RUSSIAN SHORT-STORY IN MARATHI POLYSYSTEM 177
Chapter V:
RUSSIAN SHORT-STORY IN MARATHI POLYSYSTEM
I Short story as a genre and Russia: Short stories date back to earliest times. The tradition of story-telling has been prevalent in almost all the countries as a means of entertainment or folk-education. They can be found in the Bible, Gesta Romanorum of the Middle Ages, Boccaccio's Decameron, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and in rich Indian folk-literature. Modem short story as a genre has been generally viewed by scholars as an invention of the nineteenth century. It has been described as a compact prose narrative designed to elicit a singular and unified emotional response. Critics have made formal distinctions between the short story and its generic predecessor, the tale, a short narrative sometimes of oral origin. European and American writers first articulated the formal qualities of the modem short story in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. This coincided with the rapid proliferation of periodical publication in the industrializing nations of the westem world at this time, and thus it is thought to have been broadly influenced by economic as well as literary stimuli. Early innovations in the genre appeared in Russia in the short fictional prose of Nikolai Gogol. It developed differently, but on parallel lines in France, the United States, Britain and other countries. Mid-IQ"' century innovators such as Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, and Aleksandr Pushkin published works of increasing realism and stylistic precision. In doing so they formed a tradition that was to culminate in the detailed, observant, and often ironic sketches of daily life found in the prose masterpieces of Anton Chekhov. The short story is traditionally thought to have reached a peak of maturity in continental Europe during the late nineteenth century with the Naturalistic pieces of Guy de Maupassant and Anton Chekhov. 178
This form acquired momentum in the Soviet period. Many Soviet authors found expression in this form of literature and depicted the new life, new experiences and new problems in them. So, Russia has a long tradition of short-story as a genre, which contributed emmencely to and enriched the world literature.
II Short story in Marathi: In the past thousand years Marathi also always had a rich tradition of 'story' as a part of its ancient folk literature. Hundreds of stories might have entertained and educated the people of Maharashtra. These stories were preserved and passed forward to many generations orally as a rich heritage. This oral folk literature is available today mainly in the form of poetic and religious stories. Printed literature started spreading in Maharashtra in the beginning of 19^ century. This gave momentum to prose writing in Marathi. The first stories in Marathi were the translations of selected fables from English, Sanskrit and Bengali languages. They include the translation of Aesop's Fables Balbodh-Muktawali (1806), Sinhasan Battishi (1814), Hitopadesh (1815) and Panchtantra (1815). A number of story-books for school children were published, which includes a translation of a French book Berquin's Children's Friend done through English by S.K.Chhatre (1718-1830) under the name Balmitra (1828). (Sardarl971: 32-33). This was followed by the publication of abridged versions of pauranik bakhars and translations of Persian and Arabic stories. Very few stories were written independently by Marathi people during this period. In the second phase there were translations of imaginative entertaining stories - romance and mysteries - from English. But the stories selected by the translators were of average quality as they did not possess the ability to appreciate the aesthetic values of European classics. Most of the educated intellectuals were engaged in the attaractive government service. In 1854, an English story-book Berthold v^as translated into Marathi by B.V.Kanvinde, which followed by adaptations of Shakespeare's stories and plays The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Merchant of Venice and Comedy of 179
Errors. It is interesting that a story from the English book 'Classic Tales' - Elizabeth athawa Siberia Deshatil Haddapar Zalele Kutumb (1874) was translated by G.S.Bapat. (ibid.44). After the first independent novel in Marathi Yamunaparyatan (1857), Marathi prose developed its own tradition of realistic novels, as we have already discussed in Chapter III. The short story in Marathi became crystallized as a distinct literary form in 1920s and 1930s. H.N.Apte wrote many short stories, which were like a condensed novel, with a moral tag. The periodical Karamnuk published comic and historical stories, thrillers, and detective stories. This trend was continued later by the monthly Manoranjan. V.S.Gurjar (1885-1962) was the main contributor of this magazine. He portrayed the life of the middle class. His stories became quite popular. Manoranjan also encouraged women writers. They wrote stories with complicated action and moral comments, on domestic issues and didactic stories. After 1935, we see the influence of socialist view on Marathi story. It was Diwakar Krishna (1902-1973) and G.G.Limaye (1891-1971), who discerned that the form had an individual character and they set about exploring it in their own way. N.S.Phadke and V.S.Khandekar came with their respective stands 'Art for Art's Sake' and 'Art for Life's Sake'. Both can be said to be 'romantic', but Khandekar seems to be more 'realistic'. In the mid- thirties emerged women writers like Vibhavari Shirurkar depicting various women's problems, followed by humurous story writers. The precursors of the New Short Story Vaman Chorghade, S.M.Mate, N.G.Goray, Anant Kanekar, R.B.Joshi and Prabhakar Padhye tried to break the chains imposed by earlier writers on the content, expression and the objective of short story writing. The new generation with earnest desire for freedom found expression in the New Short Story or Navkatha, which denied the established conservative canons of short story writings. The issues like decaying joint family system, city life, loneliness, insecurity; impact of growing industrialisation on man, the mechanical life, loneliness of a sensitive man, violence on women in the middle class; the impact of World War II, pessimism, nihilism; Dalit life; rural life; women's perspective; attack on the hypocritic morality of middle class... such issues were reflected in Marathi story in the 20* century. 180
Russian short stories in Marathi: It was in 1934, when the first collection of Russian short stories appeared in Marathi literary polysystem. The first stories were of Tolstoy, Tolstoychya Goshti (1934) and Tolstoychya Bodhkatha (1942), Manuski (1946), Tolstoychya Balkatha (1947), Matsar (1947), Ramachi Karamat (1948), Cokeshasmadhil Kaidi (1955), which came parallel with the stories of Soviet authors Sovietchya Samarkatha Part I (1943) & II (1944), Mrutyunjay (1943), Lai Zenda (1944) and many others. A review of the Russian short-stories in Marathi shows that Tolstoy's stories make a major part of them. There are 11 story books of Tolstoy in Marathi. They include 6 books meant for children. The other short-story writers, which entered into Marathi polysystem are Anton Chekhov and Pushkin, Dostoevsky and Bunin, and Maxim Gorky. There are a number of stories by Soviet authors in Marathi, which include the works of A.Grin, M.Sholokhov, V.Dragunsky, Lavrenyov, Bulatov, Pontelima, A. Tolstoy and others. Children's stories make a major part of Russian stories in Marathi.
Ill
Texts selected: 1) White Nights by Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky 2) Grasshopper by Russian author Anton Chekhov 3) The Fate of a Man by Soviet author Mikhail Sholokhov 4) The Stories of Denis by Soviet authorViktor Dragunsky 5) Right Hand by the dissident author Aleksander Solzhenitsyn
(i)
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881): was a Russian novelist and writer of fiction. His works, including Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov, have had a profound and lasting effect on intellectual thought and world literature. 181
Dostoevsky in Russian Polysystem: Dostoevsky in his literary world explores human psychology in the troubled political, s6cial and spiritual context of his 19th century Russian society. Dostoevsky's novels primarily embody timeless spiritual values. They are compressed in time i.e. many cover only a few days. Other obsessive themes include suicide, wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering (the most important motif), rejection of the West and affirmation of Russian Orthodoxy and Tsarism. His characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self- effacing Christians, self-destructive nihilists, cynical debauchees and rebellious intellectuals. His characters are driven by ideas. In comparison with Tolstoy, whose characters are realistic, the characters of Dostoevsky are usually more symbolic of the ideas they represent. Dostoevsky is often cited as one of the forerunners of Literary Symbolism in specific Russian Symbolism. Dostoevsky has also been called one of the founding fathers of the philosophical movement known as 'existentialism'. His Notes from Underground, first published in 1864, has been depicted as a founding work of existentialism. Having been exiled to the city of Omsk (Siberia) in 1849, many of Dostoevsky's works entail notions of suffering and despair. With the publication of Crime and Punishment in 1866, Fyodor Dostoevsky became one of Russia's most prominent authors in the nineteenth century. His other major works include the novels Poor folk (1846), The Double: A Petersburg Poem (1846), The Village of Stepanchikovo (1859), The House of the Dead (1860), The Insulted and Humiliated (1861), Notes from Underground (1864), The Gambler (1867), The Idiot (1869), The Possessed (1872), The Brothers Karamazov (1880), A Writer's Diary (1873- 1881) and many short stories. Dostoevsky in Marathi polysystem: We see the influence of existentialism on some of the Marathi literary writings. It came there through the readings of philosophical writings of existentialist thinkers and the creative writings of novelists, dramatists like Sartre, Cammu, Kafka, Dostoevsky, Salinger, Becket. A number of works in 182
Marathi show their existentialist approach. They include the works of G.A.Kulkami, Bhau Padhye, Dilip Chitre, Kamal Desai, Bhalchandra Nemade, and Vasant Abaji Dahake. The influence of existentialism is seen more on the new .writers in 1960s. Rekha Inamdar-Sane in her article Astitvavad Am Kadambah compares the existentialist writings in European and Marathi literature.
TTTf^FTK^ cj,ks|>Jld ^slly^dl cT Ji1tyo6|dl 3TR*r 3jRd(^c||c{1 Hmcbj-c^l H|c|im>!^H
(Inamdar-Sane 1992: 294) She concludes:
STTSoS;^%fr ^cf^THM ^clH>H>!ullc|^ ^^^T 3Trao5cT^^. (ibid. 295)
A book Dostoevsky by Aniruddha Kulkami published in 1985 introduces the Marathi reader to the life and works of the author. Two articles on Dostoevsky written by Aniruddha Kulkami were published in the periodical 'Navabharat' in February and March, 1985. They are also included in the above mentioned book. The first article speaks about the concept of 'commitment' in relation to Dostoevsky. It discusses Dostoevsky's commitment to Socialism, Christianity and Nationalism.lt concludes saying:
3i«^>m4d 7r?| "^TcfJeTT t W^ T^c^ -gt^. "Dostoevsky devoted the whole of his creative energy to one single theme - man and man's destiny." %
(Kulkami 1985: 42)
3^. (ibid. 44-45) In the second article Kulkami takes a review of the concept of 'Love' in Dostoevsky's different works. 183
A collection of research papers Vangmayin Mahatta was published jointly by the Marathi Department, Mumbai University and Lokvangmay Griha, Mumbai in 1991. It includes two articles on Dostoevsky and Tolstoy respectively. They discuss the literary significance of these authors in the world literature. It sa.ys about Dostoevsky:
c{l>Kllc6>w51^ eR^cff T?ip TT^cq" •^^R cl
anWcT •^, ?R c^ Wrfm HRU|H c||-c|cbM| clxJlRcf,, -ii^^^^^, "qg^ "^ cR
>Hi>e<{>Rict, y^cH|c),;g) f^rP-rldMul v^|UMdl.^f?TT^'Fr
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(Purohitl991: 127-128) Dostoevsky's literary work was directly introduced to Marathi literary system in 1958 through the translation of his novel Crime and Punishment in abridged form by Anant Shukla. His other novels in Marathi are The Idiot, The Gambler, The Land Lady, Brothers Karamazov, Uncle's Dream and The Eternal Husband. Many of Dostoevsky's stories have been translated into Marathi and published in book form as well as in various periodicals. A collection of stories Shvetratri (White Nights) was published by 'Raduga Prakashan', Moscow in 1987. The translation was done from Russian by Anil Hawaldar. The book includes his other stories Poor Folk, A Nasty Story, A Weak Heart and The Dream of a Ridiculous Man. His novel Crime and Punishment (1866) is considered as a psychological-philosophical novel. The novel portrays the murder of a miserly, aged pawnbroker and her younger sister by Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov, an impoverished St. Petersburg student and the emotional, mental, and physical effects that follow. Apart from Raskolnikov's fate, the novel, with its long and diverse list of characters, deals with themes including charity, family life, atheism, alcoholism, and revolutionary activity. Dostoevsky seems to be highly critical of contemporary Russian society. Dev Jaga Ahe (1958) was the translation of Crime and Punishment into Marathi. It was done by Sadashiv Shukla. The translation of The Idiot by R.G.Vidwans was published by 184
Gajanan Book Depo, Pune in 1981 in commemoration of the first death centenery of Dostoevsky. In The Idiot (1869) Dostoevsky desired to depict the "positively good man". This man resembles Christ in many ways. Dostoevsky uses Myshkin's introduction to the Petersburg society as a way to contrast the nature of Russian society at that time and the isolation and innocence of this good man. This is highlighted by his conflicts and relationship with Rogozhin. Myshkin and Rogozhin are contrasted from the very beginning. Myshkin is associated with light, Rogozhin with dark. The two characters are clearly antithetical. If Myshkin be seen as 'Christ', Rogozhin could easily be seen as the 'devil'. The publisher Ramesh Raghuvanshi gives a biography of the author in the preface. He says: ?^xffer>iji-^ cpRTiT, TRT^ cii-cicj5iHi iirrsfT^ cj,ici6illci7Ki41 •t'l^-ci site^-^.
^^\^ ^ffer ^mflcf sr^ CR ^\-di\\ cbksi-ijwi STR^FK STFTT arf^ xiiJ|<>iii ^M^
(Dostoevsky/Vidwans 1981: Preface 18)
He also feels that when we get acquainted with the novels in Western world, then it becomes clear to us that Marathi novels are very scanty. While discussing the question, why there are no genuine novels in Marathi, he says that the first reason is our philosophy. He feels that the Hindu philosophy is totally opposite to the Western one. fl^ W!^ cqf^frfJTEIH ant. i^W\i\A f^r^ ^H^W'fm 3TTt. m^ ?T
y^^cHi HHcidY (ibid., 26) The second reason, according to him, is we did not bring the authentic translations of the best and genuine novels in the Western world. The Gambler (1867) is a novel about a young tutor in the employment of a formerly wealthy Russian General. The novella refiects Dostoevsky's own addiction to roulette, which was also the inspiration for the book: Dostoevsky completed the novella under a strict deadline so he could pay off gambling debts. It was published in Marathi by the Continental Prakashan, 185
Pune in 1984. The translation by Jayant Dixit was based on the English version by Jacy Kulson. Shapit Kozakin (The Landlady) was brought into Marathi polysystem by the Continental Prakashan, Pune in 1985. Ashok Dange translated it from English. It was the translation of the English version of the novel The Landlady by C.J.Hogarth, London. We come to know about the translator's intention in the preface:
•?Tcpc?l 3TTt. ^rteJTT i^Mcbld Ft^FT ^Q\^\ f^ ^ ?IcTcpm^ fcTeRFT Wm MlvduiMI
(Dostoevsky F./ Dange 1985: Preface 7) The Brothers Karamazov (1880) is the last novel by Dostoevsky. It is generally considered the culmination of his life's work. Since its publication, it has been acclaimed all over the world by thinkers as diverse as Sigmund Freud, Albert Einstein, and Pope Benedict XVI as one of the supreme achievements in world literature. The book is written on two levels: on the surface it is the story of a parricide in which all of a murdered man's sons share varying degrees of complicity but, on a deeper level, it is a spiritual drama of the moral struggles between faith, doubt, reason, and free will. The novel was composed mostly in Staraya Russa, which is also the main setting of the book. A Marathi translation of the novel was done by Bhau Dharmadhikari and published in two volumes in 1985 and 1986 respectively by Continental Prakashan, Pune. Kakanche swapna was the translation of My Uncle's Dream published in 1987 by the Continental Prakashan, Pune. The translator Avinash Biniwale is a German language teacher. He started liking Russian literature in the process of learning Russian language. He tries to relate the novel to a Marathi play Sharada:
