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DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2017-013

A Sociolinguistic Profile of the Tharu Dialects of the Western Indo- Tarai

Compiled by Jeff Webster A Sociolinguistic Profile of the Tharu Dialects of the Western Indo-Nepal Tarai

Compiled by Jeff Webster Primary Researchers: Edward Boehm M. G. D. A. G. K. A. . M. L. N. L. Laura Beth Webster Jeff Webster

SIL International® 2017

SIL Electronic Survey Report 2017–013, August 2017 © 2017 SIL International® All rights reserved Abstract

The purpose of this sociolinguistic survey of the Tharu dialects of the Indo-Nepal Tarai was to investigate three areas: 1) socio-cultural factors: to discover important social, cultural, and geographic information about the Tharu; 2) strategic factors: to determine the best strategy for work among the Tharu; and 3) the need for tongue literature and literacy classes: to determine whether or not the Tharu desire written materials and literacy classes in their mother tongue, and if so, where. Data collection for this survey began in September 1992 and was completed in November of the same year. The survey team, eight others besides myself, did an outstanding job in administering over 400 recorded text tests, 190 sentence repetition tests, and 100 use and attitude questionnaires, and in collecting fifteen word lists, all in less than two months! The team covered a huge area—by bus, train, rickshaw, bicycle, and on foot. Towards fulfilling the first two purposes of this survey, the investigation of socio-cultural and strategic factors, we can claim only partial success. So much more could be learned about the Tharu, but the solid foundation of cultural observation and experience by the team provides a sound basis for achieving the goals that relate to these purposes. Conclusions remain tentative, and the team remains sensitive to their need to continue as learners of the rich and complex Tharu culture.

(This survey report written some time ago deserves to be made available even at this late date. Conditions were such that it was not published when originally written. The reader is cautioned that more recent research may be available. Historical data are quite valuable as a basis for longitudinal analysis and help us understand both the trajectory and pace of change as compared with more recent studies. —Editor)

Contents

1 Introduction 1.1 Geography 1.2 People 1.2.1 Origins 1.2.2 Culture 1.2.3 Subgroups of Tharu 1.2.4 Population 1.3 Language 2 Goals 2.1 Dialect area study 2.1.1 Lexical similarity 2.1.2 Dialect intelligibility 2.2 Bilingualism 2.3 Language use and language attitudes 2.4 Tharu culture 3 Summary of findings 3.1 Tharu speech varieties 3.2 Tharu’s relationship to 3.3 Bilingualism in Hindi 3.4 Language use and language attitudes 3.5 Tharu culture 4 Study of dialect areas 4.1 Word list comparison 4.1.1 Procedures 4.1.2 Results 4.2 Dialect intelligibility 4.2.1 Procedures 4.2.2 Results 5 Bilingualism 5.1 Recorded text testing 5.1.1 Procedures 5.1.2 Results 5.2 Sentence repetition testing 5.2.1 Procedures 5.2.2 Results 6 Language use and attitudes, and language vitality 6.1 Procedures 6.2 Results 6.2.1 Language use 6.2.2 Language attitudes 7 Recommendations 7.1 For literature development and literacy programs 7.2 For further survey

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Appendix A. International Phonetic (IPA) Appendix B: Tharu Survey Word Lists Appendix C: Recorded Text Test Scores Appendix D: Sentence Repetition Tests Appendix : Sentence Repetition Test Results Appendix F: Language Use and Attitudes Results Appendix G: A Summary of Tharu Culture References

1 Introduction

1.1 Geography

The Tharu are an aboriginal tribe inhabiting the whole sub-Himalayan Tarai from District of Uttar in the west to just beyond the eastern border of Nepal. They live on both sides of the -Nepal border (Grierson 1916b:311 and Srivastava 1958:v).1 This survey focused only on the western half of the Tharu region: those Tharu groups living from in the west, to in the east, including both sides of the India-Nepal border. See maps 1, 2, and 3. Other Tharu groups live in the Tarai east of Gonda District, but they must await investigation at a future time. Map 4 shows the distribution of Tharu in the Tarai districts of Nepal.

Map 1. Tharu survey area

Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission.

1 Tarai is alternatively spelled ; capitalization is inconsistent. It will be spelled Tarai in this report, except where it differs in quotations.

1

2

Map 2. Nainital and

Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission.

Map 3. Kheri, , Gonda, and Basti

Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission. 3

Map 4. Tharu population of Nepal

Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission. The Tarai—the name for the geographic region inhabited by the Tharu—is the strip of tropical, marshy flatlands that runs along the base of the east-west foothills of the . The Tharu are found especially in the heavily forested areas of the Tarai. For centuries, the malaria and wild animals of the Tarai jungle ensured that only malaria-immune indigenous groups like the Tharu lived in this area. Neville (1905:71) writes that the Tharu “appear to be almost the only race that can stand the deadly climate of that tract.” But as World Health Organization spraying in the late 1950s largely eradicated malaria, other groups from the hills and the plains began to move in. Highways were built, agriculture spread, the timber industry was established, and the Tharus suddenly had fierce competition for their fertile land (Dahal 1992:17). The various clans of Tharu are found living in different regions, generally separate from one another; these clans will be discussed in §1.2.3. Rana Tharu are located in , , , and Tehsils of Nainital District, in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District, and in the far southwestern districts of Nepal. Buksa, a separate clan from Rana Tharu, are located in southwestern Nainital district, along a diagonal from Ramnagar to . They live in about 130 villages in Kichha and Kashipur Tehsils. There are also small numbers reported in and Garhwal Districts. Tharu generally live to the east of Rana Tharu. In India they live primarily along the border in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District and Tulsipur Tehsil of Gonda District.2 In Nepal they live in

2 As of the mid 1980s, Tulsipur Tehsil was still part of Tehsil. 4 all border districts west of Dang-Deokri District. It appears that they are newcomers to the Indian side of the border. Dang Tharus live primarily in the Dang valley of Dang-Deokri District, east of the Dangoras. The valley is at an elevation of about 600 meters above sea level (MacDonald 1975:267). Kathoriya Tharus are found living in approximately the same areas as Dangoras. They are most heavily concentrated in of Nepal, but are also in Kheri and Gonda Districts of India.

1.2 People

1.2.1 Origins

Srivastava (1958) provides a good summary of the debate over the origins of the Tharu. Many believe them to be originally a Dravidian race that has become more Mongoloid in appearance as a result of alliances with different hill races. Srivastava concludes, however, that they are the northernmost extension of the “Middle Indian aboriginal races,” since their basic cultural patterns are the same as those farther south. They are predominantly Mongoloid in their physical makeup, yet distinct from other groups in Nepal in that they have assimilated non-Mongoloid physical features as well. Various authors have searched for Tharu origins by doing an of their name, generally tracing through Hindi. Nesfield (in Srivastava 1958:186) searched for the meaning in the local language, showing that the word thar in the dialect of the lowest classes means “a man of the forest”—an accurate description of the people. One Tharu legend speaks of their tie to the forest (Müller-Böker 1991:112): Long ago, God called all people to him in order to give them riches. All the castes, such as the Pahariyas, the Newaris, and the Tharus, started toward God in order to receive riches from him. After wandering a long way, they passed through a beautiful forest area (kathaban). Everyone continued their journey; only the Tharus remained in the forest, looking around for nice wood, thereby forgetting to continue their journey to God. After some time, the other people came back with riches, and the Tharus came back from the forest. Though their exact origins may be debated, it is fairly certain that the Tharu are the original inhabitants of the Tarai, and that they have only recently been joined there by other groups. Most of the Tharu interviewed in this survey claimed to be the descendants of women who fled approximately 800 years ago during a great battle in which their king was defeated. These women intermarried with their servants and settled in the dense forestlands of the north. The Dangora Tharu in Gonda District trace their ancestry to Dang District in Nepal. They say that many people left Dang a long time ago and settled to the south, when there was a very evil king who was making life difficult for the people.

