismust be considered by the exparision andaagroWth should be designer. Alsofor considerationarethe nature .ofthe future -g-rowth, and the considered, Some hardware canNandle only data to be sorted -(alphabetic or numeric), the input /output device; some can handle only (aft- us nurnber,of records to be sorted. The solution to be expanded to only a certain sorting problem may be to provide a largeamount of a time; some CPUs can sorting or to memory limit; zInd sortie I/OcontrolS can drive only as working space in which to perform the eachsequence, and to many as lour devices.If growth or expo nSionis provide redundant files, one for MINICOMPUTERsLIBRAICY APPLICATIONS 57

updateate them, which will increa. se the amount of *dace With Othe /System storage required. When, how often, and by what elements the files arc As a system is designed, other systems in the same searched are significant factors in system's design. How library or agency and in ihe library community in a file is to be accessed must be considered in terms of general should be considered, The ability to interface operational mode (batch or online interactive); the with these other sYstcms, whether directly or indirectly, search criteria (controlled vocabulary, Boolean logic, most be established if possible, Sometimes the information flow will be one-way, sometirhos two-way. (Im- or free text); the number of access points in each ., record, and whether inverted files are used. As the plicitinthis concept is the exchange of data choices are made, careful tradeoffs among system cost machine-readable forrri.) and efficiency and -user service must be made. For INTERFACE WITH OTHER SYSTEMS example, file accessibility only'lthrough a controlled Offlinc vocabulary (i.e., thesaurus) is a simple, straightforward Online systems procedure, but it shifts to the use the heavy Links to multiple systetns responsibility of editing and assigning-descriptors at ine interface merely providei a trteans of trans- inplit time. Accessibility of the file by any word (e.g., a g data in machine-readable forth by physically text search method) relieveA the user at input of porting the medium (i.e., punch cards, magnetic intellectualdecisions, butit, requires ,sophisticated tape, or floppy disk) to another coMputer to be read hardware and software that are very costly to imple- rather than transmitting data directly over acomma= ment. ations line.

- Spine applications are better served by use of special Online interface allows direct computer-to-compu - . . input /output hardware. In a library, efficiency in the ommunications. The commtmications'txchange circulation application may require a badgc(card one-way or two -way, continuous or batch. reader input statiorrir a light -per i wand for bar labels. 1,inks-to-multiplc systems" -is another way of saying A serials system may require computer-punched 8© o- distributed networking in which the processors and column cards for use reentry records. These special theiroperating system software -allowtasks`. and requirements must be stated at the, beginning. resources to be divided and .shared throughout the Access to a system by means of terminals physically , network. 'For example, the file used by system A removed.Worn. the mainframe is called remote 'access. he a part of, and physically located at, system The unit may be in the next roOrn,"the next building, Transfer of data, control of the' manipulation, and or the next county. Direct linerrinections can be used rol, of input/output devices 'are all shared and for. some remote access locui4;ns: but over longer fratisferredback and forth as required by the operat- distances -the laws of physics prohibit the use of direct ing systems. These functions are technically complicat- lines. Remote terminals 'at these distances must be ed but promise greater effieienq and efficacy in the connected by telecommunications lines, and these long run. have direct impact on both hardware and software. The response time required varies according to the COLUMNS TWO AND THREE- application.- If critical, response time should be a HARDWARE AND SOEE ARE system requirement and considered an application IMPACTS ' characteristic to be given special attention in the system design. When design characteristics ha n reviewed, the Reliability is 'always desirable in both manual aful impact of each is expressed in terrrl hardware and automated systems. Some applications, however, im- software. These columns arc inter dent. Often a pose stricter cOnstra.infis on downtime than others; if hardware device dictates a 5pecifie r 'module, reliability is critical, it should be stated as an applica- and vice versa, Other times a cha teristic c be tion characteristic. The solution may be an altern'ativc Bed by either hardware or are; -the clice manual backup procedure; a duplicate, totally redun- resides with the system designer adprogrammer. dant computer system; or a second system capable of Table 13 expresses the typical bar and software multiprocessing. -ts of the design characitcristicS,- Characteristics an

OF INPUTTING DEVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE. attire of the Data Must have necessary transla- Alphabetic and/or 'Keypunch machines not suited for special characters,%.but tion tables to match any Numeric, Upper and character - set(s) used. Lower Case, Special Card readers can haddle them. Characteristics, CitIN vary as to what they will handle, but most now handle upper and lower ease with a few special characten. Only

FAfew can handle diacritical masks. Tape and disk drives have no

One-way/ConV man° One.way DEVICE t only. Ex, leylxiard, card er, paper tape reader, .hatige, reader station, light pelt I/O CONTROLLER. Must match device. PLICATIONS SOFTWARE Conversational I/O DEVICE Two-Way; output or response If a higher level language _apahility, Ex. Teletype or is wed, it must have a CRTikeyboard unit compiler that supports WPROLLER. Must match device. conversational programming.

DEVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE card reader, CRT/keyboard Scheme or technique for mai, magnetic tape reader, input varies, (block or lighk pen, paper Jape reader, line mode, character or record at a time). CONTROLLER STEMS SOFTWARE Most consider different speeds, Must iupport the I/O functions lvlay have one (or each type. for the different devices. , KTNICATIONS EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS SOFTWARE ern or dista'set, with tele-, Must support telecOmmunica-. communic.ation lines. lions IunCtions.

Hardwire lines (with repeaters). APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Multiple -Orlin y; conversational Could be alfecied if a single :ability. program is to handle multiple UN ICATIONS EQ0 I P users (as 'op toned to time- or data set, withilele- sharing. cronication SYSTEMS SOFTWARE Must partition mernory and be are lines (with repeaters). able to handle inultiple users. UNIC ATIONS CONTROLLER Must. be able to handle tele- squire a processor., coiriununications functions. tide Sources ((CATIONS EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Incoming Cornmunica- Possibly a requiremerrr to refor- norm Line or data set, with'tele- runication, mat May requirita bridge -program. wire lines (with repeaters).- SYSTEMS SOFTWARE fUNICATIONS CONTROLLER Telecommunications` functions quire a processor., support, OR Simpler technique ,to emulate a terminal.

s I ':Ac 59

'FANLE 13Desi acteriatIra and 'TheImpactaCrintinued dware Ittipacts NPUTTINGContinued earlable Eorm I/O DEVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Must be compurible with input Scheme or technique for input (card reader, paper tape varies to match device. reader, inanetie.tape reader, SYSTEMS SOFTWARE floppy disk reader). Must support the I/O functions of the different devices,

I/O D VIC_ Primers. Must consider ekten- SiVelleMS of character set or flexibility for interchanging character seri, Line printer is more flexible, than serial printer. Teletypewriters are upper case only. I/O CONTROIIER Must match. Spteirs1 loons require. I/O DEVICE Meats Ex, cardstock, Printers. Must be equipped with ti paitt loons, a special` card platen .arid, card feed. MUM, aktpt special forms multipart forms with

ICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE tar orf gttal Read-out oak. Must reflect necessary programt ust consider the= character set ming techniques that are device- available; usually quite broad. bound (background/foreground, 'Must Consider the requiresi num. hlinkjnreverse video, her of characters per line and scroll or block mode). the number Or !ides per screen for display, Dired features may include foregramd/background,display, reverse video, blinking /non- tilinku ri Scrpll or Must consider whetheY display canbe shown in an,entire Unit or blo$1 or do6 it rose ".tiie fine at a time I/0 (N'Ilstl'14.01.-LER MUM match, deVice. 1/0 DEVICE CRT plus printer. May prior simidtaneously w the display, which will be slow, or may pont off the dih- . play ori,rlernanti, allowing fist, &Splay and slow printing, .1/0 CONTROLLER. Must iniqh desdeC.

I/O DEVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Must becompatiblet1i network,. May have to prOvidei the soft- orhost. ware to move the data (actual COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT transmission). Modem' or data ,et, with tide- rltrstbe compatible to other end communications -and may require a program as OR ' a bridge (reformat, protocols TlardWire lines v.with repeaters. standards, etc.). COMMUNICATIONS C:ON'CROLLR S'4 STEMS SOFTWARE May require a processor. May support a-.corarnunications control processor function. 4 OFC __ntinued Machine I/O DEVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE (Offline) Ex. Punch cards, paper tape, Must be compatible with Other magnetic tape, floppy 'disk. end, Devicemust. ,compatible with: May require modules to meet Pir'itocols (density, number of format specificationi. Arack4) Rirrnat. (standard)

'FILE STR AND ME Stsveture Sequential MASS STORAGE DEVICE Punch cards, paper tape, cassette tape, magnetic tape, floppy disk, disk packs. I/O CONTROLLER Must match storitge device, Direct Access MASS STORAGE, DEVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Disk (floppy disk, fixed-head Method of retrieval required. disk, rnaeable-head disk) Some type of indexing scheme I /O. CONTROLLER reciSirtel (e.g, indek sequen- Must be' a DMA direct memory tia,, direct index,, randOrn access type. number index). , - SYSTEMS SOFTWARE Disk operating system(DOS).' Size Largc Number of MASS STORAGE DEVICE Character% Eliminates, punch cards and paper tape 'as being too slow and inefficient, Rest to use magnedc tape or disk. use direct access

instead of sequential, ,which means . 'MASS STQRAGE DEVICE Inonlinkmode, mostsonsider hysical eapacity p#r- unit available at one time for accessing in terms of number of characters required at one

I/O CONTROLLER SYSTEMS SOFTWARE:- Maximum number of .tisrfInc Shot& consider that mosthave equipment can handle.''` Ma number of re users, MASS. STORApE DEVICE Maximum number of devices or units controller can , handle, CPC Main memory: maximum that addressed. - MINICOMPUTERSLIBRARY APPLICATICANS

Speithicyele time, how cyclra are apportioned). OMM !CAI' IONS EQUI f"Ig ENT Modem speeds. Data transfer rates. I/O DEVICE Rate of speed of operation time versus volume).

Resporise Time CPU Speed (cycler time, how cyclea are apportioned).

Sorting/Data fvfanipula- IbfASS STORAGE rxvicE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE' lion Requires large ahriotint. o Bibliographic data gestalt* Nature: Numericor. ing space and access to 'requires variable-len Bibliographic Aral areas at one time records, which require :note Amount (Number of Tope SystemWould require sophisticated software tk- Rekord') minimum of three tape velopTent for data tuttuii:Nltiort. or large MT storage as- SYSTEMS- SOFTWARE auxiliary. should require utility rotAtints Cl/AOne would be sum -r, to provide rting dent but must be large. CPU lfge amount of main mtmory. required.

MASS STORAGE DEVI Any type will work, but s consider the speed of the reader in terms of 'process, ing. time (card reader, Raper 'tape reader,. magnetic taper disk). MASS STORAGE DEVICE Any type (cards, paper tam magnetic tape, disk) MASS STORAGE DEVICE Any. type (cards, paper tam Magnetic- tape,. disk); speed will be the variable. MASS SIDRAGE DEVICE Any; type (cards, paper taps, magnetic to, disk); sped Will .be - the le

:ASS STE Disk_, (tit access -updat'ed -soji :A general-1qt package 'rnig due to the complex-tut search/reulevalprograd YSTEMS SOFT*AR_E Requires a time-shareoperating system (DOS-oriented), 62 N JhEDEEAL LIBRARIES

TABLE I3-11.10 cs and..Their lin

sign Chictet1sti I l trtlwat Impacts Ryan Imports

AP MATIONS CliARACT'ERISTICS ti Searching, cant, I Online, cant: .Boolean Logic CUU ttcrf main rdemory

Sopitisitt instruction sets orrimire Free Text CPU. Large *moos of main memory twittiire&P' Softbitsiziented instruction ...seri++require:y.1, Numerous Accels MASS' ISTORAGE DEVICE Points Disk.; matt have direct access (MUltiple Inverted online to +tint base and all Files) inverrteA 116. CPU Sispitiseirrantli, instruction Aistrt structure rrqttired, CPU .Larg f1.rritt ni4f mainmemory reeitiired1; SoPitintiirttlied regiAter structure 0,R4 41t4lIrty,Ctiott sets MAitt 1344e; ntemary (storage) prom:0On feature. I/O C7ONRROLLF,12,S Man turtalle multiple linen. M uric tiff: curn postihle. COMMUNI:CATIONS CONTR

Mtlir reiiptirr A 1kcincentratOr. May toisfirn proccicor. EQUIPMENT', MtgLe-hit QM' data set, with 'tete., bnmsttninicaiialts finds_ OK Flticdw'o Inca with repeaters.

Special Input/Output ONS SOFTWARE Hardware technique fat inpu Light Pert ehdevice.. Badge Reader ARE ; OCR Scanner inputfoutptit the -different

Remote Access flU,NKAT ONS EQUIPMENT ARE itstat dt,tkjiSet, telecnni- support of tele- nIVEir;Arton tions functions. CC)tvCMUNRCA`t NS 'CONTRO Msy tettu ire a Itrocc sof. , 17r)CON1111,01.3 R Musv rrw,t4,

CPU Speer- re), how MrOCOMPUTERLIB tARY APPLICATIONS

TARLE I3 Design Characteristics and Their ImpactsContinued Flard ware Impacts

AYPLI TIONS CHARACTER ISTICS Con ti n ued Reliability Osiplicate part of the hardware. CPU: duplicate. I/O CONTROLLER: duplicate. I/O pEvicE, have one or two spares. COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT: have backup lines. Alternative methods I/O DEVICE Have an offline device to gathered dataEx. punch cards to replace online keyboard. Must he compatible to the total system configuration.

I/O CONTROLLER , Must matchdevice. CPU Intelligent ,ternsinal may handle data input in a local proems= Mg mode and transmit when system is up.I Mitt system configuration most be designed lo handle thismethod.

INTERFACE WITH OTHER ITEMS Offline -)I -)EVICE APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Card reader, paper tape reader.- Scheme or technique for input

. magnetic tape reader, floppy varies to match device. disk reader, etc., must be May require modules tomeet compatible with input in format specif icatianq terms of protocols (density, SYSTEMS SOFTWARE number of tracks) and format Must support input/output (standard) functions of the different clevicm

Online [ 'ICE AJTLICATIONS SOFTWARE Most tae compatible with network Mutt be compatible with other or mot. end. COM MUNI(;ATIONS EQUIPME May require modules to meet Modeniir data set, with tele formai specifications, communications SYSTEMS sorrwARE )1( Telecommunications functions F arthVire11 rieS with lertTiltrr5 support, or a simpler technique A, FM NI I. IN ICATI( )NS COMM(I.LK to emulate a temainal. May rt-Th.11Fr prOrr.F.,a)l- Link to Multiple Systems t :Pt SYSTE MS SOITW ARE (Distributed Network) 1 riirgr OfIktrill) memory Operating system must sophism a led union-11"n ACIN handle roultiproceing CA)hirsILINR :ATR INS Ct )NItt K Ielecommunica bons Inactions May require a processoi support May require a coneentra )M NIUN R :AFR )Ns EQUI r,1 lvlodrin or data set with tele innummications lines. I ThVICI. Must hr compatible with nr1w4K on figuration requir74' men isin terms (It pro!ocol:!..,,, (dens' isn umber. .IA1% trar and format t,tatittttt1.,..,..; t a

F. Table )l4Classes of rviinicontputtr Systems

aiss Class V Ciuracteristies Wu I Clan II Class III

16hit word. l&bit word. CPU 8=bit word. 8- or 16-bit word. 16-bit word. Memory: up to IZ8lc Memory: 641( virtual. Memory: up to OK Memo (8-bit) Memory: up to 16K real or 54KvirtuaL real. or 32K (Whit) real. real.

Eight Eight. Number of Two: rhre Eight. Devicts

Paper tape, punch Paper tape, punch Mass Storage Devices Paper tape or tape Punch cards, paper Paper ,tape, punch, earris, tape =die cassette. tape, tape Cassettes, cards, tape cas'etttt, cards, tape cawtte, niagnetictapc, magnetic .tape, or magnetic tape, magnetic tape, diskette, disk car- diskette. diskette: diskette, disk cartridge, or disk pack. tridge, or disk pack.

Teletype, paper tape Teletype, paper :tape Mart/MaChtfie Inter, Teletype, paper tape Teletype, paper tape Teletype, paper tape unit, plus printer. unit, plus printer: face Devicm unit, or unbuffered unit, plus printer- unit, plus printer. Special devices. Special devices, CR U. Buffeted CRT. Buffered CRT: Buffered CRT, Buffered CRT.

Direct lint to host, Direct line to host, Conmnunications I)ireti line to a host. Direct line to hum for concurrent corn= 4 to 8 lints to B to .2 lints to munications. terminals. terminals

Amernbler, BASIC, or Assembler, BASIC, Software AmrtobletofBASIL Assembler, BASIC, or Az-ernbler, BASIC, or FORTRAN, or COBOL. Lode program sup: Ft lit FORTRAN, COBOL Full piygram support virt. Liiitrd program Program support Full prbgram support software. su pport: software: software: Data base management package.

Online interactive or Time:sharing online Operating Mode Simple executive Simple executiveof Single- or multiple- interactive processing. monitor ( iiitenilefd) iingle hatch batch pros batch prvessing. 0 appliotions, Online interactive s-ys- Timc-tharing with multiple General- -p battle& Data collection and Sonunarin ngta bul ten for multiple users online wing list, (doing but prig, searching, relor, including so ing. user, on a single multiple applications. not iaiii pg lat[on mating No sorting IMINICOMF LIBRARY APPLICATIONS

COLIMIN FIVE: CLASS OF Determine objectives and purposes of system MINICOMPUTER study Survey relevanlibrary automation literature The final column of the design bridge is the class of Prepare project schedule, allocate funds, and computer system appropriate to the application char- assign staff acteristics. (Column four will be discussedlater Establish documentation standards and proce- Again, it must be emphasized that these categories-are dures merely representative] samples. The proper configrira- Prepare project proposal don for any systems may cut across several of these 2_ Analyze present optration categories for the number of combinations is almost Perform clescriptiveanalysis infinite. The categories are ordered ina hierarchy Flowcharts from simple to complex or basic to sophisticated (see., Decision tables Table 14). 'onnaires, case studies, etc. nalysis: files, records, data fields COLUMN FOUR: LIBRARY SYSTEM Investigate conditions imposed by outside envi- SPECIFICATIONS 'onment The fourth column, that of assessing the libra Agency and :local agency Library community application, can now be discussed. This urn Others however, must be left blank in this book. The must come from each individual library. For a libra identify operations requir cataloging or circulation system, there are no r merit wrong answers to such questions as "How eturti Identify exceptiopitirationv: !den tify;:nanagemcht and, terminals are required?" "Are remote communica.tiohs ance data r eiuirnients lines necessary?" "Does the output have terbc,is machine-readable form?" In fact there is oftehItO,tiiie e auto answer in a specific library setting. Decisions can , based on tradeoffs or on specific constraints These hisronput and cltput requirements decisions are based1 the system requirements drawn, blish operational -and human factors up during the systems analysis and systems design blish staffing, funding, and time requir phases that precede this task. men is Produce project report System -RequirementsOne End of Document findings in a project report the Bridge Review findings with appropriate agency n- 4=r, agernen I s-astated repeatedly in library litcra4lire and in this Report on results to library staff. book systems analysiS and design for the keystone of The first phase is basically a review of the situation a successful automated system. At pre-sent they often and to assessment of what the problems are It must be are performed inadequately, The .cletails of systems pointed out that an automation project should be analysis cannot be covered in this book. suggested directed at a problem or med.., No'one should think of main reference to follow is Markusothei al., (r.ouleitnec a utoma ti ng simply because it is fashionable or because for Lthmryflorornationt3 whit-h vas written specifically eqiu prr lent isavailable. Automation should l,cthe for Federal libraries. means, not the roil. Some genuine needs for aunm

Ivlariusonpresents the major phases TIN ing can be classified as.5 analysis and the tasks involved as foil( as increased volume of activity1, 1. Per-torn-1 preliminary Planning and prepanon Need for improved control over operations Inform library staff of plans Need for improved control over collections

1 It41(1,ArA mot. Marko- o to et iti ittplettint, /.' t hur.1 1 bloidt,,A brffrrat and (Viet 1thniriti ( Santa Si .nit,Gala. SyNfr(11 i)eVel(plflefit ("Au-writ lion,

1972) Another Yom, a library text is Edrs3, A I I r F 1IAl hri . ..k11(1 JONI MI 1.11,ory t,r_ ,IF1,16.511 &tilde/I/lei New to Ngley -I nterarir ot-e.

John %Vtlev & Soto.,q701 rotif tI of I SVilrIMartalv,15, tirelitho rotaaos, re toad rAlwarti Ipmap, 1,1 tibfilty Sp Beirut roapol i'.it

klArkuum rl alC;titelelifiet pF INV" p 21, hotp MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERAL LIBRARIES

,,Need for improved service to users they shouleinot be a' reiteration of the existing system. Need to provide new services 'tit-is a mistake to automate a manual system in iblo. The Need to prevent duplication of ef for demands and requirements should not even be the Need to operate within existing staffing patterns same. The problem or need on which the new systemis or conditions. based will trigger some different requirements. The existing system has taken on characteristics that are The specific needs must be stIted and formal system -theresultsof constraints that have been met objectives written. These objectives should bo- stated pragmatic adjustments that have been made. The new broadly, then restated as specific objectives. system requirements should be freeof these "systems- The second phase involve ati,analysis of the present bound': requirements and should be an ideal "shop- system. Systems analysis is defined as "the study of all ping list."9 The new requirements should also be of the components,operatiops,:de-tinfonnation and drawn upfreeof existing requirements that are material flow, work environment, etc.:that constitutes tradition-bound or unnecessary. to the existing systern.", To facilitate this process, various The second caution deals with the nature or level of techniqueS suchas flow chatting, deckiontables, therequirement. The system requirementisstill ,surveys, questionnaires, interviews, case Studies, and expressed in library terms, "need" terms as opposed to cost analyses are used. in general, systems analysis "solution," or automation, terms. For example, the requires systematic attention to the following iten-is.7 statement "daily access to the order file" wouldbe an Data. These are the,film, records within the files, and appropriate library !requirement but the statement fields within the records. "online file access" wouldof be it steps over into Operations. These are the tasks that are performed in the "solution," or.data processing, area accoreiplishing sonic functional objective. Opera- The third caution has to do with the view of the tions inci4de filing, posting information to a file, library. Libraries rarely exist as independent organiza- -searching, labeling, etc.' tions. They therefore must be viewed in their places Materials Flour.This component concerns the physi- withinlargerstructures. The library applications cal en tit ies with which the library deals. Materials 'requirements are often the first things considered, but include books, serials, raps, microform, laborato- _requirements imposed on the system from outside the ry notes, etc. The materials flow includesreceipt, library must also be considered, For example, Marku- processinpstorage, retrieval, and use. sem lists these asp&ts of the outside environmentthat Wormed :on Mill. This component comprises all of the must be considered: II communications' thatrelatein how data and Agency budget requirements materials are tc_i be handled and how operations Agency personnel or payroll recur are tcrbe performed and, as used, meansinforma- circulation or master user files) tion about the system and does riotreferto Agency headquarters library policies content of materials, I ti nclucles policies, regula- Agency purchasing requirements tions, otal, comin 'lineation , 'forms, rcporss, and l.i'brary of Congress Card Division ruirenaecits= statistical data about the sys term for card purchases is to iclenti fy and claim- the- system The third Vendor requirements for purchase orders requirements for the new system. -System require= Agency statistical reporting requirements: ments are the set of tasks and characteristics t hat the new system must perform and have."yThr systems Subject to these three cautions, the task of eparing requirements are based on drrnatuti (for Iri forma- system requirements entails consideringthe following tion, reports, and action) on the system fromall questions. sources. What needs or dr' ,acids nriust the syvem meet? Three cautions must be stated ,ttktrit[Yu:NyNirms kV-hat are the impArts (organizational, environ- requirements.First, while the net,systciii require- , mental,and/Or other system) and the constraints ments will be similar to the present system ilcslipioni, (physical, organizational, technical, contractual,

4Ibid.. p. 29. Mkt p. 40: 14id., ," Chapman, Si- Pitrre,And Siam. It 'IMArkosonElal GM+ik(rriOliof iI NICO APPLICATIONS 67

resources) that isidered by the new Data access points to charge in system? circulation) must include title,call number, What are the functions that must be performed by and borrower the system, in terms of:12 Charges and overdues must be identifiable on a what triggers each function? daily tilsis --what are the restrictions on each function? The systemmolt not depend 0,n conversion of what are the data elements used in the unc- the shelflist tion? 4. Human factors requirements - what si steps Must take place in the Due to high turnover, the system must be fnction? designed so that it can be handled by relatively

what volume mfprocessing 'per period of time? untrained clerks what isthefrequency of execution ofthe Equipment must not be noisy and must not function? require redesign4M circulation area Output products should be legible and conve- How these re ordered or expressed is nient to scan somewhAt:"` rkuson suggests a more getter- 5. Volume to be handled al, less techi line," Daily: 1,000 charges and discharges, 50 over- 1.sto t rtto gertt=raI requirernents 2. 'Scope hTfirat ons to be included s File 40,000 u for circulation file; Staternettif functional requirements, 5,000 maximum users Data elenaen s o be included Flicmaintenance: Outside ofdischarging; Dataotakispiints corrections occur at a rate of 10 per wes_k--- Status requir6f1erits 6_ ltvlanagement data requirements 4. Statement of human fac Daily tally of overdues and charge 5. Volume to be handled onthly and yearly fRinun ary of-ovcrdues and .4liaify flow °it charges File size Desirable but not mandatory: Monthly tally of File maintenance loan activity for every borrower and average of all borrowers 6. Statement of managemendata reitireTmcuts such as: 3Desirable (canners AnalyWhiectied Handling of interlibraloans and pertinent Output products required activity summaries Analysis of loans by broad class categories 7. Statement ofdesirablefeatures(c=artitluelr operations, atalyseS; otrfpiit products Inclusion of temporary borrowers The follojng is a sample list of rc cltiir Monts Lists of items in circulation on a daily basis with circulation system.'`' weekly cumulation I . cCeneral requirements Use of automatic charging device and perma- Improve control over materials to ctrcul nent borrower cards Integrationof system with agencypayroll Improve rnanagerricit t clam reporting account number Improve, control of books and tinhytincl Handling of reserve requests Circulation operations to he tocl tided Charging and discharging Systems DesignThe Other End of Overdue control 3. Functional requirements the Bridge Data demerits mustton nide brieftitle,hirief The system. requirements as just described are' the author, complete call intlobcr Om hiding copy). basisforthe systems design specifications,- which dattpe, andllorn iilentifie.tinin describe the nature of the system to be impleme`nted

N civ.m :mmrymmimmmin, 111.c,Amm dI [.um, , II' :.`1... Fli :enter 11111,-4m-win In AtImmirnalcirl bAla Wmhiumonn.

I) p Nftilir,c,i.mmthem I I

e'Atirimmtmmirm cm al , Gum./..ium /m / 1111,1

1:1 MAAR-1ES

cost men, and how itis to operate. These arc expressedin a Analyze preseritr operation al design document that serves as "theblueprint and machines, material Analyze projected costs crf a tttarnated opera- sirat of reference for all subsequentimplementatgon ,material work. rt provides all the information necessary to syStern men, machin Compare costs at projeEted levels ofoperation solicitbids,if equipment or outside assistanceis Analyze transition costs acquisition of auto- needed, and to develop work assignments forlibrary or mated system and costs olaintenance of dual other :intornal. personnel ... It must contain all the mduring system im ementation information necessary for the initiation of computer files fl 9w charts, data Identify cost of conversion 11 Met-16a! PrOgram design andcoding, trainiogiesisting personnel, procedures."''' Identify costs of forniati, file design, and operarioral books, etc design preparation of manuals, code This final document is the result of the systems -;, various 5.Assess changes resulting from automation phase, which "is concerned with formulating Identify alteration of routing, provision of new systems that meet some orall 5of the requirements sledentieN includes developed during the analysis phase. It also, Describe effect on present stafforganization alternative sys- the critical review of the postulated Consider increased capability, changes inunit of the 'hest' system, and tems, the recommendation costs, etc detailed design of the selected systern."6The follow- Consider potential of phasing contemplated design. 17 ing list'shows the steps of systems system into proposed agency,local, state, or I, Formulate initial syslerns design regional systems . and Develop flowchart or'functional diagrams vcstigate management problems tentative system specifications Itinovnestigate problemS of managing opera- Conceptualize ithd study alternative yc approaches Contractor facility tRefine system? tions Use agency computer facility Cititiin apProv l of initial cli:_sign investigate amount of computercane available 2. Estalksh hard+vareXpecifkations to library and schedulefor services lti ntfpro, essingand OfflinE quire- 7. Report on system investigationrstilts PrepAre two reports: general reportfor library- Iden`fifinput ricloutput ehamcren and IP- staff,institution management, etc.:detailed 1 activities riquiretii trs report for further implementation Identify modific srlibrar-y Prepare displays, charts, etc., c r veriogmajor application points for staff and other briefio_ sessions Identify essential cr en dour, levels Report on investigation to librarycornritr.nity of system implementation as appropriate ipreel )cvelnp schedule for further irrpW Investigate procurement of cc .,. Estimate lead-time require,' ir ohnil plans equipment 8. Perform Oroject reporting a Estahlish software spe_ icatioti 9.-Obtain approval for further systerunplernen Identify computer programs required i Investigate general-purprme programs suit, hIc litesystems designphase should be the most for system use i.,Hive phase of I he automation process. It must be to based on the systemrequirementand on -eve.op11 specificatiormfor pi t}glatLittyote firnil-y experience gained from the descriptionof the existing beused documental iorkicipriir wen is systrn,butit -eau. look beyond existingmethods, eve.opI-) I program Investigate capabilities of program-1mm: staff [novolows, nr operlitions. The systemdesign is best available to library clone by a team consisting of ali thetartnrilin draatii-11 Analyze cirsts pit icessinc; expork,.INorking

I p 5rt tim .,,it Ito pp COMPUTERSLIBRARY APPLICATIONS

conceptualize and study alternatives from both ibrary the minimum size for lltin independent system is 25,000 and data processing standpoints. The best system will titles, which, /rirtgs many more libraries into consider- meet both data processing needs and library needs ation.20 l vt rl that taumkt- is not inviofate. Sometimes without undue distortion of either. 4 the org Istructure of a libi-ary and the It is during the system design phase that the bridge struc titre try can dictate` automation, as can can be used. In the following section the characteristics the structure of the parent agency in which the library of minicomputers will be explored in terms of library resides. Staffing problems can suggest automation as a applicationssystern requirements. solution, For example, either a hiring freeze that LIBRARY APPLICATIONS results in a lack of clerical support dueao attrition or a one-profc&sional shop that requires careful allotting of GENERAL time can justify art automated system to absorb part of the housekeeping load. In .the systems design phase a manual syst in may Minicomputers theniscWes have openitit up both appear to be the proper solution, Although almost lihritris and more library activities-to automa- anything can be automated to one degree or another, $, 110t everything shouldpv8 manual activities, such as tion. -.Minis are small, simple, and modular, and: they moving materials, shelVing'boolo, and opening pack- `can be used in smaller applications. Minis are ideally are not suited for automation ina library, as they suitedas single-purpose, dedicated systems.Itis Tt be in a warehouse. The intellectual activities of conceivable that several mini systems serving a library setting policies and making decisions can be suppO'ned could be more economical than a single computer by automated statistical analyses, simulation, and system trying to provide the same service. Using a modeling, but except for those simple decisions that system ofeverttl minisallows,a library to introduce can be reduced to algorithms, the decisions thermselves automatiOt PC module ata time. The separate cannot be -automated. The same can be said for the modules cou _nnecied but would remain basical- personal services of a library. Automated products and ly independent. Minis, because they are so flexible and operations%an aid a reference librarian in the one-to= well suited to small-scale applications, can be used in one interaction with a user, but they cannot camp_ lete= connection with other automation sys ems as comple- ly replace the human element. The clerical activities of the library are the best ments or supplements to such system,or as compo- candidatesfor automation, These aret vilifiedby nents. Even libraries that _already have automated recordmaking and keeping, data manipulation (such systems could consider potential mini applications. as sorting or searching), and data (mud!. Even ilx the In looking at library applications the major opera- clerical areas, not everything should be automated_ In tional areas of the library (cataloging,, circulation, many cases, 'the most efficient system is not one that serials, interlibrary loans, acquisitions, reference, SDI, "does it all,," but one that does the routine or rid and and adniinistration) will be used as points of reference. while leaving the exceptionstohe dom h Keep in mioci, however, the various approaches to be ngs. I It atuornation -reviewed in Chapter Two. Consider also If automation is appropriate, an tic nplished that in any one library t lie various functions performed by alarge-scale computer system,neo. work, nine can be placed under a number of departments, For sharing wry,* bureau, minicomputer sysfern,or example, serials cart be part of cataloging, part of combination of thew, Sonic' applications, some aiser actitositionS, or a sCparate until. Interlibrary loans can needs, and some 'Sizes ofIp31.111 ,calllot certain types of systems, but the options slit left lx- pail of reference, pan of circulation, or completely open. indepeadentItis for such reasons that the specific-- Thereisno one type of lib-r, llrte.crs That dscriptions is book arc only illustrative and arc should or should tint automateIt was wit c Axiot not detatled rim is for i mitat ion. that no library with a collection ol fewer than 111(1 Mai kuson arid her collaborators reviewed the major should automate, but Swihart and l leflev stigv,e;it Ithi.try areas and developed a series of lists of functions

.P1 (Ito ,p70. for 0d,1010nal " lArnfk I SiLnley and BerylI 11,11,Comprd, /0 rt=/ / 1,.A ("I if, I ;14' I NirlOile 197 10

/ M INiCOI1ITUTERS IN FIDERkLLIB 70

Approval of purchase requests involved inhi, performance of the tasks of these area's." These .fiulction lists illustrated thatithere are Identification ofdesilrata materials "recurring basic `functions and tasks: record prepara- 4. Order Preparation and Control searching, Screening and distribution of purchase requests tion, record input, filing, tile maintenance, order Materials handling, etc." This apps h goes beyond Searching and completion of bibliographic .0/coking at 'the at on astep-brsteplTais as plotted in data flow '.chartanal helps the design to be solution- Vendor and fund assig_nrrent rriented, rather than merely a replicationofthe Order approval control e:-isting system. Order form preparation and file .monographs, serials, gifts and exchanges, etc. ACQUISITIONS 5. Materials Handling - Material sorting and distribution Markuson andher coworkers saw acrid it Routing systems as centered oroutici two basic groups:( I Control of items hrough prOcessing accounting activities that deal with the "manage 6. Receipt processing monographs, serials, etc. and control of fund allotments andexpenditures and Item verification related functions,'" and (2) order controlactivities that Invoice verification entail "machine-readable input oforder informaticm Claiming and the generation of a variety of outputproducts, ";'.'2` T File Input and Maintenance The Columbia University acquisitionsproject estab- Record input preparation and revision lished "three levels of data flow, namely,(1) prOecs.s Error correction control, or the flow of order data and theprocessing 'Transaction control: additions and deletions status of each order through the system;(2) fiscal dalia Use of data from outside source flow, or the encumbering of funds, payingof invoices, 8. Output Generation, Disseminationand Report and .reporting- of. fund- status; and (3)bibliographic ing data flows or the assembling, verifying, storing,and Preparation of order forms, cancellations,claims transferring -.01bibtiographic data needed intftc Prin* of lists of items on order cataloging piffess .."23 In either case, the following Outwit of change ctitscontrol cards list of acquisitions functions and subhinetions isuseful Preparation of preliminary catalog copy as a summa Preparation of accessions lists I. EstabliShrnent and Surveillanceof Policiessines Dissemination of order lists, dealercatalogs, SDI Prose_ lures notices, etc.. Policy developnrteni Dis.semination of products Mail-men:Ince of procedure nt nuals 9. Gifts, Exchanges,'Memberships, Vendors, and User feedback analysis Other Sources Performance analysis Control of gift sources Establishment of procuremem MIA n Control of exchange partners files, blanket order agreemen (N, el of memberships Interlibrary' cooperation ntrol of vendor agreements 2. Fund Coritrol Maintenance of vendor and other sourcefiles 11 meilt, AllOcatior) ol fund Reference and Retrieval Fund encumbering, File searching Invoice clearing -Retriepal of items in process Voucher preparation Processing Records from Outside Sources 3. Materials Selection / l 1 Selection of records identified for purchase Review of, and selection 110111 ..1 w I Selection of records for potential interest t ems data base Preparation of purchase retvesis Processing and mgintenance of outside p 71 '1 MATink;KIn Ctul. 044.0,/tu 1.thrtlf, 1111(1. p 197`1 },p 157 k NtrY, .s 11: ttichwo mato, pt. 1 11 NiarkIlvori 0 31 ?ALNICO UMRSUliittitY APPLICATIONS 7 I