•?ecn"trafcrelen"3fTt, cRnWJTT cJ'ksl-^d -cldfcldl 3TTt. (Dostoevsky F./ Biniwale 1987: Preface) About the translation he says: 186
"?n^"^ cIT Rl-ciJIcfld crf^clcfj- fclxlKJ 'Hlf^RiJcbi'fl ^clc^l RidHId ITTEFiJ' 3T^ "^l^. t vj1|U|Uij|>Hlc51 dfldp!* >HifBo4i*^mi41 TRviT 3fTt. sm H^c^Mi ^fnfl??T^#EJiT *mTRRrg^ cineTT ¥icr*rR cir^ 3nf^ ^Ti^-^jf^ MeiT^ -fj^ ^t|cT, 3i# 3n^ snt. (ibid.) The process of translation of Dostoevsky's works is still going on in Marathi polysystem. The translation of his novel The Eternal Husband has been published recently i.e. in 2007 by Lokvangmaya Griha (P) Ltd., Mumbai. It should be noted here that Continental Prakashan has taken great interest in bringing Dostoevsky in Marathi literary system. They have published his six major novels in Marathi under the project Marathitun Vishvavangmayakade ('Through Marathi to the World Literature'). Not to speak of the qualitative analysis of the above classics in Marathi, it is a fact that they have served as a window to the Russian literature for the Marathi readers and secondly, enriched the Marathi literary polysystem. Contextual and Textual analysis of the selectd text: White Nights is a Russian short story by Fyodor Dostoevsky, originally published in 1848, early in the writer's career. It has been translated into many languages in the world and adapted on screen in Italy and France earlier. The latest Hindi film 'Sawanriya', too, is inspired from White Nights. Like many of Dostoevsky's stories. White Nights is told in first person by a nameless narrator who lives alone in a city and suffers from a profound sense of alienation. He defines himself as a "dreamer". The title. White Nights, refers to the fact that St. Petersburg is so far north that there are short seasons in which it never gets totally dark at night. They are seen as magical, romantic times, and this romanticism is masterfully conveyed in Dostoevsky's prose. 187 In this small story (author states this is a sentimental novel) author describes in his traditional and particular way the internal world of one young lonely person. The hero is a young man, who is oriented into his internal world, who is rather shy, and thus is in real demand of a soulful conversations and love. The action takes place in the city of a real and deep sentiments and romance - Saint Petersburg, the most romantic and European city in Russia in the mid- nineteenth century. Not only is the location important, but also a time of a day: all actions in the story take place in evening and night time - the famous time of White Nights. Once, hero is going out to have a little daily walk alone and he occasionally meets an attractive and lovely woman on evening streets of Saint Petersburg. On their second meeting, Nastenka introduces herself to him and the two become friends by relating themselves to each other. The third part is Nastenka relating her life story to the narrator. She tells him about her love and how she has been waiting for her lover to return. The narrator gradually realizes that despite his assurance that their friendship would remain platonic, he has inevitably fallen in love with her. Nastenka despairs at the absence of her lover and his reply even though she knows that he is in St. Petersburg. The narrator continues to comfort her to which she's extremely grateful leading the narrator to break his resolve and confess his love for her. Nastenka states that maybe their relationship might become romantic some day but she obviously wants his friendship in her life. The narrator becomes hopeful at this prospect. During their walk they pass by a young man who stops and calls after them. He turns out to be Nastenka's lover into whose arms she jumps. She returns briefly to kiss the narrator but journeys into the night with her love leaving him alone and broken hearted. The final section is a brief afterword that relates a letter which Nastenka sends him apologizing for hurting him and insisting that she would always be thankful for his companionship. The narrator breaks into tears upon reading the letter. He wonders if his own' fiature is to be without companionship and love. He however refuses to despair. White Nights is unusual in its evocation of romanticism and even joy. Through his relationship with Nastenka, the narrator becomes a person who is 188 not driven by his fantasies but knows how to harness them to make him a better person. From the historical evidence, we can assume that Dostoevsky was going through the same kind of struggle in his own life and that he used his experiences to ease him into maturity. A Marathi translation of the story was first published in the collection of Dostoevsky's stories Shwetratri in 1987 by Raduga Publication, Moscow. The blurb describes the story as 'a poetic story' of Dostoevsky. Hawaldar gives in his book a note about the story: >MHIo6 - cixMl^c)>Mn4l T?cf7 sm^ cZffer^. cfj?raTT ^M*ld cT %oit'rZTT f^ra#cZiT fcTTORft 'Hx:Pl>Ho6 Weft 3RTcft, cfJt ciWiilcI'M'l-ciJI HMcblell >WHIo6MU|mi41 T^jR- -gTeT '^m^ dMIeld. "siNeJn" ^ WHIoA ^#Tr" ^ ^Rvlcf (Dostoevsky/Hawaldar 1985:346) The second version of the story was published in the periodical Kelyane Bhashantar in Jan-Mar, 2007 issue. The translation from Russian was done by Anagha Bhat. The story is republished in a recent book by Bhat namely Atpushkina Dachekhowa. She has revised her translation for the book form. The preface to the book says: cf5«rt "^M^ cT TTSTjft ^t^ >MHIo6 ^TFRTTEJIT fcJcllWHId ^lTe57 ^f^f^rJIT cfJR^FZTT, ^dp^^ feR3FT, c^lTFT^ftcT TTT^ ^JTim W^^ snt; T?^ HM m WHIoA "JTW^ STFT^qT Rc||>MHIdc^l f^atfcf?FT f^ TislTsfciKI^ M^ ^R^T^ ^Jefoft ^iTTcT ^fTHT^ M? (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007b: Preface) The introduction to the story reads: '^dx[|cJ1' -^ 5Rgd" cf??TT ^^Ttcra- ftfcR^ (^ iteW) W J^l^xlld "El^. ^^ ct,|o6|d ^ 31WldI "^5ncT ^ cT ^MfeTcF chloSl^oi M-dc^c^ ctftl^^ r^RT cRef "qR^ ^jifrfTR^ crrq^ snt. (ibid. 62) In the footnote Bhat explains the meaning of the title 'White Nights' in the Russian context as: 3RgcT ^5?TT >!f^mMI "3tT7 ^rPTKT %Z ^fe^Pt (^^ftcfrT ftfcR^) ^l^>!ld ^^^. ^^ il^^lMI >HlpHWJI^oi ^ J^ldxlld yJ-6loer?Jldel f^cRT efMrT efTsT 3re?TTcT. :?? "^ W 189 'j^cld x!lcJl'3T%*^U|rlld. (ibid.) Here, some additional information/comments are required for the readers of the translation text, keeping in view the far distzmt and unfamilieir geographical as well as cultural situation in Russia as a background of the source text. The ST reader understands a number of things implied in the ST, but the TT reader does not. So the TT reader needs to have the following information which may be given in the form of a note as: H41t>HI f^(^ Sr^?M \iq tl^tcR % l\m cTHeTer 3TT%. "^ ^ ^%^ ^elMt -^sfTScl^ 3n%cT. g#q" y^^lMI >HlpHtiJ|^oi ITT m^M vj-^lo^^ldel f^cRT oM^ ctR 3RlcTRT. "^31|cbli^lld 3raR^>ijmic51 3llc|i^ijctj (cldcbl-(^(^VJIMI ^3TcSt ^^TTCT ^^. f^^^ CT -^U5( n\-cn\ v^cltiJI xti>bc||<^q4d3recTTcf cfff^^dxtlcflrli^^ct^ToSr^^ "^cT?? ^g^ 3RTT'TPTen" ^Jncfr. ?^ v^ XfT fe^ cR ^gqf^ VJ1C|OAO1C|O6 "^IcfqT '^. W\ cbloAlcfld TT^fNl •^f%iPTiTKr 's^ffeRT ^^' fclJcrT '^ TT^ft' 3T^ ^"Idld. '^I^ c!7 c^TTcr 3T5IfrTTc[ffcT 3Jdl>Kbl, ^^^^T^, iJlHd< ^, ^f^fe^, fi^Hd-d crSJI^^Hd-dx^l dlcj^MI *l|J||d^ 3Tm ant. c'lHT •^sTTff, mm^ '^>m wm^ •^. ^^^ra^ J^^WR ^ wm^ sf^^, ^TReTeT, "^SeHcit clld|c|^!ui 3^^. -^TT ^Mcbmid "^ 3R cPTcfcZTTxZTT cfJicJl^ ^f^cfjTit # 3nn^ "53eTRTT^ CT? T^CIJ- ITMW 3T^. lit TFraTRIcTT, ^fTTWTcft^ ""JS?^, >H^ciH^lld, ^;^77 c|ldlc|>!U| ci>k1Alow51riJ| cj5«l?T 3TfcI?RT >HHa^M ? cf^dlrHcbRc^l This type of note may give the TT reader a proper understanding of the title of the story White Nights as well as the significance of the town 'Saint Petersburg' in the story. The references of the town in the story show its specific function: * EcTb HTO-TO HCMS'bacHMMO TporaxejibHoe B Hauiepi nexepGyprcKOM npwpofle, KorAa OHa, c HacTyruieHPieM BecHbi, BApyr BbiKa^ex BCK) Mom,b CBOIO, Bce flapoBaHHwe CM He6oM CMJibi, onyuiMXCH, pasp^flMxcH, ynecxpMXca ii,BexaMM... (Dostoevsky 1848/1860) 190 (lit.5/7^^7" fitfrR^4^Tr pRFlkr W^kf^ ^l«ild)d W^^TPRff 3Rm, ^^W Ut W-m ^iRvi cij (1) STPTSir iDcixi^J^T^I Pl>HJ|'id cbl^d^ !^l«Jldld ^cjijxtq^n >HH|c|(^(^ 311%. vif^ cRi^^-gt^fr, ^<^\ Pi>HA ^\'^\^ >Wd:t>m >HIH'«4\-^ "^^ y>^R|^^; ?qTelT <>im,^c-lll (Dostoevsky F./Hawaldar 1985:148) (2) cRra" W^ 3TTefT ^^ SfFTEJIT ftfrRftSTT t^RFlfwt WTcTT ^^PJIR ^^ 3Rt cF5# ^, *fR^ TFT^ ^, STrTRcI? 3IF?^ ^fFlo^ ^IcPcft 1^^^ "^ra^ cfFRit, ^J^cJ^^H ^f^Tcfr... (Dostoevsky F./ Bhat 2007a: 14) (3) ^RRT ^ SncTT, ^ 3TFT^ZTr ftfrR^;'trZTTf^RFflw r >diJ|dl ^trTJjR ^TT# sm "g># ?r^, *1|ciU||>! TTffe •^. STFTcft ^fm^^ "^TFP^ •PPSPt 31xlHcb "^R3^ dl'ld'1. ^J^rfrcfj^ (Dostoevsky F./ Bhat 2007b: 66) There is one important difference in the grammatical category of the Word npupoda in Russian and Marathi. It is feminine in gender in Russian, while the Marathi equivalent f^RPt is Masculine. Hence, the whole description of it makes totally opposite impact on the ST and TT reader. The other references of Saint Petersburg are: * - EcTb, HacxeHbKa, ecm/v BBI xoro He SHaexe, ecxb B neTep5ypre AOBonbHO cxpaHHwe yronKM. ... B axwx yrnax, MMJiaa HacxeHbKa, Bbi^MBaexca KaK 5yflxo COBCCM Apyraa )KM3Hb Mxo B 3XMX yxnax npo)KMBaiox cxpaHHbie mojjyi - Me^xaxenw. Me^xaxenb - ecnM Hy^HO ero noApo5Hoe onpefleneHwe - ne ^lenoBeK, a, snaexe, KaKoe-xo cymecxBO cpeAHero poaa. wwtwwr, di'^^i 'ii'ki-^i, w^spj^^Jiodzi3n^wwrm^3mw. w 191 (1) "'^*^ldl ^l^ ^^T^, H|xh^-cj,|, -qur ^ iflrix!^4^'e^ cF5# ^ fcrf%T3r "^^ 3TT^. ... dl-dcHJI Hl>k^-cbl, UT cblq-MHB^ SFT^ cTT^ STPgEq- qRRT... UT cfTtTRTrfTHr fcrfrra- TRRT xll^dld - WHIo^. smr WHIOA ^|U|>HltJl ^^'Iclft oUi^sMI (Dostoevsky F./Hawaldar 1985:159) (2) "^JR aiNc^ldl dlv^cb 3r^, Hl>k^-ct5|, cR Rfrl>!«^4HS^ cUT# ^PR fctfrra" "vilFTT 3n%cT. ...-qr vj1|J|iHK^, %T Hl>k^'xbl, "^"qcp cTT^ 311^"EfT^ 3RTrr. ..."qi v^HIHKT cPT^ f^fxra" cfra^ ^l^dld - ^?^W '^\W^. ^f^FT Mld"lKI - "^JR ^^Idl dM^TldclK cill'lsMM^SI^cR- 'T^ ^^ "q^T" "^Be^TT cT^ T?W fct^F^M cF^ ^Hv3ik3Trt. ... (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007a: 21) (3) "v;R31NU|t>H"3ri3KfJ3T^, Hl'^rill'^l, cR fI)fcl>!«^Jl*1K^-cm#-q5T?f^fxf3rWFTT 3TT^. ... m viTFTFTKr, ^ Hl>k^-*l, "^TDJ T?cf=r ^J|oix| v^tcR xfT^ aracT. ... ^ vSTRTR?:^ cfJT^ fcffxfoT eiW x!l^dld - ^? ^fT^ 3nt. ... (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007b: 76-77) * ...M ^acTO 6po«y KaK TCHB, 5e3 Hy^g];bi M 6e3 u;enM, yHbuio H rpycTHo no nexepGyprcKMM saKoyjiKaM M ynMu,aM. (lit. ... mf^rnmjfi^^cfKfr^wcf^krRm: JH^/^MM, f^^tw, f^Ymsprj:^, (1) T?3iraT ^dWHI"i f^Rm 3TTPT f^m^^ 'PT:!^?!^ ifej^l'tsTT ^Tcc^ltR^ m\^\ tixh^icixi^H 3Ffcf>^'ft P)>t>^^mui »^cic^,d >!i^dY (Dostoevsky F./Hawaldar 1985:171) (2) "OTET^fTR^, TR^Sf H>HdHI, f^R^, ^S^RT Snf^ -5:^, Rfc)^:^4^l 7Tw?Nto5T^ *re^. (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007a: 28) (3) 'FT 'ft ^ ^TScJKfr - >Hlc|c^>HK>ai, ^rR3f M>HdHI, Pi^^i^l, ^3^RT 3nf^ (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007b:87) It is relevant to see here the strategy used by the Wordsworth Classics edition, 2002 of the translation of Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment. The translation is by Constance Gamett (1914), who was an 192 expert in Russian literature. The introduction and notes are given by Dr. Keith Carabine from University of Kent, Canterbury. In the General Introduction she puts forward her approach towards the translation of such a classic work. Wordsworth Classics are inexpensive editions designed to appeal to the general reader and students. We commissioned teachers and specialists to write wide ranging, jargon-free introductions and to provide notes that would assist the understanding of our readers rather than interpret the stories for them. In the same spirit because the pleasures of reading are inseparable from the surprises, secrets and revelations that all narratives contain, we strongly advise you to enjoy this book before turning to the Introduction. (Dostoevsky/Gamett 2000: v) The book presents two detailed notes in the beginning of the book along with the introduction, namely: 1) The Saint Petersburg of Crime and Punishment: This starts with the following words: The city was built early in the eighteenth century by Peter the Great on the marshy delta of the river Neva which flows westward into the Gulf of Finland. (ibid, xxxiii) It provides the map of the city projecting the places Dostoevsky referred in the novel. It marks further about the city in Crime and Punishment: Dostoevsky was the first novelist to present "the life of the city in all its sordidness ... (ibid.) 2) The names of the Principle Characters: This explains in detail the traditional way of Russians to use the personal names and Dostoevsky's specific use of names in the novel. Thus, a target-oriented approach may consider the TT reader's essential pre-knowledge of the source culture and provide the respective notes. Another example is of the word 'Dacha' in the TT used in transliterated form. It has been explained in both the Marathi versions as a footnote: (l)"?raT: ^HTcn^nt^^is^FfsStf^rarmsrR. (Dostoevsky F./Hawaldar 1985:144) 193 (2) "^Trn": J||c||6||H -^fcTRT m<$\Qi 15tM (cTMy^) "ER. vi-^laJreJHKT SMT "ERlcT (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007a: 12) (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007b: 62) Here, too, a few lines may be added. 3j^cj,v^u|j^ ^f^:^ ^rc[T arfrmcT fcpcn- ^ *n;s5n^ tlv^n^ efi^ fcisr •^ yidciuiii^Hi^ -GiraKT. Tf^Rra" •^t^ 'Tfl^ "^ awc^ frt^ ^n^, ^I?[KT cf>T^ Rcbciul -fT^qr Tf^. ^f^ vi-^lodntlld "^TcfTcR f^TcTRr TTfT M>!>Hid ^eT^nt, ^rivRIT, This may help the TT reader to understand the eagerness of the people in the story to go to 'dachas' for rest. * Korna Becb TlexepGypr noAH^uica M Bflpyr yexan Ha Aa^y ... noxoMy Hxo Be^t Bce, HXO xoubKo KM 5buio B nexep5ypre, MJIM nepeexano, PUIM nepee3:»cajio na flany... y Ka:ig],oro npoxoKero 6btn xenepb y^e coBepmeHHO OCOGMM BM^, KOxopbiM ^lyxb-^yxb ne roBopwn BCHKOMy Bcxpe^HOMy: "Mbi, rocnoAa, sflecb XOJIBKO xaK, MMMoxoflOM, a BOX Hepes flBa naca MM yefleM na flany". ... cfiRWPlf^^i^fH^ «t ^ wit wt^twj w^ (1) -^^ "fldxI^Jl T^ >HHH>H,HH 6li^ 3JxJH ^: "4go^, 3n^ ^ -qTJRT dl<^^!^ aTIcft ^^. ^PT ^ cTRTPfcR <\A\'\< f^ WOTRSn^." (ibid. 146-147) 194 (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007a: 12) cjjRT^ THRTTUTFTRIT yc^chNi snfcmk sffcRra" fcr^ -gtcrr, "cfRj- -^ arpfr simr ^3T#31N<^ viJIN armtcT. aiv^H c},|^ dmi-fl 3?T^ ci|xl|c|>! vjfFIK." (ibid. 13) (Dostoevsky F./Bhat 2007b: 62) vifr vjjt ^Tjft McR^;iWr ^tcTT, cfr eft yc^cb "^^PT T^ ^ •^raR? •^tcfr Bt?iT fcpcn- xllddl itcTT... ilu||-^| ui|U||^|r|| yi^ct^Nl STrfMcT srfrRfrq'fcfit^ cTT^ dMIdl, vJJtcfr v5pJJ ^r^qRTHT ^f^^W ^ '^eftcp Bt 3?F^ 3TIcTT ^ 3T^ Wm ^J||aSd1 3TTFJW. STv^-cfJT^ cTRTpft 3n^ <\-^\4i vJlFIR." (ibid. 64) The story opens with a quotation by Ivan Turgenev: * ...VLfih 5bUT OH cosflaH ftjia roro, HTOGH no6biTb xoTH MrHOBenbe B coceflCTBe cepp,Li;a xBoero?.. (iit. f^wtwutf^rMwmw^, It is translated into Marathi as: (1) ... cfrvj|-Hldl3JI cpfctcMtcT ^fcf^trn" "^ScTRT. ^ affoft ami: "^;?2TT cblodvjiim^^, -qcf, ^FT tjielciiiidl, ^ f^fmerar^." (ibid. 346-347) and (2) ''^;§JTT^ This does not create any association with Turgenev and his original 195 Verse in the reader's mind. And the mention of 'wrong passage' itself is incorrect in the note by Hawaldar. It can be said that Dostoevsky has made changes in the original text of Turgenev. The ST includes names of places: KaMeHHbiM n AnxeKapcKMii ocTpOBbi ( T^CTT), HapronoB (HK'IICICI), KpecTOBCKMii ocTpoB (th-klcwil STCT), HeBa (f^ "^X OoHTaHKa ('^5'ai'^i), Hepuaa penKa vuin ocTpoBbi {-^Ani ^ fcp^ sl^), TLaBnoBCK (mq * M H 5bm pafl, KaK eme HMKor^a co MHOM He cjiynajiocb. ToHHO H Bflpyr o^yrvuic^ B VLreinnvL... ( lit. 3nf^ ^ SfFf^m WtUt ^ 3JMW ^?