1.2.2 Culture

The religion of the Tharus is traditionally animistic, but many are now outwardly adopting Hindu beliefs and practices. They are a god-fearing people, with firm faith in deities, demons, and evil spirits, and they attribute the forests as the place where the gods and spirits live. They believe in a supreme being Thakur who is generally too distant and too benevolent to do any harm to mankind (Srivastava 1958:186). Many Tharu houses have a small raised platform in the front yard for household deities, often small images of horses. Reportedly tracing back to their Rajput ancestry, Tharu women hold a dominant position in the family in many matters, with considerable freedom and great influence. They are the decision makers, though under the influence of Hindu culture the men are dominating the women more today. Early British reports said that the Tharu “are still the pioneers of civilization, and can never be induced to remain in fully cultivated tracts. The tilled land is distasteful to them, and they retreat with the retreating forest” ( 1878:502). Today, however, agriculture is their primary occupation, with some animal husbandry and fishing as well. Because of limited land in some of the Tharu areas, they are increasingly taking up work as laborers. They also rely heavily on gathering 5 various forest products. They are meat eaters, relishing many kinds of wild meat, though today hunting is much restricted. A distinction between Dangora and Rana Tharu is that the Dangora eat field rat and the Rana do not. Tharu villages generally are quite independent of one another, not mixed with outside groups, and rarely with more than one clan of Tharu. Households are large with the extended family (all the ’ families) all living in one house. Average household size is about ten, but households of up to fifty are not unheard of. Until recently, the Tharu had little competition for land, filled as it was with malaria and wild animals, but since 1947 they have had increasing competition. Sikhs fleeing the arrived and began farming in the once dense jungle. Paharis came from the north seeking more prosperous farmland, and now make up 35–40 percent of the population of Nepal’s Tarai, compared to around five percent at the turn of the twentieth century (Dahal 1992:18). With their weakness for alcohol and their inexperience at dealing with other groups, the Tharu rapidly lost their land and had nothing to show for it. In 1967 the Indian government declared the Tharu a Scheduled Tribe, which has provided some relief for them, but still today they are widely exploited by moneylender landlords. The exploitation of the Tharu in the western Tarai of Nepal, according to Dahal (1992:17), extends beyond landlessness to a system of bonded labor known as kamaiya, in which a man’s debt passes on to his sons, leading to generations bonded by debt to landlords and moneylenders. These landlords are not only Brahmins and , but also Tharus themselves. Dahal (1992:17) suggests that the Tarai is simmering with discontent. Three groups compete for limited resources: the original inhabitants like the Tharu must now learn to coexist with those of “Indian origin” and the Nepali highlanders. With regard to marriage pattern, the Tharu always marry within their own clan, but generally with someone from outside their own village. The new couple takes up residence in the village of the groom. The average age of marriage is around fifteen (Singh 1988:17).

1.2.3 Subgroups of Tharu

Outsiders generally view the Tharu as one homogeneous group, and refer to them as Tharu or Tharuwa. The Tharu, however, recognize many different subgroups distinguished by clan, region, cultural differences, and language. There are at least eight different clans, but the exact number is not known. Most Tharus interviewed in Nainital District knew that there were different clans of Tharu living much farther to the east, but they did not know anything about them. There is little interaction between clans. The main clans of the Tharu are: 1) Rana, living mostly in Nainital District; 2) Buksa Bukas, Bhuksa, Buxa, recognized as a separate Scheduled Tribe by the government of India, living almost exclusively in Nainital District; 3) Dangora Dangoria, Dangaria, Dangwaria, Dangra, probably the most numerically dominant clan, living mostly in southwestern Nepal; 4) Kathoriya Tharu Katharya, Kateria, living in the same area as the Dangora, but much smaller numerically; 5) Dang Tharu, living in Dang-Deokri District of Nepal; and 6) Sunha, Kutchia, and Thakur, whose exact location in southwestern Nepal is not known. Dangora and Kathoriya are closely related clans, reportedly divided on the fact that Dangora eat pork and Kathoriya do not (Government of India 1878:502). Even today the Kathoriya will not allow the Dangora to enter their kitchens. 6

1.2.4 Population

India

The number of Tharu of all clans living in northern is just over 115,000. Of these, an estimated 20,000 are Buksa in Nainital and Bijnor Districts. Nearly 54,000 mostly Rana Tharu live in Nainital District; approximately another 10,000 Rana are in Kheri and Districts. The remaining 31,000 Tharu in Uttar Pradesh are mostly Dangora, but mixed with Kathoriya and possibly other clans.3 Table 1 summarizes Tharu population in India by district. Literacy rates (inclusive of all age groups) are also included (Government of India 1981).

Table 1. Population and literacy among Tharu in India

District Total Male Female Male literacy Female literacy Gonda 11,457 5,871 5,586 12.2% 0.3% Kheri 17,789 9,301 8,488 8.6% 0.7% Nainital 73,998 37,549 36,448 31.6% 6.1% Pilibhit 273 138 135 1.1% 0.7% Bahraich 6,340 3,270 3,070 7.9% 0.6% 2,303 1,230 1,073 43.3% 7.7% Bijnor 3,647 1,968 1,679 19.5% 1.8%

Nepal

Tharus naming Tharu as their mother tongue are listed in the Census of Nepal for 1981. No subdivisions of Tharu are given. The Tharu-speaking population in the Western Tarai was 333,755 in 1981. Tharu- speaking populations east of Kapilbastu District most likely speak substantially different varieties of Tharu, and are not included in this number. The total Tharu-speaking population in Nepal in 1981 was 545,685, comprising 3.6 percent of the total national population. Because of immigration by other groups, the Tharus are fast becoming a minority in an ethnically diverse Tarai; however, in districts like Kailali (47 percent), Bardiya (37 percent), and Dang (32 percent), Tharus still comprise a significant proportion of the population (Government of Nepal 1984a, and Rajaure 1992:37). Map 4 shows the distribution of Tharu in Nepal according to the 1981 census.

1.3 Language

The most common local term used to refer to the language spoken by the different clans of Tharu is simply “Tharuwa”; however, for consistency with the literature, “Tharu” will be used in this report to refer both to the people and the language. If questioned more specifically, Tharus will describe their language by clan name, recognizing that differences are largely clan-based. The clan names will also be used in this report to refer to the more localized speech varieties, such as Buksa, or Buksa Tharu, spoken by the Buksa clan in Nainital District. The locations of these varieties of Tharu are the same as the location of the clans discussed in §1.1. Tharu is technically classified as part of either the Western or Eastern Hindi branch, Central Zone, Indo-, Indo-Iranian, Indo-European (Voegelin and Voegelin 1965:263; Grierson 1916b, 1916c).