Modif .ation of records for local use Materials handlingislargely a_manual operation, Disse ination of hardcopy records although automation could support such a function as Anaysis of subject coverage ng. The control of the item through processing is The major activities of theestablishment and surveillance the automated systeth cant best perform. For of policies and proceduresfunction are intellectual in mple, if a status code is carried in th'e rord for nature. Automation in this area will generally be item and updated as the iternrtravels thro= h the limited to support Data from other automated areas the item always can be locate4 4.ticl retrieveTo (for example, the management information system) manually requires tnpy tiles Mid/or mud can be provided on which to make decisions; analyses reliling. can be. performed by computer (for example, statistical Receipt processing entails physically handling materi- procedures as part of the surveillance of the system); als, and making individual judgments based on the and - procedures manuals can be updated by a text- original order information. Although-4-iuman judg- editing computer system. isrequired, the data required to make the Fund controlisa natural areaforautomation. nt can be supplied by an automated prckess. Bookkeeping has been automated in tlusiness and p activities connected with claiming also are industry for some time because this reduces redundant tieck to the order subfunctions. This function also manual entries and improves accuracy. The informa- provides information for other subfunctions such as non on each order or transaction must be kept current, fund control invoice verif&tion. manipulated many times, and used for a number of The remaining functions on the list can be cons purposes. Done manually, this job often requires manyt d as subfunctions of the other areas. They files or at least many massages of the file Thecapture tomated as parts of other automated procedure. and control of the order information is well suited to tekise of minieomputers, as pail of a new system automation. should be determined by specific problems or heeds of Materials sflrction isnot even considered acquisitions the library. For this discussion,' however, a number of in some libraries. FloWeyer, the selection area is where typical problem areas in acquisitions can be listed. the initial "capture of the bibliographic elements 41 Maintenance of the venddr source file occurs, so it does have an impact on-acquisitions, This tit Control of standing orders, function also uses inforMation from the acquisitions * Control cif a depository collection system;Is this book already in the collection? Is it tit Control of items in process already on order? Is it for sale from a regular source? Is Preparation of orders and status trol -there enough money to cover its cost" So, although the tit Bookkeeping and accounting final selection probably will be ;I human decision, * An agency accounting system with which to automated processes and files can support this func- interface tion. VP Control of a processing center serving multiple Order.preparationand control is a mixture of clerical and units intellectual activities, the extent to which a can be * Integration of purchaser request ::,items selected automated varies. Tor example, searching and crimple= from MARC: tapes tion of bibliographic order data could Is' itutoinated if crss oPservice from the present large-scale batch . theBooks in PrintData Base in mat lime-wadable form ntrol of preview and purchase of audiovisual ,were available, or if MARC tapes were available to tnateri als search, orifa jobl-lers file. such as lihtr)-1)ART's ref these areas he supported by a to:computer IROS system, were available online Vithutit these -ten1_ data bases,this function could notIneffec inch To illustratethe use of the design -model (the automated. Vendor and fundassignment canIs' e of these problem areas will be developed utomocdiftheruleslotthe der isious at,Ix ,is a tse study and "walked across" the bridge. In lieu standardized sand reducedtoalgorithm:,t Itthe Ittspecific systems analysis documentation that decisions are subjective (Wintone, VIVN Iner t 1w made klilhe used in a specific library, an expanded, by human beings.) ,Aetutil preparation of olders has (oiled _description of the acquisitions functions will been successfully ;Ititoniated as haski1Mtid 1-11(tics be use Table1 5 describes the sithhinettons, opera- the orders generate. tions, relationships, files, inputs. and n wiputs. ... Acquisitions: Detailed Functions and Imola Y,

19113 Re raes d Peoiption Ititaitlii & Dticriptiao ..4tion$ r

ESTABLISHMENT AND SURMLANCE OF MUMS AND PROCAVRES

RelAte3 to parentorgan. May iitvoRe abeitHee. Poikyr4410prikni Selec.tion tritr-ria lion of manuals or Pe" ai iv vim intellectual eflo rtAtiou, lopot fromUser Ftt(l. regulations for the (#31t a ald &M on prolegional [NL parent agency. artimeg judgment and oraiti nation objeetives, AnIyo ASpotential Proeumment deei$ions Rif policy changq. rray have to be based Input from Pedormanee onregulationstru Analysis considered by the pter11 arm), (For example; prllicy may dictate usingonly inbhers, ht) Jobben, e)..1 eampetitive,bid eon tractors; allpl)r:ellar orders, no potclw orders, blanket purr chase order, stamitoll orders, etc.), Covers the entire as fkfust hr in a written rtitamtrikaoce of Procedure Each procedure most Ile ill:11111104S flow form Nuplii7ate ryla_tuakla eNprmied o writing; relatt to other copies /kalif of lani, with appropriate, forrm NIUst be updated =45 tuncouris at spt3 , goy cm and altathtfl firers cittiTpoint!, of OCCESIary to keep dfigt,thqu, laprortd interface current. wri.14.ii.rttp pro-, ti3tinnr jop rtirif May hr -solicited through Conderatiou 0 cum input to lJierRekibakit Analyst5 (0 provide Polity fievelopment 4'urvey or may be iitfoongioi from ment5 whig sporiarleous, ton r.itti!? /Aar? pufchastd, !IV or turtling pdof prnyiding, oP PrP044.40633, I Mierairotit rcquirrAi, Variety ofhardcopY Kidatol to Gitotrol of Sperifie.filea must be Petforri tato{ Analyst3 ;(;4tfiffing, refxreta, charts, and Item Through Pro, structured to record purittgeraotf itijorimirion tutiati i'af.,trat graplu. reeking function, volume, time spot tildbuliing meet and auialwl between events,tc of data, tow/we- Claiming funetiort, Prfifintr.itteUri /UPI- V.Indor transaction may hrautomatically rti* deoprou.,! t:mon of :ulo file keptor rimthrough for management or equivalent) sptcific program (tally) and gathered on a periodic hois, 03, l'ararotten required must hr r-stahlistied Ui edvance.

t, 3 1

f. A plblithment ofNg,: Decisiijn on which, Maybe badon Policy May have a file of RD'S,' Information to Vendor cur went &oral if #ny; jobbers and Develop-nen t tf ccisions. bids, contracts, ptiP File Maintenance May involve Mid for What typo of Related to Nftrintenance chase iorden, special function. tonirrialor initAtie materials. of Vendor Pik agreements, etc. min for chow' Decision on blanket functiOn: length of agtet oknhr. purchase orders Related to Ventlor menu, dollar =mai (with whom and how 41igninent' function, may have 'to be moni. luny).;;F Related toC4Iffirolcif tared here. Dtci3ionon mtablish, Vendor Agueements ing deposit account. 'function, Decisiorron approval plansprofilm,etc. Determination of .dime

societies; etc.and Special purchase re. quirernenta. Decisibn on standing orders by title, Interlibrary Coopermital A .forinal consortium Related- ro Policy Nutt- Fermi or infoivrel agreement or informal '6. i_atu1 Selection, orrangeouTit mop the agreement on what rr functiorii. mfr Mum lifirariet, subject ones of col. 4, trawl/ pro. lection building or grams cortAMINAA Journal holdings to Aare may affect

FUND CONTROL

Allocation of Food Maintenance of balance+ Direct connection to Budget file, ',boy. be Fiscal year budget Allotments io each lubaccount, ledger (if a WpArAte separate.:14M, , amounts. idittmg ofa- Reconciliation of en= Mr). ledger or etirribiied Any budget t_raksfer meth nbaaawa cumbered and paid Armedfor balanced amounts from lodger'. amounts. status by Order Ns- (if a geparate file),

, proval funcliOti Fund Encumbering Maintenance ofa book° Nita 6finetwo Ledger: From Order Approval RardcOpy,stawa report Bookkeeping ?Mr keeping fed. vr for budget acerapirid Must be.actagible function. on, a,Oodie ept-anion 10 more accounting. of titian separate fund account rode ordrchidtInA dal.status. Amounts to entwhee, number, order num. to cactifund, funds involvtvi, and her, vendor number: order numbcgivendor, AlphargiintriC Invoice Cleating number comes from data, but no biblio= Rimedqp,mod theGrder Approval graphic data, 4 J. rah troth ntotng function. Requires simple compu- eachorder,rem, Amountstopav come tation, FrorePayirtn't Warta nli4tion of differ. from the InvPice Will tx addoi to and function and/or inter. Verification Rene than torptimly Invoice Verificntion nun, (three to four times function, . perrecord). r2tIons Files and Description

FUND WNTROL otinurd

Currency of prime iP Invoice Clearing, ponance (lag can't Continued be more than one day). Status of totals required mntinuolidy. Moot keep historical data (deador corn, Ode), which ales will

be accessed. 4Writtelicka connection to If a separate file, Invoice Verifi9tion Payment Control PtirrwlinAtIa 0.1 Invoice ire function,input OR aavvhcif of (!ItAriog fontoon by Lap, would containorder (ifIvoicenumber and liardcopy mew Related to invoice number, vendor number, pflyntoit by dimor amount tied to order OR VtTilicaticei and VerdicPtion ftioc invoice otmotiers,. totichfr ithip'c,m,104h1c ap check or vouOctatm. number). Lolgt PingIlttnctions non. 4$0? her, date. by otder ,nornber Mttxt have access to the hIt pltern, vendor lile. Must be accezible by order number, vendor/ invoice niin her, check numbert Numeric,no bibliographic data. Little or no update or stAtuscheckrequired. Must allow for bank statementreconeifia- non. Additions to file in batchmodeacceptable,

MATERIALS SELECTION

ftvitiv of, and Selection Available titleare Direct connection to from, Notices of reNteweld Oen by a next step. Potential Items trtam n people repre. ingdoelriteoftithho- ventirtvarious %ult.,

reelae, jet tletpltnes (can

Aibbelteel beby users outside toalogii altiong the library) (rualplly proud) tc Can be from MARC Some iy;terrt§Pre- Canbe ri'n sD1 fiat tam or RIP tam. Nam( from a pare lists,frorri Can be part of BRa atgainortadditflit .profile sr1 Otesuser, DART IROS xystern or raithal n MARC 10.9,: therere. Baker and Taylor' vie: d try the um WAR frAfate,

Can be an antrm utrn May be Kitt or exchange of a macluite-teatlable items avitilaWe to 1 chits bale (14e BIP dier'lihran+ IdesQr IllarlART

4 i ,t 1

r,4 Prii*iooNOM; MI available IShlio. . 11. from machine. Mktatial (paper) file of An individual record gaphic ciat$ identifi ,adabletape or for each title fffltd for each title is, rah data kw; thiscan kfililinKtraphicdata requested, titit 414Olv,. toted, along within he tad to produce KllivioA Knot riga lonationan to source the reined (hard. OA,datitil available o(,teguest anr4tiority copyand file). Olt otaled), . 'NfadiStAv:frAtlable fit c of thell6Atfq'available rob O1 une file: *M4raphie data stroktaee dicta

tprictt, Ar Val ole.Kitchase, 'Wpm ogually pet,: ran bc performedafttr A pureh&e A group (or file) of 14100 ,rnied by itpram the rileSearch rile intO two. rcitrds which go ffxd taln Oal hbrarian) as function, which dof OW Idoitlflitkn to te Order Prepar . Ainvi letttrthe .4;.which Otto to tnrniio ftitle -AdAt of tejtet0 title& ation function, 411inhet fiefdtitie A duplicate (local ftejmot titles may here, fikgrid Decinon criteria are library option). mrt-#.1 to wlextor for eackraties-to avdable, but algo, ookiriation. arce,pc thrns are difficult if to pierce, Iltkittificaltikin of Titlei.itiat are onin This 0 the nest st9 t\fiJ (b'I) of titld: Record of a title Irons Rocord backtothe '.,,F)nitlerma.M4(efialt:' printor available after Starching aibilili0Vathic data the (Jr-der(unction. Order function when Irmio ,t,t, on for purehme at re, Completion of Biblio Ittit-do krA.19) source is identified. ivor tot qtrot tithe are reviewed graphic Order Data r.#4 trail And Lletermine, if for those titles de. Ili`rty, cataz they should be pue terroin. qui to be hapil 'checked and cbased,throogliate,- avail wherk rnaindo dealer, out, Min folknof s of print catalog, fungion -0 .reprintist; or fo'r 7tiila reported book exchange hit "goof-print" 'This is a costly 'pro- or not yet pub- 7.1 mint,so only selected titles ift GiAS hock to Order put tiltthe "watil hinctfon for review lisi." iiSI atm Review of thoc specialt Cities back to Order tunls can in when squrit Selection/ono iin is idectihed or Orde [unction a

I Table 15,-Activt4innsl Doailed Fractions awl CoonnFd

Function & Douription rAtiOrts

'ORDER,, PREPARATPN

1.0ND ,D0ftc1R01., ! 4. Nrchase request, ocdras Sonby 0,19une1 Purchge rvi4oey're-cords g and Distri= Some libratim separate 11ftrmApprovar,, rlocally detentletcl (manual' or machirle, (sorteJ). ht iitin of Purchase orders by typo moocc:i, rurkhAse Rftpiest No tile Sit5141 I readable), Retioc4 graph, atrial, docit, 1ion;h. WI iiht sire Deterniinalloti yr' Sort by opt (ft-oirlc merit, microform whether didRilici,ot graph tll. Some lihraria separate requotsAre r ofitrich foreignor dorritthe, try foreign ticitne.s iiso, theykrt er,r ddirnunt tic SOUTUI gathered dhik and how torttirrh Intellectual decision3 that could he Mat lIfirt6.111ed (Algorithms) but would haveinhr hutrimpreyirwed not found to II rrcurtl)went pre, Putchast reqiict records All title Siarching and Crimple, Current tciols, such i !et det.i.urim idlogsly in i madon. be available are sent HIP, PHU}, t(;; pula mit,tfetit ktablish. Linn of Bibliographic to the SelectionJunt usher)' catalog); i'iterirof Piocummont readablelilt!, 4ltt ()Ma Data boo fordesiarata enure rrort..1 l4!seek leff cornping docurnern lists web Siuttret function jai in [limp AO decision. tht authif, As MC:, GRA, cm hAngr lists,' tr additions: HIP ital. mi,ghto ram iorradium, ndth prini miCFil. time by ailyhp sir un ism, ow; ter ltirttn catalogs, um of,proil catalog,) rocord$hfJuGd hr sit tenet -=r9 ncterrituus iJ Idle are used to complele r amiltir verify the Publishers' c4tialoe Mites u Turfuilly Word by vendor first,iigli- for tale tales destird sttFted IAyoft lhottat fflik=librArio rrfliorr

listpricek other . Online filos str}t ' order on an orKri prof IIHIAArt. arcetsed title seareh ke'y

litNkiwtt')ilnectli.It, Vendot ode fild 11J,W = Vendor- anri U'und kssign Parameters 4 deci 14AfjliSfif Oral Of ar.cootir turrobers are men! sums tan be drawn added 10 rzatti 9eItmiles whoh join up and algocitions rroi;ottqcrilSoirc fiint 4tift All titles for ,,;(frief. of whatorgillit thart, used 7',ItitJ vettAlttfile vendor ,ificluld lilt pliattai( I lone of jobberti ditr purcham 10 NAN) sibeli41 brought tt)giellIro iforgirm: utwIglomfr- D1itY7040 itihttfri Fund aucoon'ts canIx'

atfitolationsfito, puffilaje theliter internal tothe OB411)04)61flIrt pm I/ tOt Liii library iKenerat 101 Ai: \ iipeeialordering choice (rtcrence, periodicals),t an it rrlIricron5,r g

(1):4(Ke'dfti phigf tt ft 1 po, loom, ourimiitin (ppm) pitchii4e (MHO), can be charkett 110'4i Fr1011-etit MOM',

to a ,depazimont t1.1- tsl'intp resjuired Serffini oftheaRri)PY or parent ntganizatioal v 7

of each fund to IlanI pe'rionried -iltir; fl manual loop Balance itiftwmation fur (Data ifitnief) he charged agaidst the pile Search ftlir 4:' computer input should each fund involved Amounts to be elicup T i'4, Inuit bt checked for Jim! ilia( detentin'ef., occor!here, hcrccl for each fund sufficiency, then en, fhether title in a kinds must Ire,,at the (includes order rim. cumbered against when f,luplicatt, if not individual tik her, vendor wok!), &ilex number is as. an of Selectioir Iliblio4graplik data and Some require printout ngnett. ' (Iwal library Order -dam, of on-order list, Order numberAssigned, Vela), ,access by ..author' Some use ,pmpuriclied Signatures given if Ac eases 'fund balances acid /sir title, order card for bookon respiired, nd givekencumbrance e. number, vendor another, order or journals 1411;rmation., to Ledger, kervea as an on.tirderk.. due in Reeript t file, or in combined Promising function: Order Form Preparation . Preparation of indk Rrlates1 to Receipt With an imprOcess Orders printed ready RIC 'Conirpl vidual orders.riady 1:Ra:easing !titian" file witio "omordce.? formail for mailing: 14-cataloging may occur status ode or is 44' (Neal library option), corrilgnesdlynk main

Older file and/or vent file of orders may required: 'access' by order nuns her and vendor nuMhet 'mop t=ar tla of# each title'on order be =toed for individual status on a, Plitleand/-; order level, "''" -.updates on status will occur ai Any time row scurrericy is ifflporlant '.1tentirt fiscal year his. li c: tory roust oetic: main. tainect.

mivrtit'!AtasItAmi,ING.

Material .Sorting and .Manual. Will connect in Receipt'. No specific :file createdi. (alines from O.S. .4 Distribution , Sorting, of incoming Prorating function. ..4 Materials can be stamped parcel delivery, Sfparatton of incoming mail, packages., with arrival truckers matinah from al .t shipments. laurels hr rigthatran. Routing to specific chrek-in points, EL; monographs . 'gencrally.'chkkediii selastvately` front periodicals.

Routing Who! a rooting listin Related (U Ind cornea' Profile of users '(or ,Preprimpri bits of Getr, /rally'failing. with in ad. front Receipt Prraess, departrnents);lliat n namesbitrouting 'neuripatirt.and pentylit' vance 'by jin "ting function, ateto rrcrtve t+, list' by title, cols that arriot . ii . the listis matched ac:title, often (prissy 6) well ae- to the copy. af ptinrity squence. :cording. iii a, prahter.".' fj)ted; and km cal(: .',Must change, with mu* hst to/e, 4 f'Alints` after. (fume has (flange frir pep(' mod, leen formally ilieckerl in

v. . ,

A tRIALS HANDLIN Continued . r, May be actual paper Potential hardcOpy lists Related to (Wei. rile: ohrldividnal f Anteol of Nils Each title 'root carry on demand and/or .th cfrdi/work slips to Aliactive'HAM to Item Receipt function, Thfinigls Processing indicate status, Ex.' Cataloging . section, Bohr hc 41_ lilt and putt ru able to locate show Jtyjq er information, prepunched card am Ow procOaiq flow, Promising section, a, *tap 1prward on arrival anrk.Circulation sec= iqu need ::#nAtitte along Ni will change as autlui ,'Atfe,' order of title. i tied; Illyproinungflow. it goes salt niltor May be output of other step: Relate.d .to Performance 'smug search and list functions. Can be a series of fllr Anarysiplutiction. byMOW: inks or is master file With Related to Retrieval On order; till hooks statuT,opdaten. items in Process received, not rata' '1 Includesbintler Control function,

loged, all b00)0 cats . andfoldiogcotitrol luged, not labeled; for , perindioli all books labeled with Ends WWI materialr coolie/ on shelf and repte- data aenttd in catalog ',searches my have ready liar ,parametensoapplicd, 115r:.= May he separ* files by Routing Tonfino Analyses may Ise function, required, t of main ptartatical counts May he stink :110w plots. Will k.a large active often, ice*, often bpdated and changed. 'urrency is important Input must be aLstlicient in potsible due to great voltant

RECEIP1' PR(XISSING r. Material comes from tvlaferials Aline from a, MOO have.accem to if a vendor, transacoo Item Verification r Materials Handling order 'tile, the o de 'nurn Cheating and ninfri single source function, exchange list, etc., and speedo r.eo folio pf tath firm vendor) and maybe on which item .was must be ac a retpi,1 agibio .111 unique to a341! initiated., updaterrtut deter order or lot,rhea- order mirror. Each Mont update order mine if order 13 corn= Int datilage, ,title is exatqined plere or not. against bibliographic status in Order file If an order file,' the data of order 0o (fie transaction specific title must be verify toiled title: updatedorder may edition, etc. fin be performed con= or may not be cotnplet If eotreCti'litle is currently with .Irt- ff amomorder file by flagged as received: voice verification the title must This updates in (next.step). r, he accessed and status _ peeress 'status and May require Claiming flagged. May heicom eliminates duplicate function. sidered closed or shipments Man moved to inactive vendor: If approval plan in stams. in-process file Cord; a special 4 's .I

, procedure will be' .,by itcm, the title rquirtzl, must be updated to change status, Invoice Vcidicatin. Must, verily receipt pl , Mutt be closely tied E.Mablitlta exact cost Clanhinit of rith Invoicia may cornt sep. pmrxr, item with.nO: to herd Verifica-. of each item purchased, irately by mail; must roant7taki ittmon "outstanding clainV 'lion -10 net JOH, 'r Icmust be recorded atnlitaifi io Mid he Iteld for matching, . I `.Mutt verify that ,Rcl Fiend Cron- tvelf as utiscellart. k approval for May require credit memo , charge matches item I 'cc. mug charges sufi as 4 to Match against !wring I, 2 (both paper, both 4511r/Pg,, lUtittIOQ. pottage, handling, an i 112vOice, Same .1itimbernl copies, etc.) Mutt. le is not' up. verlly not prepaid. (by title), Must verilyproper it updated in, 'discounts Lapplied Invoice Clearing func- if Eligible. tion' (heat hat bY taw k"by'dtern't prOach it Mott elli dent here), Claiming quirts correspondence Connected to horn Val 70 r/rake ado Must have complete order, time vendors provide *lettere or forMs t .(or telephoning),.with hellion and Control mob/0m Nth or no vcirdor, bibliographit t11. forms to use, vendor!, 'vendor. tylay rtgtlirr of Item. Through and natio iutorrnitia: inchding 'blank' iten tiou,04 wool vendor's perndition .petroissiOn to return Proctining.or On Must have a pending 'rim real* doro- ,ffedit rlltdrt Ft: *quest for Miming to tesurn 'het& Order File function. followup capability wit as`n invoice. imod igen rank, shipping. Requitra Must 'ac cial Vendor for each claim; aroma nuarred istuU0, 'control' of pending uest.for status of: E. File, by veddor number, Order # 'Nora ',vivid, condition, for an ; title an order numt0. iternlautho foal '00 of item, invoice, and tint for credit; title), date,, orky, i . order, memo of ciairn. arelperit for mining May not be separate,, copies. rather nrasrdedIsa Mailing labels sums or condition ill' another file(s).

GIFT, EXCHANGE, MEM. . BERSHIP, VENDORS, AND OMER SOURCES toritrol: of Gilt Sourcor loaf consult gift policy Related to Materials Mot maintain name and Moder philooMy as to kinds of, gifts, Selection function, .add of donor; num. r . aro morkaa ofgift dollar amourttir num. Related to Fund Curt. her, t , and dollar pfotodok, bera,,and conditions trot function to amount1 gilts ac 'C or attached. word Mill- value cepted or meted; Must determine if a tax tor reports and may ,require a list by form will be provided. insurance. title. . Control- of Exchange May be, a membership in Many, but will vary Must maintain! Fallon's the U.S.! with nature of bibliographic infor. astarlirt dmenberhipiii change or agreements, lotion , a t1 tooportaior or an rangemen son titles offered todiu* both. M rivoko on titles' considered May involve iron fillet mimed lists or linanciat'data boXes. sionditla lent NT; 4 May involvi'crearion' litld viected of Matt. ; trio Nita on I. each abitm-ot for control. 4

Table 15.Aequisitions: Detailed Punclionuan d

F ription noloA*

OjrriSENCIIANCE, ME4 .0018[111!, VENDORS, ANticinIER.SOUVES-- 'Conti'nurd.i

MU3( haveorganization Control of ,Membohips Stone feeitare charged Related to:, . .4,":".,4 i,t,:fdlid (Arturo! data (haine,:addretf,.. .6i Idiot"; .to a special fund inihatrtr lg. (tither library 'pr kiiigninent Ds, of fee, length of metnIzenhip)t' not agency). iVendor. File Some memberships are Materials Selection scent by name and tquire1 to purr;' Control of Item in (hoe of expiation: chase'materials, Proem Must have profile 0S:4' RetHeval olAlterni services:. t't Some manbelhips pro, k ' vide frec.ntaterilds. in Process tapurcre arrange%. autirmitically. etc': 5. roes4 e.gdigoo CM tjlln , 0010. matteor by rapes 4 Reproperiodic or Agreements with (Jolla,. (4-orot: of Vtiodor Details of each itOre, tvlany,t, our well vary'; levels must be efiCtiliP 'on requesrrinlevel* Agreements nicht must k kept as with oat "cif ! 1 andgams, err .nature tuft*, agreement lierer1, paid 47' .mentsiprofiles, Related th Establisly and fecgildir i With 1 dollar levels, length anent of 1lnforemen( j each transactittn, This of igrecinent: goureesHonctiki. "status must bcaccerit1 " 4 in the Order Approval.' Junctioii lvlay.he'' Oft, of regular. jYrtn: ! Minket pinclime order oMer.cootrol 'roe vendor; NItir with areas andre

poftiog available. . ceding, above ,..Approval' plan = Ire, x ,W quency of review,.;: pmjile; return{, payule discounts.. Dept i' Accounts one vendpr dollar

ceiling, .Jobber 0-dray!, level of commltm length of contract, may haVe dollar minimuk may .ttaq oil volume, Standing 'Order= by title in a k;eridori frequency ,enterer; ika

Mtinnince01%Or Itolof0ticAor file " ' of Vendone Infor, And Other Source 01,inhiiilition. on each, Iisrylnent Coofrol t141160; Control nullifier Pi lei vendor; joblicr, Nwicly; (Unction Name, arldreat; phone etc: (proctremenr Vendor and Fund number, orderto Nouric) .that Amignment fungi. AthireNi, chlidpid actual Or potential boil Addrom, altip:(relorri) %mace& Order Form Prepar- liddiega ij Reflect*, the felatioL ation function SpreificAlonS: nit dillie. hOoh irk aiming ,' frftroiltirtaVe-2 purcliage ' r7rt number ' each vendor;mperific ,r001.10i- drrallerinfritg With 'mon liavc.inininium'. ilidividitAr,Iihrtiry: idolio. *moo [Kr', #i jioriltr; toot have foloinkon niimlirrof itcogpEr iota it ittave menk r.

Able viandrigorder* 'demi( arcottribe Caltiolover minor reign; publithing hotio, distributorships (ertx.g.reityekeS): 4r I

14 MINICOMMTERS IN RAL LIktRAIIIES 82 sorted .The ,purchase requests will be mergedand -Ho Study' y vendor, andtile orders will be prepared. Ptobleni Area System Requirements "An efficient means of handlingcooperativc.acgt 1. Input captured in 15 differen tions among nelrlibraries is needed. 2. .PrOce.-ssing perforined in one Output must 'be prePared in l ti copies ifhardeo. Lib nvironment 3. py (for the list). A 'Federal agency has 14 branch or41(1 libraries 4. Output must be prepared onspecial forms throughout the United State,,as-well as a mainlibrary hatdcopy (for the orders). at the headquarters inWashington, D.C,' A central 5. Record status in the file trust bechanged several processing unit provides tedhnical'smicesfoVall of The times. libraries. Each' library performs its ownbook sel-kt ion, 6. Turnaround time must be asshort as possible. and the processing unit orderswliNtis requested. 7. Data must be sorted and reformated. 'Onut 4,O'Volurne.s are acquired each_ ear, Alternative Designs Goals 1. Punch cards are prepared by eachlibrary foreat%. It is desired to coordirlate the selection,acquisitions, purehaie request and sent to, theprocessing unit; and cataloging procesSes of the _15libraries,,,and the Cards (are read, merged, andsorted. A list of [processing unit." The intendedberinfitswill,be:; ptirehase 1-equeSts is printed with15 copies, and 1. Prnfessional expertise used inthe book selection one' ;copyissent to ,viiilibrary,for review. mark the list. processwillbe shared among thelibraries. Branches 'desiring additiOqal copies Clerical efforts will be reduced by eliminationof accordingly.The list ii'iitik'riled to the processing redundant searching, typing, andverificStion. unit. Input is keyed' a' the file is . updated. (Turnaround time will be 2:Collections ''lie better balanced. 'Expensive Ordeare prepared. ms may not beduplicatO within the system exte cldue,tomail delay.) 7 and 'an interlibrary loan ,..v111 beused if a book . 2. Ea library has a key-to-disk station. Purchase available at one branch is needed atanother. requests are entered. Theflq-Ppy disk is sent to the 3. There 'isthe possibi earning a volume; processingunit. The floppies are read and Aistount 'on purchases',Of 'multiple copiesof a merged. T .complete file is sortedand written 9,41 out. '0 which:- are . returned to the 4. Cataloging will be more efficientif it deals with Wlibrari he floppy is reviewed, and Multiple copies of a singli: title at one time,rather input,;' to be purchased) is than 'performing the added copy roinine a nurn keyed. UV ppies: arc returnedand read, and. then pre- ber of times. the main files updated. Orders are pared. (Turnaround .titfie will,be extended due to Proposed Flow. mail delay.) . terminal A library will' research and select atideadd to the 3 E ch library,has an online; interactive 4 is collection through the regular seleetioriwor flow (see nteei data on purchase requests. The file independently (online atthe same 'she Materials Selection function).The bibliraphic fey updated on the .- elements of the purchase requestwill be keyed, i.e., terminal) by each library and cutoff time, the file is entered into machine-readable form.On a biweekly spot. After a predetermined schedule,Ahe purche requests will be sent tothe:- sorted and orders are prepared. processing unit. The-1purebase requestsfrom all the o(Desig-n .Characteristics the. Order The Bridge: Review libraries will be merged' and sorted (see and ir Impacts Preparation. and Control function). Acombined list k,V1F:=; the library setting and theelements of will be-sent to each library. The lisi willbe reviewed by Thedetailsof alternative designs are compared to thedesign charac- library and additional copies desired will be elfardware and dicated. The lists will be returned tothe processing teristics. Where a match occurs, Butler, papers iltertss: 1973 Applications Stat us," in labrary Autornanon; ha Stall of the Art II, orb. Susan K. Martin and Brett .21 David L WeishrorL "Acquisitions Stnee and Automation [Mansion of theArneriean-Library A,issociation presented al the Preeonferenceinstitute on LibraryAutomatiori sponsored by the information . . LibraryA5Assi iat inn,LS75); pp. 96 atLrasVegai,'Nevada, 2223June_1973,(Chicago: American MI COPLITERSLIBRARY APFLI,CATIONS

c impacts arc considered. Table 16 is a somata-- ` "rime the releyant 'design sh racteristies and the hard- Ty of the three foregoing possibililies ,in tera's of the ware and software impacts of the three. "bridge" design Model. Tables 17, 18, and I9.`summa-

sign Characteristics of Each, Application

General System -Requkements Design Ch.vaeteristics and Specific AltennatReSystems Pertinent to Systems

General. System Requirements: Inputting Nature of data 15 libraries perforM data capture Oneway/conveesational One processing location Different types of devices 4000 volumes per year . Location of input stations Purchase request: bibliographic data, Multiple online users selection source data, order data Outside source (approximately 300 Output Products characters per request) Hard copy Orders typed on special forms Output: hirdcopy, speci41 forms Special forms Data must be reformatted Multiple copies Sorted lists Applications Characteristics; Display sorting, Alphabetic Combination hardcopy/softcopy must be updated Machine-readable Offline Alternative One; Online File. Structure and Size Each library prepares pu;tch cards Inputsn ay Structure Center must be able to ma) cards File Structure; sequential Sequential Output list prepared Output: hardcopy, Direct Access in 15 copies copies Size Additional data capture Transaction/Volu at center. from 15 'Expansion lists to update; file Peaks. Relponse Time Alternative Two: Applications Characteristi Sorting/data manipula Eachlibrary performi'Ldata Input: dbe-wayoMine, Searching captUre on key-td-Clisk, Links machine-readable Center must be able to File Stiiittide: sequential Online . read floppy disks Ds, direct ajcess, Access points Center must be able to Multiple users write otdpitt,on floppy Special input/output disks (15 copies) Remote access - Each library rnikst.be able Response time to search, road, and Interface.iwith Other update floppies Offline Online Alternative. Thre Link to multiple sy 15 online, interactive Input: convcrsationatz-- terminals -location of input stations multiple online users Entire current file onlin File Structure: direct access Online update caps Application Characteristics; remote access MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERAL LIERARIES tio .

TABLE I77-Alterrwlve Minimum- System class of I-Ludware/Softwa Computer Design Specifications . gtoracte-rbdcs Impacts

Meanly of Inputting I/O Device: inpor only Keypunch machine at One-way. each library. Ex.keyboard, card reader, paper tape Punch card reader for computer configuration. reader. Types of Output Products I/O Device: printer with Impact printer, prob- Flardcopy: Special forms ably a line printer and multiple copies. special paper capabilities-probably an for speed in print- impact type to handle ing 15 copies (i.e., multiple copies, three or four ,runs). File Structure and Size Open (Class iII dlc- drcture:' Sequential. Storage Device; any type can, handle sequen. - late, no'disk). tial. punch. cards, paper tape, ,katsette ape, magnetic tap_ e, diskette, or disk. erisum Storage Device: Optional (Class III large working space re- dictates magnetic quired and access to tape or diskette Several areas at one (if cap_ aeityP is time...Tape system will large enough)'.., require three drives./ Disk system could have one large disk.

iinfrrttuti of Design mpoter Chracteristico

Means ofInputting Device: key-toldisk mat One-way. Oduide source: lion Or intelligent ttertriiiiill,1 Offline machine- SyStein Software: floppy readable form, disk operating iysterp. Type of Output Products Tine or Dardcopy: Special Io190,,, IA0 Ikvice: `printer with epccial forms capability haracher. Device: same medium ps Machine-readable output form input station, i.e., Hopp) disk. (offline). 'System-Software: floppy disk operating system.