^ HI^^IMMd 3m ^fScT T^CT: WW" (1) 3nf^ TeiT •^ cf5?S^ ^TTeTT Hc^dl 3mT 3TPT^ ^me<>l. "^ ^ "^^^i^ ^eieild tlcfr... (Dostoevsky/Hawaldar 1985:148) (2) 3Fr*flx|ifetil >44IcPl^?rTefrH>t^H ^dchl 31HRd ^Idl ^1d\"v5PJ cp# Tft ^dcJleiN ^^tw^ Mlxid^ij. (Dostoevsky/Bhat 2007a: 14) (3) ••frgs^ ^ cf)^ ^^n^ ^dcKii •^pft^r ?iTeft •^. irar ^T^, tj^t \5p^ tft ^•ScftefTW^^lWT^tf^l^fefm. (Dostoevsky/Bhat 2007b:66) The passage with a number of proper names of leaders, writers, literary works, characters from them makes it impossible for the TT reader to understand their significance in the ST: * nocMoxpMTe, KaKMe pa3HOo6pa3Hbie npMKJiiOHeHMH KaKOw SecKOHe'qHbiM poM BocTop^eHHwx rpes. Bw cnpocMxe, Moacex 5biTb, o ^eM OH MCHTaer? K neiviy 3TO cnpauiMBaxb! ^a o5o BceM... o6 pojTM no3Ta, CHanajia ne npHsnaHHoro, a noTOM 196 yBeHHaHHoro; o flpy:ac6e c FocJjMaHOM; BapcJjojioMeeBCKaii HOHB, JJ^naua BepHOH, repoiicKaa ponb npM BSHTTIM KasaHM VlBanoM BacMnbeBMHCM, Knapa MoBGpaw, EBcJjMa flenc, co6op npejiaxoB M Fyc nepeA HMMM, BOCcxaHwe MepxBeLi,OB B PoGepxe (noMHWxe MysbiKy? KnaflGvimeM naxnex!), MviHHa M BpeH^a, cpaaceHwe npw BepesMHe, HTenne no3Mbi y rpa4)MHM B-M-JH- VI, ^aHxoH, Kneonaxpa ei suoi amanti, P,OMVIK B KonoMHe, CBOM yronoK, a noAne MPuioe cosflaHMe, Koxopoe cnymaex Bac B 3MMHMPi Benep, pacKpbiB poxMK M TJiasKM, KaK cnymaexe BM xenepb Mena, MOM MajienbKMM anrejib^MK... (1) mi fcrfcra" ^Hi^>Hicb-d -q^, cfj^^ -^r ^jmRU v^\r^\ ^ wHicbs^ ^^^\ ^f^ ^ "tTT?cfr.. .*<5lT>m ^n^^d, ;H5!PT ^Mdi "^ n^o6i<^di anP^r w? ^rf»^ ^, ?TR ^C|HH cfJlTHcR %cfe^ >WI'^d ?M ^IHclc^N, cfvTRT Hlcjfim^ ii4^H\ -^^^. ^>H>H*l\ 3l>HcieiJI iM^ *i-do6N, xINt^^ye^l ^dMI ^H*<^HW (^FPftcT an^cRT? TfRTRTETT ^[RT Ml), ifN" 3TTR ff^^ ^^f^HMI cTSlI^, vdH>!l4]u| cfr-"^ •qTEJTRP^grin' ct)|cijc||rH|-cj, c^M^lHtj, "^^psfnTT^ ei suoi amanti rT, cbdlHHtlc^l ^^f^^ •ERfeTTW, mm ^^^RT:^ tf^fq^, f^c||af| "^T^ rJTraTT #511^ ^5t^ fcl^W>l*H Snf&r 3te fct^TT "^f?^ ^g^ C^TM effePT T^cfj^, viRt ^ 3n?TTTrT?t«itenJTii*dli|, Hl^l wV^JI ^c|<^dl... (Dostoevsky/Hawaldar 1985: 165-166) (2) sf^ -m\. fcfJcft >!lH6t5cb ^fn?^, %^ cT ^ >HMU|K aiMfetcb ^H 3TmraM ^fM^! ^ * efl^ ^^Tlf?, ^T^RT ^#T, I^^ c||f^c^fc|r)41 -^m^ TTtcT f^t^ "Ef^^ riJIdcfl ^ikr^ ^j(^, cFelKT 'TtfT, '^1^ ^, ^^TtfeT^ ^1%^ iTf^ Cleopatra ei suoi amanti, Ti%^^mer ^dlc^i^ '^ (eiJIdd ^?PlkT 3n^^? c^ijjH^^I'HKxai cfRT ^tR!) ^fft^ srrf^ Iter, R^I^HTD CT^, cfJTvjt^ ^...•^...c^^ ct^fcldNixH, ^, Cleopatra ei suoi amanti, chldlH^KTcT ^, siNelT ^ ^5t^ RxH+Jl*^ ^HrT -^lom ^cFTpfl; TnfJTT fif^ ^, ^^^ 30x11 v5Rt i^ct>dm •^, CTHTT!... (Dostoevsky/Bhat 2007a: 24-25) (3) ^rar, wsn, {h<^ >!lH^>J<^ -^jw! "^ >HM"II-^I aiM'fci* 3^\A ^r?^? cb^ii^fii^d "qr^ ?it ^^^. cfr •^cicTr-on" cbRiriji ijfJr%?r cb(>id1. ^RTT -^ Mwfef, STFM^ ^IT^, ^T^HT W^. ^W\ c|lRic^f^T^T>4l ^f7?TFT mcTTEZTT ^»ft^ anf^ #ST, f^^flHrJt cTSTf, ct5|vd^ Cleopatra ei suoi amanti, ct>1dlH^«Tei"Erf, STNefT ^cKbNI c^u|l41 cT^ ^ #sm". f^cllay^ildc^l IT^^IctJlafl ?ffe 3TTf^ ^gf^ fcRqjRR ^IT^ 6frcFri^0U||,Jl;TnfqTf^'q^, ^^anw^nt'^cbdw^, cRfer! (Dostoevsky/Bhat 2007b: 82) Hawaldar gives references of many words/names from above passage in his notes. However, they do not prove to be helpful in understanding or experiencing their association with the text. Hence, the reader of the TT simply fails to understand and enjoy the above passage. Bhat, too, has added explanatory notes for the above mentioned words in her latest revised version of the story. It shows that she as a translator realised a need to explain the words in TT. The translation of similies like the following remains alien to the TT reader. The Marathi translations are given in their chronological order of publication i.e. of Hawaldar and Bhat 2007a, Bhat 2007b respectively: * H MOH npHHTCAb nosceATCA, KRK KaHapcHKa. (1) ^fn?TT f*^^ M|U||-i)| RclofriJI •q;^|>t1K>y| Rc|o6mMctJ eUdl ^"idl. (2) 3TTf^ ^\^\ ^^ T^^irar^^TR^mixixyi Rciaii \\^^\ ^tm. (3) anf^Hi^i ^"IxkiT^^arar^^^R^TPMftcfosmvdeii dldi. Here, KauapeuKa is translated as 'a yellow bird' (generalised form) and 'canary' bird by different translators. The use of different equivalents for npunmeAb f^ and "^t^ - shows the choice of the translators. The verb nojKeATCA in Marathi is expressed as 'dark yellow' and 'yellow'. 198 H eme flo CMX nop He B cpuiax 5bui noBMAaxbCH c M3ypOAOBaHHbIM MOMM GeAHJiKOM, KOTOpOrO paCKpaCMHM nOA Li;BeT noAHcGecHOM MMnepMM. (lit. ^ 3f^g^ mwm 77^ %7" w^cm ftmrw^ wf ?m^ ^^mut, ^^mw (1) -^^Plk xHlill^J^NI t^^lJT^fcr^ sHRtJiJIcI 3)l<^c^l TTT^^rr Pl^ldl Ml^u-SJI-^ iTcIT STMcR-^R^ M ITTefer ^^; (2) f^ >HiyMIJ|d ftcloJ cRH" Tfrgetc^TT, ^RTI^n" -^^^ WeTe^TT "^^ ^A\-i\\ PloJ|ct)<^Tft31Nd|J|md Ml^i^lchx^eil Hl^; (3) tM 'HltH^l'ld f^W -cRv^ ^ffrS^Tc^, 1^ m^^\ TT^^IT ilik Rrli-^i P^^|c^>^^ m^ui TTcTT31NdHimd "^Tcm" ^l«>ld ^T#; nOAHeSecHa;? MMnepMH has been translated as 'a heavenly empire' and 'a Chinese empire'. Hawaldar explains the use of this phrase as: '^l^lcfld ^m^ -S\A^ yiT^lH ^mfcT. VW^ Tf% c^TT^JlT RclobiJI E^v^ ^^T^^TSRI" SRfT^rar. (Dostoevsky F./Hawaldar 1987: 347) * xenepb H noxo)« na ayx Li;apH ConoMOHa, KoxopbiM 6bm xbiCHMy nex B Ky5bimKe, noa ceMbio ne^axHMM, M C Koxoporo HaKoneii, CHHAM Bce 3XM ceMb ne^axeM. anc^TFFfR^ VT^ SncTT 1^«Ic?r Snt; (2) aiKiT ^ TMT >HM1HH^I anrRTTHR^ ?n^ 3TTt, ^^rrar ^^JTRT ^ f-Tms^ •EIT^ TTfcT^ $(^Hid ^^JcTcf ^ 3Fr aTTcfT "?RMcr€t eft ^WcT^ f^ cfJT^ The word 'Soul of Soloman' is not clear to the TT reader. * "6orMHH 4)aHxa3MH"; (1) ct)(>qHi-41 -^cr^rr, (2) yRl*ll^41; The forms of address so peculiar to Russian literary language prove to be unnatural in the Marathi literary system. We see here the translations by Hawaldar and Bhat respectively: 199 jiio6e3HbiM HMTarenb fjf^ cimcfji / ^iRsj^j qmcfjgi; O HesBaHHMw rOCnOflMH! 3Fn^ J]6^I / 3)1l^a ^"J^WT; MOM MaJieHbKMH aHrenbHMK... f?f^^/ Hl^l WIC>MI h^^pi; "MwiocTMBbm rocyflapb!" HH^ii H^\'i\iJ I ^\«»\\i\ ^ft^; rocnoAMH HenpeKnoHHWM ^ft^ Mmiu|^ci41 / •^t'TH •?3^; MOM flpyr "TI?^ t^ / t^ra^; flpy»:oHeKMOM ! •frT?5qT en^cpTT^Bi"ll /TT^mT^lft^; HTO, crapyxa? "CITFT^idi^ /cf^FT *^idi^. The translation also influences the syntax turning the sentence quite odd in TT. Some odd constructions in TT are as follows. The remarks as well as literal translation are given in the brackets: * HO KM OflMH, peiuMxenbHO HMKTO He npMrnacMn Mena; CHOBHO SaSbUIM MBHa, CJIOBHO H ^155 HMX GbUl M B CaMOM flejie Hy}KOM! (odd passive construction). '^ 'ft ^3^ c?THT ^RW •?tcfr! (2) TT^T W^TT^ WT^, 3rfT^ WPT^ ^JTcTT 6|lellc|uj ^cT ^n# (odd construction); "^ rt 'TcIT fcf^RcrcT (incomplete sentence), '^ cqi-oqi eRU Tft ^f^mrsr f^ TRW "?tcfr! (3) W\ rqil^n^ i^cbH^, 3FT^ ^dp\^^ TfefT sildMuj %ct ^^ (odd construction); W^ rT fTcfT fcf^ReTcT (incomplete sentence), '^ riTrsTT et#^^3^t^3T£rfT^Wct>T#lcfr! (65-66) * Bflpyr oflMH cnynaM npMineji KO MHe na noMomb. (1) i^*|i^cb1 HI^|cb>|H T?cf7 3H^rf^^fn?^"Ei;ger. (Passive contruction) (2) ^T\\^'b W W^SFFff^ >dl^>H '^\^^\ cllriiiicHI STTcT. (3)3ixiHct7Tf^RTr3R^f^raVrT?cf>^5n?^^fn?^ciidiiicii snet. This is an example of mistranslation. In all the three cases, the word CAynaH has ]been translated incorrectly. 200 - Tax CMJibHO nopasMJia npxipofla Mena, nonyGojibHoro ropo)«aHMHa, ^yxb He saAOXHyBuierocH B ropoACKMX CTCHax. (lit. Pfwif^ ^fjw, w^^rmr f^Mfu' "^mcswm fw^^ -'^c^c^/ '^n^fm mw^ (1) -Pi>HJiM H\^\ Jleldl 3RTT^ ST^JaiNI'Tl •^FR^nft"?lcft. (2) ^fTcTT - ^ SJteN^ 3fMr^ ST^FTRT ¥IFf^T#ir, •9TF?I^3TT IM^JIT 3TT?r y>HHeu|KI3R;TreTTPl>HJllH 3FT^ STcpf> cbxbH >Hl«dd'?lW. (3) ^ "GRnTT aiMlfl ^Fcfr. "?Tf^m#q" •?r?fr. ^ld>!MI iMixZTT 3IKT ^-^Hdcl •ftcfr. awTTierr Pi-^JiiH apr^ sr^^fj cj^^^ dictxH •^. Tenepb "5orMHH cJjaHTasMH" (ecnw BM ^MxaJiM )KyKOBCKoro, MMJiaa HacTeHbKa) y^e aaiKana npMxoTnMBOio pyKoio CBOIO 3onoTyK» ocHOsy u nonuia pasBMBaxb nepe^ HMM ysopbi HeGbiBaJiOM, npM^ywiMBOM TKHSHVI. .. (lit. 3fmr "ch(^^r>^i t^' ("^^ ^ $§0)cHhl wmwericr, di^ ...) (1) 3MT "ct^cmitufJI t^^" (^JR ^ ^ct,1c^1 ^TTrferr Sr^, dl>dcWI -^TRv^^^) (2) sncTT "yRi'Hi^41^" (^5R ^ v5|cfficR HI>M)-chl) 3TFTe57T 3T^^ ^TclPft ^R^if^ H^Nt?!!^ «JFt JJ4>|ildl ^^^\<^ %clt Snt 3T#T^ <^«51^ H'M-^lc^l v5n^ 3)|i^biJtTil •?[# (r (3) SfTcTT "yfci^lclcPl^" (-OR ^ vjp^TcR^ cTrefcTT 3?^ cR, cfj^ ^*^ldl, -H^h^-^l) 3TTqe?IT 3f^^ dldi-fl ^R^ JHeic|>M|-^ «[Pt Jj^M^Jdl >ti^hc|ld %cit 3Tlt. •qW3R^v5TT^31|iit»!Jl41^3imT#riJM|xHHl>t vJdJ|>dlA|dl dMIcfl 3nt. When we place this story of Dostoevsky in Marathi polysystem, and see it in the context of Marathi culture, we find a number of places where the reader comes across unfamiliar Russian culture. It starts with the very title of 201 the story 'White Nights', the phenomenon that is absent in Marathi culture and the reader is far away from the description depicted in the story. But the very narration of the protagonist, which seems to be a universal human experience creates an association between the words of the text and the reader: (existentialism?) sffF H|xk>!^-0l! T?c^ Tim. 3rfT^ ^^"]H^ ^chlctil 3T^ STlf^ ^m^ ^o6^o4|ci 3Ri^ cfj# ^^RM fcfK^ "|:'?3H^ ar^l ^o6^o6UijmKd^ cfJT^ "^ CITRUT V^ 1^^ (Dostoevsky/Bhat2007a: 28) And the last lines of the text give the Marathi reader a typical Dostoevskian approach to Love: Bo>Ke MOM! Ll,ena5i MWHyxa 6na»ceHCTBa! Ha pasBe 3Toro Mano XOTb 6bl M Ha BCK) «M3Hb HeJIOBeHeCKyiO?.. sT^tm"! Mx:H>y,^!£ii-c!l i^ciT^m^! >HMI H^i"^ v,i-Hmic51>ytcii # ct,^ cb^fl ant? (ibid. 48) The translation of the story by Hawaldar clearly shows that it was done as an official work of the government publishing institute and totally loses the literary beauty and essence of ST during the process of its transformation into Marathi. The translation by Bhat is quite faithful to the ST and tries to come close to its literary style in Marathi. We find no review, no article or no discussion on the story in Marathi polysystem. Dostoevsky seems to be a challenge for the translators as he is difficult to understand as well as transform culturally into Marathi. (ii) Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860-1904): was a major Russian playwright and perhaps the finest modern writer of the short story. His playwriting career produced four classics, while his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. Constance Gamett's translations won him an English- language readership. 202 Chekhov in Russian Polysystem: Late in the 19th century Anton Chekhov revolutionized the short story. He made formal innovations which have influenced the evolution of the modem short story. His originality consists in an early use of the stream-of- consciousness technique, later employed by Virginia Woolf and other modernists, combined with a disavowal of the moral finality of traditional story structure. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them. Chekhov is less interested in constructing a well-plotted story; nothing much actually happens in Chekhov's stories, though much is revealed about his characters and the quality of their lives. The point of the story is most often found in what happens within a given character, and that is conveyed indirectly, by suggestion or by significant detail. He had an elusive, superficially guileless style of writing, in which what is left unsaid often seems so much more important than what is said. In 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawTi carriage, and river steamer to the far east of Russia and penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan. He spent there three months interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. What Chekhov witnessed on Sakhalin shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as Ostrov Sakhalin {The Island of Sakhalin), a work of social science, not literature. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half month journey to Sakhalin are considered among his best. Chekhov has influenced a number of writers in the world. Especially nqteworthy amongst his stories are A Dreary Story (1889); The Duel (1891), Ward Number 6 (1892), Gooseberries (1898), The Darling (1899), The Lady with the Dog (1899), The Bishop (1902), and The Betrothed ox A Marriageable Girl (1903). Stories like The Grasshopper (1892), The Darling (1898), and In the Ravine (1900) reveal Chekhov's perception, his compassion, and his subtle humour and irony. Chekhov's talent is respected in Russia and overseas. Various commemorative events were held on the occasion of 100th anniversary of the 203 death of Anton Chekhov all over the world, including India. UNESCO declared the year 2004 as Chekhov Year. Chekhov in Marathi polysystem: Chekhov was translated into Marathi even in the early nineteenth century. We see his story Ghari published in the Marathi periodical 'Ratnakar' in 1933. But then it,was translated through English. Since then many articles on the life and works of Chekhov and his number of stories have been published in Marathi in various periodicals as well as in books. A collection of Chekhov's stories - Part I and Part II was published by P.P.H. Book Stall, Mumbai in 1958 and 1960 respectively. Both the translations were done by Charushila Gupte. Pragati Prakashan, Moscow published a collection of Chekhov's selected stories in 1982. Anil Hawaldar was the translator. Sumati Kanitkar, after doing her M.A. in Russian Language and Literature, started translating the Russian stories, especially that of Chekhov, directly from Russian. The translation of the play The Cherry Orchard hy her was published in 1982 and was well appreciated by the Marathi readers of Russian literature. It has proved to be very helpful to the Marathi students of world literature - especially the drama. Now a collection of 15 stories of Chekhov in two parts namely Sat Katha (Part I) and Aath Dirghakatha (Part II) have been published by Continental Prakashan, Pune in 2002 and 2004 respectively. The 2004 edition has been published in commemoration of Chekhov's lOO"' death aimiversary. The periodical 'Kelyane Bhashantar', Pune also published a special issue on Chekhov's works in 2004 to commemorate the death centenary of the great writer. There are many other periodicals, newspapers which keep on publishing Chekhov's stories from time to time. Most of these books include some common stories like The Lady with the Dog, The Grasshopper, The House with an Attic, The Man in a Case, Gooseberries etc. A review of Kanitkar's book Sat Katha speaks on the cultural problems of translation from Russian into Marathi. It says: ^TNTcR cfRcTRT Yf^RFT v^^cPTRft, Mxjqxjil^jl cT ^frFf#?f|- P|J|<^d SRTefcTT i^KJ^I M^ fmS[ ^rfcRii^ fto^rfr sTcra^ ant. ^sRTra" "f^cpMt ^TTW^CPRTCTT •^^TT 'm^\ 204 cn^. '^ cR cllT^cbWl Tfm c^l-MtJl J^lcHldl STHrr. chlPlcicb^ti-^ # >H^'W1 •cliJIc^l d-^-^ ^ldlo6cS)3ITt. (Thakar 2002: 50) The strategies used by Kanitkar in her translation are: 1) To give the footnotes where they are very essential; 2) To give the notes at the end of the book; 3) To use appropriate Marathi words in order to make reach the cultural, social and other extralinguistic elements reach the Marathi reader; 4) To use the original Russian words in transliteration; 5) While translating the proverbs and phrases either use the available appropriate Marathi equivalents or give the word-to-word translations. The review further mentions that the book has given an opportunity to do a comparative study of Marathi and Russian literature. A biography of Chekhov namely Kavadse Pakadnara Kalawant — Chekhov Ani Tyachi Katha was written by Vijay Padalkar. It was published by Majestic Prakashan, Mumbai on the occasion of first death centenary of the author in 2004. It was a serious attempt to introduce Chekhov's life and his stories to Marathi reader. Padalkar, as a writer of this biography feels that this book should serve to attract the minds of Marathi readers to Chekhov and they should read his stories and discuss his creative merits. In the preface he gives a few points on his writing such a book on Chekhov, which reveal the interrelation between the life and stories of Chekhov: firstly he admits that reading Chekhov has been a thrilling experience for him since long; he says further that understanding the life of the writer may help in understanding the various details of his literary works; Chekhov helped the short story gain high esteem in the literary field. But stories were considered a secondary writing/form by the'critics during those times and hence we find that much less has been written on Chekhov as a short story writer, in comparison to Chekhov as a dramatist; Chekhov's stories are fresh even after 100 years; through this biography the readers should get inspiration to read Chekhov's stories either in their original form or through some good translations. 