3 Grierson reported the number of ‘Bhuksa’ speakers as 199,521 (1916a:319). This could signify that the Buksa are rapidly being assimilated by the dominant Hindu/Hindi culture, or it may just be an error in the figures. 7

Grimes (1988:567) lists Dang Tharu as an unclassified member of the Central Zone; four other Tharu varieties listed are classified in the Eastern Zone of Indo-Aryan. From early descriptions, it seems clear that there are many different varieties of Tharu, all having many similarities with better-known regional , but all having enough differences to make further investigation and classification necessary. Grierson’s (1916b:311) conclusion is that there is “no such thing as a Tharu language. Everywhere the Tharus speak, more or less correctly, the language of the Aryan races with whom they are immediately in contact.” He refers to it mostly as a “broken” or “corrupt” form of some other language; often Tharu is used as an adjective to modify one of the more well-known regional languages: “Tharu Bhojpuri…is spoken along the Nepal frontier from [Gorakhpur] to Bahraich…. [It is] a corrupt form of Bhojpuri, mixed here and there with aboriginal words that will repay the investigations of the ethnologist. It is worth noting that the Tharus of Bahraich and Gonda speak Bhojpuri, while the local Aryan language is not that language, but is Eastern Hindi” (1916b:42–44). About the Tharus of Kheri District, Grierson writes that they are reported to speak a “corrupt Gorkhali” (Nepali), but on closer examination he concludes it to be the local mixed with Kanauji, and calls it “Tharu Awadhi” (1916c:121). Of all the varieties of Tharu surveyed in this report, only a few are listed in the (Grimes 1988). Dang Tharu is recognized as distinct from Chitwan Tharu, with “Dhangura” listed as one of its variant names; Dangora, as used in this report, is probably a variant spelling of this. “Kathariya” is listed as a dialect of Dang Tharu. “Rana Thakur” is listed as a separate language located in the far east of Nepal; it is uncertain if this is related to the Rana Tharu or Thakur Tharu in this survey. Population figures for the varieties of Tharu in India are essentially the same as for the clans discussed in §1.2.4; however, we have no statistics on the number of Tharus who do not speak Tharu. Interviews with Tharus living in India indicate that only those living away from Tharu villages, especially in the cities, no longer speak the language. Offsetting the number of Tharu no longer speaking their mother tongue is the number of outsiders living among them who have learned to speak Tharu. Hindi is undoubtedly an important for Tharus of the Indian Tarai, but its importance diminishes across the border. Dahal (1992:17) writes that Hindi is being pushed as a unifying language of the Tarai, but that “even in the ‘Hindi-belt’ of Nepal, Hindi is hard to come by other than at political rallies.”

2 Goals

The following goals were formulated for this survey: • To investigate the differences among the speech varieties spoken by the Tharu population. • To discover the extent to which these speech varieties differ from Hindi. • To investigate the extent of community bilingualism in Hindi. • To investigate language use patterns and language attitudes towards both Tharu and Hindi. • To discover those key social practices and cultural values that will provide insight into the worldview of the Tharu. To reach these five goals, we directed our survey into four main areas: 1) a study of the dialect areas, 2) a study of bilingualism in Hindi, 3) a study of language use and attitudes, and 4) a study of the Tharu culture.

2.1 Dialect area study

2.1.1 Lexical similarity

The first goal of investigating the differences among the Tharu varieties, and the second goal of discovering their degree of difference from Hindi, required us to study differences in vocabulary, .e., lexical similarity. Lexical similarity is the percentage of words between speech varieties that resemble 8 each other in sound and meaning. In this study lexical similarity is investigated by means of comparing equivalent words using 210-item word lists. Results are expressed as a percentage of similar items.

2.1.2 Dialect intelligibility

Another goal of the dialect study is to investigate the degree of inherent intelligibility between the different speech varieties spoken in the Western Indo-Nepal Tarai. Inherent intelligibility is understanding that is the result of two speech varieties being closely related to one another, as opposed to understanding that is acquired by exposure. Intelligibility testing, used in tandem with lexical similarity, helps determine the most meaningful grouping of speech varieties. Inherent intelligibility is inferred from a sample’s average understanding of a recorded text. The results are expressed as a percentage, based on the average of scores on a recorded text test. Sample size and standard deviation are also given.

2.2 Bilingualism

The third goal, concerning community bilingualism in Hindi, was formulated because of the important role that Hindi plays in education, commerce, media, and religion. Extensive and high-level bilingualism would suggest that local communities could effectively use media in these languages. In this study, bilingualism is investigated using both recorded text tests and a sentence repetition test. The results for recorded text tests are expressed as in §2.1.2. The results for sentence repetition testing are expressed as the percentage of the population at a particular level of fluency.

2.3 Language use and language attitudes

The fourth goal concerning language attitudes towards Tharu was formulated because of the powerful effect that attitude has on the acceptance and use of literature, and because present language use patterns provide an indication of the future of a language. Strong attitudes against Hindi, or in favor of the development of Tharu, could significantly restrict the understanding and acceptance of written materials in Hindi, even if research suggests Tharu speakers adequately understand it. This investigation uses formal and informal questionnaires in addition to observation. Results are expressed as the percentage of subjects giving a particular response; they are also documented with quotes from individuals interviewed and with observations by the researchers.

2.4 Tharu culture

The final goal of investigating the Tharu culture was formulated because of the need to understand important cultural differences before initiating cross-cultural work. In this study, culture was investigated by observation and informal interviews, using a list of topics and questions to guide the investigation. Results are presented in this report as a summary of general information about the Tharu, included mostly in §1. More specific details are given in a separate document entitled “A summary of Tharu culture,” included here as appendix G.

3 Summary of findings

3.1 Tharu speech varieties

There is considerable diversity among the Tharu varieties encountered in this survey. Language differences seem to result more from clan differences than from geographic separation, though the effect of both is evident. 9

The different varieties share as little as 58 percent lexical similarity. Among these, there are four subgroups that arise from the study of the word lists: 1) Buksa, 2) Rana, 3) Kathoriya and Sunha, and 4) Dangora (from west to east). These four subgroups form a dialect chain in which similarity decreases with distance. From the word lists, Kathoriya Tharu (KkP)4 appears to be a potential center point in the chain, a that even the ends of the chain might understand. Recorded text testing confirms the suspicion that Kathoriya Tharu is a center point in a dialect chain. Of those varieties tested on their understanding of Kathoriya Tharu (KkP), subjects averaged 90 percent or better. At the ends of the dialect chain, however, Rana Tharus (RNS) understood the Dang Tharu (DDK) text at an average of only 51 percent (DDK understood the RNS text at an average of 68 percent). Besides Kathoriya (KkP), no other reference point was understood well at all of the other test points. Interestingly, not only is KkP understood well at the other test points, but subjects in KkP also understood the other reference points better than any other test point. Only four of six possible test points were tested on the Kathoriya recorded text test (RTT). Neither Rana (RNS) nor Buksa (BNM) (both in Nainital District) was tested on the Kathoriya RTT. Because RNS, BNM, and RKB had such uniformly high scores among themselves, it is expected that results from RKB would be fairly representative of results from RNS and BNM. Final verification of the suspected high intelligibility at these two points needs further testing. From lexical similarity results, it appears that Chitwan Tharu, to the east of this survey area, is quite different from the varieties studied here, and should be thought of as a separate language.

3.2 Tharu’s relationship to Hindi

Hindi is closely related to the Tharu varieties in this survey. Lexically, it is closest to the Buksa and Rana varieties, and somewhat less similar to the Kathoriya and Dangora varieties. Understanding of a simple Hindi text appears to be quite high among Tharu speakers in India; however, it is likely that these results show an overlay of learned ability in Hindi, an ability that is not shared by all segments in Tharu communities. In the one village in Nepal where the Hindi text was tested, understanding was quite low, showing that the results from the test points in India may reflect the effect of learning and not just the result of Tharu’s inherent closeness to Hindi.

3.3 Bilingualism in Hindi

Results of testing Hindi bilingualism among the Tharu show a typical pattern of second-language acquisition: those who are educated score significantly better than those who are uneducated. Among those who have received at least one year of education, there is “very good, general proficiency” in Hindi. This educated group comprises approximately 10–30 percent of the population. Among the 70–90 percent who are uneducated, proficiency in Hindi is only at a basic level. Such results indicate that these people would have great difficulty understanding or communicating any complex subject matter in Hindi.

3.4 Language use and language attitudes

Tharu is nearly always used in the home. There is no indication that Tharu is being replaced by Hindi in the critical domains of home and religion. The use of the Tharu language continues to be important for in-group communication.