. , File Struchire and rage Device: any Structure.: a be either type canhandle. Ex:: 'sequential` cassette tape, magnetic direct access. tape, diskette, or disk. Size of fileis the con- riling variable. Applications Chariscteristics _Optional (Class Soy ing; Alphabetic,: Storage Device: large wo'rking 'space re- dictates magnetic quired and access to tape or diskette several areas at one time, if capacity is Tape system will require sufficient): three drives. Disk system could have oneiXrgt disk. MitliaOMPLVRSLID

uittKsr matt capap atoh of input # Go mmunitati tioni. hardwire ttthe libran ,unicaatioft , communications lines and equipmetit must be tited.

Devi e. Terminal must have (curivet3 tional capa:. modem. blity). Communications Equilfrient: telecominunications lines or bardware lines. System Software: must handle telccommunica. tions functions if that hod. is use 1. Type of Output Products Hardcopy Special forms vice: printer with Printerline or ciai firms capability, ch Pile Structure and Size Structure: Direct access Mass Storage Device: disk Disk tryst device (diskette,, fixed-head disk or movable-head disk). System Software: disk it operating system. tr Applifation:characteris4 S_ orting! Alphabetic Mass Storage Device: large working space required and access to several areas at one time. Tape system will require three drives.., Disk system could ,have One dilk. Remote Access Communications .Equipment: hardwirF lines -or tele- eommunications lines and modem. Communications 7 -moiler: may -require NICOMP ERS IN FEDERAL LIBRARIES

accessing the cataldg data by design characteristic "provide mechanisms for t is apparent,- tliaf not every Markuson's catalog- and that not every system' number of search. elements,"" pertains to every, pplication outlined in the following list.27 requirement is translated into a designcharacteristic. ing functions are Establishment and Surveillance ofCatalog Poli- ver,. in both c- h must be considered, and 1. FIo , , individual jud mustbemacw as to reievan cies and Procedures Policy development Fo f example, the , 'the file in this case has no Maintenance4procedure manuals can the design. he 4,000 volumes wouldbe represented by 1.2 million characters(:100 characters ' User feedback:Xi-la' ysis Performance analysis per record).Not4would- be on the file at one time titles being ordered -during thebiweekly Interlibrary/cooperation (only s'the Maintenance of Local cycle). There is no file sizelimitation for punch cards, 2. Establishment and Standard Lists paper tape, or magnetic. tapeas mass storagetech-' Authority Lists or Adoption of niques. There is asizelirnit'(CaPacity) tnr floppy disks, Name authority files 300,000 characters, Subject authority lists;thesaurus '. but a single sick holds 250,000 to which is forge enough for thisaPplica lion. Other authority files , Indeterthining the lowest class ofminicomputer Classification schedules system required to handlethe alternative design, there Filing mks are triggers thateliminate lower classes or dictate a Descriptive cataloging,,eules One (Table . minimumlevel. For example,. Alternative 1Materials Analysis 17) does not require a ClassIII system until-the clesi Descriptive analysis characteristic of sorting isconsidered. Class III is t Author entry establishment lowest level that can handlesorting. Alternative Two Snbject analysisand indexing (Table 18) follows the same ptern.Alternative Three Classification and reclassification , Vi (Table' 19) requires an onlineinteractive system with Abstracting telecornmunicatioa capability. Thelowest, level that Preparation of initial catalogrecord' can handle thisrequirement is Class IV. Revision and correction ofinitial-record 4. File Input and Maintenance' TheAnalysis ,,,.. revision pparent that the Record input preparation and The design model, makes it Filing cntr, simplerAlternative One will not save any 7 Criss - ren e.control . rnon y brusing,alower class of minicomputer. .pio,._, require a Ciao III systern, Error correeten Ai ernatives.,0,ne,and Trifyisaction'coittrol; additfons,anddeletions. as a minimum.The cost' differences will be in the east _, .,of the line t,ii.nter,' and'' 1.he', MateriAlli Handling of input devices,' the cost Sorting and preliminarycontrol time, and , cost . of pap ,F processing ,Distrillutjah to catalogers production of 15 .printottis%tillleq:Uitie. Class ,. isfeaiiii Arrearage control computer'canhandle e orntritinieadonS,'So'it ,,, I. . tng to invest.' 'ateconnecti_ng eachi .-n. to ,, t trtriITurn Routing computer-to transmitdatain; .. .. Inveiitory Control around will decrease. Establish shelflis%record Added copy control .CATALOGING there are tied volume control Markuson and her collaborators 1-- Reeataloging and reclassificationcontrol (1)listing -distinct types of catalog systems: InVeKtory statistics /rnairttenanee and analysis such as systems, Whkly Mainly Ps arc output products 7. Reference andRetrieval , catarO g 'cards book cam Igsandlabels,' (2) control operationsill such "le se thing -,syite.rus,_--whicq slipport .4alog rieval of item in process tire'as ',. L thesatiruSControl, shclflistinvtc.ritory control, (3) -search systetm, which .- File inquiry assistance and. filemaintenance; and, I Ltt tnpet et 0,.(ht.lefellte J r 1.theriQHlieltnittlet4 5,7 S NIINICOMPUTERSLIBRARY APPLICATIONS 87

Outpu Disme ionand Materials analysis is almost entirely intellectual in Reporting nature, and in terms of creation of original cataloging Report generation -entries no major automation effort has progressedpast Preparation of printed cards, worksheets, etc. the experimental 'or yeseirch stage. Initial catalog Preparation of printed book catalogs records have beerjtomputer-built from Pn automated Preparation of printed labels acquisitions file, but the initial identification of the Preparation of printed,tpuncheci book cards descriptive elements was human-generated in ',the Preparation of printed lists dequisitions phase. The support of automated authori, Preparation of indexes ty lists can make materials analysis more effici Dissemination of records consistent, but it can . Union list reporting Automation can identify herrn that 9.. Processing Catalog Records- Outside already have a blished by either the Sources Libraty of CO 'brary, Searching the-, Ordering catalog records MARC data b larger network data base is Organizati9n and disseminationof hardcOpy possible through an autoti`tated system. If this search is mortis for eatalosing then the human can analyze the material (book Processing, and maintenance o cad- in hand) in teems u°444e. entry 'and accept,,,reject, or able records modify it ai necessary. Fhis procedure has significantly Modification of nonlocal records reduced the number of items that require .original Selective dissemination of records cataloging and greatly relieved the intellectual burden Establishment and surveillance of catalog' "1r rcrei and of the cataloging departMent of individual libraries. procedures is anainV. an intellectual, judgmental func- Psograms for reclassifying from one scheme to another tion! Informati4iV-'9 support 4cisiOnmaking'can be (e.g., from -Dewey. totif..C.) earl-be, written, but the provided by oche tornated functions,,and statistical results must still undergo heavy human scrutiny and analyses and modelingcan be performed byeornputer revision. to support the User feedback ad performance. analyses 'Fileinput and maintenanceis a natural area for activities. In addition, automated-text processingcan automation. Thenatu e2 and degree of -file automation be used to-maintain procedures manuals. can.vary from library to library, howel7er, If thelibiarY Establishment and maintenance of rocal authority urnsor 'catalog file is the card catalog, the file input is in the uadoption of standard.lists is both an intellectual anda form of catalog cards, which can be foi-thated, printed, clerical area. The' maintenance of authority listsis overtyped, end sorted for filing by an automated essentially clerical, with Tile maintenance forming its system, The actual filing and maintenance would have major part.part. Automated systems have "maintained" to be done by hunharis.- If the file were to be a .- .rated.ate& locallistsfor some time. 'Editing",computer-bas file for producing book catalogs. or updating, and control of the files, however,were done -COM catalogs, or for online searching, this flick-input by human beings, who handled the files annally. and mainan e and its autorriated system .would_ Computer generation df aythority lists has been tried haVe to 'ore extensive. and elaborate in nature. (usinga keyword approach), but withOutn-a0_11 ' The catalog entry, once established, would have to be v success, More -standard lists are now available for converted to machine-readable form. This onversion purchase in machine- readable form; such a'Aist can be entails."explicitly identifying separate da elements- the basis of the local list. Filing rules for computers and their natures, so that the program caManipulate have been 'compiled and automated catalOg filing ha's each as required. The MARC format providesa beep performed for some time, but the complexity of framework for explicitly iclatifying these elements,' the rules has Varied among systems. Some of tha,more but the editing Is usually done rby people, notma- complicated schemes require human editing chines. The Library of Congress has developed. a human creation of sort keys, which the computer then format recognition program that analyzes a catalog manipulate.-,, -ather than using computer-generated entry and generates MARC tags and 'fields with an tort keys bod on program parameters. Comptiter accuracy rate of about .75 percent, Once the editing is support in this area can produce greater clerical performed, the source record must be converted intoa fficiency, but the intellectual basis for authority work machine record and read into the; system. Some must still reside mainly with -hUrnan beings. automated systems generate' cross-references bycorn- , 4'1-4 m;NictarcripirrEas- FEDEstA

and v ndOrs, thusreduditng the aring the subject entries for the'local catalog standaLl authority list, such as the eighthedition taloging' problems, can beilved the Library of Congrem subjectheadings list. e-:- n part .rhy aminicomputer syStem include .i:; Materials handling is (Ntsleally a manualactivity, 'but Hy or to control arrearage or a Mainnance(Aiiname anthOrity file , automation can be used mance of a subjectauthority file and cross backlogged items, items inprocess, and routing of, Maint ref -nees items. hcsan Inventory control can be fully controlled,u? at leas-f'-' Maintenance of supported, by _automation. Thedegree of control,' rr Main tenanciko depend4 partly on how much retrospectiveconversion Effident Production of book or CC of the card catalog tomachine-readable foIni It's been enance andcontrol catalog fbr a special undertaken. Ifautornition efforts have been limited to thcrd will not be enough basis for, emscollection., new titles only, added volume routines complete control. Art effortw'111 have to be made to Co trot of added.coPy and Nieparaten of precataloging card setsand pro- create -a file especially forinventory control. It may be possible to convert the shelflist or use arelatecl .file, eesSi ng kits system file. Some, Control of items in process such as an existing circulation Maintenance of a union eatalOgof several libraries approach retrospehtiveconversion on a need volunte control system tion basis; the added copy or added cial bibliographies on request the establishment of aMachine-readable Preparation of triggers ermtated indexes, record in the' computer file.The degree of sophistic:a- Preparation of tion fthe automated statistical dataand analyseS also depends on how much en catalog is. SERIALS maeldne-reldable forni, g ;Li" als,_ as an, operational areaof a library, are ()mat Certain- _ Referialle and retriever) can 1CAo, pip doWng'Jhe processeshi/yob/ed. are nt. Once a computerfile ic.reat4d, autcinmated ally acquisitions and catalogingand in some search and retrieval can be per omed on it. +Inman, the regular flow for book 'in initiate it, and in libraries are' incorporated in beings, in some circumstances ',- material's: Even what is defined as aserial can vary: can. vor example, art other situations program contr periodicals, newspapers, technicalreports, Govern- acquisitions program could sear h theCatalog holclin4s . , .., ment documents, annuals,handbooks, and other works . whether a purchase automatically:to d efileterrnin issued in, frequent editions,sets' n progress, services, request is a duplicate copy, and monoyraphicseries.28 MarkusnO, et al., defined Output generation, dissemination andreitOrpri:e (the prepa- if sliisterns listirlgthat - ,cards, book tWr) main types of q9 ration of cataloging output iTnducts provides . "access to, and control 9f,certain facets tit the book.pockets, bibliog- catalogs, COM catalogs, la is, serfal operation," and (2) check-incontrol that pro- p11 strived to automation. raphies, and iodco5s) is v des "mechanismsfor ,,the control of" thereceipt,. However, automation de rends,of -courSe;' on ,.the incoming serial issues,'.'29 caafibging functions, rding, and routing of degree of -atillegnatiOn of Other folltYivir retrospectixe cataloging converted, tag Fler4ilf of serial functions e.g., amount of titEstablishment and SinVeillincf Policies'and structure 'used, etc. Theidea is to key the, dataonce different font!,`formats, Procedures. and use it over and over in Policy development and permutations. Maintenance of procedure manuali' records' frbrn outside sourcesb4;comes Procesnrig cata User feedback analysis more and morepractical as thkuse ofCatarbgrecoYds widespread. performance analysis achine-i-eadable forro4becomesitt more 0 Licommercial sourgcs ,and Collection analysis These are -available through cooperation networks: The MAkrfa pcdistribution service has ; Interlibrary 2. Subicription control- made almost I Ynillicincatalogin g' records available to - " Ibid., p. 110. SNIbid p. 109. " Ibid pp. 'Reviewofnew order reques -Purchasing and bibliogrhic control requests Establishment and suiveillance f policies and /1rocedures,- Determination of ; procurement procedures like the other, areas, involves mainly intellectual effort Establishment and',rnaintenance of subseriptiod and pan be only supported or aided by automation. control files The analyses needed in this area can 'be supported by Preparation of subscription renewal approval lists automation mare fullyif -the 'other functions are Order preparation automated and the data can be collected by,machine. .Fund accounting Subscriptioncontrol,like acquisitions, includitst both Vendor and source filemaintenance intaleetual and clerical activities. Although selection 3, Establishment and M -ntenance of is a human decision, the review of rencwal.requestsea_ _graphic File Control be aided by a computer'', alert that signals whe Catalog newserials,_ recatalog old,qes subscription renewal is irriminent. In addition-, anelysis Prepare serial record c of previous subscriptions can provide mean's of prOject. Provide cross-reference con rols Update serial holdings ing subscription prices..Order preparation and fund accounting are clericalin., nature and easily auto- Transaction control: additions, change deletions ',...,/ 4. Recording IrAming Receipts mated, as is the and,source file. Establishment and Oaintenance of bibliographic file control 'Sorting and assignment of incoming ties , Bibliographic identification begins with estalAfting and structuring the biblio- Posting to control file hic elements "for',a serial according" to standard Marking and routing issues. This activity is intellectual and Must, be done by Recording changes in bibliographic orcon ui an being. Each entry then must be coded arid informatiunie Updating v rted into machine-readable forni for further Claiming nipulation., The nature,of periodicals is such that 5. Materialfiandling and Collection Control e an entry is establithed, it .-is subject to many `N, sorting and shelving issues tinge, for example, title, frequency, and the eorpo- Servicing request for serial issues e name of the issuing agency. The-actual holdings of Routing and ciVtilation control die periodicat are in a constant state of 'flux, the Storage of title.pages, indexes, -rrent status of which "must be maintained; These Establishment and rhaintcnanckof bindingcon- changes indicate the need formany cro'ss-refercnces. teal file All of this maintenance and control. can be greatly: Missing issues control aided by automation. Prcpara port of want lists to couple j holdings Recording incoming receipts can be aided greatly by 6. Outpu ieration, Disseptitior and automation. Although, ihe initial sorting and subSe- ,quent(ouiing of incoming issues is-a manual, process, holdings lists rigmeening. activities are clerical and-can be epaya ion of ssio 1. s and bibliographies 'ailtornatkea.--- or, if riot fully, at least the computefcan Union listrepot- and or p inting .provide 'supportThe means of constantly capturing Printing orderrr'in. and s bseription rent the data, updating the status of the file, and generating lists. -claims when needed are the key dements in an Print claim notices automated serials system. r binding notices Alaterials handling and Collection control ;ncludes some pare serial check-in fon ards manual, activities, but these can be supported by -Reference,andRetrev fl automated>ler'i,cal processes, as in control and inainte:, Processing bibliographic verification' inq nance ofthevarious files and the generation' of Processing holdings and ussiguedlocatibn inqui different lists. ries Output generation,dissemination, and' reporting cari be Retrieral.of serial issue from processing flow fully " automated'. When the information has been Processing Non I oc a l Records captured in machine-readable form, computer-gener- Union list Maintenance akt,publication ated output is an efficient means of producing fists, Selection And dissemination uses forms, or notices. With an o#ti computer system, MINICOMP IN

notices, and vcf,Ahe need for soe'llf the printed outputtray systems handle overdue ..maintain hold, files and a-badborrower file. , Marktislan 'And her colleagues'compiled the follow- andretrieval a.sed by autoplation., ,f,. operation.m. The information in scr ust be accessible by ing list of functions of the circulation 1. Estab14hrhent andSurYeillanco of Po icies and the. library staff at variou f the wolic flow. Part Procedures of the information ,also is dc by the library public e informat designed for Pcilicy devdofinicnt and must be made avail Maintertance of procedure manuals ,public use. Due to th ure of serials, there are many User feedbaeleanalySis potential acccsi poin any entry, and thehistorical Performance analysis data for each serial can be significant.The value of Interlibrary' cooperation automation is its ability to manipulatedata over and 2. Authorized Borrower Control over, in an-efficientand economical way, in hardcopy Borrower registration or softcopy form. Borrower identification Processing nonlocal records' is af9Fiction that auto a- Special routineskir-exc'eptional.borrowT tion furthers, for example, by producinguniod hits of libraries. The 3. Charging Procedures serials from the 'collections' of several Charging materia4; book-S, serials', etc. kept eurrent holdings and titles on the lists can be ording chafge transaction great ease and efficiency,and the prod i f quickly an k teservatign procedures lists can 'be' aecornplished Discharging Procedures records ed ,The introduction of serial ,DischarOng.materials ` a MARC format by the Libraiy.ofCon f nd the project CONSER bay made Recording discharge transaction new cooperative serials Identification of reserved items moretandard cacaloging entries availablefor lib4aries (all files) and-eying 5: File Input and Maintenance and.. reduced the amount of coding transaction record input char, dincharges, for serials. required to build a bibliographic file etc. A number of typical tasks that canlx done:, by a Borrower minicomputer system are additions,d and fund contra', Trakpactioiicontiot, 4 Controlline-sabscriptionsf'ordem 2Ernii- correction p Maintaining .and controlling, a catalog 'of Kr InYentorycontro s titles Overdue and counting Preparing and contro triF union Ii Overdue Control frorn,nVeral collections' Identifidation of overdue items Controlling -routing for new Issues Re,ceiOt and control of overdile. Controlling the finding of materials 7. interlibrary in- - napping continuations MonitOring interlibrai-y. nrequests Ohe,iking'in-riew issues efficiently coming Efficientrjapdling claims of both M6nitoring ./If interlibrary loan requests outgo- individual on ing, Maintaining controllfngrfi c i=tnation Output GeneratiOti,, Distemir and absy-act= where individual serials are indexed Reportink ed. Charge records Overdue 'not) CIRCULATION .-Cireulation.systerns vary not . dcirculation and i jscharge degree. Some rnaiiitain Anly.tra d what is currently rds, reports, etc. maintain files on -allpotenii .. ortSpe onCirculating Nerials in the. collection,-and-all co 1.111RARY APPLICAT NS 91

islitncnt (If c'cttttrirl procedures i 1vert ne control is eased by adieu(ion. A Hystetn for Maintenance of special transaction files forion :1 itt ulna tcd cont rol of overdue oratorials, generation of circulating and reserve materials ovculue notices, and t'olitputation of lines is simple if If). Reference Inquiry the originaltransactions arc in machine-readable Identification of items on loan room ( 1 titerlibi ary loans will ldiscussed as a separate Identification of miming items opt- to lien -) Materials Elandling, Storage, and Maimenanee Output geriertitron, dissetninatioa, aid reflottirig includes of the Collection varlet y of functions. The output products thatcan be Retrieval of requested items conoputer-generated depend on which functionsare Reshel ving and ai men an re of items alarm-laced. For online systems many of the printed Routing of materials pro( hi cts a re no longer necessary. Physical preservation('fI tents Co/frit/urn of reserve or special rifincirculairrig tanteriaisare Velit ory of collection kept by some libraries under special loan procedures, Purging of outdated and unwanted i such as short4 ern] loans for several hoursor unlimited l'reparat ion of Materials for shipment loans for indefinite time periods. Once algorithmsare Fitabhdontni and srirveillarire of tarries and lira is dnfiried, the prOcedures can be automated, mainly an intellectual activity, Automationcan be /irk/race inqary to circulation inust beaccommo- used, to support the decisionmaking withstatistics dated. liot Itlibrary staff and the users need to aceeks gathered and analyses performed. the transit non file to ascertain thestatus of specific Authorized harrower corarol IS a Candidate forCC flipletc i Innis or of 1rticular users' total transactions. automation. Rorrower registrationcan involve merely Afaterials Indling,storage,(hidraatotenance ofthe collection individual borrowers providing in formationfor the consists nia nly of manual activities. Automation is file. However, in many special librariesthe borrowers' used only in a support or utility role. Amitticomputer file can be' taken from an existing fileof agency can hc used to support any or all of the phases ofa e'mployees. In moocases a control dumber, such its the circu la tion system as discussed and its real value is in social security number, is assigned. Oftensystems use ntaki ng an online system viable. an identifying badge or card with the number in machine- readable' form to provide themeans of input. INTERLIBRARY 'LOANS Ifspecial elasses of borrowers exist, these can bc interlibrary loan p'roccsses can luded in handled via algorithms. the circulationoperationor set aside, as a separate Charging prim-edam entail gathering thetie r y operation. The process isdivided into two.rhain information to record an item;is eneulatign. functions, incoming and outgoing in tea brary :loan Information on the Niok, t he norrower, arid the details requests, of the loan itself (charge date, dun date,`Thranclierr Hayes. and Becker described the interlibr-ary loan location, etc.) arc generally needed. Theease with. functions as folloty-s.32 which this information can he gathered is critical, I. Borrowing POO< reservations procedures can be autoniated so that A, Making request a bcg* cannot be checked out except by the persott 1. Assistance to patrons who is next on the "hold" list_ A notice to this nest 2. Determining location, verifying person informing Itim of hc availability of the book 3. Completing form, filing- can also be generated an torna Beal I y. 4. Mailing Disehay:4ing preicedures are the reverse of thech rgi ng li lieeeiving item procedures and usually involve gathering statistics oil I. Receiving and tinwrapping use for future analyses. 2. Checking- records .ill input and niairaerianre is Rai to all files in the Notifying patron system, although they can vary with differentsystem C.Potrittrn designs, The major factor in. this solifunctionis the I. Keeping records efficiency with which the data can be capturedand t he .2. N./faking paymen marling records kept eutrent (updated). D. Returning i tern la ttjtied Het krr. ,/ pp 57 NIJNIUOMPUTE S INV-1)11/.11441, Inn IES

Control of a borrow file and/or a I. Chan , (soppier) file. 2. Wr ipfiing arttleroding

11 ling REFERENCE AND INFORIVIATIC)141 wing request SERVICES I.Iteceiving and Verifying 2. Checking catalog, locating The 'deter :e.function representsinteraction of the 3. Searching shelves, pick-up libraryuser wit Itthelibraryepresentati ve. this 4. Keepi ng records, clieck -out represent al ive can be a human(a rilembei Of the index, or II. Photocopying stall) or a tool (the library catalog, an locate the I . Checking paucs requested spcific book), that meets the user's need to pro- 2. Sending to photocopy information desired. Illeeause technical processes vide the materials and It-leans forserving the user, mdst 3. Copying products of the Ier.ping records of the tools used for reference arc 5/Preparing, logging invcj 4_ technical services operations and systems. listof /4, Processing payment tipem receipt fvfarkuson compiled the following reference and bibliographic furienous.33 G. Semi ing Establit4hruent and Surveillance of Pol ivies and / 1. Wrapping I . 2. Distributing or nailing rCs development I).Followup Vlaill(erla trice of proceduremanna's . Sending overdue riotices User feetfbaok analysis 2. Keeping records Perforrnance analysis etu mod items E. Interlibrarycooperation 1. Unwrapping and inspe.cting 2. Developrictit and Mainennee of Heft 2. Ch anging records Sources 3. Discharging valuatlortand selection of hardc opyrefer}-nee 4. fteslielving and rna tcrials User interface, establishing entries, searching Evaluationand selection of machin -readable locating sou rces or items, and checking materials are reference materials all. intellectualactivities.Se:tic:101g ancllocatint; 13evelopinent of specifications forhandling n-ia -- urccs can be automatedif there is a data; base of ticreadable reference materials. holcling accessible to olitside sources.fore ctiirnplc, an 3.dentification of Relevant Outsidefeference, online cataloging or eire uI _t.ott data Rasethat can be acccsd from externalz terminals couldi)e used ri rued material sources 1' I sea and locate sources. Vic otherintellectual Machine readable bibliographic soar activities do not lend/themselves toautornation. behine-reaclable data-base sources manual ,tcti vitics handling the material, shelvi rig or rganifia tional and people sourcm pulling, wrapping or unwrapping, andphorocopying` Fltablislument of procedures for utiliza 0.f also cannot utorriated.The rest of the lottotion, OutSide sources are main lycic I or control activitiesand ca9-4 4-. Search and Retrieval Automated. Imtial screen and/or referral The toter) brary loan tasks that can be stlxartcd by Question negotiation and anal As roinicompoters include !unversion of question to appropriate termi Prepiration of request for tpd control oaf iterie:i nology eg-y itthe borrowed file imitation of search tritenanee of a calen scheduling in ateri titinct of search tiros lua (ion of sea'reli irmenanec of library and user profiles op' Maintenance antcontrnf of an o%fertitte system -repartrion of Bibliographic' lyaintenaoce id ,controI of ani terns.."(baned file

ro rsusos cia1., idelineipq lAbrar), I r nfin., iv( 11'1-In. '11.101-41C --LIBILAY All IL'A'I71)Ni

rieibition of scope [yidtyi, of bibliography thearch techniques chosen, (Is free text searching Screening1)f prottfitially relevantitcnts pmsible? Is Dotilean logic searching available?Are 'Preparaaii9tr'`nfhibliograPfsicentryinclialitig predetermined descriptors lequired? Isa permutation abstract and annotation as required technique appropriate?) Library anduser profiles can P oration of final copy be used for an automated SDI system ifa machine u lication and disserninac)t1 readable data base is available for searching. gists forF'hotodtiplicatictti Preparation of bibliographies cart be automated. coal- , ing requests puter-generated bibliographiescan be produced from Duplication Machine-readable data bases if the recordsare struc- Distribution of photocopies red properly. For example, using the fixed-field data Accounting control If the MARC IIformat, bibliographies could be , 7. Preparation of Translations ilcd based on parameters dealing with language, Identification of language skills availablewithin ry of origin, form of contents (yearbook, direct°- library or appropriate affiliatedgroup .), types of illustrations prese tf, year published, Identification ofother sources oftrainslation on. Current awareness lisd apd SDI lists based service' on profiles also can be considered bibliographies and Screening tranalation me-mots can be computer-generated. Preparation and station of t Repests for photoduplicationare handled mainly by Accounting control manual activity, but automation could beapplied in 8. Establishment and Maintenance of Special accounting control. tennis Preparationoftranslations is an intellectual activity. Agency archival files The clerical functions of accounting control,prepara- Reco'reis of local search resulis tion of orders or requests for translations, andmainte- Clipping and pamphlet files nance of a file of sources of translation services can be Personnel skills inventories automated. 9. Materials Handling Establishment and maintenance of special materialscollec- Maintenance of reference collection tions (such as photographs, clippings, internal research Handling of items retrieved from other collections reports, commercial catalogs, and proposal/contract Physical preparation and filing of specialmateri- documents) can be controlled by automation. Some als commercial systems providefiatcapture of source Establishment and surveillance ofpolicies and procedures is material on microforrns and for search and retrieval of anintellectualactivity, and automation can \ only the data by minicomputer: sup xart it mainly by analyses of performance and,user Materials handlingis a manual activity that does not feedback If formal survey techniquesare used toto lend itself to automation. user feedback, the necessary statistical analyses cars Although most applications of minicomputersto performed by an automated system. reference and information services are approached Development and inevraeriance of refereeiourcesis ',an through problems in the other operationalare, some intellectual activity that must be performed by hornan needscan be mentioned: beings butisinvolved with automated effortsor Public (user) Sams to the serials holdings f Ile products. Actual use of the machine.readablemateri- Public access to the thesaurus used als may be required for testing purposes. Public access to materials inprocess Althoughideiitificatiorz of relevant outside re Maintenance and control of special collections isan intellectualactivity, implementationof the.', Maintenance, control, and access to microfiche machine-readable sources requires establishingan documents collections automated system or installing an ousting system. '- Maintenance and controloffilesof human Searchand retrieval canbe performed manuall y on"' resources and their subject areas output products, such as card catalogs', bralc catalogs, Maintenance and control of vertical files or special bibliographies, or it can be clone onlineat a Access to commercially- available online data terminal. In either case, the access points and theway bases of abstracts and indexes the information will be approachedmust bedeter- Maintenance and control of a current awareness mined ini advance. The actual queries willdepend on and/or SDI system I RIN Fk`I L)I11AL LIBRARIES

Production of s ttecial bibliographies on demand Establishment trf criteria for prttrecllrre manuals, Performancef literature searches on delimit forms, etc. s ( )peratIons analysis review ADMINISTRATION 5. Reporting Establishment of statistical and teport ing require- Administrative functions vary accordingto the - went+ Iiiirary's place in the parent organization's structure Preparation Aid review of annual reports and the payroll, personnel, and budget control services 'Establishment of staff communicat ion via neet- provided by that organization. The functinns of libraty ings, newsletters, etc. administration are, in general, those present in any 1,. Coordination and Cooperative Efforts organization, and general business automation systems Establishment of local agency opordi nationpoli- dealing with administrative activities shouldapply.34 asisies Markuson'slistof administrative hmetilisfah- Establishment of agency coordinationpolicies with I 33 Establishment of policies for enirdinati in Establishmentof Proc dui-es visParen t other libraries arid pertinent grcitips Agency Assignment ctf st.tff to specific cordinatit lime- Legal requirements t ions Funding, staffing, and operational policies 7. Long-Range Planning Policies for joint sharing of facilities, e.g.reomptit- Monitor developments and needs in and er equipment central agency Reporting requirements and policies Monitor developments in other librariesand Identification of needed library services relevant organizations Establishment of interlibrary and interagency Assign staff to planning tasks i cooperation policies Prepare and periodically update g-range plans Establishment of contractingrequirements 8.Establishmentof Systems Development and 2. Personnel Procedures and Policies Evaluation Procedures analysis Personnel selection Establish mechanisms for operational Establishment of personnel policies, r cords, he- Establish procedures for utilization ofoutside . nefits skills, e.g., contractors, staff sharing, etc. equipment, Formal and on-the-job training procedures Establish policies for utilization of Personnel and records management e.g., tele-typewriters, computers,etc. operational 3. Fund and Property Management Establishreviewmechanismfor Budget preparation and review, annual changes devel- Budget preparation and review, long-range Establish policies for cooperative planning, Budget allocation and surveillance opment, and implementation pared agency is an Library fund accounting thInhntent of procedures by a Cost analysis review intellectual activity that must be performed Property inventory human. . 4. Organization and Administration of Fun The major activities of personnel procedures andpolleiel records rnaria.gernent can be 'Operations areintellectual, but Establishment of services pexfontied automated. mainly of Development and reviewof rti Fund and property ntaaagernant consists control perform services intellectual activity, but property inventory Development and review of administrative poli- can be automated. The otheractivities of this function the form of cies Ierr each organizational unit canbe supported by automation in Assignment of line and staff administrators statistical analyses,anodeling, and simulation.30.- and Becker's "Chapter Fourteen, Adminimrative Data Procming,"'Handbook of 34 For a dinctwion of the Automation Di library adrninistratrachy t Hayes thud Procitting for Littrrine; pp. 303414, for Lihraq drikelraiiin, pp, 147 ,11, 35 Mgrku*tiri net Al., Peter Brophy, Michael K. Bucklanel, and Anthony Hindle, Sr toCifteralt 3n For a eollettion of tatayi on and a bibliography of library research, ice /for ttbranii (Englewood. Colo.: Information tiandlinteSemires,Labrary- and ILICAlittn OiV1N1(111, MINICO . LIBRA APPIAN:A.110NR:

OrAanizatinn and adrnin SUMMARY. an intellectual area. (;oropuler supyix or pplicable to "operations analysis review. The problems and solutions des this c Jerporttng can be supported by automation by using are inerely representative of data gathered in other automated tusks to which a systemsilldi, itnnicrnnputcr system would bC Itfr;flirrl it1 a Federal library. A word processing, systemcarn %ippon preparation/A reports. library. Individual libraries may hay!! different needs that also can be served by rninicompinersin the form Conntiriatinnand c tis entirely 'indict:m- aiin nature. of a standalone computer,_a. Pairr4 is network, or a localunit a Long -range planning can b'sttppeltd by automatic; host computer. "number of witheither computer-gencrated orcomputer minicomputer ,applic ationsis limited only by the analysis and modeling. creativity. of systems design teams. The Will hi I ities are systrns denr1iipznrirtnn4l rvidualion pr, endless. durttis auintellectual actiy4. CHAPTER FIVE SE ECTION CRITERIA AA A tatcd in the Introduction, Part11 , presents The remaining factors deal with the various posssible guidelines for selecting and implementing a minieorn- solutions, which had been shaped by theprevious puter system, Part II begins with the as.stimption thata factors, library. has decided to use a miiicomputer System, for thoie readers who are already familiar with minicomputer% and who skipped Part I to begin this book at COMPARISON TO A MANUAL PartII,a suggestionisinorder. The following guidelines arc based ona design model described in SYSTEM Chapter Four and it may be of valueto review this model, . Undoubtedly, in most problemareasa.manual FACTORS INFLUENCING THE approach could he viable. A manual system and 'a minicomputer system, it must be stressed, really cannot DECISION , , , be compared if the automated system is approached Ehiring systems analysis and design in Parr I, various properly. The mini system should domore than the i)ossibiesliti for solving problems or meeting ite,.were manual.systern but still allow all the necessary tasks to reviewed. The systems design document revieWed each be performed. With any automated system the staff one, provided the information on which the relief shbuld be in the clerical ranks, as clerical tasks trators n-iade the decision, and contained all the details necessary to initiate the computer system. are the ones usually atitomateii. There may be an How did they arrive at that position where thi:y increaseinthe duties and responsibilities of the could make their decision? First,the problem or need paraprofessional or professional staff. 'Because infor- was ex pressed in termsf specific goals and objectives. mation must be expressed explicitly for computer The existing system wasalyzed, and system require- manipulation, the source data must be edited and ments for the newclesigwere compiled. The design coded before itis inputted. Higher level staff (if not to model wasapplied. Tha's,design characteristics edit, at least to revise) is usually required, The entire pertinent to the system, requirementswere determi nen,, operational area may feel the impact of automation. and the hardware and software impacts for eachwere An operation, to be automated, must' be clearly reviewed; theclass (or classes) of computers was structured, precisely defined, and tightly organized. ..deduced for each of the choices; the systems document Precedents and decisions must be redorded. Rules and was prepared and the time for decisionmaking was at hand. authorities must he controlled and consistently ap.- Wha tfactors were consicrercd inthe choice of 'plied. The degree of control may be much greater than alternatives? Some of the main factors in the design} in the manual system, and this may increase the work decisionswere considered earlyinthe phase of in the unit. For applications in which fetrospective decisionmaking. The system requirements included conversion may be appropriate, the decision whether the organizational and environmental impacts,as well to convert must he made. The file must be examined to as those of associated systemS, and the constraints determine how much must be converted (the file's (physical, organizational, technical, contractual, and volume) and how "clean" it is (how much editingmust resources) that had to be taken into consideration. be done before converting). MJNIWM1triii( I Fif)ElAl. I AflRA1tH