205 In order to study Chekhov's story in Marathi literary system and from the reader-oriented view, we select his story The Grasshopper for analysis. Contextual Analysis of the selected Text: The Grasshopper (1892): Looking outwardly, it is the tale of a cuckold and his faithless artistic wife's follies. But it is far more than that. Chekhov based this story on the real-life love affair between his good friends Isaak Levitan, a well-known (and married) painter, and Lika Mizinova, a young unmarried teacher, who had for many years been a Chekhov groupie. Of course, in the story the woman is portrayed as the married individual. Chekhov bases the character of Dymov largely on himself, portrayed as a dedicated and disciplined worker who has no time to spare for frivolous romance. Another way of looking at the story is the dramatic tension between practicality, science, public health, and social consciousness, as exemplified by Dymov; and emotion, art, and romanticism, as exemplified by Ryabovsky. Olga at first chooses the latter, but Dymov's death turns the tables. After he becomes a martyr to science, she suddenly finds him more interesting and mourns her loss. There are five versions of this story in Marathi translated and published by different people. All the three collections of Chekhov's stories in Marathi mentioned above include this story. One more translation of the story was published in the special issue of 'Kelyane Bhashantar', Pune on Chekhov in 2004. It was translated by Megha Pansare. Another translation was translated by Suniti Deshpande and published in a periodical. But the work as well as the details was not made available by her for analysis. Except the 1958 publication, which was through English, all the other translations have been done through Russian. The P.P.H. Publication does not have a preface, and hence there is no mention of the translator's intention or criteria of the selection of stories. Pragati Prakashan has selected Chekhov's stories published during 1883-1903 in Russian. The book presents the memoirs of Maxim Gorky written after Chekhov's death. The blurb quotes Tolstoy saying: 206 .. .v^ix^] ^gvSFRlfleT cprat^ "^rakr HI^M"! I?UTV^ %^^ Tf^RR^ "^, CR <*)>ldl^ (Chekhov/Hawaldar 1982) Kanitkar writes in the preface about the style and content of Chekhov's works. While explaining her translation experience she says: (Chekhov/Kanitkar 2004: Preface 10) The translation of title of a short story is an important aspect in the translation process. The titles of the story in Marathi versions, too, are different. They are: Pakoli (Gupte: 1958), Chanchala (Hawaldar: 1982), Gavatatil Naktodi (Kanitkar: 2004), Chanchala (Deshpande :?) and Chanchala (Pansare: 2004). Chekhov's original title has a satirical tone. Poprygunya is a colloquial word. It means 'one, who whirls all the time, jumps, does not sit on the place'. It belongs to feminine gender. It is clear from the titles of Marathi versions that Chanchala is a translation faithful to the original title in Russian given by Chekhov, while Gupte prefers to give an equivalent in content. Kanitkar's title corresponds to the English title - Grasshopper. Kanitkar in her preface to the book writes about the story: HlR|ct5liltJH cfT^cTc^TT HlRlcJ'l '^^tl^ >dHNI 3Tit. cfjcnf^ 3TTt. "^^^irf^*^ anf&r ^ ^H^nr iJT^ WT^ fr^ ^^'H\^ Mcl^MI, anq^JIT^ >HXHKM| >H4Hl^lleil ^ cbKul)^3^. (ibid. 5) Here, Kanitkar's interpretation / comment on the content of the story seems to be quite limited. Her words, 'fcIxfT ^^[^ ira^?ff make it a typical Marathi story on a woman entering into extramarital relation. It does not take into account the contemporary social significance of the story, which Chekhov had in mind. Padalkar in his book on Chekhov and his stories writes that 'The Grasshopper' is a very famous and unforgettable story by Chekhov. We find 207 in this story a beautiful vision of his satirical style, great skill to portray the characters and his faith in human values. He says further that this story has been included in almost all the collections of Chekhov's selected stories published by different publishers: cijRvlRl^ui 3T]%, Pl>H4c|uyHlell cP^ fcf^^oSjT eicj^uijl^ SRTFTF^T ^t^Icq" Sflt, 3[S^ ^fl^Pi^lT^ "^ snt Snf^ ^fFrtcT H6<^l^ W^ v^lcHHI CT ctJc^dl^ ^CT^ T?^ 3|JdRcj5 viTxId*^ «im"^%^3rHTcn"3RTTSJIWfl3TTt... (Padalkar 2004: 122) Padalkar describes Olga as a representative of superficial artists. He says that along with the three main characters: doctor Dymov, Olga and her lover painter -Rybovsky there is one more invisible character in the story i.e. a group of people having an illusory concept about arts. IRtm^^RII^^. (ibid. 123) About the character of Dymov he says: H|umit>iJ| ^f^tpjTTcr ^ 3TT^I# W^ fifmcTT ^ "^TT^. T^\^ ST^fcfJ^ >HHM R>HU|MI, ^TRPTRIT *1|umidld ^, WTcT ^fisSctT >HHMI(HI ^^^TMcRfEr -^. xfcfJT^efT '^HTTFT HI"l-Mi-cil cl^I^' 3?^ ^f?^ "^ '^ W^^ ct>t ^ in«qrgGIT ^iumi41 sT^Rsn^ c?TT^ affoSRi^. rfn^zn ^f^qkr aftos^e^rr, w\ ?^ ^wc^^ (ibid. 127) Textual Analysis: A textual analysis of the TT shows that there are many variations in the different translations done at different times by different translators. The very first observation reveals that the 1958 version of the story has lexical units and style, peculiar to that particular period in Marathi. For 208 example, the phrases Hke '^^T^T, "^P^ '^^ 3TT% •#!..." or the words hke WW, ilHI-41 1^, "teFT, •qrM' %^ somehow remind us today of the Marathi language as well as cuhure in 1950's. Here is a passage from the story, in which Chekhov intends to acquaint the readers with the reputed personalities of the contemporary Russian society: Ee MyjK, OcHn CTenaHbiH /IBIMOB, 6biA BpanoM H HMCA HHH THxyAflpHoro coBCTHHKa. CAy^soiA OH B AByx 6oAi.HHu;ax: B OAHOH CBepxniTaTHbiM opAHHaTopoM, a B Apyroii npoacKTopoM. E^KCAHCBHO OT 9 HacoB yrpa /;o noAyAHa OH npHHHMaA 6oAtHbix H saHHMaACH y ce6a B naAaxe, a nocAe noAyAHflt exaA na KOHKC B Apyryio 6oABHHny, TAC BCKpbiBaA yMcpniHx SoAbHBix. HacTHafl npaKTHKa ero 6fciAa HH^Toacna, pyGAeii na naTbcoT B roA- Box H Bce. HTO em;e MO»CHO npo nero CKasaTb? A McxcAy TCM OAtra HBanoBHa H ee Apysta H AoBpBie SHaKOMbie 6biAH He coBceM o6biKHOBeHHbie AIOAH. KaacABiii H3 HHx 6biA HeM-HH6yAb saMeHaxeAeH H HeMHosoco HSBecxcH, HMCA y»Ce HMH H CHHXaACH SHaMCHHXOCXbK), HAH XCC XOXH H HC 6bIA eme SHaMCHHX, HO aaxo noAasaA GAecxamne HaAexfAti- ApxHcx H3 ApaMaTHHecKoro xeaxpa, SoAbnioii, AasHO npHSHanHbiii xaAanx, HsamnbiH, yMHbili H CKpoMHbiH HCAOBeK H OTAHHHBIH Hxeu;, yHHBHiHH OAbiy HBanoBHy HHxaxb; neBeu; H3 onepbi, A06p0AyiIIHbIH XOACXflK, CO B3AOXOM JTBCpHBIUHH OAbiy HBaHOBHy, Hxo OHa ryGnx ce6a: CCAH 6bi ona ne ACHHAacb H B3HAa ce6a B pyKH, xo H3 nee BbiniAa 6bi 3aMeHaxeAbHaji nCBHIia; 3aTeM HCCKCAbKO XyAOSKHHKOB H BO TAaBe HX HCanpHCX, aHHMaAHCx H neH3aHCHcx PH6OBCKHH, OHCHB KpacHBbiii 6eAOKypbiH MOAOAoii HeAoaeK, ACX 25, HMeBniHH ycnex na BbicxaBKax H npoActBniHH CBOK) nocACAHioio KapxHHy 3a naxbcox pyGAcfi; OH nonpaBAHA OAtre HBaHOBHC ee 3TK)AI>I H roBopHA, HXO H3 Hcc, 6bixb Mosccx, BbiHACT TOAK; saxcM BHOAOHHeAHCX, y KOXOpOXO HHCXpyMCHX IIAaKaA H KOXOpblH OXKpOBeHHO C03HaBaACH, HXO H3 BCeX 3HaKOMbIX CMy JKCHUpiH yMeex aKKOMnanHpoBaxb oAHa XOABKO OAbra HBanoBHa; 3axeM AHXepaXOp, MOAOAOH, HO yace H3BeCXHbIH, HHCaBniHH nOBeCXH, nbecbi H paccKa3bi. Eme KXO? Hy, eme BacHAHH BacHAbHH, 209 6apHH, nOMemHK, /;HAeTaHT-HAAIOCTpaTOp H BKHBCTHCT, CHAbHO HyBCTBOBaBtnHH cTapbiii pyccKHii CTHAB, 6biAHHy H 3noc; na 6yMare, na 4)apc|)ope H na aaKOHHCHHtix xapcAKax OH npoH3BOAHA 6yKBaAbHo HyAeca. Cpe/tH 3TOH apTHCTHHecKoii, CB060AHOH H H36aAOBaHHOH cyfff,6oK) KOMnaHHH, npaB^a, aeAHKaTHoii H cKpoMHoii, HO BCHOMHHaBnieii o cjrmecTBOBaHHH KaKHX-TO AOKTOpOB TOABKO BO BpCMH GoACSHH H AAH KOTOpOH HMH /],BIMOB SBynaAO TaK 7Ke paSAHHHO, KaK CHAOpOB HAH TapacoB, - cpcAH SToii KOMnaHHH /IBIMOB KaaaAcn HJ^HCHM, AHUIHHM H MaAeHBKHM, XOTH 6BIA BBICOK pOCTOM H UIHpOK B HAenax. KasaAocb, HTO na HCM nyacoH (J)paK H HTO y Hero npHKasHHUKan 6opoAKa. BnponeM, CCAH 6BI OH GBIA HHcaxeAeM HAH XyAOHCHHKOM, TO CKaSaAH 6&I, HTO CBOCH 6opO/i;KOH OH HanoMHHaeT 3oAa. (///. f^ m^, sftf^ fkmiPiz) ^fm, ^STW7 itw snftr vmw -iiHwd ^mlHIN (dlUd^d^ *1'-iid<{J W^ ^ WtW. c# ^ ^f^dodld Wf^^ ^RW mw^cm wmft Ymfctv^^^ cfRw 3r^. ^^TMI'wwff M^ epj^ m^ ^. mnw M^? ^^ 3jtcw ^m^To^ 1M f^ SFT 3i)od^4l mw^ t w^ WHM cftw ^^m&. ^mm^ftcT jfv^cpWT ci^tww w wtwm wjw^ 3mmF^ mf^ siUi^Hjrf^wtw. ^HM/d cmw mcT met ^. d'R^id wr^w^. ic^^^ 3J^t f?ld^>ti Jrf^ '1^<^d U^ riiMlch-^-i c^l^d{l •^^4)t^<^ smrsnW^lfW. tj4,^"l -ild^^-^ll^d H)dl ^QllN WfW. c^l^l Hfcl^dl HHHId chc^M HMd/ Predict) wt^. eft ^ww, ^f^^mw apj; wm f^^PJ^ffoT m^ wtm. H//BriHcflcf mnt ut ^dnRv^i mwr sr^. sftcmcn^ ^m^ wf^cirmm f^rcf^ ^w ^mm 3nf^ ww Ppwr wm ^iHidi d/J/cO ejwtf uv /^c-v/^-y w ^j^W 'uRi<^i JTW^ wicff 3fmff. u^ m^ f^ww^ wt&. c^/r^^/d^ ^Mkr M^ wtm ut R<^)<{H^1. ^-iR-i i^?^ jfp^ snftr Pimf^ f^wn w^w^wr srihwr ^wm. 210 T^ WWW wr MRJ^ wf^^v^JWR wtdT. rm^ 3j^-^m, ^M^w, ms^ fcifBcf) wkff. 3jm^ ^H W7? w, ^^M- wfftfcfw. ^^r^^ wfh^R, ^Mt ^c/^dv 3nfdr wR^f^^rwR. dt ^^^mnfkr f^ mftr ^Rrm^m ^^^m^ffw f^m it^€t 3mm: cfj^W 3f^^ 3JTRWR WWJW. SJW W WNTWR, ^zticf), •i^D'i/') ^T4xi^ziii 3tRd<^iz[} mmw ^ 3r&. mm '4fmw mw r^^^mr ^ffkw f^m dmrnmi^^w^ HIHM mmm. 3jw d)ct>i^id wmw ^sw^ w mw^ w^ smwmifmyTW, wmqwi^mt. ^m^mspmRw^^wmw^wwwl^ eni 3nf^ ?m^ ^7^ T^mn" ^mmdc^ R^Hmm^ 3nt 3m m^d-^mW. Ft WW-^ dt'^f^srw fc^ wmwR 3mm d7 ^ wmRf^ sm wm^ 3m^ c^ w ^idl^ci df '$))dl '•dN^I R'dd). [*fs|<:flHI: ^TfR ^\k\i\'\ ^ (Chekhov / Pansare 2004: 27-28) (1) fcTEZTT ^^T^Rn^ ^ 3fff%tf xKlMHlfclxl f^rffcr 3ft lit. t)- ^fe:? itW. cfr "^ ^RMdolicI "cfJFT "cfv^ 3rt. WT ^RMdoild >Hcblan '^^ ^[^ ^qR^^cT i[^W^ cNT^ tt fcjl<^|T>SJ| silHJII'^^H ^^T^JIT ^f^doiid ^. M cic||x!c|Mid tefe^fT i\*i\\xi\\ txRiprM ^R c^JTcTT '^fRTt cflt. c^qpEfr ^!IM^ irf^>H f^ft^ ^^T^. cmlc|7Jc51 WTefT •JO" irRxi>H^*^H ^?5cRr tfTEft ^^We^ f^IoScf 3RT?T. •JTT %t xldc^dl 31^ ^ T[Rcf>, fxRcPR f?f^ c||c{HcbK ^ ^ c^ "cfJRUTTt dlcbld ;rf^ itcTT. 3nf^ ifr ^frcfmr ^[fcpsifcpios- VIVJVJCICH ^. -fcrcZTT T?W f^rsnt ^J^T^Jjfl^ «ftW ^57Kff f^foSfcTcft lltt. tr ^=Ro5, xldl^ ^ ril^cJoJ itcTT. c^mW 3TMM3^R|!^|i|^g^"51cTT. 3lVllell tt c|«t^cc||xl «J^ ^d 3Tt. f^RTT?c{7 J||ijcb anp srnit 1^ i1?TT. tr ^fft^ fM^ itm. tt sftc^TTc^ fcrt SnoSRT ^T^ ^3R- xHp'ldl^ 3 Rlo6c|c^|[^|c||i^ i\^\i\\i ^. 3jVllriJ| ^cR cbdlcjd l^rSfKT RiJI'si1c|>i ^^ ^^ic^d 3T%. cfr Lj^41>H ^mterr srg;^ R>Hmdi ^rfrRRr ^g^ itcn. 31%. "5^ ^ fr[efT R)^ch(^d ^ ft^ 3r# W^ eft frTeTT ^^^ vixlvjH ^ 3f%. 3lVlMI Pl^H>^oi1d '^eif ^ %^ 3TT^ ^ cblduiKi gRTT i?^ '^cft' SRRT (addition) \h\^M ^^W^^^ ^ ^PRIFT ^"lldl^ "^ ^ ^ a^Noild -glen". cbc^^T^qi ^J|^J|aiiJ| ^^rt^ #cTR cFrJUTRTT >dHHi^d ^ •^rf^ wMof dWi-ll '^FFe^' IT ^Pq- SIMRq^^^IcTM tf5cRT 'TF^cT itcTT. T?7^ cm ^li^ierr c^ircZTT cblj^iid fcj^ ^&n^ ^^r^. ^ H«dafixiii cbnidi 1^T^^3W|H^soi1r^l|-^^t^f^Tffcr^ulld^•Jra^^s^^'{l ^Idi. ciiwRcb cfr ^ ^ W^\^ 3rg^ ?T^T^RT# sioicbe ^CTT. ^^^\^ ^^fRjram ^unxn ^ cfjfe 3FTKT •EfKrW 3n% 3r% c[T^^ ^. c^ T^^^rar cZfFTRTMR# ^T^ c|| ^t^. T7TJT ^iR ?fr T?^m^ cj,dlcid f¥^ eR3^ 3RT?TT cR 3jVlli>4l ft^T^S^SMt (Chekhov/Gupte 1958: 44-45) (2) fcmr ^fcRT, 3irf^ •^^^Tpftf^ IWra" ^ ^5fcK? ^tciT snf^ ^TFmrfr >HedHIKNI cJUcTT '^ ^t?TT. eft ^ ^R4daiiH»^ ^f>PT cfRRIrn". 1?^ f^cb|u[l yjRiR^d ^sf^ wf^ 3nR ^^fPiT f^cbiujl y)^«t^'< Tguj^r. >Hchioi1 ^^*^|^^ ^HKH4d cfr WT^ ^ cnrfTRmr snR ^sm^m ciT4di ^ WRmr. "^qr^ ^ii\\-c\ ^icif^^tic^H cbximxji. c^jT^ >yNjf1 at^Fe:^ 3FT^ fcf^cf^ ^tcft. Rixi^l^H cT^^ T^Tf^ xfTEf^ ^MeT f^ToST^. •^TRl"! i||f^|c||ij cillxiJM^d WTWTRTTT?t 3TFr?fr cblgl^ ^?T^. iJlvdde, afle^ ^dHoil, fM 1%?Ft^ 3nf^ 3i1o6>!ilT^ TWl%, %^m# >H1MI'>M cfRj ^^T^. ri|i-cillf^ct5] y<^ct,vjiu| Tj]-^ -^ Wf^ 5lf^ ^, Stl#-Wf cfM fto5fcr^e[T ?1?1T; 3nf^ ^ Sf^IR ^Rsnf^ ^TTeT ^^T^ <^ii^ld cfvJRcft ^jfcldoMlrO ^^T^TFZRir lt?ft. W^JFT ^13 #fm3nRc^TrE5JT3rfT^ZlT3Tf^HiJJjU|H|T^^HT4HMdl f^aJIcfl ^RfT. cft^g^. 212 1?TR 3rrP>r R^i{) tfcrr. 3T?W ^g^ "Mt^ cfr ^f^di f^^ '^mm^rm snR ^ eI5 Snf^ ^TTrtfT WHNMI H|umi^ >y>M>KI eichHd afteTTT ^c||H)cHldl ^?5T^ f^ ¥t^ cf>t, eft l ^^ ^teft. c^JTEJfT Sm^ aifclcbv^d 1^^!^ ^TT^ ^^elcr ftoScreT ^. 3ffe^ >HiRld<>1 ^ "cfft, e^m^ZIT 3ilo6^T>LJ| ^ I^^^^TTWr %Wo5- 3frerTT W%FTT # T^cF^a^ ^^^TcTr ^m^ "^5^ ^TcFpft 3RTcft. 3nuRtt T?^ •#^ JiW^HtJId l^r^ cf>|d"IKI 3nR ^t^f^rsfrar Pinldl (mistranslation). ^^5^^ ^if^liH Mff^Mt 3TTf^ g^TcR" H^|cblcijiR|fc|41 rJTTelT ^3^ 'irflccr -^tcT. cPFT^TcR, fxlit HIeflxiJI qrSTTF^ 3nR 'He^d 'HMcjJe^l STToS^n^ eft Wl^ ^ERctpR "cf>^^ ^\W(WS(\. ^^Uii\ ?1^ ^fR^efteT ^ITScteft # "cfJeim^, v:iciKHdc||cJ1, -cRiftTfT cR^F?^ cTR^cft ^RFT^ ^^ aTMpft ^T^5cT ^^M ^FcRT c^THT ^sra^^ sn^jpiT ^ 3r#. snR rirrrafT cbHi-ii ^Wtcr % ^^TFT ^R%, Rv!siixd7 3iTR"£ft^ciieiAi^.-qw5r?jRTTer ^Wrcr^fTT^r^-^anf^^^jramr itcIT. e^rmrOTcf5--cf5te ^^RT T $u|l>HI<51d>Jl suRdl 3RTTcfT 31^ c||e|ij^ 3TTR 3RTeTT, eR yrilcbvjiu| ^u||d| SRTeTT"^ oUlxiJI <|ili^oi eft ^1dl>HK^I f^^. (Chekhov/Hawaldar 1982: 37-38) (3) fcrar ^^TcRT 3Ttf^ RdmPi^ ^Wcr f^ 4ufl<^d ^fR^Ji^ ^^rae^ ^tcrr. eft ^ •^cfraRTteT "cf5FT "^F^ Srft. oMIefld T^^MeT eft vlAtJciK 7^i]p ^ g>H-^|d eft xiVilHI aiNeill kl>{|derm ^^feftcTcT eTTRTeT SRT 3nR ^TT^ Ml>diJ|c|xhH 213 ^>H^I t^ciix^MicI Wi fclxiiciH cb>!|iJcHI "v^Tra" 3r#. ?in^ 'idlvjiJil yf^'H •^FT^^ ^tcft. "ER^ ^oo ^?>6fe^. ITTcTT^ci^, SIFT^ "gtct? W "^cTC sffFTT 3nf^ Icfxit f^^FTSoft ^ 'Sf^ MM ^rrFW '^T^^cft. Srf^e^ MNc^dl, ^^TFT ^fRFTererr, >H-HlPlc1 aWT itcTT. *c{|R|d i^xaidleil STvJ^T ^H>H-HH fifoSTcr M>H<^d, M 6lc1cb* vdAc^clK f^^ cJIT^ ^f^JpTT HcwH-cl %cft "5n|. «ri|i^ldld T?^ •^TTSU^eTraJR ^tW. eft "gJlf^ ajl*4* cjuibujld 3RIT fcTcin" ^fTTipJ? f^^ldl 'PTNrgTT c||em^ ^ 3ffc^ ^?^fcr:'Er >Klc1:-ciJI WTFR «lkr 'TT^^ ^Et^. rJTT^ W^ ^ c^ frPt ^3R 3]|O6V11MU|| %cTT ^^ 3nR ^fRFR '^t^ ?R ^ ^ ^g^ ^llRlcbl sT^. %n^ fcfK^M * ^ ^^^TJTT, cRJ^ ^gePTT ^WT. C^ ^ ^ ^t^. ^^TTEJn" fxraJI^^f^THT ^it^ *6|c^dl l^m^ef ^ FTCT. nr aiVlldl ^^nf^r^FTTcT ^fTPk^f cfRPmT 3nf^ J^u||4jx)| ^ RlxiJIcb^^H 3raf^ Rjc>litjl 31^ -cfj^ ^cfJtrT ^^fTJTR ^TT^. ^T^. ?ft >Hc|!>HHifr ^^3^1^^ ^uiiijTii cf5t zM\-oH\ 3ffo5^iVcZTT ^SPTtWT sffFTT Srf^fE^ P^loAclc^ldl 3WT T?^ xHlf^frilcb 1^ ^tW f^. d^**!!, ci)k[*!m, cbdi^l STR^TR" "^ ^RJtTKT, ^rsr vjmT#f^R ^^RMW cRftfeTcT. (omission). cbMKIclxI, Rl-^HIcfl-ciJl ^TTgZftcR-, ^1f^J| %ete?Tr ??n^ ?fr 3T5R^: #fpr^RcfJr, ^^SRTefefT, ^fW cJie^T:!!. SRI" c||eiA|T:J "cf^t^JTH ^>H^NI ^Pfe Middiij, wi^ ^rr^ wrar srfePCTffK^ ^5t^ 3n%. TRfT^r '^\r!f -^[m VJR 214 <:ili1c|,!,H ^ cl^?5cfji^fJrcT ^"Idl-cH 31l6c|U| "gtcTq". (Chekhov/Kanitkar 2004: 21-22) We have four versions of the selected passage. Here, the post of the doctor Dymov 'rMTynnpHbiM coBexHHK' has been translated into Marathi in different ways. Gupte simply generalises it as 'doctor', omitting the professional specifications, Hawaldar translates the term literally and creates a feeling that it is a post in Russia, Kanitkar suggests about the low status of the post and says that he was a government doctor, whereas actually it means •y/W/v'? 'HcdHlH (^FTS^oR ^fft^^ToR). The post 'cBepxnrraTHbiM opAWHaxop' is omitted by Gupte, translated literally by Hawaldar and Kanitkar makes it 'a trainee'. Similarly, 'nposcKTop' is explained by Gupte as 'a work of disection of dead patients' and Hawaldar and Kanitkar use the term 'procector' and '^mRj-^iqcn' respectively. Translation of the attributes and the description of the characters in the story has been another point, where the translators seem to differ in their choice of equivalents in accordance with their interpretation: The attributes of the artist in the passage seem to vary in all the translations. This certainly depends on the choice of the translator. apmucm = '^•, Hie^Jcj^eHctJK.-^^TF^^c^irilcl^itraTchdlcbK. U3HUI,HUU, XfMHMU U CKpOMHUU = ^Ro?), xfcTRI^^ -ciiia^cd; ^g^, "^m STlf^ RT^H'TI; %^HH SR^fTrar fcHAIJ^yid. HUmanib = c|chjcc||xl SI%; ^TTWcpef^ ?r^; ^|«{|ril ^W cfj^ cRFTcft"; >Mlf^riJc||xH There are no equivalent terms for the words 'genre-painter', 'animal- painter' in Marathi. Gupte mistranslates the last part of the sentence saying that the picture received an award of 500 Rs.; Hawaldar keeps the ambiguity and does not make clear that the picture was sold. Both Gupte and Hawaldar fail to create the same meaning into Marathi. Gupte unnecessarily makes an addition. The terms for duAemaHtn-UAAiocmpamop and BuHhemucm seem to be problamatic for the translators. The Russian culturally loaded term dhUiUHa is kept in transliteration by Pansare and explained in the note. This seems to 215 be the correct form to deal with such cultural words. But here, it gives very less introduction of the term, as the Marathi reader can not imagine anything about this epic. Use of such alien words in the text may sometimes harm the aesthetic value of the text. But there is no other alternative for such translations between languages, culturally so far away from each other. The passage presents before us a picture of the elite class of contemporary Russia. The reader can easily relate the picture to his time as the attitude of the people to neglect honest and sincere persons and their work and appreciate the hypocrites still exists, in the society. Chekhov has been one of the most appreciated, loved, and translated short story writers in Marathi polysystem. Some of his stories have many versions in Marathi. But many of his stories still remain untranslated into Marathi. The untranslated Chekhov includes his important work on Sakhalin and the collection of his letters written during his journey to Sakhalin. Marathi polysystem has interest in Chekhov and his works even today. IV Soviet short stories: Soviet short stories in Marathi: The stories of many soviet writers have been published in Marathi. There are some collections of short stories titled Sovietchya Samarkatha: Part I and II (1943 and 1944), Lai Zenda (1944), Dost (1944), Maxim Gorkychya Laghukatha'(1948), Laghukatha -Maxim Gorky: Part I and II (1958, 1959), Nivadak Soviet Sahitya-Laghukatha ani Sahitya (1967), Amar Soviet Laghukatha (1968), Gulabi Ayalicha Ghoda (1980) etc. As it is visible from the above list, stories of Maxim Gorky make a major part of the translated soviet stories in Marathi. The other authors include Constantin Simonov, Ilya Erhenburg, Pyotr Pavlenko, Boris Lavrenyov, Boris Polevoi, Konstantin Paustovsky, Yuri Nagibin, Mikhail Sholokhov, Aleksander Serafimovich, Aleksei Tolstoi, Aleksander Grin, Viktor Nekrasov and many others. Almost all the translations were done through English. 