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1 Women on Top in Medieval Exegesis 1 NOTES 1 Women on Top in Medieval Exegesis 1. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 183. 2. See Elaine Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent (New York: Random House, 1988), 32–97; the essays collected in Lisa M. Bitel and Felice Lifshitz, ed., Gender and Christianity in Medieval Europe: New Perspectives (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); and Richard Valantasis, “Constructions of Power in Asceticism,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 63 (1995): 775–821. Persistent medieval challenges to gender dichotomy have led scholars to conceptualize a “third gender,” for which see Jacqueline Murray, “One Flesh, Two Sexes, Three Genders?” in Gender and Christianity, ed. Bitel and Lifshitz, 34–51. 3. Caroline Walker Bynum argues that Christian men tend to reverse gen- der roles: “ ‘ . And Woman His Humanity’: Female Imagery in the Religious Writing of the Later Middle Ages,” in Gender and Religion: On the Complexity of Symbols, ed. Bynum, Stevan Harrell, and Paula Richman (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), 257–88. 4. “Women on Top,” in Society and Culture in Early Modern France: Eight Essays (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), 124–51. 5. I refer to Foucault’s theory that discourses are “the practices that system- atically form the objects of which they speak” (Archaeology of Knowledge, 49), which come into being and fade away under specific historical con- ditions (109), and which accordingly reveal how institutional, economic, and social relations function to form the object of knowledge (164–65, 183). 6. I am indebted to Thomas McCarthy’s conclusions about discourse and power: “The Critique of Impure Reason: Foucault and the Frankfurt School,” in Rethinking Power, ed. Thomas E. Wartenberg (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), 124–127; and to Thomas E. Wartenburg, “Situated Social Power,” 79–101 in the same volume. 7. See, e.g., E. Ann Matter, The Voice of My Beloved: The Song of Songs in Western Medieval Christianity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); F. M. Young, Biblical Exegesis and the Formation of Christian Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jeremy Cohen, 130 NOTES Living Letters of the Law: Ideas of the Jew in Medieval Christianity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Elizabeth A. Clark, Reading Renunciation: Asceticism and Scripture in Early Christianity (Princeton,NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); Lisa Lampert, Gender and Jewish Difference from Paul to Shakespeare (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). 8. E.g., Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins (1983; New York: Crossroad, 1987); Schüssler Fiorenza, Bread Not Stone: The Challenge of Feminist Biblical Interpretation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984); Phyllis Trible, Texts of Terror: Literary-Feminist Readings of Biblical Narratives (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984); Luise Schottroff, Silvia Schroer, and Marie-Theres Wacker, Feminist Interpretation: The Bible in Women’s Perspective, trans. Martin and Barbara Rumscheidt (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998); Elaine Pagels and Karen L. King, Reading Judas: The Gospel of Judas and the Shaping of Christianity (New York: Viking, 2007). Substantively similar conclusions are of course not exclusive to feminists: see, e.g., Henry Ansgar Kelly, Satan: A Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 9. For a challenging development of this idea, see Caroline Vander Stichele and Todd Penner, “Mastering the Tools or Retooling the Masters? The Legacy of Historical-Critical Discourse,” in Her Master’s Tools? Feminist and Postcolonial Engagements of Historical-Critical Discourse, ed. Vander Stichele and Penner (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 1–29. 10. See Gabriel A. Almond, R. Scott Appleby, and Emmanuel Sivan, Strong Religion: The Rise of Fundamentalisms around the World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 9–14. 11. Jacques Berlinerblau’s expression, which I appropriate for my own pur- poses, The Secular Bible: Why Nonbelievers Must Take Religion Seriously (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 102. 12. Judith Butler’s post–9/11 essays on feminist ethics underlie my position: Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London and New York: Verso, 2004). 13. See the seminal work of Beryl Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983); and her The Gospels in the Schools, c. 1100–c. 1280 (London and Ronceverte: Hambledon, 1985). For an excellent survey of her influence, see R. W. Southern, “Beryl Smalley and the Place of the Bible in Medieval Studies, 1927–84,” in The Bible in the Medieval World: Essays in Memory of Beryl Smalley, ed. Katherine Walsh and Diana Wood (Oxford: Blackwell, for the Ecclesiastical Historical Society, 1985), 1–16. 