COMPARISON 10 A LAFIGE-SCALE I )r t cmii nit'rieveli pn unit its for a I I ti1:ts of thin systr'nru ir,rluriir ug: SYSTEM Maxu1x,wcr costs [Li rorIIp.LriiigL itibnctitrijititrr systuril to :1larr Sys(cnii rksigui ntuinmxwcr V MC1lrsytrrrl, the Sttt)titi(iI, or etiVi rIII1UIVLI Ilutist Is I"rogruutitiiurig nitanipriwer est,rhurd. For exarlu[Jlr, ursrnp;iruniuof tii UI ( orttr.ictors a rid i:nnsuuItu9ts tcrviccM titiiit take 11111! l((tHllit WltuthI(I hit'Ittr-M'tIu Scutriarial and cicnival surlporl F F conipti tcrwouldhr tue !ilirdt y',iJWIItile agency ( oniiiiuhiiic.ttinli ((JIlts f (vitfititwithout uh;Lrgu-fhukIces), ortli.ttof 'J'i.tvcl co,uirurrrp;ujrrvirr hiirraui or (oat rautor'11w uiiiii .1 ClCf)}alnIC iffvrrrices betsvrcri large-scale rrupii 'is arid iniuii- a ( ornjn trr costs crilnputrrs wrr: (lis(ticdirl ( tl;qJt-r'lw.A(I(lltiflILLI ( ornipuitcrtirjtr 1r programckhuuggiutgand pclIlI tt shorih! 15 testing An online ititcrautiveysteiii tint a mliii Holy Is ')rtuf)ruIer mimehn data inputarid filebuilding (:utttn,nlhf)et hive wit Ii a lau guscak batch syNt cnn tile u(iltVCtNi011 11115 iilfll'(Otitl(il (iVtlitS nkshiiiy Wit Ii A IiI,rary IilpiutflcpilFdhi.flI.uiilrditg tuki' oiu I hr duiiit-.s at itTrvru ruirii lultnrtlI.St I ilpuloCrators cl.init iii ojIeration, Iii.liiitcii.tnl((:, rulMil, t'It Input eqtiiplrienil a A largu-Male rn:iIpltIrr rilay isbust useddm1114 '['Milling ',yilhi, notjllstt1(lof a noun systrniiVery. i;tlg( Preparation of materials for staff training hr rrltiirrnueri tsfor sortingfirpriIltiniJ4tait Special courses, etc. for tcailu prrlornicd on-i a 1argtsualr .tnrupuittl, and this Other - UOtiIi)uIOtti(iLi niay lc au Ihrnl;itivu to ttInlsiclrl. Expendable materials Space , SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS 2 I)cvclop projectionsforoperational costs: Service considerat ions affecting alturisat lye designs Manpowcr forystcrT1 operation aridforsystçm should he stated explicitly at tin curl of the syst&iu ritoçlification design phase. Thu choir-cshitiitlt1 hcrriorr (II style anti Manpower for file input and ri4uintentance degree than ofsrrvirrs presunt or nail. InulpatIs001 Equi1nncnt csts for .iuput arid computer pro- should he consuik:ied first, arid then imparts nittin: :cIcing . i staff Tinpir irvoIvcd ntl Is ac itri;thlc, a ran ttsciii Expendable rnat(j, tn-inter forms, pa- operation or use (rufnu htrdlytiadeniffs will hr niiuJu. per, labels, etc. :j. (:oniparc aperatiir çnfor manual aiid cosT/BENEFIT ANALYSES c(iiTtpUter systetTi. Pt cprc cost repOrt Uost analysis is partof systentis ck:sigii as otitlirtedby 4. costsalone atèriotrn-sough. A /bencfit 4arkusOn, andthu costs for tacitatirritative shtiid The should beperfornit'd 11h us haVebcenipreparedMarkutson suggests thtithu artlysts difficultbecause so much"f th analyses sliorild include he Iollowing .x- '" gcn.-ral oitnpi t..r5r-M.iIr ct.i-tipllirr-,.tid wintiterrial nintir-iliiringeydçp iiFtrrnsi.oP4ti-..tj.Y I Ainrrbaih colmplrr.mttiir.iimpiltrrs with wired t,,i i'-;r tbgnk5.074), pp. 7(-RIItayol artd1ti-vkcra1rnpa.c yaririit sytrin fl r.iiiipI.trr .l,vnfoih rit(iiiiwipalrtr (Niw \irk: i'etrticdlt ipplii itlOn urr (or (loft !vo.etiia& fur L,branti. 7it i-nt. (l..i AiiglrriMetviIkTPiibli..hing Co., Iirrt.iI I.Iynnot jin-pli Ilii kir. !l,nnI/soiA.f irinfigiiraiinn, for Iihr..ryip1ilii-.i tiiiili ins.(or Jihrariea and Giih Jiata lw , ,i,it', ot when unolingt.ntw&,i tage_.atwtridtriinknropni Sill 74. ii,,vt,.,,, l.tive, ti, Cr ,.r,, In,itniI,l,' lii,ttri.i I '114), pp. lime Stanford Ev'perience" in .4/ip&atrnt, of ,4linffompid#t (iilibrary am! Wvtfl npin,iiin.t to hr ani,wrreit Waynr I ltvi,ti Sinti iu iii, plIers miii Ii fir.ury A. mmmii ion or. I .ihr1iry Applicitinni ii! [Jun Pr,.. ng, 2)1 Api-it in 1 May 1974 (Urbana- I Wilirlilt.,,i,i .ntrr nmprvii re,.teoI it tIne'17-I (I ni. Rthtfrd !1ro/1,'mi. nt. 't:,. arid Audrey N. Crtch, Minieninpitor -.--Chracreri,iim, Et.rmrniia Uutiveamty 'iflIla tiok (rmiIii,tn Si I,..)([nI,, try Stirrire I ¶114) pp. IF) Lhainp.ngn III 1pf4o.rio-ai im/t(ini.rrripeor Erm/..hrruryaridl!,/akd/'n-em/I.meruo, eeL F. WitfrielJ.n,ttinater, paper.. prnsicta(rd ui and Srteetionn (or arm tritr'çratnof I.iti,,Ir%- Sftmii,yitneeit S mn-ne Schoolof Library ii. I My I ¶175(LTrtimipi_(Jeetttpuign,nil.:Urtin-rertily of itlinoi,,Craduair at tIn.'f0474 CSn inIntl libraryr'ipphi.ntn,,tnif Pall'rimn rn nL _'11'rn Smieno i-I ) I lI't. (Serita Mon ira, calif.: Sy..trm [)eerelnpmcnt Corporation. lijelmir., [v.111, M a, kmn-n. ii .1 if(,vimf,Ir,r-, Jr (.i)r,5 I do,,r,,, -i !I,rrr(buA fr (.derr.I mirid fl1hn-r !tbr..r,n-e

I ')7). p Li Itatell Kiniber. it uJrm,mllimwi mr Iibrort, 2d i-i. (t)xIoutt: Pergarrioa l Kntnlmrr hi... i I,rin( 'It.., m.wii,i. null tin.- e-,,ntinrnh,tr .ic,,euin,f ,miitolni fiti my rwfwt ui it mliii t I eet; lit.i unit costa snil other financial dilta far .ini lfemk,r fin.itt nine rinfnipterti IrwtinytinJ nling voliict,is t.t,edtin detcrmin I'rrtmr10)7)) pp 21 7), 1 l..1-f'ri rireris mit eevatuifiatt, spceiIkully eort/effcrtivenr(ii-. rinirinitminrknng. they thai hive a n Inipeer n .tffolStaitti ttnnrfgrtlrng aid t-,eIm,utnnin.hit-n itntl.. mi-trim 1 trips-i 7. Syvtioim BnIrti .rg aid Evfu,ution,' //ann#eierk of(JuSt FweuitngJor Ltbrarwu, pp tO? 21. n'.'C :tm.lpri-i- If nnot.srnlni,ritifrritI r}nrtrni- itint icmtt/betmn'ht ) jir.icpfm Becker a nil Robert NI I-Iyn, Infurmahmrt .rrrtgr antiRttrieiul. l'ooto, 7))14lie-u kcr in0l. It tir,Ir,iJv, he liriirtit .mqiur ii emliii,, tie- tl,r-iruter,immf vii,,,: F/nvw'nij,/)te-,,wrj 74eivi,rkJnnli'i SVntny 'a SiriimI Oil 1,1)1 71))

5- SE T1ON -C r

service,- and libraryitery. has Ixert riotisly document. These specifications often take the form ofa difficult to quntRy and evaluate. Swiltart t#tulI li4ley general description of the components needed to meet call these "iniangible.cmsts" andexpress the problem the requirements, as opposed to a shopping list of this way ;+... .. specific brands, model numbers, and quantities. The Intangitil9 costs toxin mho 1sr arrived at for (-wry lx'ttetit claimed vendor is thus allowed to suggest the best of what is" forAFirkin,ri fIrrYkilIs ko`Ifie improved, just. how willithe ' improved, and Aperilically will, value cart lie played ott ii, Some available to meet the specifications, Markuson and her libraryatIntinistratook willluirti that they Catilltit estimatethe collaborators prcriided guidelines for preparing hard- value of faster service, morn books, etc., but such judgmentscan be ware specifications!' ;made with remit -1141W e isixatracy and when made, should he recorded in writing. 1. Develop specifications for each type of equipMent However it is accorripliv1hCt1F the point is that cost alone required . should not be the sole con Input equipment The benefits must . . be reviewed vow:kit:rein the deeisioninaking Complater equipment process. )ittput equipment 2. Input equipment specifications should include SELECTING THE SYSTEM Character set and encoding characteristics Operating specifications, e.g.; case 61-opera onss Once an alternative has been chosen, the nextstep is to decide how to ffOcced. There arc three main Reliability of operation , choices: (1) The 1ibiary and its agency can develop Error detection and correction requirements 'and implement thil system, (2.) commercial Quante- Throughput rates, i.e., speed

. tor can be hired to develop and iMplement the system, Display and/or printing requirements or (3) a turnkey system can be purchased and Environmental characteristics, e.g, size, noise . implementetThe decision may take the forts of a of operation, portability, etc. / process ore imination, If there is no turnkey system Maintenance and training provisions available, te next question is whether die agency data Computer equipment specifications shoUld in- processing unit can or will take on sucha project. If 'ludo , -viot, there may be no recourse but to contract out the Core storage and secondary storage characteris- effort. Where options are tn,ailablc, the decision must 1 lie based on ability" the system requirements, Data manipulation capabilities costs involved, ,and LiM,C mplete Throughput requirements Whichever method k I .I, the steps involved arc basically the satyr:, Clliv nee wrote that there were Input readers required, e.g., paper tape readers, four distinct stages.5 and other special peripheral gear Dign.Specificiations 4. Output specifications should include Solicitation. Problem des riprion and specifications arc sent as Printing capabilities needed, e.g., upper and request for proposal (REP) 1,0 a tat of qualified vendors. ' lower case Evaluation. Proposalsiilailkitfed by vendors are reviewed and evaluated according m pkicit criteria and rated according to Output form handling capabilities their performance and cost, Legibility specifications for printing and/or Negotiation. Vendor(s) discor$ions are undertaken and a contract displays is agreed on. 1 i Throughput rates Time stages will he norIcriak.enun the procurement of Maintenance provisions a turnkey system which includes hardware, softWare, Examples of, these and,support; on the hiring of a contractor to prepare kindsof specifications were and/ install the new systern; andon the purchase of offered at the 1974 clinic, n minicomputer applica- hardware by the agen,q/library designteam. tions in libraries. The University of Chicago example The technicalspecifications should have been vag for a front-end minicomputer to serve as a data drawn up and completed as part of the system design

1l Stanley J Satjhav and fkcyl k'tioiley. CAinder Vi in' r r ii in IA, 1,10(1,1" A nr Alsnetgere nnd ngneet (Lns Angeles:V80)el- 16 Publishing Co, 1973),p.231. 'H0111/1T. ()Miter, "A Itvlovievie.. for Seln ting Small l:tutipilirril' In 4 neat Gude In itt en-computer Appliennonst,ed. Fr F. Colley(NewYork. IEEE Prem, 11912 ), p. 94. " Mirkti*In et at,GnlikIllgt PP 1,111,Aey 4 r41..,171 p 53 IN It1)11.11AI, 1,1111

ode! fur other libraries to curator high.specd interlace to of host 101 (Tail i/dr lvritteu 6 The specifications inehnletr the followit 7 follow. :mot speed sufficient to drive the estimi rd mix of terminals REVIEW Q HARDWARE/SOFTWARE sufficiently Nirge to include Disk storage uhorimch, 1(-;Witit along the flow of ever software plus certain' files %vhatever the iho NA followed, the systems remit will 3, Tape dr)ves two, to log all transit lions have to consider mid evaluate specific manufacturer's Ctinsole --- operator communications 3,0(1 pro- 1 models, piece by piece. As background for this gramtiu g tool Procedure, 'and to provide a common groundfor 5. Comm' nieationinter high speed to the ioterprctating the proposals, the main components , , 4 thmputattoncenter,a mix of speeos fur the considered in drawing op the five classes of mitticom terminals iner Nystms described inChapter Three will be 6, System software disk oriented, with assenibl;s- reviewed briefly. These descriptions represent a range or compilers and it communicationspackage of what is available in each area. The mainchanieter- 7, Service -- to be locally available andm-cliable istics of elements of each component arereviewed. The University of Minnesota filo-Medical l'ibrary Sample prices or price ranges are given only as abasis Specifications for the processor for its minicomputer for comparison. There Is no attempt tospecify model configuration contained these requirtiments:m IlarOCS and tiumbers or precise costs,because the 1. CPU must he 8-bit byte-oriented with main minicomputer industry is in such a state of flux,1!) memory addressable by byte locationand pre- A study of minicomputer prices from1972 to975 (erred word size a multiple 411 bits shows that prices arc dropping (Table20).11 rue- 2. Either explicit character manipulation TANX, 411.-,- Comparison Between 1972 and 1975 tides or some reasonable method of effecting these .Within the available instruction set

. Multilevel indirect addressing and indexing ,PL/ whth 2K. memory. S 2,5 'their functional equivalents arc required 4K meAmey 2,200 ChattA5 400 no 4, Multilevel indexing is desirable but re- 375 Powernuplaly 00 quircd con paxit I 225 275 5, Main memory must be increment able M least 1)MA 300 Iticludeel Power foilore teN.art 350 Included 64K bytes Telriprivot!r imeetac:e 150 150 350 15, Direct memory access required Ittal,tieroz dock Included 7, Real-time citFk required A uloloai 400 50 500 Sot) 13, Hardware multiply /divide required 1 11.1AI 6001 1/( Piper Wye teitelenipuncli 5,800 5,600 9, Power fail/automatic restart required Moving head click 13,000 12,000 NA 4,300 10, Memory protection required 1,1pr,),cliyk (dual) 5,5(N) 4,950 11. Operator console keyhxmrd/p it30 cps Primer speed required, One of the best technical specifications ever pr phist- pared as part of ari RFP was issued by the Library of 'I''cll,ticalctgical advances cause cha remains Congress early in 1977 for the procurement, of Several icatiott of a device can increase while the price Minicomputer systems." The system specifications and the same or e'en increases. Prices must bestudied the weighting for the technical evaluationarepresent- carefully for other factors. Some prices are quoted for ed in Appendix B. The RFP was accompanied by OEM buyers. The are stripped units with nocabinet, project descriptions for each application area. This one power supply, controller, etc., which are tobe incorpo- re/Aran,and ft! 'dated Pahl ern,ed.-V.Wiltrirl 1, Charles T, Payne, "The University tit Chicago I .ibrar'y Rita ManagementSyiteiti," inAO/ 44110r14ofoniorninum Ill.:Univenit)'r1I (Minn s, 04114411t1", p4pen pemented at the 1974 Clinic on Library.pill leaf inns of Rata Proceming, 2)1 April In 11144 104 (Urhana-Cliampaign, GY44011te SCh001 01 library Seitfule, 1974), p. I In, Characteristim Economic., and Selection," p. Grooell.'Minicorupuier 1.14. Propotial,- Washington, D.C., 19)7, ( Mirrieugr 012 0 U.S, Library of Congresa, Procurement and Supi)ly Rlvnp,n,"9ini Computer tiyAleniiii 190. This included minicomputer comnionems and peripherals hotli for mateltf= 14' Withington predicted advances in compilers and included price forecititl to 21 Olowiry 1975): to Iet110010pcy And preclicted technological developments; seeFrederick (i. Wit hington, "Peytoicl lfl7 t A Technological Forecast," Ontamatiorf

197la)' 112, rty B. Jarou,"Minicontsinters hlicroComputers 'Peripherals; What Arr the ar1,11 Com Mu-IA-Up?" Ahru-A.Nro Sygerru 0 (May sE1.0...1110K CIRrIttRIA 101

rate lent or systems,. ft Afanufaittafr users are hiver., 'premise they, need tonyir^10. No. of regiAim 20-1 inoieii register Memory ri r (wits) -106,4K (411K available to titer) readyIto ',Kurile _prices are for"paelkitgesi" o\ti: nos/word s.II "systt:ins" thalf irirlude several con ipsitien LIR with no Pallilr/PMtei. hat choice, rpf nooklel otr features. Sonic prices for ty,,r.ipherals Cycle time (r121) (-I(i (10 Mt in cluck 110.! controller, wind' mast bc porellosq,(1 Paging yra as a se.parate glares of equipment. !iottiClintesi IWM Gomm! nirineiry t Ile !mum Ilona controller is IMO( of the larger CM) hystcrn., vrdlitsin

n dint the(I() device would two work .0h tie 1 hinfile precision 4 yea (I !outwore) multiply/divide NA cliffere.tit tiltkOit4a.cltirer's CPU. The prices ufltitItnAi or floating point - NA manufacturer cati be somewhat higher tharit of Stack nianipidation yea indcp(t).rl(rlcararponent matinfacturisrs, especially iin Mill ity intrirupt - 10 the k";11 of fx:ri phPrill IS. Even with products of a single manufacturer the CPI) comparison is difficult. For example, the II1M 370 is known as the latest in large-scale computers. However, Tim t( o,liist(1rmost difficilltin o 370 is a series number, and a second number identifies evalualr. 11 elements tiscd des,eriilpr the model. At the top of the' 370 series, for example, is procrssor err. tattiystandard, but hear Tot the 370/168. At the otheril(1 ofthe, series,the tell111C. who'ic Wiry'. Note their the marl MAO ig.rtN,!` 370/1.15 -is limed as the minicomputer. The Digital cacti tlbc 11014(wing ( uses (Micron! s Equiptricot Company manufactures a minicomputer tics to desctibe sera ~,called PDP-. I IThe size and power of this Serie. Man r vanes' from the PDP11/04 (4K mentor)) to Memory Ile,C11,90Ivigy )I' 1 1/70 (128E memory). One manual listed the Memory in:A.:0pr 0-32K base price of the P1)P1 I /0, as 32,995 and the base Word firm flai (s) "lay cycle limy! (its). 4 I .21s.,6rd price of the P1)P1 1 /70 as 554,600. microprngrionniecl Yrta Sometimes model numbers for a series arc based on Afanufdkruk& software alone. For example the General Automation Memory Aik Ow 161( data "management DM200 series (220, 230, 240, and Word tier. (Woo) 250) all use the same hardware; they differ in their Cyck...sperd 4.01wI ti sof ware Transtniviipla crnie =1 l hit t -txlc 22(1 Remote Jobentry NV/odium-PI 110 sir_siiicrti r 16 230Standalone bateh system using disk' monitor Alanufaefrom operating system (I)AS Main owntiairy .4' t 110 (kc) enan(cIef aiae " G biP Foreground / background (communications / AcidreAriArpl 4/partition, excepoi,inittion hatch) communications monitor syste Cycle time (AO No. of 25 Time-sharing and batch using time-sharing I now ItirrTAIVI)),41-p.trtIt101i operating system (TSO) high-stwrcl Because of the wide variety of CPUs, it is difficult to MaxitntiinCk Ofr,NI/C", I() state benchmark prices by categories. In fact, price is mantipatiret Memory not always indicative of capability. A Gencral Auto- Wordaim...!n 24 IAis 'anon DM 23(1 standalOne batch system was corn- Nixaimiin 14-0 ch.:gill-1,13; - pared to "competitive systems," ranging in price from itfantifir 447,650 to $82,595 (Table 21).14 "., At is difficult to be Cycle triiNYCJI(htlift) sure that we are comparing apples to apples, since the siorage.trehpitilogy configurations shown vary in disc storage capacity, Main m.rri[rry AY, basic system components,, and card/line printer rat- ings,"

AwrAwm fluvrp` p14 fluvoiett ,V61,01 7 7 (II`wtri,")kro NJ .Sucr1,ich lirnlishcrs, 1077), p 70.7'), I 10,162'. '1.16. " Mid , pp. 111 14 !hid , p, 1;',Q MINIC(_IIPtliERS 1N FF,DEKAL 1.111RARI1!N

2IComparin Innipetitive Systems" Price Mld 1975 motion Mfitna Mans storage AS) Mtn sod reader 41 firm) 347k51) Qcnera I Automation K bytes 20M bytes distil storage `ITY, line printer Er r% line !Muter (1011 1)4-;(I btasystem `12K byt 10M bytes disk %Image 'aer tape input, wag tape de -it I fewlet tI'arkard M21A1 32K bytes215 bytes disk storage line printer (MO Iptit)

System 111K bytes bytes disk storage Workstation, Nile printer (450 114)11) inag tape 11evite, 60 lllm pri $77,400 1:/3110 !YAK byte% iONI bytes disk storage f karmic:, ( asynt: multiplexor

The five classes of minicomputers pot together in involve as milet as 90 percent of e al cost cc Chapter 'Three as sample systents can he priced as a Table 20) of the hardwatr,Also,fddramatic price basis of comparison (Table 22). The prices that follow drops found in processors have not7 red in the area are (or end-riser systems and are On tin:'Ugh end of the of peripherals. most price scale. The price for the processor isfor the largest Inthe early days of iitiicomputer, end of the main memory range and includes the(:PLJ, peripherals used were existin Ks rk-signed originally Main memory, l/() control,comminocat'ions control, for large-scale computers, ',le miniperipheralmarket are rnanY choices for chassis,power source,' control panel(or console), has now developed, and there support software, and operating system,It does not most 'devices. :There arc /three sourcesfor peripherals: OEM include a compiler. the minicomputer (processor) manufacturer, the manufacturer who zse,Ils the peripheral_ without inter- IrAmE, 22Cnts of the Five Classes of Minicomputer specializing Systems face, and the indePeralent manufacturer in complete plug/compatible peripheral systems. As Modern Data pointed out; l5 C:ategory 'Re safest an d easiest way to buy a peripheral is from themini Intelligent terminal (Data manufacturer. Mc minimaker has designed, tested, and labricat-- Collection) ed interlace logic and diagnostic/ debug 'Software to ensure S15,000 II (32K) Simple executive monitor trouble-II-et mating of the peripheral with the mini, However,, or single batch general since/the mini manufacturer usually sells only to hisbase, application pre celocnon is limited and prices tend to be IVher than the other III (64K) Single or multiple hatch with general applications to alternatives. including sorting Independent miniperipheral manufacturers/suppliers arethe $76,0(30 IV ik) Interactive single appli- second alternative. These manufacturers can either manufactre cation for multiple their own complete peripheral sub-system or they canbuy frOm an online users OEM manufacturer and provide a specialized interfacefor ime-sharing interactive' rittrixxi (h-4K) certain mini models, Most of these manufacturers have ahigh system with multiple ap- make plications for multiple degree of flexibility since they are not locked into a specific online users or model, and they are generallyless expensive than mini manufacturers because of high volumes in certainperipherals, Taking the as base figures, the costof the various The third alternative is for the do- it- yourselfer who likes todesign peripheral and software packages to 1w used canhe his own hardware and software interfaces, The peripheral canbe added for a total system price. purchased from an OEM Manufacturer and,the controller from a variety of controller manufacturers for she lowest price of thethree alternatives. Peripherals The advertisements for peripherals manufactured they "The peripherals chosentrifill out the hardware by in_ dcpendentstall emphasize which mini model configuration deserve special consideration.Not only irecompatible withIndustry magazines prepare that show which do they perform, the system interface to the user and survey articles and include charts thereby influence the efficacy of the system, they can _independent's device fits which minicomputer. Mimperibberals,-Miidem Para(December 1975): 34. "Pefipher41s Make the rkfiro, Irrkfr/MN Silf,VNcif phie.r..anpallCr SELECTION CRITEKIA 103

Another fitret of the peripheral Mitt iill is the " 111M- a factor with lengths of tale, rill -insfer titles equivalent" or "111M-standard" product. Some lied- determine the !ice of adevice.Therates for reading iiheralx e designed to replace an IBM device in such and puhrhing vary for paper tapes and punch cards, a -way t the procesSor arid software are "ignorant" but magnetic tape read and write ratesare the sanac,., of the su jst notion. Fur example, disk cart ridge systems l'or all tape devices the sptterlcan vary with the power are presented a.s equivalent ro the 111111 2315 or 5110, of the tape drive; fast forwardor rewind speeds also and disk packs are describedas equivalent to Illtvl ran vary and affect system efficiency:Tables 21V.213 2,31 ror 3330 my' sterns. show the costs of various mass stori.rge devices, The point has been triade,.that peripheralsare expensive;a high percentage of the costofthe Paper tape and punch card devices. peripheral system is for the interface, Julirtssencom- 24Paper Tape. (Perforated) piled i table that illustrated the proportion ofthe cost Six-, or Eight.qtannel Tape) Of the interface to the price`of flu:device (Table 23). III Category I ltaracten per second " TAHLE '23 (omparium of Costs of Peripheral1)viei!s and `l heir Interfaces Reader Slow: up to 100 51,600 phis controller Peripheral Medium:100-300 $1,000 plus 34,000 Peripheral Intcrfat to $8,000 Peripheralflrvice Price ($K) Prier ($K) controller High: greater than , Tr 3330 Moving Wail Disk Punch Slow: up to GO 0(X) to $9,900

Cartridge_- Moving dead Disk , 5.1. Medium:61-120 )0 plus $4,000 TI Magnetic Tape 6 3,000 DEC Cartridge Moving Head Disk troller Reader/ DEC Magnetic Tape :7:5 AliD Floppy Disk 0.75 Punch Shugard Floppy Disk 0.75 Sykes Calsctie (RS232) 0.6 Note: The prices are only samples randomly chosen, The control- "Sykea C:imselte ( Millicouiputer 06 ler may be part of the mainframe system, and the manufac- Interface) turer's unit can be used only on its equipment. Mere may be a separate cnntmller, which must be purchased separate- e independent 1atiufatlnrcrs supply interfaces iy, or the device may have chi, controller installed in it and designed specifically for cvrrain device mOdels and included in the price, miniprocessors.Sortie firms do custom interfacesof TABLE; 25Punch ,Card Devices (80-Column) demand basis. It should be Anted out that I 1/add-in memo- ity,ttnKitil? arc often crinsidered peripherals.11.They Reader up to 30tJ $4,11 1 to $ isi, with controller can he ofkred by the processor Manufacrurer oran Medium:301-729 Up to $10,000 with Findependent vendor. 'Hwy iarcUsedtoenhance, Controller 4tugment, or replace existing Flinfil within the limir;; High: )0-.1400 $10,000 to 315,009 of the (1)1.3 and sciftware. with controller Pu Slow: up to 7(1 $1,900 plus con- Niass Storage 1)evieeis crofter (8750) Mahon): 71=149 $9,000 tO $12,000 Iligh: 'Titre arc,iwo basic types of mass (1-300 stopoo to 530,00(1 pi ntial Reader/Punch Read 300, punch 60. 59,500 plus con. ;Arid direct access: seqiientral cic rice s arc usually troller ($1,900) Slower, than direct access onus, but theyAR. simpler. Isailltiporpose Read 300, punch 6(1 $11,400 plus inn- unit (can Ironer ($2,100) '111-teyrun on smaller,less sophisticated (thusless include c'' pensive) hardware aird software. Sequential media sorter) vary from paper tape and pinch cards toiuiagnt tit pes (both cassytte type and industry-standar(i). Magnetictape cassettesandcartridgoi. The tape The main characteristics of segnential mediaare c:mseite isI he simplestmagnetic tapedevice. Itlooks -cl and case of use Capacity den's not enter In with like an audiocassetic and was introduCedbyPhilips. Cards (except for capacity of card hoppers) butcan he The cartridge was developed by IBM: it has wider J. Egiljolitimcn, -The( rctiplIcral 10 I Januar.' 1977): r"Perlpherall Make tlw prri MI B- LLID 104 tape (therefore more tracks) and Ettorecapacity. An Direct access storage devices. Direct access mass article inModern Datacompared the two forgets (Tables storage tiscs disks (diskette or floppy disk,fixed-head 26, 27):18 disk platter, movable-head disk cartridge, movable- TABLE 26 Comparison of Magnetic Tape Cassettes head disk pack, Floppies are better compared.to tape and Cartridges cassettes than to the large disk device.t9 The price of the drive is about the same as the tape cartridge drive; the floppy itself costs the saute as a tape cassette andits P ccof drive with capacity is smaller than that of a cassette or cartridge. write and motor control electronics The transfer rate is significantly faster for the floppy: Price of a_tinitrawette S 20 or cartridge) Average capacity of media 5.4M bits 23NI bits Cassette 8K bps tracks) (4tracks) 1. (2 Cartridge 48K bps Average transfer rate BK bps 4111{ bps Floppy 250K bps TABLE 27Tape Cassettes Some floppies are compatible with IBM equipment, and some are noneompatible (either in the data 'format or the plug for the drive); there aresingle; double 1,20 2,715 singledrive density floppies.--. 2,30(1 to $3,400 Each device comes with a drive and a controller. don( (love units come in single, dual, or triple drives:.