216 A review of the book Sovietchya Samarkatha-Fart IF (1944) by M.N.Adawant says that the whole world is watching with wonder Russia's valour on the front. Both the books (Part I and II) depict the feat of the Russian people in war. The significant role played by women during the years of war is another factor that strikes the reviewer. •qr *!ii4H ii\^^Q\ "^ ciidic)>iui l^^^^ ant. ^•b^\•o^\ >isii^ieii ^?IKT cn^ v^ix^ji sRtsrfl^, RjsigHi eirhanft^ stf^, -cRTcf^R" 3TR" ^if^mn f^^m CF^ snt^r. •cppj cfj^ 3TT%cT - sf^ HI*Rl-4l>HK>lsiJI cptfT 3IIMI<^c|x! v5n^ J^l^r^l 4\9\4>\^ vTll>kflc1 -Gn^ sloSt fcJuiJI-^ "Ef>r?t "^>f[vT 3TI%cT, - PiHI>HK«lsiJI cf>t^ ^^^ H^W^'H^ cbaji^iH'%erer3)NU|icHI3nS55;^il3?tef. (Adawant 1945: 69) Similarly, Adawant tries to convey the real message of the ST as: •^^ "sfj^ ^3^ ^ sm^m >H4>MNI #T cif^s^ cr JIFT MUIMI err^ eiciui^m cp^ •f^ "^ W^ J^^Md fer ^f?OTT^ 3TF5raT ^^^RfT. (ibid. 69-70) While analyzing the translation process Adawant writes: '3r3cn^dd1dd^:Tg;^^3nt'3T?ftcpfcfr«?l'ycbi"^ 'y^iciicfldif^snt.'tnT^^ *m?RRrg^ ^ ^^\^^ RxHtedi ^^cjjos ni^i^il ?ncft snt. ^ eR5cF>rcFl ^rfj^ "^y^RfteT l sRTcTicr t c{i>!c|fc|uijMi "^f^icf^rm" ^^ 3nt. c^rrg^ *rmRR "?IS^?T: cfRiJ^n^ t "Ej?Tei" 3n% tf^ eT^fRr ^cf^ "qifl^JT. ^frrar cf^r^ cpt^ -fewoft '^FmRcf, oqra" c|il^>HK'!^ 3i(>^>y cilai<^3T^?r?3Tf^WTei"iner3Rlt. (ibid. 70) The collection Nivadak Soviet Sahitya (1967) was published by PPH Bookstall, Mumbai to commemorate the 50 years of the Soviet Socialist 217 Revolution in Russia. The stories were selected from the special issue of the periodical 'Soviet Literature' (April, 1967) published on this occasion. The book presents some selected passages from the preface of 'Soviet Litarature', which talk about the significance of short stories as a form. xHlRii^d xi^MH dfci*!iiixii ^fci^m MHm cmtwg^aTTt.... xHH>HJHI cfr dlfil-ddlsl ilfci>HK ^: HHc||ctj<^ FTT^ ^fTcTcT cTCT 3r?Trr 3ITf&r c^l^iJI yflclHl^^el airlTcf ajN^ijcf, cT fv^c^|oer^||T!^| apt Iffl^ cfjIciUiJI^l vdMvj)d "^"1^ ?qKT 3RTrr. Most of the Soviet stories represent the themes of the revolution, building of socialism, civil war and the Ilnd World War. The preface to the book Amar Soviet Laghukatha (1968) states that the purpose of its publication was to introduce the Soviet literature to the people of Maharashtra. The publisher's note says that the form of short story gained importance in the Soviet society. >Hi^f^*xi xHlRi^d cii,g.^ijid -^^?c^\ 4]cni^ 7isn?J "^^ fcj«dfc|uii-^i TTT ^.^ra" "JcbKHI (erp??reTT) W? ^T^cq" W^ ?TT^ Snt. ^TR^ ^X^NI cRoJT TEZTT, oMHd^^l The collections of Russian-Soviet short stories by Suniti Deshpande published recently include works of pre-Soviet, Soviet and some dissident authors. The stories of pre-Soviet authors are very few. Hence we discuss her collections in our Soviet stories section. In the book Anand-Bhet (2004) Deshpande describes herself as a person having love for language and literature and says that she has selected only those stories, which are less descriptive and have more dialogues. She explains that she does not follow any political ideology and therefore none of the stories have the influence of political atmosphere or mention of contemporary economic system. Hence, the most of these stories depict universal human concerns like family, love, human relations etc. 218 v^-v^ cpsjT *fR^ clW^ ^Jlcloilct, ^HTEnrnff cTf^cft, f^ f^ »TT^TJTT 3)l>i!^lld (Deshpande 2004: Akara-Bara) The titles of the original stories have been changed to suit the Marathi culture. She explains her view as: STNeT^fTR^J55cfJ7', % cR SMeT m>dJ||c|cj„!' •^.^. (ibid. Bara) Well-known Marathi writer Gangadhar Gadgil describes her language and translation process as: •qr cparreqr wo^idi ^^ ?io5 Tfrigt^ -^r "^, STRTCT "ER^M ^TTT^ETT CTN? c|rs^, -^^\^ t arjcfT^ fcri%er^ Sfi^cf. (ibid. Daha) Deshpande brings all the stories into Marathi directly from Russian. But they are neither literal translations nor complete adaptations. She retains the original names of persons, places and translates the 'spirit' of the ST. The word she uses to describe this process is 'Bhavanuvad'. Her works can be seen as a typical case of target-oriented version of the ST. There have always been two views to look at such translations. One, The reader-oriented view appreciates the stories as a work of TT language. While the other view criticizes such domestication, saying that it takes the reader away from the ST author. We have selected for detailed analysis a remarkable story of well- Known Soviet author - Mikhail Sholokhov. (iii) Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (1905-1984): A Soviet writer, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1965. Reminiscent of Tolstoy in its vividly realistic scenes, its stark character descriptions and, above all, its vast panorama of the revolutionary period, Sholokhov's epic became the most read 219 work of Soviet fiction. Deeply interested in human destinies which are played against the background of the transformations and troubles in Russia, he unites in his work the artistic heritage of Tolstoy and Gogol with a new vision introduced into Russian literature by Maxim Gorky. ( ) Sholokhov in Russian Poly system: Sholokhov's best-known work is the novel in four volumes And Quiet Flows the Don (1928-40), the finest realist novel about the Revolution. It ranks as the greatest epic novel of Soviet literature. While Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace (1863-69) showed how the Napoleonic campaigns united Russians, And Quiet Flows the Don portrayed the destruction of the old system, and the birth of a new society. The author was only 22 years old when he submitted the first volume of this novel for publication. Sholokhov's first works were sketches and stories of the civil war, collected in 1925 as Tales of the Don. And Quiet Flows the Don or The Silent Don is a panoramic novel based on the life of the Don Cossacks before, during and after the Revolution. It presents the struggle of the Whites against the Reds more or less objectively. His second major novel Virgin Soil Upturned (1932-1960) was the story set in the Don Cossack region. It deals with the violent social upheavals caused by the forced collectivization of agriculture in the 1930s. This work was presented as one of the masterpieces of Socialist Realism. Sholokhov joined the Communist Party in 1932 and was a loyal adherent to the party line for the rest of his life. However, he was quite outspoken in his criticism of the quality of Soviet writing. He was one of the most honoured authors of the Soviet period. Sholokhov's third important novel concerns World War II entitled They Fought for Their Country (1942), it has been published only in chapters and remains unfinished. During World War II Sholokhov wrote about the Soviet war efforts for various journals, like 'Pravda' and 'Krasnaya zvedza'. He received Stalin Prize for Literature in 1941 and Lenin Prize in 1960. Sholokhov in Marathi Poly system: Sholokhov has been discussed and translated into Marathi at various times. There are two versions of his novel Quiet Flows the Don in Marathi. The first translation entitled Zaga Zalela Desk was done by V.V.Hadap in 1947 and published by Adarsha Vangmay Prakashan, Kolhapur. The second version came in 1985, which was translated by Narendra Sindkar - entitled Don Santh Vahatach Aahe (Part I and II). It was published by Maharashtra Rajya Sahitya ani Sanskruti Mandal, Mumbai in 1985. Hadap, in the preface to the abridged version, says about Sholokhov: s^ileilchW •?[ ^g^5R]^ yfci'Mif^cii>Hi-^ ^m^ srer fcRncm •^RTCPT^ -^ cTW d1cb*<;i-ciil cralrTTfcrqK cb>!UiJi>Hlc5i 3Tv^ sn^TWT ^Hlf^c^I^tcl^T^JRr^ sn^Ie?^ cfS) anm 3FT^ "«Tcro5 SIToft 3nt, "^ ^tcJIcj; e^^ cT t^cRTJf cRcfHT ?JIT (5ct5|ct7KiHI vJ^TT effcfjcPefRixFT, 3mM^ elfeIcT^5SM^^ efrcfjcij^ ^fcT^ PIRTIU cf^^ i^, 3RTT cffelcf d1«^«^aii^l ^flefjcf^ W W ^5H^ ^. (Sholokhov / Hadap 1947: 5) Hadap explains the process of translation in the preface: cTSnft' '^WW UTeTcTl" ^ m ^PRsTf^slT ^ >M*Mid H>!lc5]cj,,!U||,>>|| ^ g^cR^ f^ ^?T£^ cj5>;diHI ^ >Hf^ri ^fTcTT^,^gffe^TTSTxH>!chK^Ipft^qra'f^^6iJ||cfld ^c^c>^l W^7l vSJT cfJKsT^ ^HcfJe^ Sirf^ "ETS^T "fchf^cbd fMel^^'W -^^ W^. fcTaiT (Ranade 1972) However, S.H.Desai (1972) replies to this criticism explaining why 'Don' has been appreciated by the critics. He argues that most of the well- known Russian writers like Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy belonged to the middle or lower middle class. But Sholokhov came from a Cossack peasant family. And hence no other writer has depicted the Russian rural life so vividly as Sholokhov. Here lies the greatness of his novel 'Don'. In fact, Turgenev and Tolstoy were blue blooded aristocrats. Gogol belonged to impoverished gentry; Dostoevsky could be called as belonging to middle class. His father was a doctor in a hospital for the poor. But Desai put all of them in one class, which is far from the reality. P.S.Nerurkar in the preface to the Marathi translation of And Quiet Flows the Don speaks of the translation process: ciJI^oil ^ ^nflrqc^ eft "^TcM^ cT WrflT^ "3^: "3FKT 3TWr. cRgcf: ctf f^ W^ ww^ aiicH'Hw cRTRTTcT w^ iq^, ^^ e^fmr "5^7^ -Gf^ -^^[^ T^[m im=^\ si^^j^M '5^RT^ wm ^^^iT^[ TrrtiiHi^w 'wm^ ^i^^M jjdelcHi sRTcft. "^ (Nerulkar 1985: XVII) He appreciates Sindkar's translation, but at the same time reveals its shortcomings. According to him the problem lies in the use of a number of coined lexical units incomprehensible to the Marathi reader and the complicated syntax. He suggests that a glossary of coined words used as equivalents to Russian words along with their contexts should be presented at the end of the translation. The translation of such an epic Russian novel into Marathi is really an attempt to introduce the great world literature to Marathi literary polysystem. However, being a government publication, it failed to reach the masses. Hence, the reception is very poor. Shingaru is the other story by Sholokhov translated into Marathi thrice. The translation by Daji Nagarkar was published in the collection of Soviet stories Nivadak Soviet Sahitya in 1967. Anil Hawaldar eind Anagha Bhat have translated it directly from Russian under the same title. Contextual Analysis of the selected Text: 'The Fate of a Man' (1956-1957): is the agonizing story of a village carpenter/mechanic whose life is shattered by war. This tale of an irreparable losses and terrible grief is embued with faith in life and the human race. But at the same time it is not a "personal" story. It reveals the individual human life in the context of the tragic events of the time and forms a sympathetic generalized portrayal of Man at War in broad historical perspective. It shows the contrast between the humane hope-inspiring and peace-loving world of socialism and the cruel, barbarous world of fascism that has unleashed the war. In this story the author 'projects himself into the narrative. It represents the discovery of a new form, which can be called the epic short story. The "cyclic" composition of the story completes in a closed circuit symbolising the life of Andrei Sokolov, the main character of the story. There are two voices in the story. Andrei Sokolov tells his own story and is the main narrator, while the author is in the role of listener, who is an extremely sensitive and compassionate human being. The author also plays an active role as a commentator in the story. 223 War and ideology of fascism are bound up in the story as a real concrete evil, which can and must be overcome. In Andre Sokolov's life, all that was good, human, progressive and engendered by peaceful labour engaged in the struggle with this terrible evil. The man of the socialist world with his faith and hope proved stronger than war. He weathered the furious storm, and emerged from it victorious. It was this human, triumphant note that gave the story its essential heroic tone. (Yakimenko 1973: 360) The long story The Fate of a Man has come in three versions in Marathi. In 1978, Pardeshi Bhasha Prakashan Griha, Moscow published a translation of the story in a small book form. However, there is no mention of translator on the book. The second translation was meant for the newspaper readers. In view of the limited space available in the newspapers, the abridged version of the story was translated and published in the Daily Sakal, Kolhapur as a part of the cdntinuous feature 'Russian Katha' in 1993. Here, the readership is quite large. And the third version of the story was published in the periodical 'Kelyane Bhashantar', Pune. The translation was done by Anagha Bhat. There is no mention of whether the translation was done through Russian or English in the Moscow publication. However, it seems to be done directly from Russian. And the other two translations are also done from Russian. Aiming to introduce the story of a great Soviet writer, the blurb of the Moscow publication reads: f^RTcR t)u||^| >HHIWJ >Hlfei^d ^l^mMI ^ciij|41 SK^^ -^ScTT "STteTUaW IClMt (Sholokhov: P.B.P.G., 1978) The translation of the story by Bhat was published in the issue of 'Kelyane Bhashantar', Pune, based on the central theme 'Fascism'. It was an attempt to introduce the Marathi readers to the ideology of Fascism spread in Europe in the beginning of twentieth century and to show what impact it made on literature. The editorial article says: Hl«H^T^I dialectical materialism "cZTT UT^siMmi fcf^ cfTfcT i?W (Editorial: Kelyane Bhashantar 2000: 4) While talking about the relevance of this topic - Nazizm - and the literature on it today, the editorial reads: Q^Rl^H t dxrl^lH STMxZTT y •^. cpR^ neofacism rzjT ^^qjcf ^f^ snP'T "5?R ^><1ifl<4 •^^TtcTcrsTM^^tc^ CR cfJIScf 3ITt. 4dcj>-c| ^^, cR*fM, 3TtcTfcfJcn-q^znxJIT3n«n^^rri^W^7T^gKr^ dT^5lH W^ 3nPT fMf SITsfJTcf? cT 3Rlf|^ ^ TU^ Tfvm 3ITv5f5qT ^TRcTRT W41tj>^dl ^ •?RJ?fr. 3Tr3fcZJT vj1MlR|cj5ncf)>!U|M| -^irTcT SfFfet 3lRdcxf f^0c|uij|>HlJl :5R^ >!|tsjldl, 5R^ Wn^ftelT, 3lc^ >HHMHI ^SRT STFTefT 1^ >H^v^dl VT1|U|K| T[UI?J^_ Tifcpw sri^ ^c|U|K| qiTfi- T^Tjp ct,|gld-0 ^^TTPT crf^I^sr STTcR^IcfJ cfT^ ctReT 3Tlt. i^cbHcj,,^ '3TP# v^lMlfclcb STTltcT!', 'STF^ ^f^c|cb 3n^!' t 6|MKil^-cij| 1^Icf5#m^ >[4l4>Kelcl ^ffrq" cR f^T^tcp;^ ''tPT ^ cR 3rP# 'sRt' 3n?tcf 'STFT^ ^fRfcft 3T?f|- 3Rft Snt', % ^JTFTRTtn" 3im?. '111 c{l-^HK^ vSmcftcT ersq^snt. fcRnc2rr"?TcTcf7TrziT^g^jcnc^ ^jfrtn^^ snefcit >!i'^ciiciiTj) -gt 'HchcMHi •f^^ 3lt^rcr^, "^oSTJt iJcT, "5^-Vr "gtcf fcR^TRcT-^Hcf^racT "Jtcft 3n% •qrcfT >Hlf^oMI«iH cra--ErDrvici^silych3^. (ibid.) The story has been included in the syllabi of most of the courses in Russian language being run at various universities. Textual Analysis: The selected passage from three versions have been given chronologically, in order of their publication i.e (1) Pardeshi Bhasha Prakashan Griha Publication, 1978; and (2) Anagha Bhat, 2000. OH BCTaji M roBOpMT: "51 oKa:acy Te5e BenMKyio necxb, cemnac nvmno paccxpenaio TGGH sa 3TM cnoBa. Saecb HeyAoGHO, 225 noMfleM BO ABOp, xaM TBI n pacnMuieiubca". - "BOJIH sauia", - roBopK) CMy. OH HOCTOHJI, noayMaji, a HOTOM KMHyji nMCTonex Ha CTOJI M HanMBaex nonnbiM CTaKan innanca, Kyco^eK xne6a B3HJ1, nojio^MJi Ha Hero HOMTHK cajia M Bce 3TO noaaex MHC M roBopwr: "Ilepefl CMepTbio Bbinew, pycc l^Ban, sa no6efly HeMeqKoro bpy«MH". ^ Gbino M3 ero pyK M CTaKan BSHJI, M saKycKy, HO KaK TOHBRO ycnbixaji 3TM cnoBa, - Mena 6yflTo orneM oGo^rno! ^yMaIO npo ce6H: "MTo6bi 5L, pyccKMM coHAaT, Aa CTan HMTB sa noGeay HCMeuKoro opy^MH?! A Koe-^ero TW ne xo^euib, repp KOMeHflaHT? OflMH ^lepx MHe yMMpaxb, xaK npoBajiMCb xbi nponaflOMCo CBoeMBOflKOM!" riocxaBMJi H cxaKaH na cxon, saxycKy nonoacwn u roBopio: "BnaroAapcxByio sa yromeHwe, HO JI HenbiomMM". OH ynbi5aexcH: "He xo^ieuib nwxb sa namy noBeny? B xaKOM cnyT^ae BbineM sa CBOK) norM6enb". A ^xo MHC GBUIO xepHXb? "3a CBOK) nornGenb w MsGaBneHwe ox MyK H Bbinbio", - roBopio eMy. C xeM BSHH cxaKan M B flsa rjioxKa Bhinvui ero B ce5H, a saKycKy ne xponyn, Be^uiMBeHbKo Bbixep ryGbi naflOHbio m roBOpio: "BnaroflapcxByio sa yromenwe. 51 roxoB, repp KOMeHAaHx, noMfleMxe, pacnwiuexe Mena". Ho OH cMOxpnx BHMMaxenbHO xaK M roBopwx: "Tbi xoxb saKycH nepefl CMepxbio". 