14. D. W. Robertson, Jr., is usually credited with founding “exegetical criti- cism.” His work is not, in my reading of it, a study of exegesis per se, but rather a totalizing aesthetic theory to which exegesis contributes: see his A Preface to Chaucer: Studies in Medieval Perspectives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 52–137, 286–317. NOTES 131 15. See, e.g., Ann W. Astell, The Song of Sons in the Middle Ages (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 25–72; Philip D. W. Krey and Lesley Smith, eds., Nicholas of Lyra: The Senses of Scripture (Leiden: Brill, 2000); Lampert, Gender and Jewish Difference, 21–57; Deeana Copeland Klepper, The Insight of Unbelievers: Nicholas of Lyra and Christian Reading of Jewish Text in the Later Middle Ages (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). 16. A mischievous revision of Bernard Cerquiglini, “meaning was to be found everywhere, and its origin was nowhere”: In Praise of the Variant: A Critical History of Philology, trans. Betsy Wing (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 33. Cerquiglini exempts scripture from the “joyful excess” he finds in medieval variants. 17. For a theological view of the subject, see Henri de Lubac, Medieval Exegesis, Volume 1: The Four Senses of Scripture, trans. Mark Sebanc (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans; Edinburgh: T and T Clark, 1998); Medieval Exegesis, Volume 2: The Four Senses of Scripture, trans. E. M. Macierowski (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans; Edinburgh: T and T Clark, 2000). 18. I adopt M. M. Bakhtin’s theory of “re-accentuation”: The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 419–22. Tamara Warhol’s use of Bakhtin for gendering exegesis informs my methodology: “Gender Constructions and Biblical Exegesis: Lessons from a Divinity School Seminar,” in Language and Religious Identity: Women in Discourse, ed. Allyson Jule (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 50–72. 19. Brian Murdoch establishes the impact of vernacular biblical litera- ture: The Medieval Popular Bible: Expansions of Genesis in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, MA: D. S. Brewer, 2003). 20. Clark develops a cogent post-structuralist theoretical position from which to analyze patristic exegesis, and I am indebted to her formulation at every point in this book: Reading Renunciation, 3–13. 21. “The Order of Discourse,” trans. Ian McLeod, in Untying the Text: A Post-Structuralist Reader, ed. Robert Young (Boston, London, Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), 58. 22. McCarthy is not commenting specifically on exegetes, but his formula- tion certainly applies to them: “Critique of Impure Reason,” in Rethinking Power, ed. Wartenberg, 122. 23. The Past as Text: The Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), respec- tively 24 and 25, quoting Carroll Smith-Rosenberg; discussion 3–28. 24. Ralph Hanna brings new insight to this old complaint against so- called exegetical criticism: “Donaldson and Robertson: An Obligatory Conjunction,” Chaucer Review 41 (2007): 240–49. 25. Berlinerblau, The Secular Bible, 81. 26. For the contradictions and discontinuities of scripture, see Jack Miles, God: A Biography (New York: Vintage, 1995); and Berlinerblau, The 132 NOTES Secular Bible, 17–53. For medieval attitudes, see Smalley on Carolingian exegesis, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages, 37–46. 27. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 145. Berlinerblau develops an accessible, cogent account of exegesis as supple- mentation: The Secular Bible, 62–68. Eric Jager likewise points out that exegetes’ attempts to “ ‘fill in the lacunae’ in the scriptural narrative inevitably drew attention to the gaps in the text,” The Tempter’s Voice: Language and the Fall in Medieval Literature (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 33. 2 Subversive Feminine Voices: The Reception of 1 Timothy 2 from Jerome to Chaucer 1. Theologians of the University of Paris, as per G. R. Evans, “Exegesis and Authority in the Thirteenth Century,” in Ad Litteram: Authoritative Texts and Their Medieval Readers, ed. Mark D. Jordan and Kent Emery, Jr. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), 98–99. 2. 1 Tim. 2: 15, Douay-Rheims translation, The Holy Bible Translated from the Latin Vulgate (1899; reprinted Rockford: Tan Books, 1989). Jimmy Carter notes the irony of this utterance, for “Timothy himself had been instructed by his mother and grandmother”: Our Endangered
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