Industry-standard magnetic tape. Magnetic tap(ni Single drive and controller 52,800 to $4,500 open reels of 7)/2- or 10-inch diameter is the common INEal drive and controller $3,750 to $6,000 and miniconipu- tape for both large-scale computers Triple drive andcontroller . $6,200 to $8,000 ters, The tapes have seven or nine tracksand are recorded at 800 or 1600 bits per inch (bpi): the [cad irks. The fixed-head or head-per.track and write speeds range from 10 to about 75 inches per disk is the fastest but has the most expensive per unit second, or 10-100 thousand bits per second (10100 capacity. The total capacity available is less thanthat K B). Some devices come ascl kiS ierNU/114.101ird of a movable-head disk. A unit witha5I2K-byte rrltrlfii drives and conindleimitts capacity costs S10,880. One movable disk packhas a according to combinans of variables [Arse (I able 20M-byte capacity and costs $9,500. 28). 4:artridgei.A diskcartridge is a movable-head TABLE Industry-standard Iapel irt,res diskinaunit of one or two platters. Single disk Trite Tracks DensityRead/write Speed No.ofboy, allyides etr reniovahle which meansthe files can be

g 7 (151) Sy-SEC-LW Double hpi .rfps 1 oaosfett ed physically (tom system tO 7(150 9 MY/ hpi 125 its disk cart ridges are often curlcurtihinations of one fixed disk 9 800 bpi 12.5 ips 11,255 and weremovable disk A number of characteristics 9 800 hpi to KB 0(X) bpi %KR '0 400 411 Ix' used todeed tidisk cartridges, but only a feu 000 bpi 20 K 7 Win 00011 air sigmficant:21 800 bpi 40KBr; rapacity in filegabvlezi 800 bpi BO K PIN 11 000 I >live capacity: StOtmp_ 17.-400 9 1600 bpi 20 Ktill onformated data 9 1600 bpi 40K Firs (lth,. d ItsIRAs] .ingIts gd 21i,7151 vet age as tos=s 9 1600 bpi Bo K BPS 9 800 bpi ,1R K It [early to read or write (c'

Sirphrn ell, ,.twit, -- I" !hid 11,1. IMO 'FloprN 1)10, 11, j,, 1.i7r- 19 ii11.0...u.1 A Revnol, .0,1r111,k lilt( I SILECTION CltirEftlik IOs

rasffil.f.29Disk Cartridges

Low Capacity 2.5Mbytes 1$5,950to 511.000 45-90 pi 180-312Kbytes /5 Medium Cal :tacit"' 4,8 to 6,25M bytes $6,000 to314.000 42-90 As 150-312Kbytes/5 Hie; C.apacity 9.6 to 12.5A4 hylo $7,500 to $12.500 33-90 p5 181-312K.by-te 5/5 High-Density (3000-1680 bp,), 25to 26M- bytes to $24,500 High capacity 33µs 312-937K bytes/5 e.

density: the corntrnon density is 2200 bitsper others handle both input andoutput. Some are inch, but Nurne newer disks have densities of more hardcopy, some display, and sortie both. than 4000 bpi, 'Punch card readers and papertape readers are Price: prices include the drive andthe controller. input only devices andwere discussed under mass Prices are related to the capacityof the cartridges (Table 29). 'The capacities storage devices. Printers are the most commonoutput range front 2.5M hytrto only devices. 101M bytes with several exceptionallylargerunits available. Printers Printers A/a-. y accordingto several characteristics: Ask packs-, The disk packis the largest capacity u nit Within a unit therecan be 10 or more platters that arc Speed ---- ranges from 1 0 charactersper second to 18,000 lines per minute read by a movable head drive. Some diskpacks add a second drive. Thetsame elementsarc important lor Price variesfrostsapproximately 5100to disk pack as for a disk castritigecapacity,to txss- tow, $310,000 and transfer rare. Table :30compares prices of various Methcod impact or nonimpact disk pack to nu.. Mode ---- character ata time in a serial format or TAnt.u. 30-01411 line ata timein a parallel format Character images shaped or dot matrix 1.spacity of Drives Price withController Character sets 64 (upper case), 96 (upper and 20M bytes toWit' 1,5011 to SIR.,' lower .case) 128 (upper and lowercase plus :30M byte% :Ad secttntl ctrivr 510,000 in 515,1()I) special characters) 40Mbyte 535,000 to 5.117,000 80M -Tv,i-)e bytei (Inv' S'211kNSI.)t., 5:11),000 of papei and paper feed heat-sensitive add see on ve 515,LXSO paper, friction feed roller or sprocket feed roller 95M bytes lodual $58,000 to 5 175t,1 bytes U("1) -these all affect the ability to print special formsantl'utmultiple copies. chine interface bevitc, 1.,(ifier units w111.4111 all itltcrfaCe to the, computer,a colitiolelectronics (sometimes Marl Mat hi IW I IM'ILIkr VI, I CI iIptit ink Iticliog a buffer). information in iiiiitiari-undc-istandahle Drita prepai,d a sommatof typical printer devices differ signiticattilIii input output ,uthe cod 1!)-P) rafile 1 1.2'jIt gives an ties. Nome c. Mini( (111 it nts (II tit tint'.,to,t ,itil It'sTei ,.ftlic prime,11)4;ket tr,,n 1. ftw.lcgi-;,, .11,1 I /1,111C01'41 _ NI FE 1,78,11,4RIES 106

User Printer Equipmeht Prices and S TABLE:3IIiii . End 'orrurrienrs

tote copies prosible, rnpact Character preprinted forms prrible (Shaped Character) 60 I 20 Spesed (cha.racters/%corld) 10 Si) 4-6 Price (WOO) 1 =4 copies prrvabie. Impact Character prritrirrical (arras prwiblr ([Dot Matrix. Character) tit IN.) Spend (c.ha.racters/secorni) 8 Price ($000) Multiple copies pto.sible. Impact Line preprinted bums pot3sible (Shaped Character) Speed (Itners/minufe) tr 700 1000 74 112 Price ($1000) 17 3 51 Requires special pa Pion impact Character siriile copy 081-ty, (INK MatriA Character) Speed (characters/second) I (4 24 Price (50(N)) 1 4 Realittrirrs special paper, r'slori lin pact Line Lops, only (Dot Ma irtA Charai tri Speed (linel/rninuto 1/8 Price (POO) a10

total number

Lihe Width Print Speed ,t1 rate comparable to that of aTeletype. The comrollets allow trausmission character, wore ia Thisticated ciihrai-ler% pte U 8, e,tt.., 9600 line or Ion poiwcitrisi iiiblurLs at minimum at tous speeds, l340re than 80 41p tc) h/=1 OA till. piersit said characarn per 1,,,, t harai ter or upper Masser C.rierally 80 01Int)+, Up ttrI 2.0 t4z WO 3., is it 11 stirc-csal 1hha1,14terSCapability chAracten per 88r pcirict cm< (to) (cis

t totit ,,t,.. -_ 11(1(0 01 00 page keyboard/lAsplal.I rr tirsii,d, IIreor( riardr forms till tnIorivartti; function k _, krtybozird/clisplay tcrtm nubsList- ,t R Ifor display editcapability,double width Although (hest- have sonichart,I. WOO. tlalrilttli 111(1 Character haractem corm tillablet'L/1"ta It VVr/t/C Vldr01 with nal/AC(71W pi tithe/ t 11/11 /It lel 1,0( _!t, ill!' btIl ithttletti tomit. (A-411)1yr: por- petit lot to display mills, t.tblc color character ((trout(titzct,Iit..t1-1 ati_orditig to the otbxh,t11,)w, eelfca- fossil the ch.arat ti-Cs) .1/11/111/1/1 1)atti"1 1'11tett vioN s 00 It i411,1, 1,,/CN t`IVIlleltVtI 11(' i, tItt/fil around i)N,' 7 18/ rlI theThesisdelta.Iii. 1000 CEO 107

and tie tOp ;is Inure than 512,000. Thetop end has series; and hurronghs hasan en tire series ysterns for featitires thait place it' in the intelligent terminalclass. work station ba=sed data entry/inquiry. JJ rne C T controllers handle multiple units as a One type cif system --- the small businesscornputer units have the capacity to plug ina --- has received niuch attention and has been widely harelcOpy oat pio. developd by the industry. These systemsare "generally cha.ractcri2ed by purchase prices E-,etsCeen$5,000 and SI1X],000 and by a strong orientation, 'inboth any cas41!s, systems software and an operating equipment and software, toward conventional bittiness data processing application."1-n Theyare developed by systett are included with the purchase ofa ruinicorn- the main rtfinicornputer rnianufacturers or by indepen- 130 procerzor. "Extras, in the form of utilities, corripilers, and communications packages, dent system hooks or turnkey yentiors, a'hismarket are sold was assessed at 51 billion in 1976, and so has received separately, Some manufacturers offerapplications a software packages designed great deal of attention. front the trade press, -Articles for special purposes. Many that survey and review small business systems panics will not sell these packages, but only lease appear routineiy, And looseleaf services such entcct the proprietary nature of the packag as '1,'AtPerbaCh's Buyer'sUt-nrie es_ fins arrangement usually allows the user toBusiness Minicomputer 4sterms24 offer to receive current information on the market. 7 tile latest, most up -to date version of the software. One must be very careful in studyingsysterms ds 'The followtog prices are offered from main mini described in the press. Not every vendor "bni-idles" his ufacturers' business systems lists. They would not system the same way and not' every reviewer presents ssarily reflect prices front a systems house_ .S'ystrial Software the data t.lte same way. For example, the batatrialionn Utiotim 15/rno4th [total survey described the Datapoint Model 2200 one way, ttuniri.rions 11700 porchiLse and itfinzAthcro 5ystems26 described it quite another: Operating system 5 15/ month teroau. hatunaticro mini-mum) CArriplicr 5 '?5 /month rental ysteiris. .5 20 to S.Poitnooth rental U 5 11in 5115 /tilos thinain ierninss- installed /date: Word length 1972 1Mensory capaci 4 -I 6K flpiNtAtiinu Nel9TliprsciRgrclossttlikritni18.1. Pure}rasa to 53500 Siorarnunicatisw: tl tincs Data Efliq Ternina/ 5 750 pl Us5 I ';:ncf,,,rioot h Applications:: bankittg, Video last tee_ 5 175 insurance, pis/err-anent, 5 250 to 51450 plus 511 fmtfori acconnijoN Card 5290 to /146 X) BO column (300 epos)

Monthly 575 to 5 420/in 1 Procosot (Dainpo, rental Iota:nal stsirAge Lusa 4h toIt.1X, MOs Capacity. 0.n6 -1-01s1 bytcl SyStell15 (3 2 riser) 1,,S, Word siwpfOr.J Hag Toe B bits/ 4 8 Ali Cartridges staits) S,flamy 01tile04,1or nlin rntpiliciII lag 11,t. ,,, Reel ire systrtiis1I-101 .st ".;ysiern urril,letc )1..N Ics floppy, harCIWZIrevcni fjp7H-LIIion,as()I-R,arc imuktv,e,. and ,:aoridgr, p, Scnat 132 culdsons someti hies even applo.atton pa(-kages Ihtsss«.01is 10/3s0cps Al at a pme that is less 04111 (fhis ni,s pies e lss andonx sctio410, Serial 120 cvIt_Anin$ indrsrd sr-tine-61W piece puretwe_ IN particsiltdls, title-lin I 20/1 I-0 t:pi uttellltettl trite132 colutvals terminals, which often have allClic components in a reel,tatsa,eihr' 3(X)/RX) cFA Sonic systems are for tions, but sortie arc configured for special siii.oncaams p Hs, .sseN. Fot 10- kcy , serial Avync hconous and example, Ra ytheon has a sy'si cutexp.% -1,1,11, titslow(' printer ( t FAIL sync hronous for distrib6ted processing.I 4mat (4irp. iiilrprinter(f(i txa has a t-vord proo-ssing system to theI iat vrri110) strve. N1111 ).(0,14,1fr " num 3 Golf- 4.t,r mtmos,11,,$ii 1,4tent A! / Summit "' 514,ittmi11..`ftl-tel,,-a.'m ndt tt Limn 11 I . MINICOMPIMES IN FEDERALIB

Software f'r- gr'ttrrrrning Languagel EVALUATIQN RPC BASIC. assembler, DATABUS, BASIC, RAU DATARCS, SCRIBE, ambler Inpreparation of an RIP, the 'criteria tobe used in DATA 130fal. of pprahafi Online batch . reviewingthe proposal arcdrawn up.and'often are SHARE, acenaming not package, 'DBMS Pnces included in theR FP. The criteria should' cover' gruit Prices Purchase. only the hardware and softty,-are, but aim-)the man Monthly rental S8,571 (82161mo.. 2-yr-) trackrecord,thepr= bus Soft-Ware and .support extra Maintenance toter and/or vendor's emZperience of the system (or hardware), ad the Flow does one compare these data?'Fite Id Mir flan responsibilities for maintenance of the syster , The only, price,tis for a basic system (probably the processor University of Chicago suggested that thef flowing he lower end of the niernor-y )_ The ewe of rniw purn'ts be covered as the basis forreview21. data common watt ()Rs sforage deve,s, peripherals. and -Reputation of manufacturer/supplier This crit.non is the costof equipment. would be extra, as would the roost subjective, but in WTI-1S of ourrequirements, a thi. most software. The Atuzi-Alltro Slsterns pcik-c Includes more important. The hardware,: trust be widely av_able, and and is more representative of what ibis ss:stcrowould supported over the life of the system,which s ggests the e product actual ly cost importance of dealing with art established vendor. of proven reliarriiity. l_mc rimadckxtwern must be currently demonstrable and An Inter- estiti,g comparison can available 2Maintenance Maintenance support must Dataynot sll [Ain, ntrIes in r locally and should be of prow li reliability. 1rpli,r1 (3.t. -_,Ummuni catiom hardwareirehitecture, The _ajar task of Cuenno.-Me-mior. 11.A0,011 the minicomputer system is that of drivingapproxi -ately forty- / lit) lea theibtla .W.41 101 lines with various transmission charact The r,ladi 0,, eight No moijle1,14.,f Intr,k10(tj u, communications hardware must be capable, offrandling a Iar)uryi 41* NioltpebraTarnIng v.iriety' ofe'vfce types and chnimunications chat- cteristics and orrnoR1,--atwu mg the anticipated load, and havecuff dent ITSWVe P144) 11,..M. expansion. Careforattention mustbe p id to whether 4431-icAtio.. tiAnkital. )n-iur)tin imunic_ations hardware Tnirots tilos fission on a 1 0 l 0 chara let -by-character basis(programmed or on a toes ge, basis (direct, memory access). 11)1..), NA( )))), ,4 Cot -nunications software support In winocoon with, the nications hardware, an extremely dcs-bit feature is ttavailability of communications sofoaare. eripherat devices [roans' the front-end computer system rovides backup when the main computeris down, a heavy urden is placed on the peripheral devices, mostnotably on the AtAtralf flak drives which hold several pro&r.singfilms. The mechanical corrif_xments of the system have the leastreliability, therefore, Our dick and tape drives proposed mustbe devices previously installed and of high reliability. Li.,I 1,1 The state of the art in promsor design has I) if C171_1 architecture reached a point that many fast, reliableminicomputers are on should be '4. the market Therefore, CPU to CPU compansms fill Mnit.fn .1114,.1 paints are often weighted is tcirelative impor- ..)))fpn), I B.). t (See vvuiOiling schedule us Appendix -itI-,lilt ti I 1-he -ch fferem_es hetstc tit L neee-s- Within each k further evaluation is tolnit.otvitti t 1 basic system. ft,tvehecit described inthe 'Datapoint the t]asn- price is tot t he pi, ts es is atilt imtlls ...IryVarious schemes Many of these -rues are based on lists of tisoltssa ic I,I lit hidedl't1, i1 R liter.tturt cw peripllerals, accorcimr( to their relative y%tenis house vernior A. impliedI tat, .1111111110, .111.10IN Iwitinent factors weighted miimpoetatice to the application.Formulas are applind to time basic syslentis ritoty e midi t it I to iv, IIne timparc the results ofeach proposal's weighted scores. softwareg._iir-t, careful t niy,trisow must by Ili I: Rohn', V1, ,,O, eilte% ft,,, n),!)))) V.Ivrir rr,31, 1)1,14)) tloi AI,I 1)11)11-)i)..5)) ELECTION CRETE ti

At an American Institute of Industrial Engineers User groups (AIIE) conference on minicomputers,John Hughes Future plans suggested use of a vendor de-cision matrix.29The 6. costs criteria he suggested were:1 Purchase price-- 1. Processor Architecture Discount structure Word length Lease basis Memory path-width Once the criteria are established, the weightsshobld Interleaving ability be determined. Of the factors listed,seine may be of no Number of channels importance to the application; give them weights of I/O channel data rate zero. Those factors most important to the application CPU cycle time should be given the top Weight. The mostcommon Memory cycle time scale used is zero to ten. The weighting decisionscan Number of registers be aided by reviewing the hardware andsoftware Instruction set impacts discerned through use of the Design Model Main memory capacity (Chapter Four). Auerbach reviewed the elements of Main memory.type hardware and described bow each affectsa system.3° 2. Software For example,ifthereisfrequent data exchange Operating sy:ltems between the CPU and the external environment(i.e., Data base/file managementagement systems the peripheral devices), the interrupt efficiencyis High.level compiler important a9d the machine chosen mustprocess De _gging aids interruptsquicklyand offer multilevel priorities. tion paekages 011ivier did more than subjectively assign weightsat Utility pr -grams" review tirne_31 He broke down each factor interms of Cornmu cations handler possible responses and the ivalue each shouldbe Multipr gramming\ assigned. This value is then multiplied by the weight. Editin Table 33 shows an example. Although thisappears to Over ays be a more scientific approach,a eau tion must be Maintenance noted. Manufacturers use theirowe techniques to Equipment Reliability: and M-I TR achieve the same purpose, and the factorsare difficult Onsite FE [field engineer) to quantify precisely. For example, how would Bur- Expense -Spare parts TkEILE 33Weighting Scheme for Elartb Evalu- Diagnostics aton Organization Factor Preventative maintenance Word Contracts available size 10 4: 16 bits or mom; 2:12 bits; 0: H bits or lez I.Marketing Support k:yde law tr 4:Ips; 3=1: 1-2 pa; 0: 2 is System docutventatit ti Ink-truCtium 4,3. Extensive;2: Adequate; Programming manuals., 1 AI Primitive Addle sing 4 4-0: .Scare one for each of Custom programming the following, indirevt,

SE support (system cut;_ relative, indexed, direct Training to greater than 4096, or 5. Company Viability. by addr .essing !oh,.tilt 7 4 3 or more priority, no Time in business identification neces,sary, Profit picture :4-1, adequate for 3 0mane quoted Research and developri ymcat Nitr Subtract one point for . Installed base each 5 inches overt tIrithil

zu job., Lee Iluoff., tet ippticottort, AnirriCAI) tri,111111C Etptofrol, rd1ia,1.1 Debeau, F.3iNceetho tilt ut Induktrial Engineer, I.011(eiri)(hrrkl 111 44,01.110dliI) 7 rn ..bortveli I TIAber I'175 Arigelek Nianagernerli l'Aorat Ion comoia ton, 1975) ,IFI till it,atinlitriNewirk Book.,II/ 74 1, p W.! III )111karr. 2 Frchnitior to Sehrt 111117 Small I triIIlirr ter. rk r /ow to /Itoof I '1r tlinhOn1Prat, 01itr f.liff a i t 4%, 1971 Per 115.117 / / M!NICOMPjtFES IN FEDERAL UPAPJES 110 Li' that their absence (a zero value rough's variablvod-sizc devices be compared with so critical to the systeçxi machines that u,e 8bit, 16-bit, 24bi t, or f4-bitwords? tsr score) willclimjrs'.te the vendor frons ccrnsideration total scorewas,35Far Bard en suggests that thebestway to overcerrse this no'rnattcr howJzih the system's example, if',livery is ?equired in43 daysarid the problemuithe area of speeds iby prepring ar4 running bcnchinark prograrrl for thvarious types of proposal o1fred 90-day delivery, theproprvsal would minicomputers32The sts of bencJirnarks can.,vary be wortless for this application. according to the application. He illustratedbench- 011i/ier does not stop with the comp04it score He performance, usinga rnaik prngrani run by the industry:Iirarufers 100 advates plotting cOst against a!low- bytes of data from nbc block of tnen'iory toanother; II rTuimurn performance score and a rnaxirrturn lg),38In onverts a 6-digit ASCII octalvalue to a binary value ale cost figure as bases of comparisou (l'ig. of l6 bits; and III searches art 80-itemstring of it is obvious that system E it thebst.value, characters for a given character. Table34 illutratcs with system A in second place. t1te use of these benchmarks. J Ti 34-1ntructin Speed Benchmarks Turnkey Systems is indudedas one of Benchrnsrk If a packaged or turnkey system ifallof the propal,s arefor ill Averagc the proposals (or I IT packaged systems), how isit evaluated? Delanoy, 80O&-t pcup 69,215 1,767.5 5,542 25,7ti2 writing on the use of libraryn'iinicompt.tte? turnitey 1,018 1,546 ,I19 800 p chip ( 7,854 systems, advised thefollowing.37 ,Mc60O jap chip 3,918 29! 807 1,072 .lr5 ., the mostimportni character- F8 p chip 5,247 q 899 Itt cantdering a rniicnrnputer. - McS5O2 pp thip 2,604 447 440 1,152 istca are that the machine is part of ançstahbsbed and growing PDP-&E 1,158- 125.8 66831 oSI prsxluct line; tht machine as configrircd 'iisuitatk arid adeqsiae'e Nova 81)0 688 588 2526 134 For your aplicatioo; the manufncturer-suppIicst'twarr meets CA! I.SI3/05 4,OOi 319 124b.75 I .865 your needs, and the manufatturer'simstiiI!atnsadi'rainteaance (cot) oomriimt)nerits are dearly specified. lritei-ctita 5/jh 20.5 833 3905 250 Wrisbrpd also wrote of library packaged ten'is He said four major questions must beanswered, itl uscan eStSti n A similar approach'ould lx-' I. Do the functions included satisfy theneeds of ki pruapeaive industrywide comparison. A clas.sic,tucly wadone by the sroapectivr user's 8utler inlY70;'3the data are now, but rh 2 Cars the sysretn he configured to handle 45 rnttcicl4 as a procing load? approach is still viable He used,,Eita for for purchase cit for rcrii&1? basis for a priccto-perfurinjc r4tivb using tFire't' 3 What equipment is required, either 4. What is mhcsyftcmsocnt? rquatidnscfor calculitti,& hardsrarrjrkt-' perFor Hr pointed. out that thcse arc the sane qucttonsthat rnancc;th software price pt'rfuzrnaricc,and 'uSc' roust 'be answered-for a systemdeveloped in-house. overall price/performance Hehovs-rdratin'gs fist the values 'I'herefore, In evaluating a packaged systetn one uses 45 models bascd art oerall price. performance otht'' proposal, but Some evaluation techniques-stop whenthc wegle- rIic .sarne procedures as for, any ing or weighting times value has bt-,icisrnpk'ied. Flits with more emphasis on he software. "Software, 'rtotjiardware, is the ps'6talclenient in number cani,be said to provide a measureof icinripami- selection."°biat is because the real power atid i'hrvi-idumwith rystcrn son among various mriantifacIurer softwtre. For a is hissenhsrfinal efkutivcneas of arty system rests 'on its the most accumulated points imi-huusc dpplic.altQns program- evaluation. 011ivier suggests tb-sm so icfartory may be system purchased for tloii.apble' -iI,,n1ieu, edfr-ni I-LniryNe'v Y',rlt IEOF. Pi'Oo, 972), pp 77- !M,'''uII .iuri. °JLliu ret rnlpafalive C rn-ia "'M"ii'op.ç. it' I drlinrd ape is lioni votE, Fit)timber , , 'inpoliruit viewed t,rc,,,,icMat 0 3 eq 'i finch I 0i,Ii to aln,.iih' rIn' elf htle,,y1,1 ci,,ie 92 SecAI5iBet tier md Flayre paraiirte I 'r NI_Ce, tier and laye. jl!,f'4.)n'hi.Jw,l Sloe04, KlInepflIt ,,,,ii 1iiprr.)tthn,,ocrl ii,the Inrn,,,ij system rormederai,,,n, nvirrd fl,e iitrr çJiarmlrtervire , , p-ti.", fr, .lt 1114 ovid R,(nrsnat pp t't 11 11 .-\ugu-tt '17',) i 4 .1, ,ienr, I flno,-qrh,l I A Ktir anal,, C ,eit '5end,,,tI JiOa (Intl 'vii,-i,i / . 'ii, C Sliver. Tnhn,q,,ehi,Nelrrm,ngS'i.,ll i lIh3jI5 m en, ' lbst p '17 Ii, 1/ e,.kSo,a,, K514u1rn,n'oIBrett Butler, I :4,,,', 4,.i,,,'..i,av, 15, ',,,,,I rho i,,..,,,,, '(1,11,10 ii',! I, e,,,ir, i ..npiii no, I 5151111tIeian,rs, Fe' l,nnh',çv Library Y-t Clii C t011 i,,m, l'tiy,r,,n ni tie fhaWr-,' an I,', i l'e i,rt,,rnt,,hiu,, AIirliIfl.i I .,Iir, nfltt.ft-ti paperprtnirri ii the 'rn,,rItreii,CI 5511tOte,,!, iiiiI..irllnij '5,nr, ii.,,, 1 I, r-t-Oneot tIll,,, I'17', ), fl .22 21 Jose I 'H I I ii,, .,i, , a,Ia, 'u etal,Njevatia nt, Savan KFndartiobud FlintItumier. / tOrte, -I /onni,i,ra, 75, Via# ,j Mr -I', / I'i I ipi i, .ini,-,'' "trot ''ii, '-' i,fut,ilIi,,n Sy 41515,, F Liv iii I - VeicI,r, I, ,'n,t'ri'iir, Ibrary As,,iCiitioii S, true ju,,I A ,,Ii'iil.iililt) 1)ivIo,n,,,,t tie ,in-,ii liv lieF,,F,,r,,,,iti,,I, C C 0, il,r.,ro ,,l,,,,,,,i,.,r, prr.rnie,i ii hrI'rr,,,,, teretiili,,u,t,,, svo.,,,,,,o,,l'l7e, pfl I onon,,,,,, it,,,,,, .ii La., Vrga Nrv,d., .22 21 Jane '17 I ,,, Si,rEel, ill II,,ai,rw 1., ,,,q,,, nrt'v p

Ji-t,j S N CRITERIA

HIGHEST 'PERFORMANCE SCORE

MINIMUM ALLOWABLE PE RFO RMANCE

LOVVEST PERFORMANCE SCDRE MAXIMUM HIGHEST ALLOWABLE LOWEST BID PRICE COST BIG PRICE

tt.t 11 I '#. =, taesi t =us performance evaluation grid mingthesystems wpptirtsoftware Die second problem with the precooked software approach is its importance_ It affects the deve:Iiipmemt m-u,alit' the lack of operatingeffictency,measured in terms of usage 01 system elf with vvhie h the programmer cap work For reourcm (disks, core memory) and running time, Generality is dactyl achievedatthe parkadsystem,the emphasis mustbe on expense of efficiency. Running time the optimization isn't important in many small businea applications applic nuns p_rograms provided whi=te input is entered to slowly and no infrequently that virtually Stiefel suites that Rao prt,bleriiS=to shtrctl tit reasonable le:sponse time will be acceptable. But the problem twa-re packages in Le=ss "' is.it rewurt_es are used Melliviently, the user may be forced into MAplAring a latgef configuration than he really needs, joss so he Firm. a is- highly probable (bat+AFist.,r=4 I rs, use a vermin package_ 100- percent ofthe requirements kove]i 1.e, Senile' vendors; offer the Sri .'it c ot discovering the tfe ficientIIi, the W.', ci(ti,L , them preparingoistom (i.e., firing RI a coolulault U or live with them[lie etlfIlt It. ,vhi, ti iiodules or customizing existing programs. Others do a user tan afford to cot-upturn's.= Is,i Imo leo, of Oa- tttit ^11 %%hid] incans the litgary must tryto make the the discrepancics. odes with their owsi and.joi agency personnel, ter thislave tohire consultants,Itis inadvisable to tttcrnitlignitet hanges,I)r pending on how Mr pro- Ideally, the >ifrware sttI ih.t ter r Or 11A , I,Al.. the user. perhaps w ants atedesigned, some changescan he taken caw of Mincing par:Wirtz' fatties to 1, .t given envirorunent, causing ,t Major tipsel iii the withoutnmch trouble.Mat some changes wookl organizationLlerfortumktriN, IM(04( pili kaiteS flrAl leoparelize the haste logic streamand continuity of the fy, sonar hive ntflte prograinI hose kinds idelianges shouldhr avoidcd at !bid pp MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERAL LIBRARIES 112

this work should be made as soon as the exactlocations all costs because the nt sr of changes in a programis inversely- proportional to the success (efficiencyand and equipment requirements are determined. effectiveness) of the program. Noise REVIEW OF OTHER While noise is 1101 a "physical requirement," is only RESOURCES/REQUIREMENTS certainly' it fact of life and must be considered,- not in the public service area but also in thestaff work Besides the obvious hardware and software require- areas. The mainframe isnot very noisy. The most ments for a system,, other types ofrequirements Or disruPtive noise conies from the fans used for cooling resources must be considered. Thedetails of these the processing unit.In addition, some disk drives elements may affect the final selections. whine and some tape drives click as the fileis read. This noise should be within the tolerancelevels for an Physical Requirements officeenvironment. The main noise comes from peripherals such as card punches, printers,and even Space hardcopy interactive terminals. Somelibraries have The site for the various pieces of equipment mustbe taken special steps to deal with the problem ofnoise, as considered. Minis do not have to have a special morn detailed by the editors of (Mime in theirdiscussioq,of with raised floors arid special air-conditioninoanal teractis,e terminals:41 humidity control.- Because they are small, they ean Nome libraries go to great lengthsavoid none. The Congrasio- usually be fitted into the existing env irottotunt 44att iii nal Research service of the Library of Congri,s, forexample, built much trouble. If rearrangement of furniture orremod- a special snund-imulated booth forits CRT and high speed eling is necessary. for the new equipment or for a new impact printer The U.S, Departmentof State's library simply put its central-tics printer in a eloset and got a longcord to go to the work flow, it should be established early and 1)1,ms CR-I". And the Army Library in the Pentagon pan a plasticnoise- made to make the. changes. In this same vein,if the sopprusing cover over ire impact printer equipment is to be placed in more than one kwation, provision must be made ftlaying cables or lirws to Maintenance connect the -components (if a hardwir connection is used). Holes in ceilings or walls or channelsforthe Although maintenance was mentioned iu the siein of hardware and software evaluation,additional floor may be required. inicomriters are Although minicom r CC-V.411KMr a opo conunents are, in order. In general, under slandard air-condi nOning, some (let 1( es yeller-- very reliable pieces ofequipment:12 Mean time to instead of more heat than others, andadjustments may have, failurefor- minis is measured in months lot hours. Preventive in- intenaricc is sreduced tothe-barest_ ato be made. Specifically, disk pin ks create quite a of heat; if they ace used in multiple arrimgernents,the of minimums for -t1mainframe. The peripherals do heat inefease may tie significant not have quite so gor record. For instance, printers, especially impact prii r often require _adjustments to Power provide proper print 'Pape drives should he leaned kr iodically, but that is often clonewith a Most minis operate on teeldo,I Iii, ,1,.et i..,l power. Itis often recommended maskkr-I tit I ofitb and a cotton swab. bf ern A 'rim! A I he tact that maintenance iti not asfrequent for deviceor each system power Ntippl, history of the` line, often with a.separatee in tart Fa calor liN.,(-114,e Horns does not lessen its importance. The of insufficient support after chance of surges'Pharr doesn't moot on, line pet mini market has been one (tot t., 0 installation. t hie wit said that minis weren'tdelivered component, as many elevt«s (at' darly single power supply unit, but two ea Mire lines ate lit a they were abandoned. IVIaintenance is partici iniumfait- uncommon. Special der t rical rev, (ring tti.i%fiat(' in ,Irr «implicated when components from several completed before the system can be installed PlaiiN I. itirers have been assembledand programmed by a 19771 I hv m,rk !.; t 1.. !Editorsnotej in"The Ititelligew Pr -.,[, If.,114umplyerip,i,Man droiRthittd 1-711.1gent I) Lowry, "Sortrii3 neragn tit 3 Min iintripnict -11.1,3=6 1.3)r,tr-,I )31,1 r31,10,Nr-trirrit Sioccrii, I NIIIV I 97.1 it '11011.,( "IiikItipitipl. III I -lion,iir olionn ).1to Pnwemilw, psi Ial eft F winner 1-t' eerier, papersprriented 31 the P-17-1 n Iran IA phillaltir,(11 treeitil trim'4,1,33-en fill hirrNi Inc 1.6r3i3 5. len, ,.1.171 :pp III', 14 Ave A LIC11%41Iyea 1111110IS.(44,111alr tie Ivtol keVINYAVil limner irritun3isUN) h, iltnn 106 ., #10( ,nr p. r, he; 120(1 InrrIrctrinpurri rirmumiiirriti unit prrgrhrr,rlt rule lureprItitc, impittneittatoira and -,AAAMIN rl"lin, (1,1%NCeimitall, Sim,/iMptitei hours) taut' valuei nil uni nu...II II1C tIC"I Appilathan FdigIrwalotl( NI 19 . p " SELECTION CRITERIA

systerrls house, In such cosies, nlairtteNance oftenis for no other reason than that a firm delivery date can contracted out to atuia her firm, 1.ehitifiliwtions as a neg()Oaied as part of the contractks mentioned maintenance company. IQ is important to know where earlier, OW extensiveness of die system software and rhe maintenance unit,is. located and what the turn- the presence or absence of a compiler can affect the around tune is on the equipment. ,MSCmints are programming time, modular, often a hoard can fspulled and trees' 011(` The real key to fast, efficient development is using substituted while repairs are lacing:wade, Fillexpeocriced tmancomputer programmer, Such a ._ other area. of riumurnimae must 111N1114`1 programmereyill havea "minicomputer philosophy" software nintettarice. Programs are rarely am1 will not try to implement large-scale computer "finished'' and completely ''')ebtagged.- Arranger!nIN sssteins on the smaller- machine. The programmer should be made for the most shed his -h" cloak and think "interactive necessary over the tintli=e period of us oilun -.`for that is the. mode to which minicomputers are conducive. If there is no such programmer on the Personnel agent s- data processing staff, it may be worth the time to train a programmer in minicomputer's, Staffing patterns (tau he , tt111111t.itcil :s stem 1,s introcluaedSometimes .t spo t.tlimplementatimi THE DECISION tearnisrequiredifeistisiesivclomattl.tt,lintan is required for building a file or files When all the data have been gathered, reviewed, Because the miniconintiter Islilt a led in the iihnoN -evaluated,the timehis drcisionabaking has a library staff inembi titineinlicis lino(tic- assigned -Nry al11cd. When the selection is made, the procurement- the role of corryntei oF-Iertuir, in malls lila aties the 1il. it Cilti0" MUM get underway. As a Federal agency, Input aperarnn can he trained n do the operatorA, the library IM151 comply with Federal procurement tasks aleing sstth their (Altai dailiesI he dunes, of the rtVflati(ms and proCerlOICS fOr ADP equipment, operator varywith 11-as. s'41ein I hi- operating mode of the tapaattitig -system s,,frvarti. and Federal ADP Procureme the nature of the applii.s ion 1 sirthi. 1-a- to policy of thefederalf edt 1;overn- svith simple executise do, pciat,it 1111151 wilt. as expressed in ()MB (;raular A- is reliance attend the Iola floss hillytVitf-1 a single tso, - ,11 Oa- pi ivaie MI, lin fell141)0(15 111(1 7,4. =1.\"11e:I.1;111IS policy system, the ,,fissaoifl es riletot, a t sods soli 11 10 : \I )I' 1)101:t11-(111clitis is fire iri the ft-ols1 fit' loadc41 1.o ti?' 14-14f44o4 E,1111,1 1111 111144 ki .111d tus A4 1( l'141)114 1.a e5 fi '504), -PrOuureincfflcif paper the printer rim"( Iii' dHi hire ,sic11. thi 15 RCSO1.11U('S lieIfle FCliCral GOVIT1-1111ellt,.. V4141Ch equipment must IlipoNsc'il'41 4.11IllsoioL:1,1111 otto( Iii lOitdrAf, and the system !mast Iiishot dirat csli day. tl1)tia"41/v:,.llt.ci.\ iervitclocrits should be pro, ured in a 1, onmentive manner Files 01 tapes, tonst IS .10,1 a log flaw,. 4114(11a les has spa-cifa- respiutsitalities 'dating lutist t.)(` 111,111114111rd ii, kt't 11 t, .,1 Iht 1I. II., 1,.,11, 1,rIs ilttIhic°iit:I -11t: t?fftce of rvianageint-int and rrsix/I4S11-41t- m14,1 1 111. , ,o41.14 arsdliiiSie`sfxili.sit)I1L iistablisfilog policy hV sVat.'111 I), 11,4 .1,1, 11+ 11:1 \4 aiiil Vii,1,.41111L4 ttl.il 1t11 1)441(1,:,air tx-aggf011Owerl. 111,toti.AINfor(tiioll.an44p, I 1..41 111,1 1..1 o Ii Ii -11 )471115i"1"75 1h", .1541 114 II\.ice/ 11IU,lrads possible on ,1,0i)111u, ,,k1,[. 9 e . ,Iii 741011141 1/0,10. ki au Al "oil emotes thatAl/1) aillipment Isshrtl outhixo, di ,.1,1.1 s4.r-N. CN11(-. pro Time Frdune ii11,1 ith It... ,111,11.011.11111t4011C1,A1)171 0\ di Of Ill 1 if 11,limes, 'sift'fa, must tie { )11(.t. 0111i0i ,1 10 at 11111torn. e with the -buss starts aerpay-e- 17111111a,141., ., on iolk ,1, 11101 \inIk1011- N111) 1111S4-11011 to ( )1\413 of

Jog a sssi, III t I Ital w, sii.1 Ili..1,2 II , , 111i%1III(!trot's thema tssiin,'

, 1,),t1ttl .1100irl.itill 1 ii , 011I, 1,, 11(`51111() ,N14 cs, i 1 1,, \ , min s\Nittilti 01 10 44115 I01,iIt \ (CIS 1,1"10"111,11Itin,t),,iclus

1,,v., I deo-1,1,10g a ssst, ill is ,poi 11, ,10,1 17, Itif.10111"111\ (01 iti)t,M0)\ nil !tont oin 01111tlf 1. 1.11 \sink 5 it111 II 114 (11.1..c }Hot 111 4 ilir iIrs ,14141 Ockg,tting pop, irolorlit Mj$JCbMFUTERS IN FEDERAL LUtRARIES 114 aiihority to user atws (1SA does tiof, howevcr, into lirtmi.it, isse of thr private sector and of fully become involved in determining whether itagency cortipctttvm' procurement November 1976 requirementis kgitinatc GSA publishes liti with In a paper delivered to the AIIE in pricts of equipment md types of scr-vicr on it iiiippiv art (T)MH spvkeirnat=i expressedthc polity on use of the schedulesIn generaL any prom urunie litcit hcr on or pris-ate sector as follows:15 when nffschedu1, with a one-time or anmriiiiiaL cost of In thetixe cii At)L, we feet that the policy is bess servo_i SjO,OOOor more. must be intliuri,ed by ( 5A. 4genc1o_ sari tautly their resuiremettta by cflfltrae(utlgIon turn- ittid The National Bureau of Stat jar-misisthe third pkteADP Ii5i(5,and thai(kuvcrnriser $cqLuIsitwui I uper.i iton iii fsicul i ties houId be ilmi tedto nh-i.e SI(oat torts which At )P pW llmcrlirritIt pit ii.ides agency involved in As being in the national Interestunder the ttcCsary hardware arid softwarr standards tutubejLhitIflkld iitudIi titnfl :ini-ula r A- 7h Al though some timIconipu Icr appeal iii ( SA . , . . cheduIs asoffice equipment,nilti icouipulurs arc of gerwtaIly considered Al )P eqil iprlirnIn Ni ivinlhei I oi1r tites-alsiste the feasibility and relative economy (._.vvernrnrnineedsniusI bepresent- I 975t, the (mnmlssluner of the AiittiiiiatcdI )at a and 111131rattiiig At PP scrvit.es. uitahIe (or evaluation and (or usc us a contract FLeconlnlun eat iOns Srs-ite iiit hr ( ;urwralrrs-li es c-u_f iiis(catut,it a change intile tituiie4tChii ill taiitk Thisrrqulres ftindunietital no ii u.stiti pLot-I ttJrri inistrittlurltlist missedU endsin phiksophy of rtqUireruient definition, since the in-houseperfom- proc uremenijust as tar gm s a Ic liii pu ru-is a rid pet i UlaUct iii Mit5 services has led agenciestb define their nredu. in were p-tint based uniuieri-iiitralij.rtl anti s tiftitT terflitu ci iht hardware Software andpersonnel nucmaary to do the ptactsrerssenra.soluuur- furuuslurIrlrrltsil utittis uit1pr j'ubRtquurvmettts frurmolateal net this basis cannot be properly t'It musT and will ot curI lie tjrirstouii lii lx iciils i-tI is (V dtiirtiinc if the titliqueriatU'le iii the work rurcu- nor can they be uried to is the best intuit d lit listlot tlit-sc- .ttijliiil it tilt_itO hiSiac,t:rfilulnarile uUtrtfjetlsiS-e prciptseas fr-oili industry 11efirst step thtrefore, in 1 1fftiif iii I Iii order tu detritisirie thc hest iiirth,y! fit i Lii iiit it .iu-h!ectt:itt greater re-hans-c on private umue, tot ADI1 scrs-iera is