4 Note that this report uses its own codes rather than standard ISO 639-3 codes. The important ISO codes for this report are: Buksa [tkb]; Sonha [soi]; Tharu Chitwania [the]; Tharu Dangaura [thl]; Tharu Kathariya [tkt]; Tharu Rana [thr]; and Tharu Kochila [thq]. 10

Attitudes towards the use of Tharu are consistently strong and positive. All indications are that Tharu will remain in use as a mother tongue for the foreseeable future. Attitudes are tentatively positive towards literature in Tharu; however, attitudes towards literature in Kathoriya Tharu are somewhat negative, though this assessment is very preliminary.

3.5 Tharu culture

Like many tribal groups in India, the Tharus are changing rapidly. In many ways they are maintaining an uncomfortable balance between their traditional culture and the encroaching Hindu culture; Tharu culture today is a blend of both worlds. Among the younger generation, education is providing opportunity for advancement in the national culture; the other key force of change is immigration into traditional Tharu areas by outside groups. The maintenance of language, a key measure of change in a culture, suggests that the Tharu will continue to maintain a strong sense of cultural identity in the foreseeable future.

4 Study of dialect areas

The purpose of a dialect area study is to define in quantifiable terms the differences existing between speech varieties in a given geographic area. In order to understand the extent of dialect differences throughout the western Indo-Nepal Tarai, a dialect area study was carried out which consisted of word list comparison and dialect intelligibility testing.

4.1 Word list comparison

4.1.1 Procedures

Comparing word lists between two points is one method of measuring the similarity of those two speech varieties. This systematic study of vocabularies is known as a lexical similarity study. Speech varieties that have more words in common (higher lexical similarity), generally understand each other better than those communities that have fewer words in common. Analysis of the word lists was by means of grouping similar words together for each English gloss and calculating the percentage of similar words between any two word lists. Similarity is based on phonological similarity and not strictly on cognate relationship, using similarity-counting procedures outlined in Blair (1990:31–32). After the words were grouped according to these counting procedures, an analysis was run using the compass algorithm in Wimbish’s Wordsurv program (1989). Additional phonological regularities were identified in this way, and the groupings readjusted to account for these. Word list similarity, or lexical similarity, below 60 percent typically corresponds with inadequate intelligibility between the compared varieties (reflective of distinct languages). Lexical similarity above 90 percent typically corresponds with high intelligibility between the compared varieties (reflective of very closely related dialects). Dialect intelligibility testing is not usually required for either situation. Lexical similarity between 60 and 90 percent warrants fuller investigation by means of dialect intelligibility testing to determine the nature of the relationship between the two speech varieties (Blair 1990:23). A 210-item word list was elicited from mother tongue speakers of each speech variety under investigation, and transcribed using first the script and then the International Phonetic Alphabet. This alphabet and the complete word lists are shown in appendices A and B. In most cases, word lists were double-checked with other mother tongue speakers for errors and to weed out items that appeared to be different but which are really only synonyms. Past experience shows that double- checking word lists tends to increase lexical similarity percentages. In some cases, elicitation was also done with several mother tongue speakers present, thus providing a measure of built-in double-checking from the beginning. Specific details for each word list are given in appendix B. 11

Because Hindi plays such a strong role as an inter-group language, there is often the problem of eliciting a Hindi word when a local word is commonly used. For this reason, a strong effort was made at all times to elicit local Tharu words if they were still in use.

4.1.2 Results

A total of sixteen word lists were compared: table 2 identifies each list by the three-letter code, name, and location it represents. The maps show the location of these word list points.

Table 2. Word lists, source locations, and identity codes

Code Speech variety Location: Village, Tehsil, District, Country BNM Bhuksa Tharu , Gandepur, Nainital, India BNT Bhuksa Tharu Thari, Ramnagar, Nainital, India RNK Rana Tharu Sugia, Khatima, Nainital, India RNS Rana Tharu Sisaikera, Sitarganj, Nainital, India RNS Rana Tharu Sisana, Sitarganj, Nainital, India RkM Rana Tharu Majhgam, Kanchanpur, Kanchanpur, Nepal RKB Rana Tharu Bangama, Nighasan, Kheri, India TkN Thakur Tharu Naibasti, Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur, Nepal KkP Kathoriya Tharu Pavera, Pavera, Kailali, Nepal SkP Sunha Tharu Piparia, Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur, Nepal DKS Dangora Tharu Sivratnapur, Asuliya, Kelali, Nepal DDK Dang Tharu Kotani, Dang, Dang-Deokri, Nepal DGC Dangora Tharu Chandanpur, Tulsipur, Gonda, India DkR Dangora Tharu Rajipur, Kanchanpur, Kanchanpur, Nepal CCC Chitwan Tharu Chitwan, Chitwan, Chitwan, Nepal HIN Hindi Standard, Uttar Pradesh, Hindi, India

The matrix in table 3 presents the results of all comparisons, expressed as a percentage of lexical similarity.

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Table 3. Lexical similarity for all word list points BNM—Buksa 93 BNT—Buksa BUKSA

77 76 RNK—Rana 79 76 97 RNS—Rana 79 77 97 97 RNS—Rana RANA 77 73 91 89 93 RkM—Rana 77 75 90 91 89 88 RKB—Rana 76 75 84 83 87 85 83 TkN—Thakur

69 66 74 74 76 74 79 74 KkP—Kathoriya LINK DIALECTS 67 65 71 71 74 70 70 71 73 SkP—Sunha

65 63 67 67 68 66 72 68 79 74 DKS—Dangora 59 58 64 63 64 63 66 63 76 73 92 DDK—Dang DANGORA 64 61 68 68 69 69 71 66 79 72 89 88 DGC—Dangora 60 58 63 63 66 66 65 67 74 72 85 86 82 DkR—Dangora

58 56 56 57 57 57 58 60 63 63 65 63 61 67 CCC—Chitwan OTHERS 83 80 70 70 71 68 70 72 68 66 64 59 58 65 60 HIN—Hindi

As much as possible, varieties that are more similar are placed next to one another in this table, and spaces are inserted to draw attention to dialect groupings. Several observations can be made about this display of lexical similarity. Percentages vary from a high of 97 to a low of 56. It is also clear that the speech varieties cluster into several groups. Excluding Chitwan (CCC) and Hindi (HIN), there are four main subgroups: Buksa, Rana, Dangora, and a “link” group. Figure 1 graphically shows groupings and the similarity percentages (from table 3) at which any two groups can be linked. For example, the Rana and Buksa groups are linked and become one group, which shares lexical similarity of 73 percent or greater.

Figure 1. Grouping of test points based on lexical similarity data.

Subgroups of Tharu based on lexical similarity

Two Buksa points (BNM, BNT) form the Buksa subgroup that unites at 93 percent lexical similarity. The Buksa and Rana subgroups share at least 73 percent lexical similarity with each other. The Dangora group shares a lexical similarity of 82 percent or greater among four points (DKS, DDK, DGC, and DkR). This group spans considerable distance geographically, yet maintains a high degree of similarity. 13

Sunha (SkP) and Kathoriya (KkP) do not fit easily in any of the other subgroups. Sunha shares 70 percent or greater lexical similarity with the Rana group, and 72 percent or greater with the Dangora group. Kathoriya shares 74 percent or greater similarity with both the Rana and Dangora groups. Both Sunha and Kathoriya seem to form bridges between the Rana and Dangora groups: Rana and Dangora only share 63 percent or greater lexical similarity with each other.

