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HINDUISM and BUDDHISM in GREEK PHILOSOPHY 41 of Animalsand the Vegetariandiet

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HINDUISM and BUDDHISM in GREEK PHILOSOPHY 41 of Animalsand the Vegetariandiet A. N. MARLOW Hinduismand Buddhism inGreek Philosopkhy THE PARALLELSbetween Greek and Indianliterature, my- thology,and philosophy have been stressed often since the days of Sir William Jones,who drewan elaborateand forcedcomparison between the Hindu philosophicalsystems and theirsupposed counterparts in theGreek schools,1 and the daysof Colebrooke,who also had some conciseremarks to make on thesubject.2 Recentscholars have restatedsome of theevidence, notably S. Radhakrishnan,3and attentionis beingincreasingly directed to the chan- nelsby which Indian influence reached Greece. The purposeof thispaper is merelyto citea fewof theparallels between the two literatures, and particu- larlybetween Hinduism and muchof the thoughtof Plato,so as to indicate theiraffinity of typemore than theiridentity of origin.Radhakrishnan, as his subjectdemands, is naturallymore concerned with the religiousaspects of the question. Thereseems to have beenan earlyand commonstock of primitivebeliefs aboutthe heavenlybodies and the face of Naturegenerally. For example, in theAitareya Brahmana there is a passagedescribing the nocturnal journey of the Sun backto itsstarting point,' which may contain in primitiveform thelegend which appears in Stesichorus5and Mimnermusof the Sun's travel- ing over the ocean in a cup. Mimnermussays: "For a delightfulhollow couchbears him over the wave,a couchforged by the handof Hephaistus, made of preciousgold, winged, which bears him sleepingover the water's surface,hurrying him back fromthe land of the Hesperidesto the land of theEthiopians."' Here Athenaeussays that by "couch"Mimnermus meant cup.- 'Sir WilliamJones, Works, VoL I (London: for JohnStockdale, 1807), pp. 360-361. Jonescom- paresGautama with Aristotle, Kanida with Thales,Jaimini with Socrates,Vyisa withPlato, Kapila with Pythagoras,and Patafijaliwith Zeno. 'H. T. Colebrook,Miscellaneous Essays, VoL I (London: Williamsand Norgate,1837), pp. 436 ff. ' EasternReligions and WesternThought (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1939), especiallyChaps. V-VII. 'IIL 44. sSee C. M. Bowra,Greek Lyric Poetry (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1936), pp. 86-88. 'Fr. 10 Diehl, AntbologiaLyrica Graeca (3d ed.; Leipzig: 1949). See also StesichorusFr. 6 Diehl. 'II. 470a. 35 36 A. N. MARLow The Hindu pantheon,of course,shows great affinities with thatof the earlyGreeks, since both are derivedfrom a commonsource, and the Vedas containthe earliestexpression of thatworship of theheavenly bodies which persistsright down to the time of the Stoics."The legend of Earthand Heaven as the parentsof the gods,the earliestGreek form of whichis in Hesiod,9is commonin the Rg Veda. In Rg Veda X.190 and X.168 water is theprimary principle, which develops into the world through time, saiz- vatsara(year), kama (desire),purusa (intelligence), and tapas (warmth); and in X.190 wateris picturedor assumedas the firstprinciple. Similar confusedattempts to picturethe firstprinciple are foundin Iliad XIV.201 and 246, whereOceanus is the "originof the gods" and the "originof all thegods"; and in theOrphic poems, where night is themost ancient goddess, a birdwith black wings.'0 Hesiod inclinesmore to the Orphicview," but thereis a similarconfusion in the Greekand Vedic accountsof the begin- nings,and the confusionlies betweenthe same claimants to the titleof first god. Manyof thegods are thesame: Dyausis Zeus,Varuna becomes Ouranos, Usas becomesEos, and Agniis theprimitive god offire, who does notemerge in Greekbut has a shadowypersonification as the LatinIgnis. The Asvins, "horsemen,"inseparable twins, bright lords of brillianceand lustre,pro- tectorsof mankind,who are referredto in manyhymns, are the Dioscuri, whose principallater functionwas thatof protectinggods, theoi soteres, mightyhelpers of man,delighters in steeds,princes, Anakes or Anaktes.'2 The Hindu conceptionof Rta, thelaw ofNature, or "courseof things,"has the same scope as the Greekdike,'3 and a sayingof Heraclitus,"The sun shall not transgressits bounds,""'might have been writtenwith RZg Veda 1.24.8 and I.160.1 in mind. The Hindus have theirPrometheus in Matarisvan,'"who stole firefrom thesky and entrustedit to thekeeping of theBhrigus, a warlikeclan. Their god,Soma, upon whom Whittier wrote a poem ("The Brewingof Soma"), partof which has becomea popularhymn ("Dear Lord and Fatherof man- 'Cf. Chrysippus,Fr. 1076 (Arnim): "He thinksthe sun and moonand otherstars to be gods." STheogony126 ff. f'Otto Kern, OrphicorumFragmenta, 2470 (Berlin: Weidmann,1922). 116 ff. 'STheogony Plutarch,Theseus 33; Strabo V. 232; Aelian,V.H. I. 30; IV. 5; Aristophanes,Lysistrata 1301; PausaniasI. 31. 