I iI.i ii5itC, Wtin Alit Shave iiiI ii ire IIIhi- nih kt- i id t hr requirements h11u;t.verarneritsge-iKteein tkvelopand state their tile lilaiiLlal.,I ieqili ellirlaiS, tflcfi5tly -----(yrunc Ilililt iii terrE'S ol the services performed, rallierthan the 1aciIitues5rided rOt I (Cmy is-ernhtirti twhi-ti Iii] stilt: pert pitet misto .00 1113 CUfur the tii1lii vtck tiftise uservit_esu indefinite qunitiyiiuttr.n ititti 'iiliiii thiSilsai:i--liiai Iiiii a-rfornied, Orpropoiiisd(iibe- rrllniccirnpiitez-ii'Ste hits-c thuirainif ilr'% Iii 1111111 itc. litit s-SC this-C (tilu_r(lietL5tU,IL w0k ta-uig kill' facility us identifiedarid bet, ft ¶htjec(Ive in the its itflui1iIri We vu- ItselfI fii mylt.iiIlitLi it hai perfnrtedw-k't;dvernrnertt whether been tSr 55-sirius tiiirgratiit iiitiLIiiiiis hits ptsiitu.Jlii- ss iii It'S d_i. uho__f a-' .i setu-rtI itii he exiiiiinrdstn drstermiiir by akitgratiurt deprttdint: iii he vhs iiiiuiitil-,i there us 5sittipellietg rrastuii tli.it ii hr done in a Frderai facility I u-do sul r rtsflkiyo_uIhe iuis-t that work rtiul y i to-dye clues t tied ilatis his-i .1 it Itiittit V1(u1ui Ir.ise Situ!55111 stillititii Ia- i*((tilib.iagenc-ysbasit.prt.igruhil,currCquttc privacy in our future suiluhlli- prilt iii rIulcIhlStiltliii.lSiiiiipilir.s cortipletr II runt tit-ccsstuirtfy )ustift I rivrrr1mrti t per(iirrtia rice - the 11.14 titt,ltittlitiiitii Iliii.Iiilieciterd liii fri vufrgti,t Ms &,t, tli %1Jtl(5 fit 1113551 fitsl wr.eft for titus ity ii it dtiii i tI 14. lIt Ties have bern t leanest mch indfiriiir quantity l.l,itiral.tI lti111,0 la-i 55111 lii a iii ran uuticf u littiliwl uil dii ta curt t-r. c ati mel'i pn'.-aty requir5-tne(lts "tutu-u I fits wil Iiiiii55 IiitO ilrTit,i titetlI I HOyt-u_I 111111111 tutu it ( his ii tiuieiit f.mliii leethere rrhusi h dtseu_imen ftextf,iItr,itlie-eelsiiiii, ciits Siii-! f:ihis,.i Iite we 4 agents the ui i inn trtirrtw i uf the rxe-tnpl p(ixcuirrnrni iditu irisiuttible lii utiuttisti s a ihuh ii5 usatutu.f1ini n-withinc titl.0 .\ 01 iiiustifv ttiutl.u(t,tut its iuutitltiutuituilti of Cn,vrrt,tiirtit k thessfniIuriii1ifiittuiiiliii.1I sI 'I sr,irI.itrt iitO tiCS fuitu\ dirts\[)P sets ,ir. liii if I itit-tf It. -itiii ti if sat it f-itha Ululitu lit a 1fsit 15(15 ittf)tiS titltIiitftulpitii ii!iii u-',ii.iiil iiii.iu if

i. .1 u5stttuit.uuuylu tiiS ft lii - u -si_It. riffittals sync six-uikitit: lit ililSitit }ii tidiiSi ui u.n i us!1ahItu u uRnii 1 diK, li, clii ii Iuutiut:u ii Ii uuttI 5 f)i iii Lii 15.ilhtl stI iti - Ilitif iii - Ii I. it iu ii 11.111 Cii sf5 it feullu y _Iflfhiii iii,!:54 stilt,i.uiIiltIlf, fRuit!5 ii thin ( hhut It5t 11151 ilftit 1 iiiiitt1 iftht litIiiuu-uihitt.il u ii! it 4f55-lilti1ijliut}li taitililiti- Ifi.u__ul ituitft ihiiS ii II jfus k \ i if i athihtitiusti tilfit ui lil thu iitt ii Ii .5,11 lit-1 lui fc ur fit C ilium1ttiV, tIut liii hit fituk i life II 5y(uifitui(1 t hatrh,(Slit ,fi ii ti1 tist- if it hJtiti 5u ilj ttjtt-t 55,15 ifith(JSSC(l lr tite ttTti (liltlttthu!uhf iiifiitttuhftutu ittOti itt1 sutiltlutithii .1- i-i tf t )ffi t- itt.-\I >P ,i.l I&h iii iiifuiu is I Itri tim It, l,itiiuI ftnh ii .u- Sf It tl thuits

ifi15tu. stti l-1i5ii..iu iii ii puss I 'tu- ic 1 I uS hi J itt.. ii S S I I -- St St_u J iuthi!tuiur Miii I i-il ------IS/ui ftit 5 N .et.t-i i_uS\ltyrIe, u I - t isrfit itt SiS .11ii.l - ii:i ui iflji-tiIi- itt iii 5 1 itt S i_i:: S - I t ii.tsitI I Ilei-.tu, ii i,uiiill1euuse-iii1tt55, 0.5151i-St--i.. Sitti 1

iii, ttutu.uiuuti - li_u - it 1-i-flfluuituuutlfl. i5if S ------i t .Siitt_lii iiii- . - SssitIiuutli \,5i si_s-S lull: tt_.li il_litiuutiuuu.i ttuuui ut I I 1 i 'i.tiil_i -u _,sii 'it_Iii_u5e isle-ti the, I u -i-it iiit Stilt uus,:lss_i i -I_i_S-i - -- I iusiissis tis itt iii _.l Iut_iiti-i-ii

I tj Ii

,1/ 115

normMATIOgerf1( the Dcpartmen marketplace invited to final bid. "The final, contract or.46 award then would be based on lowest overall cost and There seettet little dispute the days that the futureteehrcultlgy benchmark performance."47 will be reach( influent:WI by the interaction betweencomfrutnim- This discussion was in terms of numerous minicom- tions and mini.atturiimtion,resulting inanaccelerated trtod toward irtterreloecl luinionmputers forming distritukett proett,ti ris puters combining for distributed processing. What of networks: IP we believe the ccimmunicators and rtan(manufactur. minicomputers used singly as a standalone system? era, thtl approach Will not only bring dataprocmiagcloser tothe The report of the heariligs on the Brooks Act specifi- user, but at less money. cally speaks 'of minicomputers in several sections. One NM 6.s recommendation states that competitive procurement Let:s look at theC uaernment ADP environment fro of minicomputers (or service contracts) should be used perspective of the pa4t.rather Man the future generalia,ationa i.ure 'that: ifpossible instead of interim upgrades, add-ons,or a. There u u.strungpethch: for in-house procming eapahilbly- replacements for large-scale systems.48 Minicomputers. b, REP% atregea.recl more to hardware specificution.s' than rn were included in the category of smaller dollar value funetiOrtall-specific tnnara.. procurements (less than $250,000) which made up 56 c. There is a very sstrangrelianceon costly benchmarks. 'Tsti.c combination of hardware specifications and benchmarksMust percent of the 1975 procurement delegations. It was us a own.) feeling Ow we are accorriag the best configuatairn feltthat these procurements cost GSA and the user to do our jab. agencies a disproportionate amount of time and d. We thirsk big) itt terms1 hardware. Most of us h =ter grows resources as they were required to follow the same up in the :syndromesearedby the maxivendoni and we hllow, the Americo)tradition at wantingthe biggest and the best. NNte procedures used for major procurements.49 The folloW- mily ktddinK ourselves, however, to think thiti bigness sod ing recommendation was made.:50 best aft synourmous i15 ioday's technology Federal user agencies should he authorized toprocure ADP resources, excluding CPUs, below $250.000 without specific rTherefore, thhoy hetc= lenology isoffering potermai Oust delegationof a'uthoriryfrom GSA aslong ai the agencies "through imewon miniaturization our IMPt :Are document that theproCarements arclolly competitive. Procure - her:hawk depend The marketplace has expalidoi hutour rnrnt of CPUs should always require a delegationfrom GSA, traditionalfurtiliorisof procurement do not let the knot:lilt-IWO At present these are Just recommendations. Procure- marketplace revond not respond tocrier irad000rwl benchmarkmcluiretnent,,, ment regulations are constantly changing and evolv-

The speaker OTTO on to suggest lrlpros 1,1.14, ing, The typical procurement of a minicomputer will merit that would open up comp( I l i I tinvoReil still involve an alphabet soup of forms and regulations: developing art RFP built around users needs, rather MK 101-32, Public Law 89-306, OMB Circular than around a predetermineddirtyprof essi rigt h rinc A 76,f' and I), DPA, S.S., M. and M., RFP, IFB, for satisfying those needs:The total marketplacewilt el nonmandatoty schedules, mandatory FSS sche- be asked to respond ley submittinga derailed dules, mandatory requirements contracts, and so on. including schedules and estimatedpitting scholia., HI The system suggested in this book will lead the satisfying the user ricvds A tram ifrsrtlttitttuNo tut1t1 di-sign wain it)the type of specifications required then review thepit heals and select the mica bea..!.1111(- (fulictional specifications, technical specifications,rir approaches and lst ilitalified contra, (ins (oila I \ derailed Mudd and (Hak Specific a trOlIS )Itsltcntld SILlbjeCtIVC1-FiASIZ,) Fri'lnthis ealtottot o pros Ric rti t a tuittalc tu-cticx1for approval tt-quests and contractors would ted tot (loafbidi Jul lilt) thIP, Iiistifitationsandshould lead to an efficient, diet live step, a benchmark to hi Illi ,pr,

EilionctrA nrti inNi.iiriir;, I l' al,,,-- , RIMag, th,-ttt LtitAt tttittit4tt it in, 1476 t Ilmd 4" s kmiifri,m,

I 716, 941h( :01.1v 1 dAippio., I t I a.ii, 00tlitd.. p p CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS

This book did not attempttoinvestigatethe s /system design phase begun. The library may turn canal of the minicomputer in a Federal library. No to its agency data processing unit for help at that point, proof was needed. There was no doubt of the ability of or the help may come from an outside consultant. The minicomputers to solve many problems and fill many system requirements are drawn up. The design model needs of Federal and other libraries. The goal was to is used. The systems 'design document is prepared to demonstrate to the reader this ability and to give describe alternative means of meeting system objec- guidelinesfor introducing a minicomputer into a tives and requirements. The alternatives are reviewed, specific library- and a decision is made. What advantages do minicomputers bring Let us assume that the alternative chosen involves system? A summary of their attributes gives a grx d use of a minicomputer. The system specifications are overview. prepared, and the library works closely with the 1.They allow local control. agency procurement unit. RFPs are issued, proposals 2. The mini attitudeis a positive, encouraging ap= are reviewed and evaluated, and a selection is made proach. The contracts are negotiated and signed. The imple- 3.Thernini can be 6n a smaller, s system. thentation phase follows. 1. Modular system deDelopment is possible. Throughout this period the library administrators 5.Custom configurations are eaSily accomplished. have kept their staff informed, sought their comments 6. A mini system is flexible and adaptable to change. during the design phase, and performed initial train- 7.Minis are less costly. ing where needed. This' function is critical to the Besides these attributes, minicomputer-s lend diet ultimate success of the new system_ selvesto online interactive (as opposed to batch) operations, which providefuller,more responsive THE AGENCY'S ROLE services to the user. Finally, minicomputers "fit in" The parent agency can play an active or passive with any automation environment, They pan stand role. If staff are available, the agency data processing alone, they can perform as parts of networks, they can unit can take the main roles in the systems design support networks, they can be connected to hosts as team. If they do not have the resources to commit to a other "terminals,- or they can serve in several of these project of this scope, they should support the efforts of capacities at once. the library to hire an outside contractor or consultant_ ['he data processing unit must contribute to the data INITIATING MINICOMPUTER gathering phase and give accurate assessments of what, PROJECTS IN FEDERAL if any, support (in people or equipment) the library an receive both at present and in the future. LIBRARIES The agency procurement unit will play an active role at various stages of the project. if a consultant is Okay. The bitik succeeded hired for the systems analyses, the procurement unit do you initiate a minicomputer pollee tnil yoar hhrtrrt _' will handle the necessary procedures. After the deci- THE LIBRARY'S ROLE sion has been made as to systems design, the procurement unit will oversee preparation of the REP and will The library must take die first A pHohlrlii at a issueit.Itwill gather the proposals submitted and aced Must be identified and the systems analv oversee the review, evaluation, and selection process, CORO' S IN FEDERAL LJ) RAMS wet; kingcloselywiththesystemsdesignlearn TRENDS IN FUTURE hroughout, this unit will perform necessary coordina- APPLICATIONS OF with the Federal agencies involved (i.e., (;SA, MINICOMPUTERS 1N OMB, etc.). FEDERAL LIBRARIES FEDERAL 60VERNMENT ROLE Almost every book ends with a statement on The influence of the Federal Government is strong future. The most important staiernent that can be in the areas of budget, management, and procurement made here is that there is a future for minicomputer of ADP equipment. The attitudes of the Office of applications in Federal libraries.-This in itself is the nagement and Budget, the General Services Ad- main trend of the present and near future. We predict that the (tinge will see a trend in Federal ministration, and the National Bureau of Standards libraries toward a distributed network of minicompu- Federal wire discussed in Chapter Five. There are ters. This network would not bes6 flinch a comrnu regulations to follow; forms to complete, and proce- cations network as a network of de.centralizerl- a rhircto carry out. The impact of these agencies in a ba%es and decentralized processing.]Bowers envicans library's purchase of a minicomputer is considerable. a As stated above, the link to these agencies is theparent concept of distributed processing, which holds that agency's procurement unit. processing is not most efficiently and effectively done in farge, libraries centralized computers, but rather should be divided among At the Governmentwide level, the Federal by Library Commit smaller, loosely-coupled machanes,,,T4.,efivision might be aS a group play a role. The Federal geography or by type or task or both, and di coupling might tea has recognized this role and has supportedmodel consist of communications lines or a person carryi ga.reejof tape: minicomputer projects in individual librariesIt has from one machine to another:2 waned a working group on mancomputeys acrd has Pe-zzanite described a similar approach At awork- sponsored this book. The main nerds to be met .tre shop on computerized library networks givenin distributed mablishing communications and Ilion-lately achieving Maridand,3 He proposed a 'statewide close coordination among libraries. It is important that network. l'he huh of the network was a central the knowledge and experience gained h Hoc library processing unit that had. a large-scale computer and maintained a large cataloging data base. The data be shared with others. base was to include a generalized data base using MARC tapes, as well as'a union state data base. The ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR unit would have "the responsibility ofUpdating and The role of private industry in the erect nil aa of disseminating the distributed data bast [contributed Minicomputers was discussed III(.:Ilaptei is Iry the member I ihra.ries1 on a regular, cyclic schedule" as"the development and distributionof (ion of library services andpitrkitlt is has,111011IIn'd iswell puska-is required by members," such as card srts littleinthe wily(Ifstir-tim/HI,wrgititict oialkormu 1)r C OM catalogs, andphotocomposition. Each .t:florts. inarkeiINtheme, Ian tilitio, yroduis member libran,, would have a minicomputer to use fur II It [Int bothered to go through the 1ia1rCi5))).1)14, it-y011) data rapture. processing, and maintenance ofits getona GSA scherhile oi don't tiaethe paticti. own fileThe original cataloging and the holdings marketing budget to iiiest ill the lottr:, did t t,ttipilt.it wouiti Net/II() the central unit to update the nfaster rf bid and negotiation po.ki 110,()1A,,I 111t UM, tti data basehacti library would be responsible for its 11111,111,.. rieflIprocurement I the tabor ttttlIti.in5 file and that file's nitegrityEach member would havescorned cornmei(ialfl rotsas NUSin't have whatl'ezzarnie described as "functional autono- bC:callSe iii Iheil pi Ohl Ink litttt haveoil tie` htrt gamit tult111,111lilliV (44( flit'tttthility and feasibility of such a distributed The S'I1,311011S11I1).S It (workamong Federal lanai ics are certain, Affgr, Stephen A K:7,111%,"Ne(v.vt,r6 anti DiAtrIIR-Ord

11 %())))) S))1)))m) iii ( Mar, Jr I 111 lit,. 1071 esttitur. pp -10, ,itsi s tor., I .%/t)dtrti Pow ii (Mo 195) I. . ) ) ) ) ) ) 1 ) , Im I I And 1')).(-)-,11))4). 4 I '011..11 ;dr II I ik.Ibo,,.. isit ii,1111)11teiltrd I 511)V.11% N 1(N 1 1 i ,, , 1tils V . ,of Off fo Oli 11 1,-, 'Srtl,o,f1=1.-f Atoll 1976 'fed ItIli, Nt.tfNi.off ',f.toIf-r.ffoffrolI I do. r,,..f 1.1111, On ii

1 CONCLUSIONS

benefits in efficiency and efficacy would be many. This 1. Recognize that hardware is th e easiest thing to Concept:should be uppermost in the minds of Federal come by and software the, most difficult. The library -administrators as planning isrdoncover the equipment must work; must do what it is in end- next few years. ed to do. 2. Know that timeis your enemy until your IN' CLOSING -- computer program is up and operational. 3. Have the patience of a saint with your staff, your Waiter Curley 'summarized "what it takesto Ven- board, your public, your computer experts. Be ture into a library computer program and to make it supportive of staff and understanding about the work."-,. Although his words are not very uplifting or adjustments which they must make to a new way positive, they are realistic and ring true. It is hoped: of doing things. that they will put any new minicomputer plans 4. Develop the guts of a cat burglar you will need them. Once you have made a decision to be prompted_by this book into perspactive, and that they innovative with computers, everyone will be from will temper raw,enthusiasrn with a cautious note of Missouri until you show the promised and hoped- realism, for results.

4 Walter Curley, "Innovative Strategies in Systems and Automation,- in Library Autmation: The Stall al the Art 17, eds. Susan K. Martinand Brett Butler, pipers presented at the Pritronference Institute on library Automation apqmored by the Infoffnation Science and Automation Division of theAmerican Library Association at Las Vegas, Nevada, 22 -25 June 1973 (Chicago: American Library Association, 1975). p. 134, APPENDIX A GLOSSARY APPENDIX AGlossary

4ccumuLAToR BASIC A hardware register that holds the results of arithmec. A high-level, algebralike language designed for usetin logical, and I/O operations. problemsolving by engineers, scientists, and others who are ACOUSTICAL COUPLER not professional programmers. It is available for interac- A device that converts electrical signals into audiosignals. tive, time-sharing direct communications between termi- It is used with a telephone handset for connecting to the . nal andhost.. public telephone network for data transmission. BATCH ADDRESS (I) A type of input in ch a number of similar input.' An identification (name, label, or number) for a register, item or transactions are accumulated and processed _ location in storage, or other source or destinationfordata. together at one time. AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMA- (2) The sequential input of computer p_ rograms or data. TION INTERCHANGE (ASCII) (3) The techAue of executing a .set of computer pro- A standard code that represents characters by seven-bit- grams such that each is completed before the next plus-parity codes; for use with various data processing program of the set is started, i.e., execution of computer systems, communication systems, and associated equip- programs serially. ment. BAUD "? ANALOG COMPUTER An abbreviation for "bit audible." A unit of signaling A computer that operates on analog data by performing speed equal to the number of discrete' conditions or signal physical processes on these data.Compare:digital computer es/mu per second. Note: whers,;the discrete condition is ANALOG DATA such that one element carries -one bit, the baud rate is Data in continuous form, usually numerical quantities of numerically equals° bits per second (BPS). physical variables such as voltage, speed, rotation, resis- BCDseeBINARY-CODED DECIMAL tance, etc.Compare:digital data- BINARY-CODED DECIMAL (BCD) ARITHMETIC UNIT A type of notation system where each decimal digit is The part of- the central processing unit that carries ou . represented by four binary digits (or bits). computational and logical operations. .- BINARY DIGIT (BIT) ASCIIseeAMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR IN- FORMATION INTERCHANGE (I) One of the two numerals in the binary number system zero or bnel It may be equivalent to any characteristic, ASSEMBLER property, or condition in which there are only two possible Keomputer program that prepares-a mithine language conditions, such as an or off yr yes or no. progfam by converting symbolic' language codes into (2) The kind of number used internally by computers.See absolute operation codes and assigning absolute or relocat- also:machine language. able addresses for symbolic addresses. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM 'ASYNCHRONOUS Occurring without regular or predictable time relation- A number representation system using base-two notation, ship. in which the only valid digits are zero and one. ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION BINARY SYNCHRONOUS .TRANSMISSION Data transmission in which control is achieved by "start" Data transmission in which character synchronism is and "stop" 'elements at the beginning and end of each controlled by timing signals generated at the sending and character. receiving stations.Also called:bisynchronous AUTOMATIC COMPUTER BISYNCHRONOUS see BINARY SYNCHRONOUS A machine that manipulates symbols according, to given TRANSMISSION rules in a predetermined and self-directed manner. BIT see BINARY DIGIT AUXILIARY MEMORY ( I) Data storage other than main storage on such a device BITSPER INCH (BPI) as a magnetic tape unit or a direct access unit. A measure of the density in which the number of bits of (2) A storage that supplements another storage.See also: information are contained or written along an inch of mass storage magnetic tape, 124 MINICOMPUTERS FEDERAL LIBRARIES

BPI sat BITS PER INCH COBOL An abbreviation for Common Business- Oriented Lan- BUFFER guage. A high-level languagedesigned for" use in business An area of internal/storage-or a hardware device used to data processing applications. store informatio /temporarily during data transfers. It is used to compe tofor a difference in rate of flow of data, CODE or lime of rrence of events, when transmitting data (1) A set of unambiguous rules specifying the way in from sine deycc to another. which data may be represented. (2) In data communications, a system of rules and BUG conventions according to which the. Signals :representing (1) A pr grans defect or error. (2) A Mistake &malfunction. data can be (oohed, transmitted, received, anFl processed. BUS COM see COMPUTER-OUTPUT MICROFORM A circuit or pads over which data or power is transmitted; COMMUNICATIONS LINK Usually lines that connect locations or a single line that The means of connecting one location another fir actsas a common connection among a number of purpose of transmitting and receiving information. locitiona. COMPILER ARTRIDGE TAPE A computer program that prepares a machine language / A type of magnetic tape in a special housing used for mass program (object program) froM' a computer `program storage. It is similar to a tape cassette. . written in another prograrrtming 'language (Source Ian; CASSETTE TAPE OPERATING SYSTEM gnaw, usually a high-level language) by using the overall All operating system designed to use a casset logic structure of the 4arogram or by generating more than mass storage device. one machine instruction for each symbolic, state, orboth, CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT) as well as performing the function of an assembler. A compiler usually containsits own library of closed = A vacuum tube similar to a television picture , a storage or a visual display device. routines. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) COMPUTER NETWORK The unit of a computer that controls the icrpretation An interconnection of assemblies of computer systems, t and execution of instructions such as calculanot s and logic' terminals, and communicationsfacilities. A complex decisions. It is composed of the arithmetic ur t and the consisting of two or more interconnected computing units. control unit and functions directly with main memory. COMPUTER-OUTPUT, MICROFORM (COM) Also called: main frame A process in which computer information is output onto a CENTRALIZED (COMPUTER) NETWORK microform (e.g.,, microfilm or microfiche) through a COM A computer network configuration in which a central printer.- node prOvides computingp_owec, control, or other services. Also called: star network 4:1 CONCENTRATOR see DATA CONCENTRATOR CHANNEL CONFIGURATION (1) A path along whichsignals,can be sent. The group of devices that make up -a computer or data (2) That part of a communications system that connects a processing system. message source with a message sink (that is, a terminal CONSOLE installation that receives and processes data). See' also: The 'unit of a computer containing the control kcys'and information (transfer) channel special'devices used by ihc operator for direct circuit certain (3) A means of one-way transmission. Co communication with the computer. It can be used to CHIP see LSI CHIP control the machine manually, correct errors, determine CIRCUIT the status of the machine circuits, registers, and counters, In communications, the complete elerical path provid- determine the contents of 'storage, and revise manually the ing one- or two-way communication ecn 'two points contents of storage, comprising associated go and rcturchannels. Compere: CONTENTION SYSTEM channel A system in which one or more terminals and the CLOCK computer compete for use of the line; involves unregulatec4 A device that generates periodic signals used'for synchron- bidding for a line by multiple users. Compaie: polling ization. system APPENDIX A 123

CONTROL UNIT, DATA CONCENTRATOR (I) The part of the central processing unit that directs the A communications device that provides communications sequence of operations, interprets coded instructions, and capability between many low-speed, usually asynchronous sends the proper signals instructing other computer channels and one or more high-speed, usually synchronous circuits to carry out the instructions. channels. Usually different speeds, codes, and protocols (2) A device that controls the reading, writing, or display can be accommodated on ihe low-speed side. The low- of data at one or more input /output devices. See also: input/output controller speed channels usually Operate in contention, requiring buffering. The concentrator may have the ability to be CONVERSATIONAL MODE polled by a computer, and may in turn poll terminals. The processes for communication between a terminal and the computer, in which each entry from the terminal DATA ELEMENT requires a response from the computer and vice versa. This A class or categbry of data based on natural or assigned mode ,involves step-by-step interaction between the user relationships. and a computer. DATA HIERARCHY CONVERSION A data structure consisting of sets aria subsets such that (1) The process of changing from one form of representa- every subset of a set is of lower rank than the data of the tion to another. (2) The process of transferring information from one set., recorded medium to another. DATA STRUCTURE CORE The manner in which data are represented and configuration of magnetic material used with current- computer system or program. carrying conductors to retain a magneticpolarization,in either an "on" or an "off" state, for the purpose of storiUg DBMS data represented as a binary one (on) or zero (off). It is An abbreviation for Data Base anage commonly used as main memory for computers; imain DEBUG memory is often called"core memory." Alto called: To detect, locate, and remove mistakes from magnetic tore malfunctions from a computer. COUNTER A device, such as a register or storage location, used to DEBUGGER represent the number of occurrences of an event. A systems software program designed to help the program- CPU see CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT mer determine causes of problems found during the running of hissoftware..It features the ability to stop the CRT see CATHODE-RAY TUBE executing program and determine the\ state of the, machine clips see CASSETTE TAPE OPE /STING SYSTEM" at that time, i.e., the content of all memory locations and CURSOR, registers. A movable spot of light on a cathode-ray tube of a console DEMODULATOR or a display unit that indicates where the next character A device that receives signals transmitted over a communi- will be entered. cations link and converts them into electrical pulses, or CYCLE bits, that can serve as inputs to a data processing machine. An interval of space or time in which one set of events or Compare: modulator phenomena is completed. DIAGNOSTICS CYCLE TIME A program thatfacilitates computer maintenance by (1) The time to read (and restot single 'word in memory. detecting and isolating malfunctions or mistakes. (2) The minimum laneinterval,inmicroseconds, be- DIGITAL: COMPUTER tween two successiveacces.sesto aparticular storage A computer that operates on digital data by performing location. arithmetic and logical processes on these data. Compare: DATA BASE analog computer .( I ) The entire eollection of nfo m n available computer system. DIGITAL DATA (2) °A structured collection of information as an entity or information represented by a code consisting of a sequence collection of related files treated as an entity. of discrete elements. Compare: analog data 126 MPUTERS IN FEQERALLIBRARIES

DIRECT ACCESS DEVICE (2)n a record, a specified area used for aparticular (1).A memory device that allows a particular data address ory of data. It can be of fixed or variable length. to he accessed independently of the location of that FILE , address. The reference is to a location of a volume rather A collection of related records treated as a unit. than relative to the previously retrieved or stored data. FILE LAYOUT Comp4re: serial access . (2) A storage device in which the access time is effectively The arrangement and structure of data in a file, including independent of the location of the the sequence and size of its components. Also called: random access device. FILE MAINTENANCE = DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) Keeping a file up to date by adding, changing, or deleting A rrie of data transfer using a hardware device that data. sets up a'gh-speed data path to link memory with FIRMWARE / peripheral electronics, Software instructions that have/been more or, less perma- (read-only memory) or =DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS) nently bried into An operating system designed to use a disk as a macs PROM (programmed read-onl memory) chip. ,

. storage device. FIXED-HEAD DISK .015K PACK A mass storage device which ses a rigid; circular plate A removable , direct access storage device containing with a norm-lovable read-writecad for each track of the magnetic disks on which data are stored. disk., DISKETTE see FLOPPY DISK FIXED - LENGTHFIE A data field that has ame-p determined number of DISPLAY -characters from record to record. 8 ompare. variable-length ( I) A presentation of data in hurnanVensible form. field .(2)., A device for visually presenting data from the computer to a user. FLAG A character or other indicator tha talc the occurrence DISTRIBUTED NETWORK of some condition. A network in which all node pairs arcs connected, either directly or through redundant paths through intermediate FLIP-FLOP nodes,Compare:fully distributed network. /Mb railed: A sequential switching circuit capable of storing one bit of multistar network information in one of two stable states. Flip lops may be grouped to form storage regiSters, counters, shift registers, DMA see DIRECT MEMORY ACCE_' or other functional components. DOS see DISK OPERATING SYSTEM FLOPPY DISK DUPLEX 'TRANSMISSION A mass storage device in which the storage medium Simultaneems two-way independent transmissit. :sub single flexible plate of Mylar material housed in a pa directions. 4-/so called; full-duplex Compare: half-duple jacket. Alia.called: diskette

E -TIME F_ORMAT The execution cycle. One of two hasic machine cycles of, A specific arrangement of data. the control unit. The instruction is performed during the execution cycle. E-time varies according to the length of FORTRAN An abbreviation for Formula Translator. A high-level time requiredtoperform a specific instruction;for example, addition does not take as long as multiplication. language designed for mathematical computations. Compare: I-time FUEL DUPLEX see DUPLEX EBCDIC see EXTENDED BINARY CODED FULLY DISTRIBUTED NETWORK DECIMAL INTERCHANGE CODE A network in which each node is directly connected with EXTENDED BINARY CODED DECIMAL INTER- every other node. Compare: distributed network ' CHANGE CODE GATE A system of codes for a s characters, each A device having one output channel and one or more represented by a different eight -hit input channels, such ihat the output channel state is FIELD completely deterMined by the input channel states except during switching transients. Common logic gates arc (I) A set of cha_rtcterepresenting logical units or _ elements. AN I), NO, and NAND (not and). 17 DIX AGlossary 127

HALF-DUNA. INSTRUCT TION SET Alternate, ono way atla tinte, indeixmdent transtnissi A set of operations that can be represented in a given Compare:duplex operation code. Alsecalled: instruction repertoire HARDWARE INTERACTIVE The physical .ectipment of a data proceming system, Pertaining to cx hange. Of information and control be- opposed to the computer program nr tncthod of use. tween a user and a computer prods. In the interactive HEXADECIMAL NOTATION, mode, direct communication is established and a cr tver= A scheme' in which hexadecimat numbers are u sation or dialogue is often undertaken. See also: con ersa- represent four -bit pattents as a shorthand means. tional-mode hexadecimal number system uses a base of sixteen, with INTERFACE valid digits that range from 0 throughF, where t? A shared boundary. An'interface might be a hardware represents the highest units position (15). component linking two devices, or a portion of storage or HIERARCHICAL (COMPUTER) -NE:IV/0RK registert accessed by two or more computer programs. An A cornpUter network in which processing ancl,, control Tnterface enables devices is transfer information to and functions are performed at several levels by computers from one device or program and another. specially .suitecl for the functionsperformed, in factory or laboratory automation. Also rolled: tree network. INTERNAL 'STORAGE '[lie addressable storage directly-con tiblIcd by the central OST processing unit. Also triaih memory A computer attachedto a network providing mainly services such as computation, data base access, or special INTERPRETER programs or programming languages. (1) -A program that translates and executes each source language statement before translating and executing the ['TIME N . The instruction cycle. One of two ,basic machine cycles of next One. the control unit, During the instruction cycle, the instruc- (2) Adevice that prints on a punched card the data tion register` eccives the next instruction in the stored already punched in the card. program, the instruction is interpreted in preparation for NTERRECORD GAP (IRG) its execution, and the location counter is adjUsted to The area at the end of a block or record on a blank tape or contain the address to the next instruction. Compare: E- disk.Itis created during the start-up and the stop time, time during which no data are recorded, IDENTIFIER INTERRUPT A symbol whose purpose is identify, indicate, or name a To stop a process in such a way that itan be resumed. body of data. ILL INTERRUPTION An abbreviation r interlibraryI. A break in the normal sequence of instruction execution which causes an automatic transfer to a preset storage INDEX location where appropriate action is taken. (1) In data management, a tablet in the catalog structure used to locate data sets. INVERTED FILE (2) In data management, a. ,table used tolocat the In information retrieval, a method of organizing a cross- records of, indexed sequential data sets. index file in which keywords identify records. INFORMATION (TRANSFER) CHANNEL INVERTED TABLE LOOK-UP (1) The functional connection between the source and the The process of searching a table whose sequence orordcr is- sink data terminal equipment. It includes the circuit and other thari that of the original table. the associated data communications equipment. . - (2) The assembly of data communications and circuits, I/O sometimes including a reverse channO, An abbreviation for Input/Output, INPUT/OUTPUT CONTROLLER IRG see INTERRECORL) GAP A device that directs the interaction between the process- JOB ing unit and input/output devices. See rtics : control unit A specified group of tasks prescribed as a unit of work for a INQUIRY computer, A job usually includes all necessary programs, A request for information from storage. linkages, files, and instructions to the system. 128 miNirompts RS IN FED ti jtOBtORIENTED TERMINAL MASS STORAGE A terminal designed to receive source data in an environ- Data storage other than the main memory; usualle ic ment associated with the job to be performed and ej pa hie that have large capacities, such as magnetic tape or disks. of transmission to and from the system of which it is a part. Also calledr auxiliary storage'