Other neighboring languages

The geographically nearest Tharu variety examined in this survey is Chitwan Tharu (CCC), using a partial word list from Leal (1978). It is clearly quite different from the other varieties, sharing from a low of 56 percent lexical similarity with one of the Rana varieties to a high of 67 percent with one of the Dangora varieties. The lexical similarity results show that the Buksa subgroup is most closely related to Hindi (80 percent or greater); the Rana subgroup shares 68 percent or greater similarity with Hindi; the Dangora subgroup is least similar of all the subgroups with Hindi (58–65 percent). Comparing lexical similarity with Hindi is particularly troublesome: it is very difficult to distinguish between Hindi words that have become part of the local vocabulary, and those that have been given because the researchers were using Hindi. The Buksa word lists may be especially affected by this problem: Buksa is lexically closer to Hindi than to any of the other Tharu varieties, results that are a bit suspicious. In regard to this, see §4.2.2 for a discussion of the relationship between lexical similarity and understanding of a recorded text.

4.2 Dialect intelligibility

4.2.1 Procedures

The procedures for testing dialect intelligibility are those described by Casad (1974) and Blair (1990). These procedures will be described briefly here. For each speech variety under investigation a short two to four minute narrative story is recorded from a mother tongue speaker. Each story is transcribed phonetically (often in Devanagari first) and translated into English, thus facilitating the development of a list of simple questions about the story. Questions for each story are translated and recorded into each of the other speech varieties under investigation. An RTT is then developed which consists of a story played one time through, followed by that same story interspersed with questions about that story. Questions are always in the mother tongue of the subject, and are only played one time each. The places from which tests are developed are called reference points. The places in which tests are administered are called test points. A test developed and administered in the same place is known as a hometown test. Each RTT must first be screened by a panel of ten mother tongue speakers who validate the test by scoring nearly perfectly on the test in its final form of ten questions. Questions missed by more than one mother tongue speaker are usually eliminated. Likewise, each subject must score at least 80 percent on an RTT in their own mother tongue before they qualify to take an RTT in another speech variety. In this way the validity of each test and the suitability of each subject is ensured. Generally speaking, if a sample of ten people from a test point averages 80 percent or higher on a recorded text test, then that community is said to adequately understand the dialect of the reference point—the test point and the reference point are varieties of the same language. These procedures were followed as closely as possible, but were altered in a few instances. Casad (1974) calls for screening potential questions with a panel of local speakers. In this survey, that generally meant only one speaker at first; if an initial screening of the RTT revealed mistakes in the translation of the questions, we attempted to correct the mistaken questions before proceeding. The initial form of the hometown test generally had between fifteen and thirty questions, which helped ensure ten good questions in the final test. In several instances subjects were allowed to continue even though they scored less than 80 percent on a hometown test that was constructed from their own village. If they scored 90 percent or higher on the next test, we accepted them as suitable subjects, and assumed that 14

they had just needed a bit more time to adjust to the researchers and the testing method. In another instance, several subjects were tested on a series of tests without first taking a hometown test. These were accepted only because they all scored 100 percent on the next test, proving their suitability as subjects. The result of intelligibility testing is expressed as a percentage (based on the mean average) score of a sample of usually ten people. In order to ensure that what is being tested is inherent intelligibility and not acquired intelligibility, standard deviation is calculated. A high standard deviation (above 12 or 13) indicates relatively wide variation in subjects’ test performance. A common cause for such wide variation is that some subjects have acquired intelligibility through contact with people from other speech varieties. Table 4 shows the relationship between standard deviation and average score on a dialect intelligibility test (Blair 1990:25).

Table 4. Relationship between standard deviation and average score on an intelligibility test

Standard Deviation High Low Situation 1 Situation 2

High Many people understand well the Most people understand the story on story on the test tape, but some the test tape.

have difficulty. Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot understand Few people are able to understand the

Average Score Average Low the story, but a few are able to story on the test tape. answer correctly.

4.2.2 Results

Seven recorded text tests were developed and tested in this survey. Results from testing among these different Tharu varieties are shown in table 5. The tests reference points are listed horizontally across the top; the places where each test was administered are listed vertically down the left side. The top number is the average for the sample; the middle number is the standard deviation; the bottom number is the sample size. For example, ten subjects from DKS scored 91 percent on the test developed in RNS, with a standard deviation of 9.9.

Table 5. Summary results of recorded text test (RTT)

BNM RNS RKB KkP DKS DGC DDK BNM 98 95 — — — — — 4.4 10.1 — — — — — 13 10 — — — — — RNS — 97 99 — — 52 51 — 8.1 3.2 — — 18.1 14.5 — 19 10 — — 10 10 RKB 100 96 98 90 88 78 69 0 7.0 4.6 12.5 9.8 8.6 16.3 10 10 23 10 10 10 10 KkP — 96 95 94 93 91 84 — 6.0 7.1 10.7 8.3 8.8 17.1 — 10 10 19 10 10 10 15

BNM RNS RKB KkP DKS DGC DDK DKS — 91 — 97 95 83 87 — 9.9 — 4.8 8.3 11.6 15.7 — 10 — 10 20 10 10 DGC — 73 75 95 79 96 72 — 18.5 18.6 7.0 15.1 7.3 14.8 — 11 11 10 11 23 10 DDK — 68 — 95 — 71 93 — 15.5 — 5.3 — 12.9 8.5 — 10 — 10 — 10 18

The scores on the downward diagonal from left to right (in bold and shaded) are the hometown test scores. These scores ranged from a low of 93 (on a sample of 18 in Dang District DDK), to a high of 98 (on a sample of 23 in Bangama RKB). Subjects missed questions on a hometown test because, in our opinion, a hometown test is so easy that their attention wandered. Other tests required, and received, greater attention. It is interesting to note that in several instances subjects performed better on a test tape from another village than they did on a test from their own village. Analyzing the scores in each vertical column reveals how well different test points understand the speech variety of that reference point. In general the Rana Tharu reference points (RNS and RKB) were not understood well at the Dangora Tharu test points (DDK and DGC). DDK only scored 68 percent on the RTT from RNS, with wide variation in understanding among the subjects as seen by the standard deviation of 15.5. Likewise, the Dangora reference points were not understood well at the Rana test points: RNS only scored 51 on the test from DDK. RNS and DDK represent the geographic extremes in this survey. Intermediate geographically, and also according to lexical similarity, is Kathoriya Tharu (KkP). All test points tested (on KkP, RKB, DKS, DGC, and DDK) averaged at least 90 percent. Test points RNS and BNM were not tested on KkP; however, we can extrapolate from the results we do have. Average RTT scores among RNS, RKB, and BNM are uniformly high—all above 95 percent. Based on these high scores, we could have chosen any one of these points as representative of the other two. This suggests that RNS and BNM should not score significantly different from RKB (90 percent) on the KkP test. Therefore, there is one point, KkP, which seems to be adequately understood by all test points in this survey. Comparison of lexical similarity scores with RTT scores raises some questions. Lexical similarity scores are surprisingly low between the Rana and Buksa groups in light of the fact that RTT scores between RNS and BNM are at least 95 percent. One reason for this, and there are several possible, is that the Buksa word lists show a bias towards Hindi in their similarity: Buksa appears to be more lexically similar with Hindi, which makes it appear less similar with the other Tharu varieties.

5 Bilingualism

Bilingualism is ability in a second language that is the result of learning, either formally (e.g., in school) or informally (as in the bazaar). A recorded text test (RTT) and a sentence repetition test (SRT) were used in this survey to evaluate bilingual ability in Hindi. Bilingualism was only tested at the test points in India. It was not possible to test Nepali ability at any of the test points in Nepal.