1, VIII. 21 fin. LIRadhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy,Vol. I (London: GeorgeAllen and Unwin, Ltd., 1923), pp. 78-80; F. .. Earp, The Way of the Greeks (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1930), passim. 1'B94 Diels-Kranz,Die Fragmenteder Vorsokratiker(Berlin: WeidmannscheVerlagbuchhandlung, 1951). Rg Veda I. 60. HINDUISM ANDBUDDHISM IN GREEKPHILOSOPHY 37 kind,Forgive our foolish ways ..."), has thesame characteristics as Dionysus. In bothGreek and Hindu poetryrivers are constantlypersonified as gods, and the formof sacrificeprescribed in the Rg Veda is verysimilar to the simpleritual of Homer-prayer,sprinkling of nrain,burnt offering, tasting of flesh,and dedicationto thegods. "Theseagreements," writes Radhakrish- nan,"indicate that the two peoplesmust have been in contactat someearly period,but neitherpossessed any recollectionof thosetimes and theymet as strangerswithin the PersianEmpire."' 1 In dealingwith pre-Socraticthought, we constantlyfind ourselves in an atmospheremore akin to thatof the Orientthan to thatof the West. As the late ProfessorF. H. Smithpointed out," the apeironof Anaximander is almostexactly the Hindu nirvikalpa,the namelessand formless,called Aditi,the unlimited,in theRg Veda. Moreover,this Aditi, which is nirvi- kalpa,is orderedby the immanentRta or dharma,"sjust as in Anaximander an immanentdike ensures that all thingsshall eventually return to theapeiron whencethey came: "Fromwhich all thingstake their rise, and by necessity theyare destroyedinto these; for all thingsrender just atonementto one anotherfor their injustice according to the due orderingof time."'' In themore imaginative view of the Upanisads, we findthat a personalgod, PrajJpati("lord of creatures"),draws forth from himself all existingthings, or,in anotherpassage,2e divides himself into male and femaleand produces all creaturesby this self-division. One mightadduce here the similar Chinese doctrineof yang and yin,the principlesof expansionand contractionby whichthe worldis formedfrom chaos. Empedoclesseems to be expressing a similaridea, or, rather,combining it withthe equallyancient doctrine of primordialstrife, also foundin the Upanisads: "I will tell you a twofoldtruth: at one timeit increasedso as to be one out of manyand at anotherit partedso as to producemany from one. For twofoldis the creationof mortalsand twofoldtheir decline. The unionof all thingscauses the birthand destructionof the one, and theother is nur- turedand fliesasunder as the elementsgrow apart. And theseelements nevercease to be continuallyexchanged, coming together at timesunder theinfluence of love so as to becomeone, and beingseparated at othertimes throughthe forceof strife."2' Heraclitusshares two fundamentaldoctrines with the earlyschools of Buddhism-thatfire is theprimary element and thatall thingsare momen- " "Indian Philosophy,VoL I, p. 118. Religion,Sept. 1950, p. 81. I Rg Veda IV.23.9. "Diels, B 1. 2*Brbaddranyaka Upanisad I. ii. 4; I. iv. 3-4. nDiels,B 17. 38 A. N. MARLOW taryand pass away. It seemsalmost too greata coincidenceto imaginethat two such strikingand radical doctrinesshould have arisenindependently in two placesat aboutthe same time.Here theconfusion of Indianchronol- ogy and theobscurity surrounding the life of Heraclitusare greatobstacles, butit is quitecertain that the floruitof theBuddha was in the latterpart of thesixth century, and thathe adoptedmany ideas from earlier schools. Traces ofthe belief in fireas theprimordial element occur as earlyas theRg Veda,22 and are treatedphilosophically in theUpanisads. The Buddha,like Heracli- tus,chooses fire as the mostmutable of theelements to representhis meta- physicalprinciple of becoming,and has a long discoursein whichhe com- pares the existenceof beings to the candle flamethat is renewedevery instant.' Here one thinksof Empedocles,Fr. B62 (Diels) : "Hear nowhow firewhen separated sent up thenight-produced shoots of menand lamenting women,"and of Heraclirus,Fr. B30 (Diels): "No god norman evercreated thisworld which is thesame forall, butit was and is and everwill be ever- lastingfire." Again, the Buddha uses in the same discourse2"the analogy of the riverwhich is neverthe same fortwo momentsbut is sustainedby ever-newwaters, a sentimentechoed in Heraclitus,Fr. B91 (Diels): "Ever differentis the waterfor those who stepinto the same rivers,"and by the famoussaying quoted by Aristotle,"It is notpossible to step intothe same rivertwice."25 Probably Fr. B6 (Diels) refersto the same beliefin the momentarinessof existence,"The sun ... is new everyday." For theBuddha, the fundamental principle of existence was theimmutable dharma (law) whichdecreed that every smallest action and word earned its reward,not an ounce more or less. This principleobviously dates back to the Upanisadsor earlier,but theBuddha was the firstto enthroneit as theruling power in theuniverse, a universecompletely free from the tyranny of gods. Heraclitusmay be thinkingof dharmain
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