KEY MEAN TIME TO FAILURE' (mrrn A ineasurerfient basal on ra ratio of theoper'ating time of One or more characters in an item of data that arc equipment to, the number of observed' failures.,illso called: used to identify/it or control its use. mean time between failures (MTBF) KEYWORD MEAN TIME TO REPAIR (MTI'R) One of the significant and informative words ill a title or A measurement that relates to the normal repair time for a document, describing the content of that document. piece of equiprrient. LINKED LIST RELATIONSHIP MEMORY A configuration of ordered items, which usually do not A unit of the computer used to store information received occupy contiguous locations in online or offline memory. through an input unit or developed during the processing LOGICAL ENTRY of data, The information can be brought out of storage for All the data input to the data base in one logical grouping: use without being destroyed. Also called: storage or store LOGICAL FILE MESSAGE SWITCHING A collection of one or more logical records. A method of handling massages over communications networks. Theentire message is transmitted to an interme- LOGICAL RECORD diate point (a switching computer), storied for a period of A collectionofitems independent oftheirphysical time, and then transmitted towards its destination. The environment, Portions of,the same logical record may be destination of each message is indicated by an address located in different physical records. integral to the message. LOOP NETWORK MICROCOMPUTER A computer network it which each computer is connected A computer with a microprocessorits central processing to adjacent computers. Also called: ring network :unit. LSI CHIP MICROPROCESSOR A small integrated-circuit package containing many logic An LSI central processing unit on one or a few chips. elements. Large-scale integration (LSI) densities can vary from 500 to 10,000 transistors per chip. MINICOMPUTER A physiCally small, relatively inexpensive, general-purpose MACHINE LANGUAGE computer that can operate in a regular environmeti with A binary language or code used directly by a cotpute as much peripheral and system support asnecessary to MACRO meet the requirements of the application. An instructionin a source language, equivalent to a specified sequence of machine instructions. MODEM An abbreviation for Modulata-Demodulator. -A device -MAGNETIC CORE-see CORE that modulates and demodulates signals transmitted over MAIN FRAME see CENTRAL 'PSES-MN() UNIT munication MAIN MEMORY MODULATION (1) The general-purpose storageL- of the central processing The process by which some characteristic of one wave is unit that can be accessed directly by the operatin4 varied in accordance with another wave or signal. This techniqueisused in data sets 'and modems to make . registers. It stores both the data on which to be operated and the program dictating the operations to be performed. business rnachine'signals compatible with communidations (2) All program-addressable storage from which instruc- facilities.Itconverts digital data for transmission, on tions may be executed and from whiclylata can be loaded analog telephone lines and fOr recovering the digital directly into registers. information at the receiver. Compare; demodulator Afro caked: main storage and working storage MOS of MARC An abbreviation for Metal Oxide Semiconductor, a kind An abbreviation for Machine-Readable Cataloging. material used in constructing chips. APPENDIX A Glt_issary

MOVABLE-HEAD DISK OCR see OPTICAL CHARA_ ER RECOGNITION A mass storage device that uses as a medium. a, rigid, OFFLINE circularplate with a ,movableread -writeliea'dthat positions itself over the appropriate track of the disk., . Pertaining to equipment or devices not under control of the central processing unit. Comre: online TBF see MEAN TIME TO FAILURE OFFLINE SYSTEM MIFF ,see MEAN TIME TO FAILURE In teleprocessing, that kind of system in which human MTTR see MEAN TIME TO REPAIk operations arc required between the original recording functions and the ultimate data processing function. This MULTIPLEX MODE includes conversion operationa..4 well as the necessary A. means of transferring records to or from low-speed loading dnd unloading operations incident to the use of input/output devices on the multiplexer. channel, by point-to-point or data-gathering systems!- interleavingbytes ofdata. The multiplexer channel sustains simultaneous input/output operations on several ON-DEMAND SYSTEM subchannels. A system from which information or service is available at MULTIPLEXER CHANNEL time of request. A. channel designed to, operate with a number of in- ONLINE put/output *vices simultaneously., Pertaining to equipment or devices under control of the MULTIPOINT NETWORK central processing unit. Compare: offline A configuration in which more than two terminal ONLINE.DATA PROCESSING tions are eohnected. Data processing in which all changes to relevant records MULTIPROCESSING and accounts are made at the time that each transaction A configuration of two, or more central processors that-can or event occurs..Compare: batch processing be Independently initiated and have access to a common, ONLINE SYSTEM jointly-addresSable, memory. Each processor can operate (I) In teleprocessing, a system in which the input data simultaneously, either on segmenis of the same job or on enters the computer directly from the point of origin or in entirely different jobs. 'which output data are vansmitted directly to where it is MULTIPROGRAMMING A resource manrgernent system in which an executive (2) A system that eliminates the-need for human interven- routine allocates the resources of the, -compilerto"any tion between source recording and the ultimate processing programs concurrently. It is composed of procedures for by a computer. handling numerous routines or programs seeiningly simultaneously by overlapping or interleaving their execution. OPERATING SYSTEM Software that controls the execution of computer programs muurisrunp. N_ ETwoRK sre. nrsTRIBurup NET- and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output WORK control, accounting, compilation, storage assignment, data MULTITASKING roanagerant, and related services. ( I) A program design strategy in which the various logical OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR) elements making up a program are written so that they . Machine identification of printed character's through use may operate asynchronously with respect to one another. of light-sensitive devices. (2) Procedures in which several separate but interrelated tasks operate under a single program identity and may use PAGE common routines, data space, and disk files. A segment' of a progiam or data, usually of fixed length, NErWPRK that has-a fixed virtual address but can in'fact reside in any region of the computer's working storage. (I) An interconnected or interrelated group of nodes. -(2) In teleprocessing, a number of communication lines PAR' connecting a computer. with remote terminals. r. , A simple form of error detection in which one nondata bit NODK is added to the data bits .in a character so that the total number of "one" bits is either always.eVen or always odd. (I) An end point of any branch of a network, or a junction common to two or more branches of a network. -PARITY BIT (2) Any station, terminal, terminal installation, commu- A check bit appended to an array of binary digits to make Mentions computer, or communications computer installa- the sum of all the binary digits, including the check bit, tion in a computer-network. always odd or always even. OMPITIERS IN FED ERA L LIBRAR1

PARITY CHECK _NDOM ACCESS D VICE see DIRECT ACCESS A check that testa whether the number of on -tifivICE anarray of binary digits is odd or even. READ-ONLY ACCESS ERIPI-IERAL The sharer may read the clata set but he may not change it In a data processing system, any unit of equipment, in any way. distinct from the central processing unit, which may REAL TIME PROCESSING provide the system with outside communication. The processing of information or data rapidly enough that PHYSICAL RECORD the results of processing are available in time to influence A group of words, characters, or digits held in one section the proc'ess bcihg monitored or controlled. of an input/output medium or store and handled ass unit. c. RECORD et PROGRAMMED INPUT/OUTPUT ) A collection of related items of data, treated as a unit. (2) A collection of fields. POINT -TO- POINT NETWORK A network configuration in which a connection is estab- REGISTER lished betWeen two, and only two, terminal installations. (1) A device capable of storing a specified amount of data, POINTER. such as one word.. (2) A temporary storage devieec used for one or more Ari identification, as represented by a narmi, label, or words facilitate arithmeticalNogic.al, or transferral number, for a register, location in storage, or any other to operations. data source or cleatinatiort, Loosely, the address of the.next - recerd. REMOTE ACCESS Pertaining to communication with a data processing POLLING. SYSTEM facility by one or mnre stations that are distant from that A system in which 'mach of the terminals sharinga. cominunic'ations line is periodically interrogated to deter- facility. mine whether it requires-servicing. REMOTE BATCH PROCESSING- ti PRIMARY STORAGE see MAIN MEMORY A procedure in which -computer programs or data arc entered, into a, remote terminal for transmission to the PROCESS CONTROL Feneral procdsor. This allows various systems to share the Pertainingto systems whose purpose isto automate resources of a batch-oriented computer. continuous operations. REP -* PROCESSOR see CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT An abbreviation for Request For Proposal. PROGRAM RING NETWORK see LOOP NETWORK (1) A series of actions proposed in order to achieve a certain result. ROM (2) A plan and operating instructions needed to produce An abbreviation of Read Only Memory. A kind of chip results from a computer. e. that has all of its circuits, e.g., logic dements or data, recorded as it is manufactured and can never be erased. PROGRAMMED INPUT/OUTPUT (PIO) A method of data transfer that makes use of program SDI instructions rather than hardware- devices to control' the An abbreviation for Selective Dissemination of transfer of information between the central proCessor and tion. an external device. SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY PROM A memory whose storage medium semiconductor An abbreviation of Programmable Read Only Memory. A circuit. kind of chip that 'is not recorded during its manufacture, SERIAL ACCESS but instead requires a physical operation to program it. (1) Pertaining to the sequential or consecutive transmis- Some PROMs can be erased and reprogrammed through sion of data to or from storage. special physical processes. Compare: ROM (2) Pertaining to the process of obtaining data from, or PROTOCOL placing data into, storage, where the time required for A formal set of conventions governing the format and such access depends on the location of the data most relative timing of message exchange between two commu- recently obtained or placed in storage. Compare: direct nicating processes. access device I APPENDIX A Glossary

SHARED FILE TASK- MANAGEMENT A direct access device that may be used by two systems at Those functions of the control program that regulate the the same time; a shared file may link two systems. use by tasks of the central processing unit and other resource -s. SINK (1) The point of use of data in a network. TELECOMMUNICATIONS (2) A data terminal installation that _receives and pr (I) The transmission of signals over long distances, such as es data from a connected channel. by eitdio, or televisism. (2) Data transmission between a computing system and SOFTWARE remotely located devices via a unit that performs the . A set of programs, proCedures, and possible associated necessary format- conversion and controls the rate of documentation concerned with the operation of a data transmission. processing system. TELEPROCESSING STACK (1) A ,form of information handling in which a data (1) A block of successive memory locations that are processing system uses communication facilities., accessible from one end on a last-in-first-out basis, The (2) The processing of data that is received icons or sent to stack is coordinated with a stack pointer that keeps track remote locations by way of telecommunications lines, of s(ofage and retrieval of each byte or, word of information in the stack. The words "push" (move down) and TERMINAL pop" (retrieve the most recently stored item) are used to (1) A point in a system or communications ttctworlt at describe its operation,_ which data can either enter or leave. (2) 4 hardware device composed of a collection of (2) Any device capable of sending and receiving informa- registers with a counter which serves as a pointer to tion over a communication channel. indicate the most recently loaded register. Registers are TIME-SHARING unloaded in the reverse of the sequence in which they were (1) A method of using a computing system that allows a loaded, number of users to execute programs concurrently and to STAR NETWORK interact with the prograins during execution. Although the A computer network with peripheral nodes all connected computer actually services each user in sequence, the high to one or more computers at a centrally located facility. See speed of the computer makes it appear that the- users are,, also: centralized network all handled simultaneously. (2) Pertaining to the interleaved use of the time STORAGE MEDIUM device. The material on which data are stored, e.g_.,,inagnctic and paper tams, disks, and magnetic core, TIME-SLICE A designed interval of tune during which a job can use a SUPERVISOR resource without being preempted. A control routine or routines through- which the useof -TIME-SLICING resourcesiscoordinated and the flow of operations through the central processing unit is maintained. A feature that can be used to prevent a task from monopolizing the central processing unit and thereby SYSTEMS ANALYSIS delaying the assignment of CPU time to other tasks. The study of all of the components, operations, data, information and material flow, work e nment, etc., TOS see TAPE OPERATING SYSTEM that constitute thelexisting system. TREE NETWORK see HIERARCHICAL NETWORK TABLE 17Y A collection of data in which each item isuniquely An abbreviation for Teletypewriter equipment. identified by a label, by its position relative to the other items, or by some other means. TURNKEY SYSTEM A commercial on-the-shelf package that includes the TAPE OPERATING SYSTEM minicomputer, peripherals,' and software necessary for a An operting system designed to use magnetic tape as the specifft application, complete and ready to use upon mass storage device. installation. -

TASK . VARIABLE-LENGTH FIELD A unit of work for the centralprocessing_unit, from the A data field that can vary numbers of characters from standpoint of the control program. record to record. Compare: fixed-length field MPUTE IN _ D LIDRARI

VIRTUAL MEMORY (2) A group of Characters occupying one storage location A method of storage access involving transfer of informa- in a computer. It is treated by the computer circuits as an tion one page or more at a time between primary and entity, by the control unit as an instruction, and by the secondary memory, and allowing the programmer to arithmetic unit as a quantity. address total Storage without regard,to whether primary or (3) The smallest addremable unit in main memory. secondary storage is actually being addres.se. WORKING STORAGE VIRTUAL OPERATING SYSTEM (VOS) In programming, storage locations reserved for intermedi,, An operating system designed to use .a virtua ate results. Also called main memory Maas storage technique. VOS see VIRTUAL OPERATING SYSTEM ZgBRA LABEL A label with prepilinted lines in coded patterns which are WORD read by a light pen (a photocell device). Also called: bar- (I) A character string or a bit string considered as an encoded label entity. APPENDIX LIBRARY OF:. CONGKSS SYSTEM&:iSPECIFICATIONS FOR PROCUREMENT OF MINICOMPUTER SYSTEMS APPENDIX BlUbrary-or System Specifications

DESIRED/0 ONAL dliTINc; SECTION E REFERENCE A. COMMUNICTIONS 5% 1. Switched network operation 6' 2: Remote batch concurrent with interactive applications II 2.b, I 6

3, Higherlevel synchronous protocolS II 2.c.1 . 7 4. Loop testing II 7 :5. Software selectable baud rate II 2.c.2.c-. 7 B. PERIPHERALS 1, CRT 7 X 9 dot matrix character . generation II 2.d.l.d character highlidit, II 2.0.4 alternate tipper, case only serial input port 2.d.l.rn 58 line X BO character 'format II 2.d.l.o charactcr set II 2.d.1.1t:' Hardware data entry G-mi Automatic tab II 2.d.l.f. 2. Separate system disk II 2.d.2.a. 3. Magnetic tape II 24.3.p 4. Line printerMARC II character set II 24.4.h 5. Document Printer 14 alternate upper case only II 2.d.5.I 14 word processing capabilities II 2.d.5.g 14 MARC II character set II 2.d.5.h 14 6. IBM channel interfaec II 2.11.6 14 G.-SYSTEM SOFTWARE I. .Generic & specifiF peripheral

reference . H 2. Privileged user, access II q.a.4 =3. Tuning II la.5 4. Llier prioritization II 3.a.10 15 5. File managementbinary data handling II 3.a.I3,a 16 6. DOwn line load from host computer II 3a.16 17 7- High level languages PL /1, ALGOL, BASIC, RPG-II II 3.b.1 17 B. Sortlmerge performance 3.c1,1 18 D. QUERY AND SOURCE DATA ENTRY SOFTWARE II 3.c E. DBMS

F, WORK PROCESSING SUBSYSTEM

'G. RELIABILITY 5% Methodology II3.i 27 Analysis II 2.a.6 H. SYSTEM HARDWARE EASE OF PROGRAMMING 5% APPENDIX /1 of Ccngrms System Speeificae

SECTION F I. SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS This RFP is intended to be a "System Specification" ,rather than a "Hardware Specification." Overall system requirements and individual configuration requirements have been described so that each prospective vendor will have the capability to propose the most effective approach for bis particularproduct line. It would not be in the best interest of LC to circulate an RFP containing a list of specific model numbers, core sizes, and so on. For a procurelnent of this kind, it is most useful to rely on the unique problem-solving resources of minicomputer-oriented vendors and OEM's to prescribe a set of hardware and system software which will meet ,or exceed LC's response and reliability requirements. A. Global' Requirements-mmon to all systems overed by this procurement). I. System Architecture a. The systems proposed must be multilingual and multiprogramming computer systems capable of supporting interactive program development. There shall be a minimum of two terminals available for development of applications code but not necessarily concurrent with any given application. b. To accommodate 'changes in workload, the systems (hardware and software allow modular increments in hardware, i.e., able to utilize more or less of any of the individual hardware components (except the cpu) and more or less cpu memory capacity by field modification. c. The proposed systems muse include an operating system which permits effective control of routine operations as well as unscheduled operations, e.g., recovery. d. The systems proposed must communicate with system users., e.g., via operating system commands, a text editor, a language processor and interactive debugger. e. The architecture and configuration of each proposed system must enable each system to provide a response time to each user terminal of not more than ten (10) seconds during sustained peak load operation (the functional descriptions of each of the six individual systems provide sufficient information for Bidders to derive "worst-case" and sustained peak load performance requirements for each system). f. The system proposed must have software compatibility across all configurations of a single mainframe type or a computer "line," if such configurations arc proposed. 2 System Hardware

a.AlautframefirCT/ II proposalshallinclude relevantdcrtails such as bandwidths,buss structure,multiplicity of data paths, and controlpaths, instruction repertoire and timings, -intelligent" components, interrupt structure, registers, and performance enhancement strategies.

() The fundamental unit of internal data movement must be a "word" of at least 16 data bits plus atn, system hits such as parity, etc, (2) There,mitst be at least four (1) general purpose tnisters usable by application programs; sixteen ( registers -tre preferred. I kscribe methodology for using registers as accumulators and for indexing, (.1) The upper and lower limits of memory must be explicity stated. These limits should he a function of both hardware and system software requirements (i.e., MINICOMPUTERS IN FEDERAL LIBRARIES

for the operating system, compilers etc. specified for this procurement, what is minimum memory required and maximum memory supported). (4)The basic memory cycle time must be one microsecond or less and the effective memory cycle time due to memoryconfigurations such as interleavingNrAisascache memory paging must be stated in detail with any assumptions used suc hit rate or instruction mixes. (5) The following features must be included: (a) program accessible clock (b) automatic program load (c) memory protection (d) automatic error detection (e) automatic power failure detection (f) automatic restart from power failure with no loss of memory. (6) Illustrate using 'assembler source code statements and in a high-level language such as COBOL, FORTRAN or PL/1 the necessary instructions required to perfOrm the following tasks. For each task, state the time required for execution assuming no interruptions occur: (a) Move 1601 bytes from one area of memory to another area of memory. (b) Compare a character string of 329 bytes to another string of the same length and branch if not equal. (c) Compare one binary value to another binary value and branch if not equal. Both values are initially stored in memory. (d) Branch to a location in memory having savedthe address of the next instruction (so that a return could be executed). i (e) Decode and add the following character strings together and encode the result back into a character string. Timing should be given for each step in the process (i.e., decode, add, encode.) 123,932,480.63 , . 1,420.64 (f) Specify the time required to access a physical block of data from a disk file considering the operating system overhead and hardware limitations. Assume no file management system. (7) State whether processor instruction set is hardwired or microcoded. (8) State whether any of the following desired instruction types are available: (a) Immediate data ( i r data available in instruction word). (b) Stack operations (push, pop, etc.). (c) Operations on packed, signed, non-integer ( i.e., real) data. (d) Byte addressing without having to load into register and shift. (e) Code translation and stringedit. b. Coninnintmooto ( I ) Remote Batch (a) The proposed system must Ix- cap.thle of communicating as a remote batch terminal and contain a inifmnum of two channels. (b) .As a remote batch terminal, the proposed systems must interface via bisynchronous communication protocol to an IBM 370 Model 158 using 2780 bi.sync or I IASI, work station protocol. System Spcciikatiorn 139

The capacity- to use a private line service for remote batch communications is mandatory. Itis also desirable to have the capacity to use a switched network. (d) It is desirable that the proposed systems be able to support concurrent operations of remote batch and interactiveapplications terminals. (e) Terminal controllers or multiplexors 'must be capable of accommodating up ' to at least 60 asynchronous concurrent connections. (f) Detailed information of the preferred characteristics of the communication" channels follows. If a vendor cannot meet all of the preferred specifications he should specify which are not met and why his proposed system will be better or more useful to LC. c. Communication Channell (I) Synchronous Channel (a) The proposed system shall have a Transmitter/Receiver capable of interfacing with moderns whose input characteristics conform to oneor more of the following at a transmission rate of at least 9600 bps: L EIA RS-232-C, RS-334, RS-269A 2. CCITT Recommendation V. 35 3. WECO 303 (Bell 303) as described in AT&TPublication 41302 "Wideband Data Stations, 303 Type." When more than one of the above is available the selection of the particular interface shall be done by external cable changes and/or modular replace- ment of output circuit drivers/receivers at the LC facility. (b) The synchronous channels shall be capable of handling 27130 bisynchronous protocol or HASP work station protocol. A complete and detailed description of this portion of the system' is requested to include hardware interfaces, software supplied or required and any limitations. (c) The vendor also must supply a cable and signal connection diagram for this section identifying the type connector being proposed and its signals. This will enable LC personnel to adequately determine if the proposed system is suitable. (d) A desirable option would be the adaptability to several of the new bit oriented, full duplex protocols listed below: L FED-STD-1020(A) EIA RS-422 Balanced 2. FED-STI1030(A) EIA RS-423 Unbalanced 3. FED-STI --(Proposed) EIA XYZ Physical for "Analog" facilities 4. FED-SID-1029 ( Proposed) EIA -ARC) 5. FED-STD-1040 (Proposed) CCITT X. 21 Public digital networks. The vendor shall describe any loopback testing facilities available for determining if the computer interface is operating correctly. (2) elsynehronotu Channels (a ) The asynchronous channel shall interface with the processor or memory on x character basis. The transmitter shall have a parallel loaded buffer and serial output. An overrun error signal is desirable. (Ii) The speed range shall be from a minimum of 110 baud to a. maximum or 9600 baud rate. (c) It is desired that tie I ra nsmit ter/ Receiver be designed to allow soft aC to select the baud rate. MI CO UTERS IN FEDERAL LIBRARIES

(d) Even, odd, or a no parity scheme is required and each Transmit- ter/Receiver pair shall generate, check or inhibit parity as determined by software. The character length shall be selectable to five, six, seven, or eight bits. The Transmitter/Receiver pair shall select one or two stop bits in addition to one start bit. One and one half stop bits may be utilized if two stop bits are selected fora five bit character. (g) The modem control signals shall conform to RS-232C for aSynchronous communications to be used with Bell 113 A/B, 103 and 202 S/T moderns; A detailed description must he part of the proposal identifying connector types and signal pin connections. (h) The proposal must describe any loopback testing facilities available for determining if the computer interface and multiplexor is operating correctly. (i) Terminal interfaces must include the standard RS-232C interface. (j) Terminal ports must accept either hard-wire or service through a dial up or hard wired modem. All these are required. (k) Acceptable data rates must include 300, 1200400, 4800 and 9600 bits per second. d. Peripheral Devices (1) CRT Terminals (a) Keyboard must provide, as a minimum, thestandard, lASCII 96-character subset. Proposal shall include a table showing the Carr image of each of the 96 characters. Furthermore, the system must be capable. -of:recognizing, transmitting, processing, storing, retrieving, displaying, and printing a full alphapuriieric upper and lower case character set (b) CRT screen display area must be approximately nine inches wide by seven (7) inches high as a minimum. (c) CRT screen display area must hale a capacity of not less tl'tttn1,920* characters displayed at not less than 80 characters per line. (d) It is desired that CRT display characters consist of, or be equivalent to a dot matrix of not less than 7 ' 9 dots per character. (e) The CRT display must be fully buffered and the refresh rate must be sufficient to maintain full intensity of each individual character over the entire display area without flicker or other distortion. (1) The CRT unit must provide a cursor which functions as a visiblepositional indicator. It must he possible for the terminal operator to change the position of the cursor left, right, up, downby means of function keys on the CRT keyboard unit. Also, it is desirable to have the ability to tab or skip the cursor ahead to positions previonSly determined by the application program. (g) Under program rurtrnl, itis desirable to emphasize or highlight individual characters or charm ter positions by means of high-low dual intensity reverse polarity or blinking, and it must be possible by program control to' protect selected character positions from being modified. (Ii) It is desired that the ( omit !lave the ability to accept from the currently executing application program avisually formatted data entry screen display: project that display on- the NT screen in protected mode; then, without further ( attention, allow the tern-unal operatortor to key doer data into the specified input fields and to selectively re-key into these fields for System Specificatrrrrr± 141

correction of errors visually detected by the terminal operator; and finally, n initiated by terminal operator action tranTit only data currently displayed in the input field locations. (i) CRT terminal must have an RS-232-C communications interface support ing user-selectable data transfer rates including 300 and 1200 baud. (i) In addition to the terminal specified in (a) through (i) above, a software compatible alternative terminal not having lower-case capability is desirable. LC may choose to install a lower cost alternate terminal in situations where upper/lower case capability is not required. (k) It is desirable to support the Library of Congress MARC II character set. This character set utilizes the parity bit to derive characters over and above the standard ASCII characters.Itis requested that this capability be addressed. (I) The CRT system must have a minimum of 10 function keys associated with it to enable selection of Liser functions. This requires the function keys to be identifiable by the applications code. It- is desired that these keys be internal to the CRT keyboard but proposals for a co-located function key box will be entertained. (m) Itis desired that the CRT have an input I/O port which essentially parallels the keyboard. It shall conform to RS232C serial transmission and be of suitable baud rate to accommodate a bar code wandjeader or OCR reader with ASCII output. J ) The CRT must have an output I/O port which shall be capable of transmission to the document printer specified in paragraph d. (5). This port will be used for printing the screen image. A desirable option is a terminal such as the one described above but with a 8 line x 80 character display for word processing appliCations. Refer to section kg for details of word processing. Direct Access Storage Devices User data/ program storage System capacity for at least four separate online disk storage devices, each with removable data storage media (disk pack) "physically" compatible with IBM 3:330 packs, IBM 2314 or CDC 9876 Trident packs. The average and maximum disk access times shall be stated including seek times and rotational latency. Average access time is defined as seek tune across one-half of tracks plus out -half total rotational delay and shall not be greater than 50 millisec. System capacity to be not less than 300 million bytes of concurrently online direct access user data storage. System (disk subsystemin conjunction with operating system I/O drivers) must be capable of recognizing and bypassing bad tracks. Bidder must describe methodology of this capability. (b) Systems residence device (optional) In view of the relatively large number of concurrent users to bu supported, itis anticipated that bidders will find it desirable to include intheir proposed system configuration a high-performance system residence device for program overlays, swap space, and so on. Because this device is optional, its detailed ,specifications arc left up to the Tetion of the individual bidder.

1 ft 142 MINICOMPUTERS IN FED

netic Tape Drives (optional) (a)ystern -must be capable of supporting up to four (4) tapedrives in incrtlents of one, starting with one drive. These _drives musthave the following characteristics: (1) 9-track (2) 800 or 1600 bpi Preferably 1600 bpi (3) 75 inches per second read/write speed minimum (4) 2400 foot reel capacity (5) ANSII compatible (6) IBM readable (b) In order to reduce media inventory and minimize operatorintervention, LC

r.is considering not including magnetic tape drives in these minicomputer )rStems. Bidder shall describe the impact (if any) this action would havein regard to eah proposed system with particular attention givfn to aspectsof system reliability, operation, and maintenance. (4) Line Printer (a) Each system will be equipped with one line printer. (b) The sustained printer speed must be 200 lines/minute orbetter. Printer speed is defined as the print rate using-a standardASN set of 96 characters and printing on all 132 print positions with equal use of all characters. (c) Six lines/inch Capability is required with siN-nreightlines/inch desirable. (d) There must be a minimum of 132 print positions. (e) The printer must be able to print mutiple copies up to six-partforms. (f) The prinker must be equipped with vertical andhnrizanta-Valipment controls for special forms, carriage control, and line feed suppression. (g) The printer must have an adjustable forms widthcapability to atcommo- date forms ranging from 11 inclieS to 14 7/8 inches (h) In reference to the extended character set it is requested thatthe line printer interface be such that it would not preclude the use of a full 8 bitcode transmission to accommodate the MARC II character set. (5) Document Printer (a) There should be = minimum of 80 print positions with acapability of transmission of at le, st 30 characters per second. (b) Standard 96charac et- ASCII (includes upper/lower c (c) Multi-part form capability is desirable. (d) Character formation/ipression mechanism must produce clear, "crisp" characters which wilt rep oduce satisfactorily on Xerographic process office copier machines. Bidder. shall include in 'their proposals a sample page printed by the documen printer they are proposing. (e) Printer must be capab e of being located and operatedremotely via the communications subsystem. (f) In addition to document printer specified in (a) through (e)above, a software compatible alternative not having lowercase capability mustalso be. operationally available. LC may choose to install lower -costalternate document printers in situations where upper/lower case capabilityis not required. APPENDIX BLi of Commis Systempocificatioris

(g) Additional capabilities are desired for word processing subsystem explained in section 3. g. These are as follows: (1) Variable pitch (either,10 or 12) and have readily changeable typefOnts (not to exceed 5 minutes change time). (2) In action to upper/lower case alpha and -.numeric, the special symbols period, comma, colon, semicolon, plus, section, cent, parenthe- sis, brackets (squared), quotation, asterisk, question mark, number, exclamation mark, percent, dollars, dash, underline, slash and apostro- phe are required. (h) It is requested that the MARC-II character discussed in paragraph d. (1) (k) be addressed here also. (6) IBM Channel Interface It is highly desirable to have the capability of interfacing the proposedsystems to the IBM 370 via a selector and/or multiplexor channel. Response to this requirement should be documented evidence as to both-hardware required and software available to accommodate the hardware. Both the minicomputer and IBM 370 system requirements and prerequisites should be identified along with data rate limitations. System Software General a.Operating System (I) A complete, fully supported operating system is required that is capable of supporting all peripherals and managing all systemresources. This operating system must be capable of supporting a minimum of 60 concurrent interactive terminal users executing a mix of application procedures. _If _the supportis not part of the operating system describe any communication software available to perform This function. Areas of interest include buffer size requirement&, amount of memory required for the package and interfaceto high-level languages. (2) Both generic and specific program references to the line printer and other devices are desirable. (3) All peripherals must be accessible through software from terminals. (4)Itisdesirable to have a priviliged class of users permitting access and modification of system functions that are not available to non- privileged users. (5) It is desirable to have a capability to dynamically "tune" the operatingsystem to optimize performance for changing workloads. (6) It must be possible to deny certain users access to certain systemresources, such as disk space and CPU time. (7) Program development Irmist be possible from a minimum oftwo terminals. (11) Capability MUST be provided for disk storage file backup. Offerors in responding should provide a measure of the time required 'to perfiirm ackup. Show all calculations and list the assumptions used for these calculations :-**.,(9) A software library facility is required for frequently usedprograms. (10) It is desired that it be possible to assign user priorities and for the.system manager to define limits on user activity. (11) Terminals must be addressable so that the operator can communicate with, and as a privileged user, interrupt individual users. (12) Spooling to disk for line printer output is mandatory. MINIC01%1PUTERS Iid FEDERAL LIB

(II) There must exist a comprehensive file management system. (a) Binary data as well as formatted data must be storable ondisk and magnetic tape. (b) File accessing from a program must be device independent. (c) File structure must be language independent. Files created in onelanguage must be accessible by other(s). (d) Files created in batch [node must be fully compatible with andaccessible in multiple user mode and vice versa. (e) Files must be sharable. More than one user must be able to access the same file concurrently. Proteetion aganot concurrent access via user option mustbe also available. (f) Record formats supported should include fixed, fixed block,variable, and variable blocked. (g) File access methods supported should include sequential,'indexsequential, random, and direct. (h) Bidders shall describe the file allocation ,methodology of their software, stating how this allocation methodology functions in a multi-user'Online interactive environment. (i) If the requirements (a) through (h) above require a DBMS, biddersshall provide complete functional' and operational description of their prOposed DBMS (see item "f" below). Particular emphasis shall be placed upon the performance impact of such software. (j ) The file management system MS/ have the capability ofgeneric and approximate keyed retrieval. Generic is defined ashaving one or more of the leading characters of the key and approximate iSclefifiedaliearehingfor the closest key such that KEYR > KEYr or KEYR Where KEYR is the key requested and KEYF is the key found, (14). If the- proposed software contains any system limitations such asnumber of files per disk drive, maximum file size, maximum record size, and so on,such specifications must be stated in the proposal. (15) it is required that the operating system be able to distinguishbetween system software activity and user application software activity so that the system can protect itself from user errors. (16) It is highly desirable that the system be capable of accepting a"down-line- load" from a remote host system. Bidders shall provide a comprehensive description of the methodology employed. (17) Vendor should describe availability and cost of source code foroperating system, language processors, and all othervendor-supplied software. b. Language Processors ( I) Describe Thigh=lcver multi-user language capability asapplicable to the development of application programs. Specify the extent of multiprogramming, multitasking, and re-entrancy of code generated by available compilers.Highly desirable high-level languages include COBOL, FORTRAN, RPG, ALGOL, and PL/1, (2) Specify and describe the user environment in whielkapplication programs would be developed, tested, and implemented. Includeill scenario of the coding, integration, and testing process,

1 APP IX BLi Systems peeifitinny 145

Describe and provide examples of accomplishing data storage and retrieval in a high-level languageparticularly data with alphanumeric, "keys" of at least 25 characters in length. (4) Describe theavailable MACRO assembler, if any. c. Quip, and Source Data Entry Package (1) A generalized package of this type is not mandatory. If the vendor wishesto describe a supplementary package which would be useful to LC, theymay do so. d.Sort/Merge and General Utilities (1) Provide a "sort/merge" capability and describe typical performance results. State the time required to sort from 1,000. to 20,000 records in 1,000 record increments, listing the system, disk, and core resources required, assumingno other active tasks,. a 12-character sort key, and a 200- character record. It is desirable that this sort/merge be callable from application programs in either high-level language or assembly language. (2) Describe the system's ability to perform general utility functions and the environment in which they are performed (i.e., under language interpreteror operating system control). (3) Describe the software for performing disk pack backup copies and typical times involved. e. Conununicattons (1) Describe software for emulating/simulating a 2780/HASP JE. RES IBM compatible work station for 370 batch communications. (2) Describe the capability (if any) for a proposed system to 6brrrrnunicate with another proposed system.

1.Data Base Management Svstern (Optional---1)esired) (1) General It is desired that the DBMS relieve the application programmer of concern for the overall organization, structure and maintenance-of the data base. The DBMS should insulate thc application program from equipment differences among storage devices. (2) Host Languages The DBMS system should provide a high-level language interface capability to support application programs development. The DBMS should include the capability for such application programs to utilize all of the DBMS functions either through language extensions or supported call statements. (3) Processing Modes The 1)BMS should have the capability to support both batch and interactive modes of processing in a multi-user environment; that is, multiple terminals/programs should be able to update /retrieve from the same data base concurrently. (4) Data Definition There should be a facility in the DBMS to support the definition of data to the application program. Included in the definition capability should be features such asthefollowing: (a) The definition of data bases and keys. IVIINTC0MP IN MD-

(b) The assignment of symbolic names to databases, data elements, and groups of data elements. (c) Characteristics of each data element such assize, number of occurrences, and type, such as alpha or numeric. (d) A listing of data definitions with diagnostics.. (5) Data Base Recovery The capability to recover the entire database in a timely manner is rative. In this respect, several requirements are specifiedbelow. (a) Ability to copy the entire data base orspecified portions onto an auxiliary storage Media upon command. (b) Ability to restoreth$ata base froma previously generated copyalong with all associated indices, pointers, and directories. (6) general Capabilities Desired The following capabilities are desirable and shouldbe available to users through the query language and directly from a programwritten in the proposed host languages, (a) Efficient space allocation and de-allocation. (b) Variable length records via repeating groups orattached members. (c) Multiple indexes on a single file with duplicatekeys allowed. (d) Randomized and tree index structures. (e) Data dictionary. (f) Minimal record and file size limitations.