5.1 Recorded text testing

5.1.1 Procedures

A recorded text test can be used to provide a preliminary assessment of a community’s learned ability in a second language. The procedures for evaluating bilingual ability using this method have been adapted 16

from dialect intelligibility testing as discussed in §4.2.1. Since this method only evaluates comprehension ability, it is not adequate for evaluating higher levels of bilingual proficiency (Blair 1990:74). Used in conjunction with sentence repetition testing we have a double check on our results, obtaining a more accurate understanding of bilingualism than if only one method were used. When using recorded text tests in bilingualism testing, care must be taken to test a sample that is representative of the demographic characteristics in the community. A sample of subjects should therefore include men and women, young and old, educated and uneducated, and traveled and untraveled, in the same proportion as the population as a whole.

5.1.2 Results

A Hindi recorded text test was developed in , Uttar Pradesh. This was then tested at five test points as a preliminary, or pilot test, of bilingualism in Hindi. The two test points not tested are in Nepal and are more influenced by Nepali. Subjects in DKS (in Nepal on the border) did relatively poorly on the Hindi RTT. On the basis of these results no further testing of Hindi was done in Nepal. All of the test points in India did quite well, showing good understanding of a simple narrative text. These results are summarized in table 6.

Table 6. Hindi RTT results (HinRTT)

Test Points RNS RKB BNM DKS DGC DDK KkP HIN 91 92 91 74.5 93.5 — — 100 Hindi 9.4 7.9 11.0 12.1 6.7 — — 0 RTT 10 10 10 10 10 — — 10

Results from this pilot test show that further bilingualism testing is needed. Simple narrative material is understood well by the small samples tested; further testing was needed (using the sentence repetition test) to more thoroughly investigate Hindi proficiency.

5.2 Sentence repetition testing

5.2.1 Procedures

A sentence repetition test (SRT) consists of a set of fifteen carefully selected sentences recorded on a cassette tape. Each sentence is played once for each subject. Subjects are evaluated, according to a four point scale 0–3), on their ability to accurately repeat each sentence. Essentially any deviation from the recorded sentences is counted as an error. A subject’s ability to accurately repeat sentences of increasing difficulty is directly correlated with the overall ability to speak and understand the language: the higher the score, the greater the bilingual ability. Though an SRT is quite time consuming and difficult to develop, once developed it is very quick and easy to administer, making it possible to evaluate a large sample in a community in a very short time. This procedure provides a more complete and accurate evaluation of a community’s bilingual ability than recorded text testing. Radloff (1991) provides complete procedures for constructing and administering a sentence repetition test. In a community different levels of bilingual ability frequently pattern with such demographic factors as sex, age, education, and amount of travel. These factors, therefore, must be adequately accounted for in the sample tested using the SRT. A small sample of at least five to ten people must be tested for each different combination of demographic factors that the researchers expect to have a significant effect on bilingual ability. The specific demographic factors are determined by observation, by informal interviewing, and from census data. Our samples were chosen keeping in mind the factors of sex, education, and age, with the greatest importance placed on education. 17

SRT results are expressed as a point total out of 45 possible points. They are interpreted according to a corresponding bilingualism proficiency level, or reported proficiency evaluation (RPE) level. These RPE levels range from 0+ (very minimal proficiency) to 4+ (approaching the proficiency of a native speaker). Probably at least a level 3 proficiency is required to adequately understand most philosophical or religious material (Kindell 1991:28).5 Table 7 relates Hindi SRT score with the equivalent RPE level (Varenkamp 1991:9 and Radloff 1991:242).

Table 7. Score ranges on Hindi SRT corresponding to RPE levels

SRT (Score out of 45) RPE level Proficiency descriptions 44–45 4+ Near-native-speaker proficiency 38–43 4 Excellent proficiency 32–37 3+ Very good, general proficiency 26–31 3 Good, general proficiency 20–25 2+ Good, basic proficiency 14–19 2 Adequate, basic proficiency 8–13 1+ Limited, basic proficiency 4–7 1 Minimal, limited proficiency 0–3 0+ Very minimal proficiency

5.2.2 Results

A demographic profile of a community provides the basis for interpreting the results of bilingualism testing. The percentage of the community with certain social characteristics (e.g., younger, uneducated, female) should be compared with that social group’s average proficiency. Table 8 gives a demographic profile for Tharu populations in this survey. This profile is based on detailed census figures for Kailali District in Nepal (Government of Nepal 1984a) and a Tharu village in Gonda District (Singh 1988:16), in addition to general literacy statistics for districts in Uttar Pradesh (Bose 1991). The range of percentages in each social category reflects the approximate spread among the various Tharu areas. A total of 190 subjects in five Tharu villages were tested on the Hindi sentence repetition test. In each village a stratified sample was selected that was as representative as possible of the overall village population, based on demographic profiles developed for each village.

Table 8. Demographic profile of Tharu villages

Uneducated Primary Ed. Higher Ed. SEX AGE (0 years) (1–5 years) (6+ years) TOTAL Younger (15-34) 17–22% 4–7% 4–5% 29% Male Older (35+) 19–22% 1–3% 0–1% 23% Totals (Male) 36–44% 5–10% 4–6% 52% Younger (15-34) 26–28% 1–3% 0–1% 30% Female Older (35+) 16–18% 0–2% 0% 18% Totals (Female) 42–46% 1–5% 0–1% 48% TOTALS 78–90% 6–15% 4–7% 100%

5 This assumes that RPE levels can be equated with the FSI (Foreign Service Institute) proficiency levels (referred to in Kindell 1991). The exact relationship between FSI and RPE levels has not yet been demonstrated. 18

Overall results for each village are compared in table 9, along with results for just the uneducated part of the sample: x= mean average, s= standard deviation, N= sample size, L= equivalent RPE level of the average. Individual scores are included in appendix E.

Table 9. Hindi SRT results by village

Overall Uneducated Village x s N L x s N L Sisana (RNs) 27.7 12.5 42 3 19.9 11.3 21 2+ Mathpuri (BNM) 28.5 9.0 47 3 24.7 9.1 26 2+ Bangama (RKB) 21.8 11.8 42 2+ 16.1 9.5 27 2 Bhusahar Hunchawa 19.3 9.4 39 2 14.7 7.3 23 2 Chandenpur (DGC) 19.4 13.1 20 2 10.1 6.2 10 1+ *Chandenpur was used as a pilot test point. A larger and more representative sample was tested in the nearby village of Bhusahar Hunchawa. A few comments can be made about this general display of data. There is a slight decline in average score from west to east: Sisana and Mathpuri are in Nainital District and have the highest scores; Bhusahar Hunchawa and Chandenpur are in Gonda District and have the lowest scores. There are several reasons for this. Standard Hindi is spoken in Nainital District, but in Gonda District a non-standard variety of Hindi is spoken. Also, the Tharu villages in Gonda District are more remote (with less opportunities for learning Hindi) than in Nainital District. The difference in average score between most pairs of villages is not statistically significant. However, SRT results from Mathpuri are significantly different from Bangama, Bhusahar Hunchawa, and Chandenpur, but not from Sisana.6 Figure 2 shows the distribution of bilingual proficiency levels for both Mathpuri and Bhusahar Hunchawa. This figure shows that ability in Hindi is quite varied within a village, and also between villages.

6 Significant at p<.05 on a chi-squared test. 19

Figure 2. Distribution of Hindi proficiency in two Tharu villages with percentage of sample at each level. Keeping in mind that there is wide variation in Hindi ability among the villages, detailed results by social category are presented together in table 10.