9[ euy na 3xo oxBenaio: "H nocne nepBoro cxaxana ne saKycbiBaio". HajiHBaex OH Bxopow, noflaex MHe. Bbinwn H M BxopOM M onnxb ace saKycKy He xporaio, Ha oxBary 6bio, nyMaio: "Xoxb nanbiocb nepefl xeM, KaK BO ABOp MflXM, C »M3HbK) paCCXaBaXbCa". BblCOKO HOflHHJl KOMeHflanx CBOM 5ejibie 5pOBM, cnpauiMBaex: "MTO }Ke He saKycbiBaeuib, pycc MBaH? He cxeciMPiCH!" A H eny CBoe: "MaBMHprre, repp KOMeHflaHT, H M nocne Bxcporo CTaKaHa ne npwBbiK saKycbiBaxb". HaAyn OH meKW, (|)bipKHyn, a HOTOM KaK aaxoxo^ieT M CKBOSb CMeX MTO-TO 5bICTpO rOBOpMT nO-HeMeDjKM: BHflHO, nepesoflMT MOM cnoaa flpysbHM. Te TO«e paccMeajiMCb, cxynbHMM 3'aHBMrajiM, noBopa^MBaiOTCH KO MHB MopnaMM u yace, saMe^aio, KaK-TO wna^e na Mena nornHflbiBarox, spofle noMarne. HaJiMBaex Mne KOMeHflanx xpexMM cxaKan, a y caMoro pyKM xpacyxca ox cMexa. 3xox cxaKan a Bbinwi Bpacx5WCKy, oxKycMJi MajieHbKMM Kyco^ieK xneSa, ocxaxoK nono)KMJi na cxoji. Saxoxenocb Mne MM, npoKnaxbiM, noKasaxb, ^ixo xoxa; K M c ronofly nponaflaio, HO flaBMXbca MXHew nofla^KOM ne coGwpaiocb, ^xo y Mena ecTh CBoe, pyccKoe AOCXOMHCXBO M ropAOCXb M ^xo B cKOXMHy OHM MCHH He npeBpaxMJiM, KaK HM cxapajiMCb, riocne 3Xoro KOMennaHx cxaji cepbesHbiM c BM^y, nonpaBMJi y ce5H Ha rpyflM ABa KenesHbix Kpecxa, Bbiinen M3-3a cxona 5e30pyacHbiM M roBopMx: "Box HXO, COKOHOB, xbi - HacxoamMw pyccKMM coHflax. Tbi xpaGpbiw connax. H - xo^Ke conflax M yBa^aio flocxoMHbix npoxMBHMKOB. CxpejiHXb a xe6a He 6yA,y. K xoMy )Ke ceronna HauiM floSnecxHbie BOMCKa BbiumM K Bonre M Li;enMKOM OBjiaAeJiM CxajiMHrpaflOM. 3xo wia Hac Bonbuiaa paflocxb, a noxoMy a BenMKOAyuiHO flapio xe6e ^M3Hb. CxynaM B CBOM 6noK, a 3xo xe5e sa cMejiocxb", - M noflaex MHe CO cxona neGonbuiyK) GyxaHKy xne6a M KycoK cana. (Sholokhov 1957) (l) cfr^s^ wu-^rflcn" snPfr ^uiidi: '^fn 'ter W^H ^<»\\i snt 'ft. ^^^ 6|)c|UA||6|^el Wfe^ 'W^ 'ft ^f^: •^ 'ffoSt tllduiK 3TT%. W( ^ ^ ^^^^it ZIcjTei". ^^icf? cilxhxli 1^ Tcira- ^RcIT, MNWI T?c|5 gcfj^ tf^j^ ??ncR Hmi^l i?cj} g?f5^ ^^TelT Snf&T t W\^ Hl^l^i ^5ft?r *^uildl: 'viT^ •^RoTR^rt^JlT f^^JTZTR^TcR ' WsTT ^T?n^ ^ "Ten^ Snf^-qrcTT^ ^cp^ "ElRTcIT 1?Tm •^•cPe^ITcR" "TTfJIT 3t?T:cJ)>iU||cH| vJf^ c^uJld'JI [cl>k1c|l^ ^Tcli^ "^ STlt 3r?t TelT ^T^. i1^x!«ii-fl«si^d 3fmrJt snt, t^T ^ ^re ikr ^^THcft.' ^ f?Pf^ ^^TCTT. 'SI^! STFTEJIT *^U|NT^ ctTtfNr cPRTJT "^T^. '^, >Md:t>lJI Jj^r^cbRdJ 3nf^ ZfTcHJ^ ^g^ tlpf fW^ 'ft IM.' 'ft TeTW "EtcTerr 3TTf^ ^R^ -EffeRT ftcTT ^KTT. ^M MNIdl 'ft '¥^ %cTT"^.^3^F55Tr3ife^^gfTf^^ui|cHl: '^^ft^WpftsI^cT «RRrr^!'ft cWR 3nt, "?? <*>Mi>^ci, vSnvSt -qr. TefT "^cfj^ 'trcf>o5 "cfj^^ -CIW.' gcfj^ ^?ITv3Fr -eicfj.' ^ rmen" ^3TR f^: 'MI^C^I 'eTRTH^R 'ft cf?^ cf^ ^?IKT ^^.' c^ ^>H^! ^M3r=^TTc^lT?f^^dlc|dl.'ft'TT?i"MM"lldl cncTeT'gt^t, >H^"1d? TeTT c||(^ dMId cf?|- H4»1xH.' Tft ^JTTelT TT^T cix!lfc|cb T3TR f^: '^FTT c^^, %? cbHi^dd, W] "^^RIT 'cfRTRcRgs^ TefT ^Pl^ ^\»i]\-^ ^if^ ^TT^cT 'Tift.' c'lH ^TTTeT ^TM, HFfjJSm ^^Rc^ Snfcfr'R T?c|5^ cfr ^ # cp^FT ?^ •dFT^. ^^ c{7Tff^ ^RT^RT sftcTdT, sT^^ ^MlcR cfT^ cT ^gs^ %^ crPTef. •^'IFft 1^ 'TT^ ^{R^pf^fe^TT "? 3?Ne?TT "df TM c|o6<51d sRdcft 3TT%, fr[xZJTcT sM f^^FETcTT 3ncft 3TTt. "ti^lfecjoi-HH fcl>H-Mic;i 'dRT ^ReTT. ^>H"iJigoX ?iircr IKT SR3R?T"^Ict. 'ft eft # 'efRT >H|c|chi|:^| ftv3R dcpdl. tTTclTm" W wVmi ^cfTST 'ft^ ^aicdl 3TTf^ vixicldl •qTcr?RTTW ^'siciMxl ^f^. TcTTclIT ^debdHI c{|>y<^H UlTTW"^ c^ vJT^ 'ft ^J^ 3l4*^dl ?ncfr SRTcTi" erft riTpft ')'cb<^c^l ^cPvd-qj'fl 'ft TW ^ ^R'TR 228 'WTCR *i ^ftt^f5teftcr, ^ ^g^ ^if^|i^^ flNTf 3n%^. 't '^ ^ "f^Fnt snt^. 'ft "g^^fr flml 3n% "^. cfYrtcT 3TM SfFTrZlT "?TfcRT9ITcft i\^^m ^tcTn" y^^lJd f^T^^ >kilfeHilKr|| r^ cTRT "^t^TelT Snt. Snf^ v^\^ 3TTv5r 3TF^ 31ciJMcjid STmlRT. '^T'p 'ft vS^R t ^rSR" W.'"^cRT sff^ ?m^ TTcH" TJteRTT ^TTcT 3IT^ (Sholokhov/PBPG 1978: 48-50) cit"^*n">:ifBdi 3fTf^J^uiMi, "'ft ^ 'fRra" ^H'+^M cRcfr. ur ^i«ji>Hic^ ^ft ^?c[cf: ^eTT'M •qTci?fr. ^ wr ^irt^ ^fer snftTfcrsm'R." "^jRft ^q^it ^^sr!" 'ft •^TRefr. ailvdl^oi ?fr -^3^ >!lfBdl. f^-clKM •tTSefT. TT ft^^ t«lcncR T^^ cJTFr fi^m" TT^ TeTRT ^ReTT. st^5^ T?cp- errffcRTT ^cFST cfJT^ c^IIcR rR^ft^ 1^^?^ ^^cTT 3iiR)i ^uiieii, "^%JR^^FT, mm-o^ snfr^ vjp^ !^i>e?iMi Rivjiijmic^) it." ift rljl^l ^Idl^j^H'efRTSnf^lf^Wgcfj^ tluiK^ itcftclcldiJId Tn^ZTT cbH|c|>! t ^Is^ "q^ 3#r TlcIT "^ ^f^cPT sRTeTT. ^ft ^fH^ft *^u|ld\ "^t <(^|iH %qT| "^I'^ ^R^TTSTT fcMTTRTT^ ftw T^^cfRT? ^ cFH^ STFTRlt cpTq- cfjRT cRFTefT ^HiJ|iiJ1d?"^cTfl'6f#fR!^3||fi)| ^^ ci\<^4>\ H>HU|ld J^dld!" Tft ^feTRT snR irs^ gcf>^ tsTeTTcR ^cTeTT 3TTf^ ^uild"), "HlguNKN^d STT'TR •q^ 'ft 'fWCT ^." eft FfrmeTT d|J|dl 3nf^ *^"lidl, "3IW5qT fcTsrqRn^ TJTTqrj- •^T#^ Wq" ^? ^tcfj- ant. >Md:-ciJI Hx!uimic5] Tft." TT^t tfJRT ^^^flcT ^? ">Md:-»!JI TRTJTTsI^ 3TTf&r Woil^H >^ci^6|^d "Ptcff," ift ^"lldY 3Rt '^^^ 'ft 'eTRT vd^^ddl cloScZn^ 3tfB-gxaeT 3#>T "i^qTefr, "mguNKNW 3TNR.t? *^i^e T^dl, 'ft'RRelT cWR STlt." cit TlWr^ er?T^ 6ra?T ^dlefT snf^ ^uildl, "'RTJ^IT^ f%^PT eft fl^ cTft ^." c^rra?'ft ^TR fer, "Mf^c>MI JdmHdxIT^tcCT^^IRt^^. " e^^^RfetRT ^Reft snftfr tcTt felt, 'ft "^^Rt Jdl>H^ f^t^R" dlcbdl; "tPT 3P^TtcTt ^Ict dMdl "^ttft. 'ft^HW^i^^ciedSnf^fctxTR^ett, '«rt|^ MeiJ|U|ld >^|V*H H<<:\\-\\ f^J|!R|iH '^crPT, ^gjct cfjt "^TF^ft? dMdliJ>H cfft wq"?" 'ft ^^ ^qtett ^ ^^ixR fet, "tR5" cfj^ %7 cb^i-^d; W\ "g^RTf JdmHdx!^ Tft cf5# ^TcT ^TT^." c^ •qTet ^tcfet Stlf^ ?ft OOC $>!^^!dl WJ 'i^'i\^'i\ 6>Hd ^gScIT. "g^FRTrFfMr vj|4H*1>y^H \i\^^ >HHimdl cHHIdl. 6||<^ct7 ^J^cT:^5!TT f^rSfPTT ^ -^FT sTlddl ^ ^rNKR "Jp^^ WKT "?tcTT. cT ^M ^>HI'4dl «s|yuil«J1':T3R3TKTT6|«ielcfl'?l^.rincT$^del ^^cl. cFTFSS^ ^1^1>HI<^ fcRRT TcfRT ^R^fT. c^ -gra" ^^^P^TTg^ aR?RcT "^. ?T^ •TcfM "^ ^cicbM >HMc|<7ll. sPSxJJT ^ch^^NI sTr^^cfJW xJTcfT dp\^-\ ^i^(A\ ^* ^6|dlc|>! tRcT^cTen". TTefT?!TT ^dcbdlHI ci|x!c|<^H UFTcT-gTct "# g^^yf^ cbmi<51>H IlTcTr SRTefr clfr vOir% T^JcfTeTeT ^cp;^ ^ 3raT??TRTR^ ^?3FTR "^T^cfT. TcTT TfTflT Wll^HH itcTT. ^fn# ^?%£Fr srf^JTcfT #dt 3nR ?llt=ft fcp^ "Srac^ %en" ciit ^TcfT vHHMx! fiH^H dlcbui c^TFTT VH^UIK TJ^. "^ d'l^a>^ !^fl4M<4cb ?qr^ c51cb6|ct5 %c?l. Rc|i|+^| ^Icli-fl ?fr ct-sldNI'^^'l "^^efT 3ni% J^uildl, ">Hc|5dlc|, ^ vyxll'il^!! >!f^mH tlRlf 3n^. ^"^ >^Plcb 3?!^. ^T^ -^R* 3Trt3nf^:^l^xij| JjU|iT||Tt3TT^cj5^. itgcIT^ffl^yidU|K^^.fllc[Rr aiTR^ZTT ^RiuiHH -q^Rt^ ciicHim4d «rscfj- TTRC^V snR >kiifcHHiiK •'jo^ cpifN" %cRr. (Sholokhov / Bhat 2000: 13) The above translations by Pardeshi Bhasha Prakashan Griha, 1978 ind Anagha Bhat are very close to ST in content and style, and reveal the very ;pirit of ST, except a few cases. Hence, no literary translation has been )rovided by the researcher here. *Be^aiM:BeHbKO Bbixep ry5bi naflOHbio: The first version by PBPG translated improperly reduces the neaning and loses the significance and effect of the action performed by the )rotagonist in that particular situation. *KaK-TO MHa^e na MCHH nornHAWBarox, Bpone noManie. Hl^lc^N^ m^Uiiirj] CJM^ oRT slcidcfl 3nt, Rl^id ?M f^^^d/ 3IT# rhe second version by Bhat is improper. *nonpaBMJi y ceGn na rpyflw flBa ^ejiesHbix Kpecxa, !30 otn^ STFTe^TT Wl^ci^-^ c/)^^? ^hH ^<\ 'W^ ^eT; Wl<^c|>; ciechc|(^c^ ^WolJT Here, the explanation of ABa accAcsHbix Kpecxa by Bhat is appropriate in view of TT readers. The story brought into Marathi polysystem quite impressive image of the Russian spirit through the character of Sokolov. Marathi people experienced the horrors of World War II during the colonial period. A number of issues related with this war were being discussed in India at that time. The crisis of the national liberation movement and the struggle against fascist army had become cruciaL But the main focus of the Indian people was on the struggle for independence. The story shows the courage and patriotism of Russians during the decisive phase of war. The translation of the story also introduced the readers a form and technique, new to Marathi literary system. The Soviet short stories cover themes such as the revolution, civil war, World War and Soviet life and society. The heroic role of the Soviet people in the war against fascism is one major theme found in these stories. Mikhail Sholokhov's story The Fate of a Man is the representation of the same. It leaves a lasting impact of the content of the story on the TT reader. (iv) Children's literature make a major part of the Russian literature translated into Marathi. Hence, we select a story for children for our analysis. Children's Literature in a polysytem: Only a short time ago, children's literature was not even considered a legitimate field of research in the academic world. Scholars were most often concerned solely with its pedagogic and educational value and not with its existence as a literary phenomenon. This tendency developed mainly as the result of the cultural conception of childhood in society and the attitude toward children's literature resulting from it. Today in view of the dynamic polysystem concept of literary systems 13] there has been a conceptual change in the understanding of children's literature. It is understood that children's literature is part of the literary polysystem, that it is a member of a stratified system in which the position of each member is determined by socioliterary constraints. Thus, it is an integral part of society's cultural life. There is a trend to expect the total exclusion of normative or ideological questions (such as the contribution of a certain book to the child's welfare). Children's literature fulfils a basic role in the establishment of canon(s) in the dynamics of the literary field. History teaches us that this basic role specifically is heavily influenced by translation, since the repertoire of children's books and children's (narrative/literary) discourse are systematically developed on the basis of international traditions. The status of this international tradition and the role of commercial factors in a globalized world community have become a major point of concern. The previously undiscussed questions of the import of Western children's literature, commercialization and the dominance of Westernized books and if it can create a hindrance for the development of native (non-Western) children's literature are being discussed. How translations in the field of children's literature in a particular language were historically undertaken, what kind of functions they fulfilled, and what kind of relationship they had with creative production, too, is another area of research. Translation of children's literature: In general sense translation of children's literature is very similar to that of other literary texts. Yet translating children's literature has its own special features: children's books are often illustrated and often meant to be read aloud; the books also have a dual audience, children and adults. The process of translating children's literature from the angle of child images and their influence on the translation strategies (domestication and foreignization) is an important area of study, the other areas being the study of ethics, values and norms as well as manipulation, ideology and reading. Norms of Translating Children's Books: The children's literature has a peripheral position within the literary polysystem. As a result, unlike contemporary translators of adult books, the translator of children's literature can permit him/herself great liberties regarding the text. That is, the translator is permitted to manipulate the text in various ways by changing, enlarging, or abridging it or by deleting or adding to it. A translator is permitted to use all these translation procedures if s/he adheres to the following two principles, on which translation for children is based: (i) an adjustment of the text to make it appropriate and useful to the child, in accordance with what society regards (at a certain point in time) as educationally "good for the child"; (ii) an adjustment of plot, characterization, and language to prevailing society's perceptions of the child's ability to read and comprehend. Nowadays, the second principle, that of adjusting the text to the child's level of comprehension, is more dominant. These usually (not always) complementary principles determine each stage of the translation process. They dictate decisions concerned with the textual selection procedure (which texts will be chosen for translation), as well as with permissible manipulation. They also serve as the basis for the systemic affiliation of the text. But most important of all, in order to be accepted as a translated text for children, to be affiliated with the children's system, the final translated product must adhere to these two principles, or at least not violate them. (Zohar 1986) Affiliation to Existing Models: Translation of children's literature tends to relate the text to existing models in the target system. This phenomenon, known from general translational procedures, is particularly prominent in the translation of chil dren's literature because of the system's tendency to accept only the conventional and the well known. If the model of the original text does not exist in the target system, the text is changed by deleting or 133 by adding such elements as will adjust it to the integrating model of the target system. (This phenomenon also existed in the past in vari ous adult literatures, although long after it ceased to be prevalent in the adult canonized system, it still remained prominent in children's literature.) Nevertheless, the actual decision of what to omit is the result of the need to revise the text in accordance with two main criteria, in addition to the systemic affiliation: first, the norms of morality accepted and demanded by the children's system; second, the assumed level of the child's comprehension. (Zohar 1986) Children's literature in Russian and Soviet polysystem: Fiction for children, on the whole, was firmly rooted within the Russian /Soviet social system. Russian has an ancient tradition of enriched folk-literature for children. The fables, fairy tales, folk-stories greatly contribute even today to the children's life in Russia. Fables and stories by Tolstoy have greatly enriched the Russian literature. Even a serious author like Dostoevsky has contributed to children's literature in his ovm way. Until the revolutionary period children's literature was not a highly publicized genre. After the Soviet regime took over and Russia became a part of USSR, the published work of children's literature exploded. It enjoyed a remarkably high status in the Soviet system, at the same time it was much guided and monitored. One of the main reasons was the regime's endeavour to create a new kind of society, a socialist society that, in the long run, would bring the country to communism. In this process, any literary production had a considerable role to play in educating the masses. Therefore, it was assumed that the need for close control and guidance also held true for children's books. Children's literature was used to shape young lives. From the time children were two to three, they leamed and were read to verse tales, folklore, and long tales. The subversive message within the stories was that of Soviet ideals but not necessarily realisms. The characters used were things that Russian children could relate to and viewed in their world. Samuel Marshak (1887-1964) is considered a major name in children's writings in the Soviet Russia. Some of his verse tales include Snooks, Henny 234 Penny and the Ten Ducklings, The Silly Little Mouse, and the The Two Cats. One more well-known children's author is Komei Chukovsky (Nikolay Vasilyevich Komeychukvov) (1882-1969). Chukovsky is a Russian Dr. Sues and Santa Claus all wrapped into one. He is a well known literary critic, language theorist, translator, and author. He has translated works from English and American authors such as Whitman and Dickens. Some of his well known verse tales includes The Crocodile, Was 'En Clean, and The Giant Roach (also translated The Cockroach). Komei uses a classic form consisting of clockworth rhythms to air mischief and lightness. The main conventional theme is of cooperative action and social responsibility. His works have been adapted to theatric works, movie pictures and even opera and ballet. Komei and Samuel with the help of Sergei Mikhalkov and Angle Barto shaped the literature for preschool children (age 3 through kindergarten). There have also been tales - short tales written for this age group. Two well- known ones are Sunrays and Mitya's Four Wishes, written by Konstantin Ushinsky (1842 -1870), who is one of the Russian educators dedicated to writing for children in the 19th century. Over a century later his tales are still being read. The other prominent authors include Agnya Barto, Daniil Kharms, Boris Zhitkov, Arkady Gaydar, Lev Kassil, Nikolay Nosov, Anatoly Aleksin, Yury Korinets, Eduard Uspensky, Yury Koval. Children's literature in Marathi polysystem: Children's literature as an independent category came into existence in Marathi in the beginning of 19' century during the British mle. Before that Marathi had its own tradition of oral literature for children: folk songs, stories, palana, angai etc. The first printed