= (g-) Ability- to _insert, delete and updaterecords in a data base without necessitating its recreation. (h) Ability for multiple users in all processing modes t6concurrently acc common data base. ( Specify all utilities required to maintain the database includeend supplied or customer required. (j)Tihe ability to create and retrieve on sub - indexes isdesirable. g. Word Processing Subsystem (desired) (I) General Itis desired that a software system whichwould facilitate word processing applications be described if available. This systemshould be oriented around a, full page (58 lines of 80 characters or standard81/2 X 11) CRT. The emphasis is placed on ease of use and ease of training ofrelatively unskilled typists. If the vendor does not have software of this type, LC willentertain:recommendations as to where ii'rnight be obtained. (2) Software The software would bepreferred in a high-level language to facilitate easy support. It will be required that the sourcecode for the subsystem be supplied with delivery of the system. Furthermore itis required that a full, detailed configuration and operating system environmentdescription be provided as part of the proposal with ageneral description as to whether it is a stand alone system or concurrent running with otherapplication programs. pecirmatiotu 147

) The following word processing functions are desired. WORD PROCESSING MINIMUM CAPABILITIES Insert character 2. Insert line 3. Deletecharacter 4. Delete line 5. "Edit" or "Break" for variable length input of additionaltext. 6. Erase (Deletion of character that leaves a space). 7. Move` Character 8. Move line 9. Move paragraph 10. Move page 11. Must be able to print and edit or keyboard simultaneously. 12. Local storage of minimum of 30 pages of text (1 page 200 characters). 13. Keyboard commands and use of system trainingnot to exceed 20 hours for full capability. Employee should be able to be completely productive (maximum productivity) by end of 80 hours (includes training time). 14. Printer must be capable of printing total screen text (58 lines x 120 characters). 15. Should have global search and replace 16. Automatic pagination 17. Ease of handling footnotes 18. Decimal justification 19. Diacritics (4) File handling capabilities In addition to the word processing requirements it is required that filesor :documents be accessed via keyed retrieval methods as described in section 3.a.13. Provisions must be made such that several individualscan be working on the same document concurrently and have the system reassemble the document into proper sequential order. (5) The system should also be capable of crimunicating with the mainframe CPU, IBM 370/158 with appropriate communication link control as described in section 3.e. h. General Requirements (1) The equipment design shall provide for maximum useful service life under twenty-four hour/day, seven day/week operation as a design goal, obsolescence not withstanding. Useful service is defined as the continued ability to meet the performance reliability and maintainability specifications herein, assuming that preventive maintenance in accordance with the vendor'S:peroposal is practiced. Vendor shall state minimum and maximum useful service life and warranty. The equipment will require no special facility to be constructed, The operating environment shall be that of normal office conditions. (2) The equipment shall operate and maintain specified performance froma single phase power source of 115V- 10%, 60 cycles 4- - I cycle, or a three phase, four wire power source of 115/208 V 10%, 60 cycle 4- - 1%. MIrvICOMPtt IN kl:TRAI., LIBRARIES 148

(3) The vendor shall insure that all equipmentwill operate as specified in the probable internal and external electromagnetic andelectrostatic environments without loss in performance and without, through theelectromagnetic energy it , generates, causing other equipment tomalfunction. Designed suppression of radiated and constructed interference shall permitthe equipment to operate without error from incoming interference sources such asflorescent lighting, power lines, general purposehighspeed digital computers and their auxiliary equipment. It shall be the vendor's responsibility toinspect the site and review equipment installation plans with Le. (4) Electromagnetic or other radiation hazardspotentially harmful to operating or maintenance personnel shall beconstrained within the limits established by the National Council on Radiation Protection andMeasurements. (5) The equipment shall have LT. approval andperform is specified while operating under the following conditions: Ambient Temperature Rang_ e. 5O to 90 degreesF provides there is no condensation. to elative Humidity.10(7c, to 90% -within the ambient temperature range. Other Atmospheric Conditions. Any probable combinationonoke, ozone, fine dust, or any other atmospheric conditionswhich are likely to be encountered in an office building. (6) The vendor will provide detailed specificationsof the proposed system as an entity and define characteristics for system integrity.These shall include, but not be limited to: Detailed listing of system components. Dimensions of all items of eqdipment and proposedinstallation layout. Power supply requirements. Overload protection. Required system operating environment, particularlycooling and clean Modular growth characteristics and estimated usefullife Detailed description of the technical characteristicsof each component including MTBF (Mean TimeBetweeli Failure), MTTR (Mean Time to Repair), and MTBI (Mean 'lime BetweenInterrupt meaning abnormal termination of operating system software.) The vendor must meet orexceed the following figures or explain to the satisfactionof the LC why his figures should be accepted as a reasonable alternative: MTBF: See paragraph i.i, which follows MTTR : See paragraph i.4. which follows MTRI: See paragraph i.5. which follows . Workload processingcapability. (-Vertu clonal- safeguards *Software iti terfaces, I- lardwa re interfaces. Previous operational applications_ Performance expectation (Throughput, etc.) (7) Specify the expandability or maximumcapability of the system disk storage, CRTs, and printers. 149

Specify the source of all hardware and software beinepropros d which hasnot been directly produced or manufactured by the Vendor: (9) Provide the name, title, address, and telephone number of the vendor's representative who ' bears sole. responsibility for this proposal and ensuing contract. This representative would be contacted only 'in the event of unusual circumstances; day-to-day situations would be handled 'at a lower organizational level. 1. Reliability Performance capability ofthe system will be based upon calculations from demonstrated field experience, Definitions and establishment of the quantitative criteria follow: (I) A-systera is the basic configuration of CPU's memory, DISKS, andtapes (if the tape option is exercised) and will not include any of the terminals supported by the system, telephone lines, cables, or utilitypower. (2) Failure A failure is defined as oneor more of the following: (a) Any component failure in a CPU causing thesystem to cease functioning. (b) Failure of the internal system power supplies to delivei the correct voltage (e) Failure of any component in the memory which diaables.usage (d) Failure of any component in the controller (ifone is used) controlling the two synchronous channels (e) Failure of both of the synchronous channels (f) Failure of any component in the controller(iftised): controllinghe asynchronous channels. ( -g) Fatly:re-or mac:if-tali ten percem of the asynchronous Channels. ( h) The system fails to operate within the specified environmental limits. .11713F The demonstrated mean time between failure for a population of systems shall, he 12,000 hours as a goal. The goal should be realized in a one year time period. The 1.0 will evaluate -at the end of this time period whether the; oal was met and the suitability of the proposedsystem. The MTB shall be calculated as follows: "Fhe system will he utilized over a 12 hour period daily. Failures occurring outsije4his 12 hour period will not be charged against thesystem provided they have bte6 repaired before start up nine the following day. It is desired thatan unattended system be able to report itself -in trouble" to the main 370/158 at the Library of Congressthat service personnel may be dispatched. Overall system reliability may be accomplished byone or more of the following suggested approaches: 1)yitainie reeonfiguration which is achieved by online test and diagnostic capability .:coupled with sufficient hardware sophistication for the system to realize a module is in trouble, configure the module out, report the failure, and not interrupt operation. This LC the desired approach. (b) Manual reconfiguration which may be accomplished by a user or by an a central terminal or at the 370/158 site. A short interruption

(4) AMR Mean time to repair is desired to he less than 30 minutes (after the field engineer has arrived at the site). The proposal shall identify all evidence leading to this conclusion. (5) MTBI; Mean time between interruptions shallapply to interruptions caused by,either the-operational systemsoftware or the system hardware. It is expected that interruptions will occur more frequentlyimmediately following installation of the system, but will be exptted to improve onethe burn in period has elapsed. ,MTBI is intended to.cover those interruptionswhich cannot be traced to either system software or hardware aswell as those that can be arid is included to encourage the offerer to quote testedstable systems as fat as practical. The following MTBI figures are desired: (a) For the first month-100 hours (b) For the next two" months-500 hours (c) For the next three months-1,000 hours (d) For the remainder of the timeduring each working day of 12 hours orless the reliability shall be 0.999 equivalent to onetenth or- one percent probability of failure, equivalent to a mission MT& of12,000 hours. (6) Design Life: The design life of the equipment is to be10 years at 24 hours per day operation. j. Design Approach We require that the reader provide us with full details ofthe design approach bid, including the architecture and logic for achievingthe required reliability and/or failure tolerance. We will entertain all sound design conceptsthat can achieve the desired reliability including n- processor approaches. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alper, Bruce' H. "Library Automation." In Annual ire iew of "Printers and Teleprinters." Mini--Micro 10 Information Science and Technology. Volume 10; pp. 1 236. (January 1977): 30-53. Edited by Carle* A. dtiadra and Ann W.Luke. Washing. ton, D.C.: American Shciety for Information Science, _ . '.'llernovable Disk Storage; Where It's Come Fronl 1975.- and Where It's Going."Modern Data 9 (January 1976): 36-- 38. Anderson, Decima M. Computer Programming: FOI?TRAN New York: Appleton.Century-Crofts, 1966. "Small-Scale Comput Like fling Your Anderson, Laundry; Part 1, Computation and Processing," Maden Walter L. "Minis Arc Beautiful !;I(enotc Dotat (May 1975): 43-46. Address." In Minicomputers: The Applications Explosion,n.p. Edited by David E. Debeau. Proceedirigs of the American "Small-Scale Computing: It's Time to Get With the InstituteofIndustrialEngineers Conference held Future; Part 2. Dath Entry." Modern Data 0 uric 1975): in 43.49. Washington, D.C., 17-19 November 1975. LosAngeles: Management Education Corporation, 1975. Brophy, Peter; Buckland, Michael K; and Bindle,Anto- Auerbach ny. fleader in Operations Research for Libraries. Englewood, Buyers' Guide to . , .Business Minicomputer ,Cysterns. Winter 1976-77. Pennsauken, N.J.: AuerbachPublisheis, C lo.: Information Handling Services, Library and. Edda,- 1977. ,ca 'on Division, 1976. But er, Brett. "State of the Nation in Networking."Joron-iail Auerbach On Minicomputers. New York: l'etrocelliBooks, 1974. .ibrarg Automation 8 (September 1975);IS-6. Awad, Elias M., and Data Processing ManagementAssocia- tion, Automatic Data Processing- Principles and Procedure's.3d Bt der, J. L "Comparative Criteria for Niniconsputrs." In ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Wall, 14c.,1973, A Practical Guide toMinicomputerApplicatiaas,pp.77--S2. Edited by Fred F. Cory. New York :, IEEE Press; 1972- Bailey, David C. "Requiem for the Punched Card? "" Modern 1 Data 8 (October 1975): 66-70. Caswell, Stephen A., ed. "Cassette Drives and Systeras." Modern Data 8 (October 1975): 58-63, Barden, William, Jr. How to Buy Co' UseMrnicom Microcomputers. Indianapolis: Howard W, Sams Chapin, Ned. An introduction to Automatic Conputers.:.-Tiew York: 1976. Van Nostrand, 1957, Cited by Robert 11,1. Cayes and Joseph Becker. Handbook of Data frocessing for Libraries, Hama, Arpad, and Porat, Dan I. Introddctronto Mimeomputers p. 237. 2d ed. Los Angeles: Melville Publishing Co., 1974. and Microprocessors. New York: John Wiley, & Sons,1,976. Becker, Joseph. "A Brief History of On-LineBibliographic Chapman, Edward A.; St. Pierre, Paul L.; andLnbars, John, Jr. Libra' Systems Analysis Curd& Systems." Speech given at the UCLA' Conferenceon c-tslewYork: Information Systems and Networks, 27-29 March 1974. Wiley-Intersciertce, John Wiley & Son Corey, James J. "Configurations and S Becker, Joseph, and Hayes, Robert M. Information Storageand -el A 'Tutorial." In Applications of Minicomputers to Library old Related Problerm, Retrieval: Tools, Elements, 777taries. New York: John Wiley& Sons, 1963. pp. 11-27, Edited by J. Wilfrid Lancaster. Paper presented at the 1974 Clinic, on Library Applieatiorts of Data Bobick, Steve A..; Almon, Edmund J.; and Yerkr.s, Arthur Processing, 20"April to 1 May 1974. UrbanaChampaign, W. "Survey of Small Business Computers." Downtown 22 III.: University of Illinois, Graduate School al Library (October 1976) :91 -- -107. Science, 1974. rA,...._. Bohi, Marilyn. Information Icessuig. rd. I ago: Science Researf h Associates, Inc., 1976. Corliss, William R. Computers, Key. Understanding theAtom Series. Oak Ridge, Tenn.: U. S., Atomic Energy Corrunis- Bowers, Dan M., ed. "(Computer Printers Marini:tett sion, Division of Technical Information, 1967, . Pata."Aloderii Data 8 ( November 1975): -13-45. Cox, N. S. M.; Dews, J. ID.; and Dolby, J. 1.... 77-teCoraputer anti "Floppy Disk Drives and Systems; Part I. Historical the Librag The Role of the Computer' in the Organizationacrd Perspective." -itigni-Alccro Si :,-rto lu (February 1977): 36-- Handling of Information in Libraries. Newcastleupon 'me, 51. Eng.: University of Newcastle upon Tyne Library, 1966 MlMICoM3J1'Ilks LA8ftAJ4l1S

'J,rIt._ tLftlflttlofl. '' In iInmim-,/!/fQirU' IinovaUic Strilc'gkiin SyitcIIiMitid ;jh, Audrey N. Curly,W,illtr ,,,,/ ir47,fr(u. Veil u me II, pp. 225-fib /.itOriitk,fl" 'lit fthrtiry AuIo,i,azw,,: 77,, .S'tt'i,'iif (h, /h( ii, u-iffriJ7irrrutnuri lulLS \'Vasleirigton,l).C. Edltcd by Susan K, Martin and Hrt Ikitler. EelltcmIby Mart ha E. WjJ I pp I 27-3d. oli Science, 1976. at the Pronfrrvjirc Jjoitjttiie miLmIJraty ,.nierican Society for ITlfut.J;tt Ailt(itilntk,il 'ç l,,LJrrcl l.y the InfurirtitiortSn'ncc amid 'MriLcc)iilptttciCilutrdi'iStici,IlCOflOITiICi anti Aimtriitjfl I)ivlijci, d thAnieric4,lI iIn-ary Aaet,rintitmtt Srlcctiori .fitrti,1ntqrltcI .II)raryManagement Sy- at J* I'Jcvacla, 22-23 JiiritI!)73.(liicag'i: trio" fri,lJipfuatu,nr cf in,ct,s/du(f u-s to Libraand !?tiawl Avicrvart,jihriry Aoci, lion. l)7i. /'rub/cint, pp. 513-119. Lcii11j IyI".Wiffeid Lancaster. Iiiik c,n Library Applicit- () (JimIl, Papers tireserited at r I'm 1 'J14 I)ati}3& far tIiC Njrii Uicr.'' A4i,,-/i.fu:ro Sjefrnir minus of I)ata Processizig, llAull ci I My 1974. Urbana- l976):() hlsEitipaigri, III.: Lu,;crii p,fIlliutols, Graduate School of Illui(,e,t,e ('umpufri Prni,'rnnimini'for I.thr1irtrr; Davim, Cfiar1's I-I Library SciCiicC, 1 974-. \'Veai purl C:111111. !?taipIt"forlnfirrr,chon .SpfCkJllSl.r. Library Managmcnt rrtrIiy,y4J Prui, 74. " v1iriGomnpuitr S>.fu-,-slsr Appikatiom; A NcA1jraCul to Bibliographic Process- 4;iyiic_ "N'! iIljcun1Diiterc amid Lilirary A,ittnmnttiui,: ing." hi (On/,ll1F5 in!flftnia(zU Data Gcnttrs, pp. 2533. i,1f4r,Jixpericncc." In/lJ)IiCufiunrtifittintcum/;uf-.c Hcicson. Mont- rc - Edited by jne Aria Clift-j, arid I)u,inc 80--95. t,I1,rq9, ne1R,kiied 1'r,h1er,is, Editrd by J. v.tle, NJ,; AFlItmS Pr", 1i73, - \Mlfritl Iiica..trr. h'ar prerritccl it dir 1974Clini,: oti au,d Bekir, Joseph. handbook ofDa1 Library i ppluatint of 1).'ta Procrs..irig, 28 April nmI Hayes, Robert j., d, Los Angeles: Melville ¼'lay 1974 Urtitmii( harripaign, Ill,: Vviivrraitymit III int'ia, I'rm-su-:nq Jur I,zArarj.cs. g ratJ.t icJ,cxiI uS I,ibrary Sc:irncc, I 974. i'tibliahiing Co., l374. ( lia tigi 'ig Ikiliger, Edssard NI. .auth 1l,dcaOfl, Paul B.,Jr. Lthraçy IkCkririaro,Ri chard,''Li brary Auturnatiun lit, II) I(Jariu A uilrnnatOin: Eptri,,t. itq(dcIou),and Technology of 1attrn I,d cw I)irecr iuii." I.thrari/auruIl Lthrwy u-is as 1sf c-is-rn0! JIll dmw York: MuGraw-Hill ary W76): 173-113. J(,u-r- 'lrciith lit I3ookCo., 1971. .IJelauuy, I)i ana. "TctthnoIoty: Present Statuu and Lang, Guy M. Library d L45ma1u,n:77:, Stnfr:ifti'e 4 rI II, pp. Ilufitnan, A. A. J.; FrllC[i,l(Jdut L.; and cionputcrt" Jn (flI1W Morm, Save More." l&31. Idtd by Susan K. Martin and BrettR,,tfer. -"Minicomputerjttcufa,1 llrecc,rl(errncr ln.tlttilr on Library iEEE Spwtrarn II (Fj7 1974)64=68; Paptnpricr1red3.1the Auloriiitjjatpon.orccJ by the I nf,,rnti ibm, SuicrIc:t' and 1-follingwcsrth,jJcr1i./tft,JfTJafrrs: A Revitw of cun'mt ill(uilat,Jl, Liviujoi, oF the Aiiirri,,n1.ihi-ary-&sia:ciitin is-hno/ogu--, .V5'sln_c 0rsi '1tjc'°' SantaMonica, Call!.: Chicago: at Lit %1cgLt,r'dr-vada, 22 23 Jtinr I973 Rind Corporation, Arniricari. Librity Acocjjtjon, I 9,. Ilcitlica,JeuIin h.tc. '"Mxi tc41çil:e\CitibankCase History; Jmiriud .S'r,frau iifi ,lwr7I/lul(.,, f)r 4/i/ihcatwns Explosion, np. I)crnitritIt'-., puI 11. "tvl niLI pdtm' - 1'Sicch1 lfl j4(1a,s,,,tr1iI23 (l)ruriiher 1974): Edited by bavid E 1)mI.511 9aceedints of the American heldin 1'mc-Ii mu' ugy In .f1171(l(J1 list itt't of hrtd,ntrialEiigflecn Gonference I)utiii, l)ofltIt1 /. ''C ai,rm nut zllla tl,,iO WscsI,inotort, l).Q, V-I jNveuuibrr 1975.11oa Angeles: R7v1z4sfiflf,jrfla1itflul .Vcir,,, a,zdi1r/l7l,Iç'y.\olitmnr 10, pp Tiuiot1, 1975. 1 65-3. dicd by (:ajIu A C u;idra and An,, W. Luke- Ma n;lgcmcui r Ed Iwatitfll (,rç Society Fcuj I iifm ,rili,t ifir, Technology." in ,Inria/ i.5l1tngt((tl, I).(.:Ai1, erlu-at, Iltiskry,I larry 1) '(-°Iateu- S-cirrmc,'I 975. J&iic'u' ,f lllJornwlttou-,.cC,F.J,, 1'ihrtnlugy. Volume 5, pp. Cuadra and Ann W. Luke. Eckhinuic, 1ichard Jr. Lu',i('r(I/(ulfrr .Sj.itt,u c; Orgariwihuiz 73B5. Edited by cirlu J. 1970. tnd Fr rcumr"g (1'DPII). I'.iil!lcwlxut ( Iiib,, NJ.: l'rei,- Chicago: Eiicydcpacdit Ilritx-'!"', I nc, ice-J4,jj- 197 International Iunirlcua Mai,ju-,i !)ala ProcescingG1urra,v. 3d I,t,.ulutioual Business Maclimes I":t ci -(.(iFPlJIlcl('u i.O .Si'1?rrl.(, I n ed. Potighkerpsir, .Y.: re Jobta riti lini ki, - I171 Sys1115 Pblicatiori, 1971. 17l1rou-Iud,o7lJr Ill,,riru,rm u.Icii, lcni : (I iv,- 14111 glrv ( crp, I'roit-a1llrrlili Slfrm Rant 7cornrriuriim- [lures,Ivjii.J'u-ripIlu-elfflu-vrcrr.EiigIcwuul C Ii 11,NJ:J. - Iltt I Vj.slrrri /)7) R.cfercncc Library. Fren tice_ Hal 1, I') 73 Iwni ,hrc.c itfc'/lwJ :IcJmcL ftgjSystclTsi Whii Plains, IN.Y llerr1 ailonal Busincsa Machines 11.I?,st'ar, ii L(/(ror((( aw/ l, /iw/w',; -1/!u-'p1r/ FuatkrHrIlflati 1968 ig( I C ucrft . I)ala I'rtt5j iijIdsi°' to !I1F S/u-I'll /"ilifl(jOf(oII I:li-.oLi nit rrsit y of Chi, 4411! !)ata Proc,smni' .'systinc. ,'Slu,u-/,itI 7,'si 1,,ir"JdlWt 1'r(,54 1971, - ,, liiirrnatinnal Business, N4a. 2d mu-I- Vli151 Pitirsi "-\.: (i 1dmhurgfl,7bvrtI-. Grapu1n--Qu1fcut_%IuTO/i/inSi(1(7,11. I clii nes C nrp, lvcl,nieaI li11ilottiot-is[)cpirtirseiit. 1968. t\iitu-IciMelville 1'i,hIjshtit ( c ,I 07-1. May naid, Miss.: I )igital /I7'.Lcxnatun, 1\'1i --- U NI I l,it r1iitticii, tu ItIlnlm,npu4Or ?s,j,1,., xli. ;r..il.. tIlrlcorrz/5Ir I?c-tir (orporir in, 19751. Lcj clipiuir ill C .lcrpclr-1 liii, 07 1

V;'-t - prod, Mairty afirvIlnichrinputext-Micioromputers-.--Peri- Markuson,-Warbara Evans; Wange ,Judith; Schatz, Sharon; pherals; Who( Are the kcal C'ax hang -Ups ?"Mini-Micro and Black, Donald V;Guidelines for Library Automation; A Systems9 (May19'76): 79-40. Handbook forFederal and Oilier Libraries.Sahta Monica, Judi lumen, J. PO I "The Cost Out look for Peripheral Con rol- Calif.: System Development Corporation, 1972. lers.'"Afirii-Alstro $,ystans1 0 (jartuary 1977): 64-66. Marshall, Joseph C. "DistributedProcessing on Wall Stephen A. !letwurlts and DistributedProcessing." Street."Datanzation19 (July 1973): 44-746. mini-AfirruSystunt 10 (March '977): 32-10' Kerahner, Lois fvf."MaragemeristAspects of the Use of the oore, .Williams CJ., Jr. "Going. Distributed." Mini - Micro IBM System/7 r.i Circidailuo Controls" InApplications of Sysions (Mksch I77): 4 17411. Afinicornpailersto Library' and irdoed .Problems, pp. 43-54. Neurnann, A.J. A Guide to Netwoilcing Edited by F. I Washing- Wilfrid Lancaster. Papers presented at the ton, D.C.:U.S., Department of 1974 Clinic an Library Applications of Data. PrOcessing, rrunerce, National au of Standards, 1 974. 2/3 April to I May 1 914, Urbana-Chatnpaign,III,: University of Rind?, CiracluatSchool of Library Science, Nicolaus, John J. "Library Automation-flow to Begin: 1974. Initiating a Library Automation Program." InInitiating a "UarrServices: 1 973 Applications Status." InLibrary Library A ntornation Frograns,pp. 9-23. Papers presented at Atclonsatiorc The Rawof eAl A rt/f, 2,111I-55. Edited by Susan the 1965-1966 meetings of the Documentation. Group, K. Martin and Orem Illutler.Papers preiented at the Washington, D.C.' Chapter, Special Libraries Association, Preconference Institute onLibrary ..utomatia.ri sponsored 1 - by the InforrivatiOn Science ard Automations Division of the American Library Aux.vciat ion at Las Vegas, Nevada, Robin 1. "A Technique for Selecting Small 22-23June 1973, Chicago: American Library A.ssociation, Computers.'' In APracticalChide to Minicomputer allPliCaliVIS, 1975, Pp. 93-97. Edited by Fred F. Coury. New York: IEEE Kistaian,. Georg A. "CostiVerarkr Evalwitia_n Systern,." Press, 1972. Journal of S9sterms itianagernerzi 26 ( August 1975):1 1 -19. Niftier, Richard Phillips,Case Studies in LibraryCOP1PUier. /Umber, R[ichandt Atr-tomation rn libraries.2i1 cd. Oxford: S'yitens. New York: R.. R. 13owker, Xerox, 1973 Pergarnori Press; 1914, Patrinostro, Frank S.,comp. A Sumo, of Cornrrionplac Problems Lancaster, F. Wilfrid, ed. Nati,nriingand Oilz,-r Forms of Library Autornaliori.The LARC Association's World Cooperation.Papers presentedat /lie 1973 Clinic on Library rvey Series Volume 11. Peoria, III.: LARC PreS1 Ltd., Applications of Data rrorestift%,29 April to '2 May 1973. 1973, Urbana.c1harniaign,I,: Uniyenity of Illinois, Ciraduatc. School of Library science, 1913. Payne, Charles 1. "The University of Chicago Library Data Long, Philip 'L. `'Conipu to -tecrtioulogy ----An Update." In Management System," In Applicationsof Minicomputers to Annual Recnav raf Inforrnalon Scutt/rasa' Technolwy.Volume Library and Related 13Yoblems,pp. 105 -119. Edited by F. I 1, pp. 211 -22. Edited by (Mart. lutE. Williams, Washing- Wilfrid Lanea.ster. Papers presented at the 1974 Clinic on ton, D.C.: Arrserican Society for InformationScience, Library Applications of Data Processing, 28 April to I 1 976. May-1974. Urbana-Champaign, University of Illinois, Lowey, Eugene 13. "Systems 1),5,ign.for a Min'computer- Graduate School o Library Science, 1974. BasedLibrary Cato. Managers-se ntSystern." 111 ,Applications of Minicomputers to Library nnrJNelalrrl Problems,pp. 181-90. Pearson, Karl M., Jr. "fvlinicomputers in the.L,ibrary." In Edited byp,: Wilfrid Lancaster :Papers presented at the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology. V olunir 1974 Clinic on. Library Applica tins of Data Processing, I 0;1pp. 139-63. Edited by Carlos A. Cuadra and Ann W.

28 April -to 1 Way1974, c.....hbana.Charnpaign, 111.: Luke. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Inforrna: University of 111 Innis, Graduate tbchuol of I dbrar-y Stience, Lion Science, 1975. 1974. F'eriphcrals. Make the 4ini ):fernpata'sAnnual Sursey Lubans, h , Jr., and .Chaptnaja, Edward A./loftierin ofPlug - CompatibleMiniperiphcrals."Modern Data 8 Library, .Systems A nalysii.Eriglelypoci, Micrccarci Edi- (December-1975): 34-43. tions Books, 1975, Pezzanite, Frank A. 'Distributed Library Networking= A Lyndes, Floraee. !Wake for Per lape? lia 8 (October 1975): 71-72. New Approach for Maryland." Speech given at the Work-shop on Computerized Library Networks co-spon: MacCafferty, Mains, comp.4nAnnotated Bible °graph)) of Automation inLibraries andApr-ration .Systems I 972-1975. cored by the Maryland State Department of Education London: Astlih, 1 976. and the National Library of Medicine, 8-9 April 1976. MIMIC° P N--EEDERA R

Puckorius, Theodore. "'I'rendo in Government Actioisition of Simms,It. and Fuchs, Edward "Communications Science and High Tedmolog-y ADP Equipment [Speech(" In/v/inieurri- Technology." In Annual Review of' Information Teclinology. Volume I's, pp, 113-39. Editedby Carlos A. pairs: rh, Applications Explosion, n.p.Edited by E. Encyclopaedia Debesu. Proceedings of the American Institute ofIndus- Cuadra and Ann W. Luke. Chicago: trial Engiateri Conference held in Washington, D.C.,17- Britannica, 19702 19 Noven:on' 1975. Los Angeles: ManagementEducation Sippl, Charlesi., and Kidd, David A,NficrocontpulerDictiona7 Corporation, 1975. and Guide. Champaign, III.: Matrix Publishers,1975. "Questions and Answers Departme AbraryTechndogy Stein, Philip C., and Shapiro, Howard M.'Flint Tvlakes OS Reports 13 (September 1976): 465-9, Racing." Computer Decisions 6 (November 1974);46-A7. Ridwin, Mark S. "Choosing a Terminal; Part 2."a e Sticfcl, Malcolm L., ed. "Small BusinessComputers." Mini- (April 1977): 61-73, Micro Systems 9 (July 1976): 50-57. °Proesi Nodes to -Duplex and 11W-1)1.91ex." "Source Data Automation(Pa 2)" Mini-Micro Orden;(January 1977): I3-A9. Sjstems 9 (June 1g7G): 311 --43: ''TheIntelligent Pc Guide to Choosing a Strauss, Lucille J.; Strieby, Irene M.; andBrown, Alberta L. -Terminal for Online Interatve Use; Part 1." Onirne I Scientific and Technical Libraries,Their Organiudion and (January 1 977): 11. Administration. New York: Interscience Publishers,John Reiehe, Harris G. "New Dirions for ADP Procurement; Wiley & Sons, 1964. (Speech)" -In federal ADP P ocurement, n.p..Edited by David hart, Stanley J., and Holley,Meryl E. Computer .Systems in T. Newman. Proceedinof the American Institute of heLibrary: A Handbook for Managers andDesigners. IndustrialEngineers ,Co fcrence held in Washington, Angeles: Melville Publishing Co., 1973. D.C., 1-3 November 1976. Santa Monica, Calif.:Man- Tinker, Lynne, comp. An Annotatedibliography of agement F...ducationCorPoration, 1975. Automation 1968-1972 London: Aslib, 7 Reynolds, Barbra A., 'ed. "Alphanumeric DisplayTermi- "Tyinshare." Brochure prepared bye Tymstial- In nals; Part "1. The CR'f. Market and'Fechnblog-y-Wherc. Mon Services Division, 1976 They Stand Now 'Modem Data 9 (February 1976):44-51. Training. ADP "Alphanumeric Display Terminals; Part 2. WhiEi's U.S. Civil Service C.onunissio- Bureau,.of Management Training Center. "ManagementIntroduc7 Who in CR.Is and Where the Market is Going."Modem - don to Automated Data Bases."Washington, D.C., Data 9 (March 1976): 44-51. (Mimeographed.) "Removable 1)isk Cartridge Drives." Ma U.S. Congress. House, Committee onGovernment Opera- (January 1976): 38-43. tions, Administration of Public Law 89306;Proinremerd,of A DP Ritchie, Robert 0. "Intelligent Trrituals cured Distributed Resources by the Federal Government. H. R. 1746,94th Cong., y 1975): 36-40. Processing." Computer A77510111 7 2dscss.,1976. Washington, D,C.:U.S. Government Runyon, Stanley. "Microprocessors in 'Cost Eqiiipincrit."In Printing Office, 1976. Alicnpra-esrarcArea,Directions for Designers, pp.20-25. U.S. Library of Congrms. Procurement andSupply Division, Edited by Edward A. `Torreon. Rochelle Park,NJ.: -Mini Computer Systena.te Request forProposal:" Wash- Hayden Book Co., '1975. ington, D.C., 1977. (Mirriedigraphed.) Russell, William D. 'Application of OMBCircular A-76 it) Veaner, Allen B. "Major Decision Points inLibrary Auto- 129-37. ADP; (Speed!" In Federal ADP Pracurerrient,-pp, mation." College and Research Libraries 31 (September1970). Edited by David Newrnan. Proceedings of the Ameri- Cited by Richard Phillips Palmer, CaseStudies inLibrary. can Institute r,1 IndustrialEngineers Conference held in Corroder Systems, p. 210. New York: R. R._Hawker, Xerox, Monica, Washington, D.C., 1-3 November 1976. Santa 1973_ Calif.! Management Education Corporationn , 1975_ . "Perspective: Review of 1968-1973 inLibrary Salmon, Stephen R. Library Automation Systniis.New 'fork: Automation." In Library. Automation.. 77re Slate ofthe Art II,' Marcel Dekker, 1975. pp. 1-17. Edited by SusanK. Martin and Brett Butler. Salton, Gerard. Dyniarnic information shiedLibrary Papers presented at the Preconference Institute onLibrary Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- Hall, 1975. Automation sponwred by the InformationScience and Automation Division of the rthlerican LibraryAssociation' Schultheiss, Louis A.; Culbertson, Don S.; andPfriligcr Las Vegas, Nevada, 22-23 June 1973.Chicago: Edward M. Advanced Data fincessing in theIlniveroty Libr at New York:Scarecrow Press, 191 2, American Library Association, 1975. B113 IQG

VoiatkG. uter Evolution or Revolt'. Papers presented at the Preconference Instituteon Library tion." InMithcornfn9r a and Applications 1973; Syrn Automation sponsored by the Information Science and shunRecord,pp.1-4. Papers presented at the IEEE_ Automation Division of the Atherican Library Association Symposium held at INationall$nreau of Standards, Gaith- atLas Vegas, Nevada, 22-23 June 1973. Chicago: ersburg, Maryland, 4 April Ph. New York: Instituteof American Library Association, 1975. Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1973, Weitzman, Cay. "Micros, Minis and Midis, (Speech),' In. Minicomputers:The Waite, David P, "The Minicomputer: Its Rolein a Nation. ApplicationsExplosion,pp. 675-729. Edited by David E. Ikbeau. Proceedings of the wide Bibliographic and Information Network."In APplica- American InstituteofIndustrial EngineeeS- COnfcrenCe heldin lions of Minicomputers to Library and Belated Problems, pp. 136- Washington, D.C., 17-19 November 1975. Ls Angeles': 57, Editedby f, Wilfrid Lancaster. Papers presentedant Management Education Corporation, 1975. the 1974 Clinic on Library- Applications of DataProcess- ing, 28 April to 1 May 1974. Urbana- Champaign, Ill.: Minicomputer Systems; Structure,Implernentation, and University of IllinoR Graduate School of LibraryScience, Application.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice -Hall, 1974. 1974. Niesclrn Irving L. "Printer Technology and Its Future; A Printer Printer." Weisbrbd, David L. "Acquisitions System: 19'3Applica- Modern Data8 (November 1975): 33-42, tions Status:: In l.tbrao Aueon;ation..77ze State of the Att11, pp, Withington, Frederick G. "Beyond. 1974: A Tcelmoilpgical 87-100. Edited by Soon K. Martin and BrettHurler. Forecast."Datarnotion21 (f J975): 54-73.

U.5. QQVE9sMrs FRINTIN OFFICE 197SO-259-LIU