Table 10. Summary of SRT results

UNEDUCATED (0 YEARS) EDUCATED (1 YEAR OR MORE) YOUNGER OLDER YOUNGER OLDER AGE GROUP: TOTAL (15–34) (35+) (15–34) (35+) x= 25.4 x= 18.7 x= 32.4 x= 27.3 x= 27.2 s= 9.8 s= 11.2 s= 7.8 s= 10.6 s= 10.9 MALE N= 17 N= 30 N= 52 N= 13 N= 113 L= 2+ L= 2 L= 3+ L= 3 L= 3 x= 17.1 x= 13.7 x= 35.6 x= 17.3 x= 19.3 s= 8.4 s= 8.2 s= 6.6 s= 5.5 s= 11.1 FEMALE N= 34 N= 26 N= 14 N= 3 N= 77 L= 2 L= 2 L= 3+ L= 2 L= 2 x= 18.1 x= 31.7 x= 24.0 s= 10.0 s= 8.7 s=11.6 TOTAL N= 107 N= 83 N= 190 L= 2 L= 3+ L= 2+

These results show a typical pattern of second-language acquisition: the educated have a significantly better Hindi ability than the uneducated; for those who are uneducated, men have significantly better Hindi ability than women; and younger people have better Hindi ability than older people. In every social category average Hindi ability is RPE level 2 or higher, characteristic of at least “adequate, basic proficiency.” Those who have completed at least one year of formal education average RPE level 3+, characteristic of “very good, general proficiency.” Those who are educated can probably use Hindi satisfactorily in most situations, though they may have some difficulty using Hindi for communication of philosophical or religious subjects. However, interpretation of these results must consider the extent of education in the Tharu communities. A vast majority of the population, perhaps as much as 90 percent, still falls in the category of uneducated; this segment of the population will not be able to adequately use Hindi for communication of complex subject matter.

6 Language use and attitudes, and language vitality

6.1 Procedures

A study of language use patterns attempts to describe which speech varieties a community uses in different social situations. These situations, called domains, are contexts in which the use of one language variety is considered more appropriate than another (Fasold 1984:183). A study of language attitudes attempts to describe people’s attitude towards the different speech varieties that are known to them, and about the choices people should make with regard use. The primary method for studying both language use and language attitudes among the Tharu was the use of orally administered questionnaires. Observation was also used. During initial word list collection and recorded text testing, a preliminary form of the language use and attitude questionnaire was used, mostly informally, to see which questions were most appropriate and useful. Some questions that were useful to guide the researchers in the early stages of the survey 20

were not included in the final form of the questionnaire. This final form was administered at two test points in conjunction with bilingualism testing. The questions were asked in Hindi, adding a potential bias from use of the prestige language by the researchers. Some inconsistency in how questions were asked, especially those probing language attitudes, has led to results that are less reliable than they ought to be. The following questions comprised the preliminary form of the questionnaire. Those marked with an asterisk were asked on the final form of the questionnaire.

1. What do you call your language? 2. What other languages do you speak? 3. Do you ever speak Hindi with other Tharus? 4. What language do you speak to merchants in the bazaar? 5. *What language is spoken in your home? 6 *What language do the children use when playing? 10. Are there Tharus who speak differently from you? 11. …Where? 12. *Do you understand the Tharu spoken in Kheri District? 13. *…In Gonda District? [In Nainital District?] 14. *Where is the sweetest Tharu spoken? 15. *What language do you use in private worship? 16. *In what language should a mother speak to her young child? 17. Should Tharu children learn to speak Hindi? 18.a *Would it be a good thing for books to be written in Rana Tharu? 18.b *…In Kathoriya Tharu? 19. Would you want your child (or you) to marry someone who spoke only Hindi? 20. …Only Tharu? 24. *Do you think children here will still be speaking Tharu in 50 years?

6.2 Results

6.2.1 Language use

A total of 47 subjects responded to the preliminary form of the questionnaire; an additional 47 subjects responded to the final form. Complete subject responses are included in appendix F. Tharu is spoken as mother tongue by 100 percent of the subjects questioned. About 89 percent of the sample speak a second language (55 percent Hindi, 34 percent Hindi and Nepali). The results of the language use questionnaire are summarized in table 11. In general, these results show that Tharu is still actively spoken in the home, among Tharus, among children, and for private worship. 21

Table 11. Language use patterns

LANGUAGE USED Q# DOMAIN OF USE THARU HINDI/NEPALI BOTH 3. With other Tharus 31 8 8 4. With merchants 7 31 9 5. In the home 92 1 1 6. Children playing 90 1 3 15. In private worship 84 7 1

7. Non-Tharus learn Tharu? 22—Yes 25—No 8. Tharus who ’t speak Tharu? 30—Yes 16—No 10. Tharus who speak differently? 31—Yes 13—No

These results show that Tharu is strongly used in the crucial domains of home and religion. Tharu is the language of in-group identification, the one with emotive appeal. The fact that children at play use Tharu almost exclusively suggests that it will remain a vital language for the youngest generation. With outsiders such as merchants, Hindi is most commonly used because most merchants do not speak Tharu. With other Tharus, the language is used by most people, but 34 percent (16 of 47) responded that they sometimes used Hindi or Nepali. Testifying to the vitality of the Tharu language, nearly half of the respondents knew of outsiders who had learned to speak Tharu. Counterbalancing this, however, about two-thirds of the respondents knew of Tharus who did not speak Tharu, primarily those who had moved to towns in Nainital District.

6.2.2 Language attitudes

Questions dealing with language attitudes revealed that, in general, attitudes are very positive towards the Tharu language (each person liking the local variety best). Likewise, attitudes towards the use of Hindi are positive. It proved difficult to probe attitudes towards different varieties of Tharu, or of the perceived understanding of different varieties of Tharu, because in most cases people were not familiar with them. Results from some of the individual language attitude questions are presented below.

14. Where is the sweetest Tharu spoken? Own village Don’t know Other places 68 10 14

The majority, 74 percent, thought that the Tharu they spoke was the sweetest; no other specific place or area was mentioned by more than four people. Clearly, there is no recognized standard or prestigious variety of Tharu.

16. In what language should a mother speak to her young child? Tharu Hindi Both Don’t know 83 5 1 1

In question 16, 92 percent of respondents said that a mother should use Tharu when speaking to her child. This shows a very positive attitude toward the use of the mother tongue.

17. Should a child learn to speak Hindi? Yes No 41 3

22

Speaking Hindi is seen as a very valuable asset; it is part of identification with the broader political unit and necessary for advancement.

18a. Would it be a good thing for books to be written in Tharu? Yes No Don’t know 88 3 1

18b. Would it be a good thing for books to be written in Kathoriya Tharu? Yes No Other 5 27 1

In question 18a, “Tharu” was equated with Rana Tharu. This is the variety that is assumed if clarification is not made. Attitudes are consistently positive towards the prospect of literature in Tharu. Towards the prospect of literature in Kathoriya Tharu, however, attitudes are largely negative. It seems probable that much of this negative attitude is rooted in the fact that most people think Kathoriya Tharu is a variety unknown to them, when in fact they have just understood a text from Kathoriya. Kathoriya Tharu is largely unfamiliar to other Tharus, and so people have no basis from which to answer the question. There is no other evidence of negative attitudes towards Kathoriya Tharu or its speakers. Further study needs to be done to determine if negative attitudes exist which would likely be a hindrance to the acceptance of in Kathoriya Tharu.

19. Would you want your child (or you) to marry someone who spoke only Hindi? Yes No Other 25 16 5

20. Would you want your child (or you) to marry someone who spoke only Tharu? Yes No Other 35 7 2

Responses to questions 19 and 20 appear inconsistent and may be the result of mistakes in questioning. A majority responded that it is all right to marry someone who spoke only Hindi; a more substantial majority responded that it is also all right to marry someone who spoke only Tharu. Perhaps more significant is the fact that 35 percent responded that it would not be all right to marry someone who spoke only Hindi. This reflects a large segment of the population for whom maintenance of the mother tongue is still very important. Interestingly, one person who answered “yes” to question 19 said, “If they want to [marry a Hindi-speaking girl] we will teach her our language.”

