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Free African-Descended Women of Means in Xalapa, Veracruz During the Long Seventeenth Century

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Free African-Descended Women of Means in Xalapa, Veracruz During the Long Seventeenth Century Capitalizing Subjects: Free African-Descended Women of Means in Xalapa, Veracruz during the Long Seventeenth Century by Danielle Terrazas Williams Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Pete Sigal, Supervisor ___________________________ Kathryn Burns ___________________________ John D. French ___________________________ David Barry Gaspar ___________________________ Ben Vinson, III Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2013 ABSTRACT Capitalizing Subjects: Free African-Descended Women of Means in Xalapa, Veracruz during the Long Seventeenth Century by Danielle Terrazas Williams Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Pete Sigal, Supervisor ___________________________ Kathryn Burns ___________________________ John D. French ___________________________ David Barry Gaspar ___________________________ Ben Vinson, III An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2013 Copyright by Danielle Terrazas Williams 2013 Abstract “Capitalizing Subjects: Free African-Descended Women of Means in Xalapa, Veracruz during the Long Seventeenth Century” explores the socioeconomic worlds of free women of means. I find that they owned slaves, engaged in cross-caste relations, managed their estates, maintained profitable social networks with other regional elites, and attempted to secure the economic futures of their children. Through an examination of notarial, ecclesiastical, and viceregal sources, I highlight the significant role this group played in the local economy and social landscape. My work demonstrates that free women of African descent engaged in specific types of economic endeavors that spoke to their investments in particular kinds of capital (economic, social, and cultural) that allowed them greater visibility and social legitimacy than previously documented. This dissertation, further, challenges a historiography that has over-emphasized the roles of race and gender in determining the lives of all people of African descent in colonial Latin America. iv Dedication To my family in the United States and in Mexico. v Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv List of Charts ..................................................................................................................... vii List of Maps ........................................................................................................................ x List of Images .................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... xii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One ...................................................................................................................... 58 Chapter Two .................................................................................................................... 147 Chapter Three .................................................................................................................. 211 Chapter Four ................................................................................................................... 273 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 354 Biography ........................................................................................................................ 369 vi List of Charts 1. 1 Overview of Marriage: 1724-1736 ............................................................................ 74 1. 2 Overview of Exogamy: 1724-1736 ............................................................................ 76 1. 3 Overview of Marriages: 1641-1702 ........................................................................... 85 1. 4 Both Spouses of Legitimate Birth: 1724-1736 ........................................................ 105 1. 5 Exogamy, AD non-HL Spouse with HL Spouse: 1724-1736 .................................. 107 1. 6 African-descended Legitimate Spouse with non-HL Spouse: 1724-1736 ............... 108 1. 7 Neither Spouse Designated as HL: 1724-1736 ........................................................ 109 1. 8 Confirmations and Legitimacy: 1642 ...................................................................... 113 1. 9 Baptisms and Legitimacy: 1641-1655 ..................................................................... 117 1. 10 Baptisms and Legitimacy: 1656-1669 ................................................................... 119 1. 11 Baptisms and Legitimacy: 1666-1689 ................................................................... 120 1. 12 Confirmations and Legitimacy: 1712 .................................................................... 121 1. 13 Confirmations and Legitimacy: 1726 .................................................................... 123 1. 14 Confirmations and Legitimacy: 1728 (partial) ...................................................... 124 1. 15 Confirmations and Legitimacy: 1736 (partial) ...................................................... 125 1. 16 Confirmations and Legitimacy: 1726, 1728 (partial), 1736 (partial) Combined Totals ....................................................................................................................... 126 1. 17 Baptisms and Legitimacy: 1724-1732 ................................................................... 128 1. 18 Baptisms by Designation of Godparent and Gender of Child: 1641-1655 ............ 132 1. 19 Baptisms by Designation of Godparent and Gender of Child: 1656-1669 ............ 133 1. 20 Children with Godparents of African Descent: 1666-1689 ................................... 134 vii 1. 21 Children with Spanish Godparents: 1666-1689 ..................................................... 135 1. 22 Children with Godparents of Unknown Caste: 1666-1689 .................................... 136 1. 23 Children with Two Godparents of Different Designations: 1666-1689 ............ 137 1. 24 Children with Two Godparents of Different Designations: 1724-1732 ................ 138 1. 25 Baptisms by Designation of Godparent and Gender of Child: 1724-1732 ............ 139 2. 1 Demographic Profile: 1600-1625 ............................................................................ 149 2. 2 Demographic Profile: 1626-1650 ............................................................................ 150 2. 3 Demographic Profile: 1600-1650 ............................................................................ 151 2. 4 Demographic Profile: 1651-1674 ............................................................................ 152 2. 5 Demographic Profile: 1675-1699 ............................................................................ 153 2. 6 Demographic Profile: 1651-1699 ............................................................................ 154 2. 7 Demographic Profile: 1700-1725 ............................................................................ 155 2. 8 Vecina Status: 1600-1650 ........................................................................................ 159 2. 9 Vecina Status: 1651-1699 ........................................................................................ 160 2. 10 Vecina Status: 1700-1725 ...................................................................................... 160 2. 11 Marital Status: 1600-1650 ...................................................................................... 161 2. 12 Marital Status 1651-1699 ....................................................................................... 162 2. 13 Marital Status: 1700-1725 ...................................................................................... 163 2. 14 Primary Types of Business: 1600-1650 ................................................................. 165 2. 15 Primary Business Type: 1651-1699 ....................................................................... 166 2. 16 Primary Business Type: 1700-1725 ....................................................................... 167 2. 17 Marital Status and Primary Business Type: 1600-1650 ........................................ 168 viii 2. 18 Marital Status and Primary Business Type: 1651-1699 ........................................ 169 2. 19 Marital Status and Primary Business Type: 1700-1725 .................................... 170 ix List of Maps Map 1: “Mexico and the central Veracruz triangle,”. ........................................................ 3 Map 2: “New Spain and Environs,”. ................................................................................ 45 Map 3: “Spanish lands in the province of Jalapa, ca. 1600,”. .......................................... 47 Map 4: “Spatial zones of Jalapa, ca. 1700,” .................................................................... 49 x List of Images Image 1: Statue of Gaspar Yanga located in Yanga,
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