book meant for children in Marathi was Balbodh Muktawali (1806), which was a translation of Aesop's Fables. The King of Tanjawar Sarfoji Bhosale got it done from Sakhkhan Pandit or Subborao Shesho. The children's books in the beginning were a part of newly started academic courses in schools. This process of translation continued further and helped the creative writings for children in Marathi. The first translations were done from English and Sanskrit. In 1828, two translated books Balmitra ('The Children's Friend' by Berkwis -a German book) and Isapniti ('Aesop's 235 Fables' by Croxall) were published, which received the prize of Duxina Prize Committee. The other books translated in that period include: The Beauty and the Beast, Paul and Verginia etc. The first children's magazine in Marathi was published by the American Mission in 1872. A popular magazine in Marathi 'Chandoba' has been serving since long its purpose to entertain the children of school age. It has introduced to Marathi children not only Indian epic, but also European/ Western epic. The collection of stories from Panchatantra has also been popular among the children. A part of children's literature in Marathi today is of the literature translated from various Indian as well as foreign languages. Many of stories for children have been translated from different Indian languages by some institutes like National Book Trust, Children's Book Trust, Balbhavan etc. And the others have entered into Marathi polysystem from foreign languages either through English or directly from the SL. They include popular books like Tottochan (Japanese) and others. Russian Children's Literature in Marathi: Translations from Russian had been done earlier by various publications even before the independence. But the Soviet publication like Progress and Raduga published the translations of a number of story books for children in Marathi. The beautiflil colours and illustrations, good quality and large font size made the books popular. Even the prices were low. But this inflow stopped after the disintegration of USSR. A review of translations for children from Russian literature into Marathi can be divided into two major groups: Pre-Soviet/Russian and Soviet. Marathi has accepted from pre-revolutionary period two types of stories: one, from the ancient Russian folk-literature: collection of fairy tales and fable stories like Sundar Vasilisa {Vasilisa the Beautiful) and a number of Russian Folk-stories; the other stories are of Leo Tolstoy, either translated or adapted versions: Tolstoychya Goshti (1934), Tolstoychya Bodhkatha (1942), Tolstoychya Balkatha (1947), two versions of Ivan the Fool - Veda Ivan (1938) and Bholya Ramjiche Manorajya (1954), Manuski (1946), Ramachi Karamat (1948), Caucasiousmadhil Kaidi (1955), Mulansathi Goshti (?). 236 Many of Tolstoy's stories have been so familiar to Marathi readers that they have lost their Russian origin and become a part of Marathi literary system. For example, the stories Landaga Aala Re Aala is considered by many as an old story from Panchatantra. A collection of Tolstoy's stories with illustrations namely Mulansathi Goshti has a story Haiti (An Elephant) which starts with a mention that it happened in India. The book Tolstoychya Goshti has eight stories. Jaywant Jagtap, the publisher, in his preface talks about the reference of Christianity in Tolstoy's stories: ift^triHl- f^ 1^ sTRsfcWEfter cTERraT vJc^^ %eTT 311%. "tR^ ciJI^oX Rx|cbUiJ|^ cfJRTT ^. •^T^ erfliSfm^ W^ ^H^ ^RTcT 3RTo?TTg^ cf ^ fp^ f^RtuT (Tolstoy/ Jagtap 1934: Preface) The book includes the popular story Eka Manasala Kiti Jameen Lagate?, which is known to many Indians as written by Tolstoy. In 1938, the great scholar Dharmanad Kosambi translated the story Ivan the Fool (Veda Ivan) for students. It is a beautiful translation done from Russian. But Kosambi mentions in an end note that his knowledge of Russian was not sufficient and therefore in his translation process he had taken help of the English version by Leo Wiener. He gives footnotes explaining the words like Kvas, Xorovod, Autumn etc. The footnote on 'kvas' reads: ^Jrar xtf^mn ^TT^ cfcfRT i^ui^id. -gT cRTfT f^r#Rlo5^ tll-qiMlxiiH 4)<^M. ^^\m (Tolstoy/Kosambi 1938: 6) However, '^' is not the correct equivalent in Marathi. The correct way is to explain it is 'a drink formed from the rye'. The translation of the story 'Manuski' was published as a part of self- study book series for school children from 5-6-7^ standard. The book Tolstoychya Balkatha, as it is mentioned in the book, was translated by A.B.Khardikar directly from Russian in 1947, while the others 237 were translated through English. The language is simple and the style is effective. There are a number of beautiful story books for the children of very low age group with colourful pictures, which attract the children and create interest in their minds. The books like Kolhi Ani Sasa {The Vixen and the Hare) are loved by the children. The stories from Soviet literature include many novels/stories: Russian Balkatha (1944), Malya, Lalya, Mavali (1949) by Maxim Gorky, Vitya Maleev - Ghari v Shalet (1953/1965/1988) and Shalkari Mule (1961) by N.Nosov, Suraitala Rakshas (1961) by Lagin Lazar, Chota Sainik (1973) by M.Sholokhov, Timur Ani Tyachi Balchamu (?) , Don Bhau (1980) by Arkady Gaidar, Leninchya Balkatha (1980) by N.Bogdanov, Denischya Goshti (1985) by Viktor Dragunsky, Ivan (1987) by V.Bogomolov. The two major themes of these stories are: one, funny stories about small children and their experiences; and two, about the participation of children in the struggle of Soviet society, in war. The stories from the first group have proved to be popular in Marathi polysystem. A book like Vitya Maleev - Ghari v Shalet came in three editions 1953, 1965 and 1988. The book Denischya Goshti has been still popular among Marathi children as well as parents. The theme as well as the simple narrative style of small children was something new in the Marathi literary system. A short novel on the same theme Seryozha (2004) by Vera Panova aroused interest in the readers' mind. It is a direct translation from Russian.The reviews of the book published in the newspaper Daily Sakal, periodicals Lalit, Kelyane Bhashantar and Palakniti, Pune, appreciated the translation. The translator Megha Pansare writes in the preface about her translation stategy: •^ ^Hlf^C'iJ^dl?!! STTJ^IcT fc)u||-^l c|Nct)|r|| 3TTp'T^|t|id^!MI cJNchNI 3T^[^ ijidld Sjcf? yilHI^ cfj^ W^ if^ WfK^. riTT f^t^ Mc^ cfj^ t ^TMcRcfJRTcI' cjj^ ^ciuiji-di arm? m^ snt. "fm^ ^frnwrr TftRrr >HifB^ (Panova/ Pansare 2004: Preface) 238 The preface also speaks about the translator's intention: •^^cT^, WWJm ^ RlolMd, WWF "qicfj^ STTcpf^ ^^dMI R^dld. ^fTTST ^ "^rreiRt^ "fecRTTcfleT m^ SFT •?IRTVr ^f^cT:-?fl-, Snf-cffeefRfl W(l^ im^ ^gcTHT "?FFq- ^ •^. snf^ 3f^ TTTEZRi^ ^>IMI $>H MMctjiHI "^JRcT ^^. 3R1T M" ^gertxT W^ ^1^ STFteT, c^lHt cbeMHI^lRrl ^efcteT 3r^ ^^TPT filldxHlfBriJ H>!l<51d f^PTK "?t^, W? »jmi<^d WTer •q^ ^uiiixll Me^ 3nt, 31% ^f^TW^^ffcT. (ibid.) The depiction of a deep friendly relation slowly developed between a small boy and his step father in the story is a new element in the Marathi literature and culture. The second theme 'children in the socialist state' and 'war' is totally new to the Marathi polysystem. The translator V.G.Phatak in his preface to the book Vitya Maleev - Ghari v Shalet says that N.Nosov is a favourite writer of the Soviet children. According to him Nosov writes with a deep study of the children's psychology. He depicts the life of the common children in the Soviet Union. The healthy and enthusiastic children there like fun and being naughty. But at the same time they are sensitive to the principle of 'Truth' and 'Justice', because that is the foundation of the Soviet life. While comparing the children's literature in Marathi and Russian, Phatak puts forward a very interesting factor. He feels that the well-known stories which his generation read: David Copperfield and Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens, Marathi stories like Sukhacha Mulmantra by N.H.Apte and Shyamchi Aai, Dhadpadnari Mule by Sane Guruji, depict the life of children from a particular social strata - i.e. middle class. We do not find the life of working class depicted in these stories because the writers belong to the middle class. Secondly, all the above mentioned stories have 'compassion' as a deep and central thread. The reason is that the authors do not have concrete knowledge of the cause of the social problems existing in the society and the 239 socialist way to solve them. They do not have any relation with the productive class of workers and peasants, who are responsible for the formation of the new social structure. In this situation they stand to fight the social problems relying only on their conscience and logic and hence this middle class intelligentsia is filled with nervousness, eventually creating a feeling of 'compassion' that we see in their writings. Phatak says that unlike India, the Soviet Union offers the opportunity of receiving education to all the children. And therefore the literature has become the representation of the whole society. Hence, there we do not find the constant undercurrent of 'compassion'. About the story he says: cbSltJl H\-iu'\\ sfl^RK WxJjm-cD •^. sfTcT-\41cHMI ^rSTTcT vg^^ ancTc^TT >Hc|41fcIxt)tci W&J WTS\ xllddl 3ITt, Jfc^raM "#cRKT "^ f^o^ clld^el. (Nosov/Phatakl953/1965/1988: Preface) Whereas, Satyabodh Hudalikar in his preface to the translation Shalkari Mule says: • ^ ^^^1^ ^ "^f^RPT 3RTer cT^t c^ *fTW^ 3r??T?r ^g^fcf? ?TTM 3nt. TTT?ft 3T?ft ^IToft STF^ cf5t vjlJliifld cb^kiJI^ ^TT^ % -^^[^i 3<^c||f^d ^TTei" clfr cllT 31jc|Kcbldl STFTc^ cl^licild^ ^tl^ W?T felf^c^l Jlc^l>HK>!sl|l 3TTSo5;=T McT. ^lU^xT cfJT^ 3Rtn" cf "^ slcjdc??! cfst HTcTT ^^ 3T^clK ?1TJR! (Nosov/Hudalikar 1961: Preface) This is a typical case of adaptation and domestication of the story, where the names and places have been changed to suit the reader's taste. But some of the elements of foreign culture in the ST remain intact even in the adapted version. For example, the description of the national festival in the story is that of the Independence Day of India - 15"^ August. But the gifts the children receive include roller skates and the marks they receive in their report 240 card are TWO, FOUR or FIVE, as in the Soviet Union. There they have a five mark system for results, unlike 100 mark system in Indian schools. No explanation about it is provided and as a result Marathi readers may misunderstand it. A story The Bastard by Mikhail Sholokhov was translated into Marathi by Tara Pandit in 1973 under the name Chhota Sainik. There is a shift in the very title of the story, turning it from negative to positive. The preface to the story explains the process of mutual sharing by different languages through the translations of children's literature. It reads: 3iivJiTiji -(mS[ 6iM>Hif^rijiT51 TjTfi^-qp^nc^r sfTeTcn^^nr girt sr^-cfji^l c?l*icbK ^TRcfrq- •qfkrf^ cRitrit -wmk m^-. cifler "^M fct?n^ 3RICRT C|T 3r?i?q- cn^^ ^^TT^. 'Mi>J^(r|cj5 ^c||U|fclc||ul) ^^^^c^[ ^FFTJCR fcpTRpft -^ -eicfj^ ^^rr^cf, ^^uFn^eircziT w^im[^ rJTHt f^ ^ ^n^ •^RTefellPTT t ^^^TcfT cfjctlRld rffcfJcT cp^. "^^ W^ W^Tf, 3r«TRT 241 *ielN^d - cT^^3TTt. (Yakovlev 1987:5) It is really surprising for our readers to know about a boy who gets involved in war at the age when he must study and enjoy his childhood. It further condemns the imperialist modem wars, which do spare neither the children and women nor the old people. There the soldiers are not aggressive but murderers. The war forced by the Fascist Germans against the Soviet Union was the crudest, the most destructive war ever in the human history. The names of children Tanya, Volodya Dubinin, Gulya Korolyeva and Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya, who courageously fought in the war and sacrificed their young lives to their motherland create in the minds of the readers a great honour for them and their motherland - Russia. The message Yakovlev gives to the readers in the preface is: H^cc||-cl f^u]^ H\^^H\M< im cfjxllijell %cf5-. (ibid. 12) The story Don Bhau {Chuk and Gek) by Arkady Gaidar published in 1980 appeals the children from the age group of its heroes - 6-10 years. They easily relate themselves with the behaviour of the heroes in the story. The travelling experience is quite thrilling for them. But at the same time the alienating elements like description of unfamiliar geographical areas like Moscow and Taiga ,and the nature there, that of snow, cold, sledge, bears, food, hare, new year celebration and the references of war, soldiers, fascists in the children's games and songs make them feel that they are reading/listening something from a far distant place. It needs to see which children's books have been selected for translation by the translators/publishing industry in Marathi and to contrast them with those 'home-grown' books. This hopefully serves to shed light on the situation in the Marathi translation industry as well as on the contents, function, importance and prestige of translated children's books. But this certainly can be an independent topic of research. 242 Contextual Analysis of the selected Text: The Stories of Dennis: The collection of short stories about a small boy namely Denischya Goshti was published by Raduga Publication, Moscow in 1985. It was the Marathi translation of the book The Stories of Dennis by Victor Dragunsky. Soon it became popular among the 'young parents' and their children. No reviews or articles were found regarding the book or reader' response. Textual Analysis: The introductory part of the story reads: 51 OHCHb JIIO6JIIO JiGMh ^MBOTOM Ha nanpiHO KOneHO, onycTPixb pyKH M Hom M BOX TaK BMcexb Ha Konene, KaK 6ejibe na saGope. Eme Ji oneHb mo'ojuo wrpaxb B uiauiKM, uiaxMaxw VL flOMMHO, XOHbKO HXo6bI o6H3axenbHO BblMrpblBaXb. ECHH He BbiMrpbiBaxb, xor^a ne Haflo. yl JIIO5JIIO cjiymaxb, KaK ^yK KonaexcH B KopoGoHKe. PI jiioGnio B BbixoflHOM AeHb yxpoM aanesaxb K nane B Kposaxb, HxoGbi noroBopMXb c HMM O coGaKe: KaK Mbi GyflCM ^MXb npocxopHCM, M KynwM coGaKy, M GyAeM c new saHMMaxbCJi, M GyfleM ee KopMMXb, M KaKaa ona Gyflex noxeinnaa M yMHaa, M KaK OHa Gyflex BopoBaxb caxap, a a Gy^y sa neio caM Bbixwpaxb jiy:acpiijibi, M ona Gy^ex xoflwxb sa MHOM, KaK BepHbiM nee. H nroGnio xaoKe CMoxpexb xeneBMSop: Bce paBHo, HXO noKasbiBarox, nycxb Aa»ce xojibKo oflHM xaGnpmbi. H nioGnro flbiinaxb HOCOM MaMe B yuiKO. OcoGeHHO H ntoGnio nexb M Bcerfla noio o^eHb rpoMKo. y^KacHO nioGnio paccKasbi npo KpacHbix KaBajiepwcxoB, M HxoGbi OHM Bcerfla noGeacflanw. JlioGnio cxoaxb nepea sepKanoM M rpMMacHMHaxb, KaK Gyflxo a FlexpyiuKa M3 KyKonbHoro xeaxpa. lUnpoxbi a xo«e c^eHb nioGnio. 243 JIioGnio HMxaTb CKasKM npo Kan^iMJiH. 3xo xaKaa ManeMbKan, yMHaH M osopnaa naHb. y nee Becenbie rnasKw, M ManeHbKMe po»cKM, M po30Bbie oxnonpipoBaHHbie Konbixna. Korfla MM GyfleM «MXb npocxopneM, MW KynwM ce5e Kan^vuvi, OH Gy^ex )KMXbB BaHHOM. Eme H nK)6nK) luiaBaxb xaM, r^e MenKO, Hxo5bi Mo:acHo 5bmo flepacaxbCH pyKaMn sa nec^aHoe ^HO. (Dragunsky) ^fTcTrcfjnTancr^... «iisiir^i Tj^^ticR "qra^ Mlciici>; q-diiidi anf^ ^n^ CITHCT yidelciii •clK^yillul ?TcT-TTFr^rfr^?!irS[Tr Jj«dWjic|,! ?ft% UJIAICHI TIcIT^TJRSTFrScr. 3TM^ TcfT >HlJ|diJI, ffeirar cT ^IfJu'l «!5|o4|iJdl ^ 3n^^. ^mW ift f^tcfnT SRTeff cR^T. TiR R^cbd H>elH cR ^ ^rg^. f^^ sjislixiji TfeFTT^ Tf^ rqrsn^ $pi]N^d ^f^TT H\i\i\^\ ^TTCIT STTcTgcr. 30^ TTtcRTT "ERTcT Y^FJcTT Tteft ^f^^JJ^ f^ fcfcfJer "ETUTR 3n^, c^TTen" f^l-^cjuiK 3n?tcT, ^?5Tv^ yicHulK 3IT?tcT. SIFTW fW ^ Hv^c^K 3TTf^ ^^ -gt^H, eft >HI'i£l^^ ^ #^ SnR ?^ "^yefcft "EIFT ^ ^J^cf: ^J^TcST cfj^. fcJ^cTrg; $:>ijmH|ul cfr '^(^ "fTW t^;?i%v3R fif^raeTT STTcTgcft. "clJT^sFT c),>|dl^ 3Rfr. "g^TclT cTcfcTT 3RTelTcrM^rTeici1". sn^^STT cPPTTcT Hlcfjl'^ ^cfT >Hl-dNcHI TefT 3TTcf^. "fcT^fWcT: f^oU '^ crTer>^l'^cfld M)-^>MKi^l dciMlH^d Rvriijir^l Tff^TTerr^PR3llc|^dlcl. SIR^TRmR ^^ 7T^ ctrt clildlcbi) "cfRRefT SncTScT. "^ "^Jo?^ 6||gc^iT>L|| R|i^cix!H»^di^^tcbl.^fn#^^l>i^^fec{|TTi^^3i|c|^dlc1. 3nt. c^n^r ^ 3?T^ sntcf, 1^ T5t€t antcT 3#rr TFTCJ^ 3TFf^ZTT •^?F%RRT ^OfeT. 3TM^ HcTT ^arar muiiM Ml^Ndl aTFT^, ^TRTf ^ cflopr clo5 -^Icliit qTcTT %ft. (Dragunsky/Hawaldar 1985:11) 244 This small passage talks about the things a boy 6-8 years old may like to do. This really was a new kind of story-book in Marathi, which narrated about the life of a small boy, his way of looking at the world around. So a part of the narration reaches the young readers or more correctly, the listeners as it depicts the universal experiences of children. But again there is a part of the TT, which is new or unfamiliar to them. For example, all the children like to play the games only when they win. But the Marathi children do not play ^^Viciji, chess and Domino so often. Secondly, all the children like the stories of battles and victory. But Marathi children do not understand the significance of Red Army and their victory. All the children know the puppet show. But 'Petrushka' is unfamiliar to the Marathi children. They also do not know the fish Sardin. There is no character like a deer 'Kanchil' in Marathi children's stories. The family atmosphere depicted in the story, too, is different than that of the Marathi readers. Unlike the Russian family, the father in a common Marathi family is quite conservative. He is respected more, than loved and shown attachment. So, except some modem middle class families, there is hardly such a friendly relation between a small boy and his father. And there is no tradition of thinking of what a child likes and what it dislikes. Then the question is what role such a translated story plays in Marathi polysystem? In spite of so many references of the source culture in the TT, the children seem to like and imagine the unknown in the story. The explanations by the actual readers (parents) in the process of reading it for kids also may help the listeners. A new theme and style are two most important things that the translated story introduced to the Marathi children's literature. The life of children in a Soviet society is another aspect of a culture depicted in the story. The children without misery are what the readers find pleasant in Soviet literature. Parents, without any burden of misery, without a struggle for existence is what the children need. So, the children in a story like this seem to be leading a very happy, smooth, and normal life. They seem to enjoy the life as they should. 245 (V) A short story by Dissident author: The short stories by dissident writers translated into Marathi from Russian are very few. But still it is important to note that Marathi polysystem has taken interest in and published some of them. We have already discussed some novels including Doctor Zivago in the previous chapter. The short stories include the works of only one writer - Aleksander Solzhenitsyn. Hence, we choose a story by him Right Hand for our study. The dissident literature in any polysystem is a special feature of that particular society. Such a literature is an outcome of the specific socio political system prevailing in that society. The works of dissident writers have close association with the literary creativity of the author as well as the formation of the author, his mind-set and his life evolving in that socio political system. Hence, for the readers of translated works of any dissident author of any country, it becomes essential to know about the life and works of the author. Then it becomes interesting to see how much of that has penetrated into the target culture through the contextual dialogues and interaction between the translators and the readers. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in Russian polysystem: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn - Russian novelist and historian, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970. Bom into a family of Cossack intellectuals he attended the University of Rostov-na-Donu, graduating in mathematics, and took correspondence courses in literature at Moscow State University. He fought in World War II, achieving the rank of captain of artillery. However, in 1945, he was arrested for writing a letter in which he criticized Joseph Stalin and spent eight years in prisons and labour camps, after which he spent three more years in enforced exile. Rehabilitated in 1956, he was allowed to settle in Ryazan, in central Russia, where he became a mathematics teacher and began to write. Encouraged by the loosening of government restraints on cultural life during the de-Stalinizing policies of the early 1960s, Solzhenitsyn published his short novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) in the leading 246 Soviet literary periodical Novy Mir ("New World"). It met with immediate popularity. Solzhenitsyn became an instant celebrity. Ivan Denisovich, based on Solzhenitsyn's own experiences, described a typical day in the life of an inmate of a forced-labour camp during the Stalin era. It was one of the first Soviet literary works of the post-Stalin era to directly describe such a life. The book produced a political sensation both abroad and in the Soviet Union, where it inspired a number of other writers to produce accounts of their imprisonment under Stalin's regime. With Nikita Khrushchev's fall from power in 1964, Solzhenitsyn met first with increasing criticism and then with overt harassment from the authorities when he emerged as an eloquent opponent of repressive government policies. After the publication of a collection of his short stories in 1963, he was denied further official publication of his work, and he resorted to circulating them in the form of samizdat ("self-published") literature—i.e., as illegal literature circulated clandestinely—as well as publishing them abroad. The foreign publication of several ambitious novels secured Solzhenitsyn's international literary reputation. The First Circle, 1968 was indirectly based on his years spent working in a prison research institute as a mathematician. Cdncer Ward, 1968 was based on Solzhenitsyn's hospitalization and successful treatment for terminally diagnosed cancer during his forced exile in Kazakhstan during the mid-1950s. In 1970 Solzhenitsyn was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, but he declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize for fear he would not be readmitted to the Soviet Union by the government upon his return. His next novel published outside the Soviet Union August 1914 (1971), a historical novel treating Germany's crushing victory over Russia in their initial military engagement of World War I, the Battle of Tannenburg. Upon publication of the first volume of The Gulag Archipelago (1973), Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the Soviet Union, and then he took possession of his Nobel Prize. The Gulag Archipelago (1974-1975) is Solzhenitsyn's attempt to compile a literary-historical record of the vast system of prisons and labour camps that came into being shortly after the Bolsheviks seized power in 247 Russia (1917) and that underwent an enormous expansion during the rule of Stalin (1924-1953). In presenting alternatives to the Soviet regime, Solzhenitsyn tended to reject Western emphases on democracy and individual freedom and instead favoured the formation of a benevolent authoritarian regime that would draw upon the resources of Russia's traditional Christian values. The introduction of glasnost ("openness") in the late 1980s brought renewed access to Solzhenitsyn's work in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the Soviet literary magazine Novy Mir published the first officially approved excerpts from The Gulag Archipelago. Solzhenitsyn's Soviet citizenship was officially restored in 1990. Solzhenitsyn ended his exile and returned to Russia in 1994. He subsequently made several public appearances. Installments of his autobiography. The Little Grain Managed to Land between Two Millstones: Sketches of Exile, were published from 1998 to 2003, and his history of Russian Jews Two Hundred Years Together, (1795-1995) was published in 2001-2002. In 2007 Solzhenitsyn was awarded Russia's prestigious State Prize for his contribution to humanitarian causes. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in Marathi polysystem: There are two stories by Solzhenitsyn published in Marathi. Both the stories have been translated by Suniti Deshpande. The story Right Hand was published in her collection of Russian /Soviet stories namely Kathantar in 2003. And the second story was published in another book Antar-Parva in 2004. Anagha Bhat has translated some loose writings selected from the collection of his works The Right Hand and other Stories published during 1960s out of Russia. All these writings are centered on the concepts of 'Freedom and Liberation'. The Marathi translation was published in the periodical Kelyane Bhashantar, Pune in 2001. Anagha Bhat introduces the author to Marathi readers as: (Bhat 2001a: 28) Suniti Deshpande writes about Solzhenitsyn: 248 (Deshpande 2004: 124) An article on Solzhenitsyn's novel Cancer Ward was published in the Marathi periodical 'Yugawani' in 1974. Comparing it with Arthur Halley's Final Diagnosis the writer V.M.Paranjape says that Halley narrates the story in an entertaining style, while Solzhenitsyn puts his philosiphy of life before the reader. He quotes Surkov from the discussion in Soviet Writers' Secretariat on whether Cancer Ward should be published: "The works of Solzhenitsyn are more dangerous to us than those of Pasternak: Pastemak was a man divorced from life, while Solzhenitsyn,' with his animated, militant, ideological temperament, is a man of principle." (Paranjape 1974: 73) The article says further that such a sensitive, humanistic author was told that Cancer Ward is an anti-humanitarian work. The main reason behind such a sharp criticism on the novel was its 'truthfulness'. In spite of being a sympathiser to the communist ideology, he was a real artist loyal to his own perception. So he criticised the communist life in his novel. He showed how the communists have harnessed the life of individual persons in Russia. Paranjape tries to make a difference between the criticism of communism by Solzhenitsyn's novel and that by other works like Animal Farm. There we find ridicule. But in Cancer ward there is a criticism with sympathy to communism. Secondly, it is not an imaginary picture like Animal Farm. It is a depiction of reality. He concludes that these two factors give the novel a unique place in the literature against communism. Contexual Analysis of the selected Text: The Right Hand: The translation of The Right Hand namely He Jivan Kasale? was brought into Marathi by S.uniti Deshpande in 2003 in the book Kathantar. It was first published in the newspaper Maharashtra Times, Mumbai. However, it is the translation of the spirit of the story - Bhavanuwad. 249 The preface to the book is written by well-knov«i journalist Govind Talwalkar. He says that the incidence depicted in the story is a universal fact and can be experienced in our society also. He also says that this insensitive attitude has been there in the Russian society since long, from Tolstoy to Solzhenitsyn. clHluiJid "EPT^ sRcT ^leldl ^^. (Talwalkar2003: Preface) Hence, the story tries to reveal how even the Soviet system had the same problem of beaurocracy, and it too was insensitive to the human pain, suffering and loneliness. In the introduction of the author and his writings Deshpande writes about the language and style of his writings: >H'lc^Plf^HH W^ *rM •pilcRT 3nR SFWrR^ cb>!U|lll 3TTt. il^ ^1^ (Deshpande 2003: 130) Textual Analysis: The beginning of the story reads: * B xy 3MMy H npMexaji B TauiKeHT y:ace MepTBeuiOM. H xaK n npMexan crona - yMMpaTb. A MeHH BepHynw noacwTb eme. 3TO 6bui MecHu;, Mecau; M eme Mecau,. HenyraHHaa TauiKeHTCKast Becna npouina sa OKHaMH, BCTynwna B jiexo, noBCiofly rycTO y)Ke seneneno n coBceM 6bmo xeiino, KorAa cxan n H BbixoflMTb norynHTb HeyBepeHHWMM HoraMM. Eme He CMeH caM ce5e npwsHaTbCH, HTO a BbiSflopaBHMBaK), eme B caMbix sanexHbix Menxax wsMepscH flo5aBJieHHbiM MHe cpOK }KM3HM He roflaMM, a MecHij,aMM. - H MeflneHHO nepecxynaji no rpaBWMHbiM n accJ^ajibxoBbiM flopoacKaM napKa, paspocineroca MC^ KopnycoB MeAMiJ,MHCKoro 250 MHCTMxyxa. Mne naflo 6buio nacxo npMca»cMBaxbca, a WHorAa, ox pasGwpaiomeM xouiHoxbi, VL npuneraxb, no-HMy«e cnycxMB ronoBy. H 6bui M xaKMM, fla ne xaKMM, KaK oKpy)KaioinPie MeHH 5oHbHbie: H 5bui MHOFO 6ecnpaBHee MX, M BbiHy»g[i,eHHO GesMOHBHeM MX. K HMM npvixojjyuivi na CBMflanMH, o HMX njiaKajiM poflCXBeHHMKM, M oflHa Sbina MX 3a6oxa, oflHa Uiejib - BbisflopoBexb. A MHe BbiSflopaBnMBaxb Gbuio HOHXM mo M ne pjisi Hero: y xpMnwaxMiMXMJiexHero, y MCHH ne 5bmo BO BceM MMpe HMKoro poAHoro B xy BecHy. Eme ne Gbuio y MCHH - nacnopxa, M ecjiM 6 a xenepb BbisAopoBen, xo naflo GbUio MHe noKMHyxb 3xy senenb, 3xy MHoroiinoAHyio cxopony - M B03Bpaiu;axbCH K ce5e B nycxbiHio, Kyna H cocnan 6bm uaBeuHO, nop, rnacHbiM Hapsop, c oxMexKaMM Ka»cp,bie pBe HCAenM, M oxKypa KOMeHAaxypa Aonro ne ypaGpHBajiacb MCHH M yMMpaiomero BbinycxMXb na neneHMe. 06o BceM 3TOM H He Mor paccaKasaxb - oKpyacaiomMM yienSi 60AbHUM 6oJlbHbIM. EcjiM 5 M paccKasaji, OHM 6 He nonnnM... Ho saxo, )3,ep»ca sa nnenaMM AecHXb nex MeflnMxenbHwx pasMbiuijieHMM, H y^e snaji xy MCXMHy, HXO noftnMHHbiM BKyc ^MSHM nocxMraexcH ne BO MHOFOM, a B MaJiOM. (Solzhenitsyn 1974: 6-9) (lit. ^w f^mcsmu # ^ tF^^m w^^4di smt. ^ umw ^ emf - 251 3jjf^'^gf^ mtmr iT^jw ^TWcT. ww w^ wcff ww^t WFJW ?)w, SPT^H^J^ ^^77cf'/x^-y i)uil-ill HadHaO^c^, ^W^M^^cb^'i ttur. vmr ^smwM w^m^ vijmmr^ Y^W, 3PT vmw Y^f^ f^ ^t^, •qc^zT eifzr- w ^im. wr wm W7 ^Fmr wrmwcm m^ wrmw ?^ Wcfr ^Rd^f)-ciji mwHm WW ^m wwrn ww wnrr ^'^ wmw 7^ ^mw uw^ffm^ww vv)^-/&/4) dHicf)srmffmf^^wm^wciiod^cid ww^M diHd w •HHo^M^d ^ m?wfftcRfhm '^^ WWHT in^ w^^ ^wut. snfir Wft >HlV)dd3l^d dd mm HH^d "^jmt... rJTT ^ ^ dli^^ddl STTofT, ^ 'MI6C| cTRf^rRH)- viHTjKi>Hlc51 ^fTcTT <\^\i\-^ ?l?r, W f^^. 3Tlf^ ^HcR "^^ "q^#cr cR 3TFr# "q^JiKT ^rf^. •?^. •q^Tf "?f^ f^Rrf. 'M TFTcf c||ci|i|-cil. -^VcRT ^HRcfT sltldNNdl HI^'HI ^tv3vT ?35xr TflWxZn'v^W^R f^^sqicf v5TTv3H" "^^eTT. cfr# Rc|,Hid-c) ^^ 7H ^|cTer. vJcT, TTifte '^ ?iR^ ^, rt^ Tra" #cftcr 6i>H^Hi. 3n?fN" wm RXIKIT^ cfjtTT ^FTR CHMMI itcftW. -5^1^ TTR %f5^ cjRTJZlTSJT f^rftrTR 'ft ^R^do6NI^>! i^^SF^ •c||du>4l41 ^Rdcliujl (y>dM d|J||i|ri. yrilcblTll JlldMcxil ildliJdl iTFrar, MKMlR"^ ^tA^A ^!>^H-^I^^H?l^[^ 252 3IFft^ i^45|ciiJld TT^SRrit "^^OT cf? 3jf^ 'Mcilct'ciiRjcl ^5c|H T^W^ ^IcH^ arecfr, cR^TW^^^P^t fB^i-^oi^^l^-Gn^efFTcT arw. ^^TfM anct sRiet, "g^ % CRFT, «rWft?T ciiascid, f^ ^fn^ dd^-MM T^H^ aildclvSsJlMl 'frl«r' F^rft dlc||A|dl. 'fcISTcft' ^rTPTfr ?lit T?cr^ f^r^ 3TTf^ STTSg^ c^, v3M-c|Ki^i^?T6jo5c(7RiJT3rg;=^Hdl >H^v>1l-^?T?v^6rT%7mcJc||iJdl diJK'^T^^. ^ % ^ SfcRMcRft anvSTpft cflcfJHr ^ ^iWr SRrat. cFftcT ^5^ft c|- ^l^mK'l^ 4lo6(fl>aicil cT^^JT^. 'mt\ W^. "^ "^^T cm^^d ?qT '^cbMc||>HI'^ 'TelT sR^ cp# Rlcbciei •^. Sll^biJIrj Hid cbodliJdl l^^KI ?f^ g^>HI dxtdl. riJI>HI<51 ^^TT^ effeT^ elFM. (Deshpande2003: 131) The translation by Suniti Deshpande, though done directly from Russian, can not be said literal. It is a kind of adaptation, remaining faithful to the ST regarding the names of persons, places, the plot etc. It can be called an abridged version of ST in TT. What happens in her translation is the ST is transformed into reader oriented TT. From the view of TT reader, the text has a natural feel and reads fluently in Marathi. There are almost no places of linguistic or stylistic constraints for the target readers. This can be said to be a case of domestication, where the culture specific words/constructions like phrases, proverbs etg. in ST get the close equivalents in TT. This process also involves editing of ST, which takes place totally in accordance with the translator's view. The important thing here is the very inner spirit of the original text seems to be lost to some extent in this version. The description of the nature in the begirming of the passage has an indifferent mood of the protagonist in the ST. The spring is over and it turns into the summer. But in the contrast, TT creates a feeling in the minds of the readers that it's all pleasant around. This is what happens at the abstract level in the psychae of the TT reader. This kind of translation may mislead the reader. 253 nPOnETAPMW BCEX CTPAH, COEflWmiMTECb! CnpaBKa flana CMH TOBapwmy BoBposy H. K. B TOM, HTO B 1921 rofly OH AeMCTBMTenbHO COCTOHJI B cnaBHOM -OBCKOM ryBepHCKOM Oxpafle Oco6oro HasHaneHMH uMenvi MwpoBOM PeBoiiioii,MM M CBoew pyKOM MHoro nopyGMJi ocTaBaBinwxcH raAOB. KoMMCcap ... (noAnwcb) VL GneAHaa (^MoneTOBaH nenaxb flit. WTT^ftcTWFFINFJt wwr! mrmw vjlJmxll<^el "^ dpW\H ^>dcx$lHl, i?c|53r^! IR^ 3RFN3r ^fFfTFFfW HHI'^cb URT ?W "^TTcft ^^^ #^ M!i|*M ^fTFftoT t\^F\ Mw M^llst)^ ^e^ Wd -^u^mcT % 3nt. ^HT^ %^to5 (ibid. 138) The well-known slogun 'The Proletariat of All the Nations, Unite!' already has a translated form, which has been in practice in Marathi political field since long. Deshpande does not seem to use it. Replacing the typical ideological word 'comrade' by 'the honourable citizen' loses its association with the typical language used during the Soviet society and its significance. Similarly, omitting the words like name of the person, the name of specific 254 campaign 'World Revolution', too, keeps the TT reader away from the original words in ST. The concept of domestication, or what Deshpande says 'Bhavanuwad' reflects here the subjective nature of the whole translation process. In the next chapter we study the Russian drama in Marathi literary polysystem. * * *