24. Do you think children here will still be speaking Tharu in fifty years? Yes No Maybe Don’t know 62 17 4 9

People’s perception of the future vitality of the language is largely positive: 67 percent think that children will still speak Tharu in fifty years. That nearly 20 percent of respondents answered negatively shows that many people are feeling that the Tharu language is threatened.

7 Recommendations

7.1 For literature development and literacy programs

This language survey has shown that: 1) a vast majority of the population is not likely to be adequately bilingual in Hindi; 2) the Tharu language is widely used in nearly every domain, and attitudes are very positive towards it; 3) Kathoriya Tharu appears to be widely understood among all Tharu speech 23

varieties tested in the Western Indo-Nepal Tarai; and 4) lexically, Kathoriya Tharu is at the midpoint of a dialect chain, between the more divergent Rana and Dangora varieties. In light of these findings, we recommend that any literature development be done in Kathoriya Tharu. Indications are that written materials done in Pavera village of Kailali District, Nepal (or a village that speaks this same dialect) would likely be adequately understood by all the Tharu varieties covered in this survey. Literacy programs will also be needed in this same variety of Tharu. Reception of written Tharu materials should be tested among speakers of Rana Tharu and Dangora Tharu to determine their acceptance before extensive literature development is done. Tharus easily recognize the other varieties of Tharu and may initially reject material in other varieties; promotion of the written form would play an important part in a literacy program.

7.2 For further survey

The biggest need for further survey lies east of Gonda District (Dang District in Nepal). The Kathoriya Tharu (KkP) RTT should be tested at selected points to determine how far this language variety reaches. The different Tharu varieties along the Nepal-India border east to the eastern border of Nepal need to be surveyed, and dialect centers determined. In addition, it remains to be shown conclusively that Kathoriya Tharu is understood well among the Buksa and Rana of Nainital District. Testing of the KkP RTT should be done in BNM and RNS. It will also be informative to test bilingualism in Nepali at representative points in Tharu communities in West Nepal. In addition to this, it is recommended that Tharu varieties in north Kailali District and in Bardiya and Banke Districts of Nepal be compared with those found in this survey. The same holds true for the Tharu spoken in of India. Before extensive literature development is begun, further language attitude studies are necessary to probe attitudes towards oral and written Kathoriya Tharu. If literature in this variety proves unacceptable, because of negative attitudes or because of poor understanding of Kathoriya literature, then further survey will be needed to determine alternate centers for literature development. The data suggests that a Rana-Tharu point in Nainital District (like Sisana, RNS) would be a good choice to reach the Rana and Buksa groups; the Kathoriya village of Pavera appears to be the best point to reach the Dangora group.

Appendix A. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Consonants Alveopalatal Postalveolar Labiodental Pharyngeal Retroflex Alveolar Bilabial Palatal Glottal Uvular Dental Velar

Plosive p b t̪ d̪ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k g q ɢ ʔ Nasal m ɱ n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ Fric. ɸ β f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ Affric. pɸ bβ t ̼s d̼z ts dz tʃ dʒ tɕ dʑ Lateral l̺ l ɭ ʎ ʟ Lat. Fric. ɬ ɮ Flap ɾ ɽ Trill ʙ r ʀ Approx. w ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ

Consonant

Aspirated ʰ tʰ Labialize ʷ tʷ Ejective ʼ tʼ Voiced ̬ t̬ Long ː tː Palatalized ʲ tʲ Unreleased ̚ t̚ Voiceless ̥ d̥

Vowels

Front Central Back unrd. rd. unrd. rd. unrd. rd. Close i y ɨ ʉ ɯ Near-close ɪ ʏ ʊ Close-mid e ø ɘ ɵ ɤ Mid ə Open-mid ɛ œ ɜ ɞ ʌ ɔ Near-open æ ɐ Open a ɶ ɑ ɒ

Vowel Diacritics

Nasalization ̃ ẽ Long ː eː Centralized ̈ ë

24

Appendix B: Tharu Survey Word Lists

Details of Word Lists on Tharu Survey

Code Language Name Village Tehsil District Country Date BNM Bhuksa Tharu Madinapur Gandepur Nainital India 09/09/92 BNT Bhuksa Tharu Thari Ram Nagar Nainital India 11/09/92 RNK Rana Tharu Sugia Khatima Nainital India 10/09/92 RNS Rana Tharu Sisaikhara Sitarganj Nainital India 09/09/92 RNS Rana Tharu Sisana Sitarganj Nainital India 15/09/92 RKM Rana Tharu Majhgam Kanchanpur Kanchanpur Nepal 17/09/92 RKB Rana Tharu Banghati Nighasan Kheri India 15/09/92 TkN Thakur Tharu Nai Basti Mahandranagar Kanchanpur Nepal 16/09/92 KkP Kathoria Tharu Pavera Pavera Kaila1i Nepal 06/10/92 SkP Sunha Tharu Piparia Mahandranagar Kanchanpur Nepal 16/09/92 DKS Dangora Tharu Sivratnapur Asuliya Kaila1i Nepal 17/09/92 DDK Dang Tharu Kothari Gobadilha Dang Nepal 29/09/92 DGC Dangora Tharu Chandanpur Tulsipar Gonda India 29/09/92 DkR Dangora Tharu Rajipur Kanchanpur Kanchanpur Nepal 11/09/92 CCC Chit Wan Tharu Chitwan Chitwan Chitwan Nepal 1978 HIN Standard Hindi

Code Age Sex Elicited by Place Checked Date BNM 22 M M. G. D. Madinapur Yes 09/09/92 BNT 50 M M. G. D. Thari Yes 11/09/92 RNK 43 M N. L. Sugia Yes 10/09/92 RNS 18 M N. L. Si Saikhara Yes 09/09/92 RNS 40 M N. L. Sisana Yes 15/09/92 RKM 29 M N. L. Majhgam Yes 17/09/92 RKB 45 M M. G. D. Banghati Yes 15/09/92 TkN 30 M N. L. Palvera Yes 16/09/92 KkP 50 F M. G. D. Piparia Yes 06/10/92 SkP 30 M N. L. Sivratnapur Yes 16/09/92 DKS 26 M M. G. D. Barhani Yes 17/09/92 DDK 25 M N. L. Chandanpur Yes 29/09/92 DGC 23 M N. L. Mahandranagar Yes 29/09/92 DkR 19 M N. L. Yes 11/09/92 CCC Leals HIN On file Yes 07/09/92

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Code Age Sex Elicited by BNM -- F M. G. D. BNT 35 M M. G. D. RNK 20 M N. L. RNS 21 M N. L. RNS ? ? N. L. RKM ? M M. G. D. RKB 26 M N. L. TkN ? ? N. L. KkP ? M M. G. D. SkP ? ? N. L. DKS ? ? M. G. D. DDK ? ? N. L. DGC 16 M N. L. DkR 29 M N. L. CCC HIN 26 M Jeff Webster

Word list data

1. body DGC 2 muɖ HIN 1 ʃʌɾiɾ SkP 2 mʊɖɪja RNS 1 ʃʌɾiɾ DKS 2 mʊɖi RNK 1 ʃʌɾiɾ CCC 2 muːɖ BNM 1 ʃʌɾiɾ KkP 2 muɾija SkP 1 ʃʌɾiɾ DkR 3 kʌpaɾ TkN 1 ʃʌɾiɾ DDK 3 kʌpaɾ RNS 1 ʃʌɾiɾ DGC 3 kʌpaɾ RkM 1 ʃʌɾiɾ BNT 3 ɡʰopʌɖi RKB 1 ʃʌɾiɾ BNT 1 ʃʌɾaɾ 3. hair BNM 2 batʌn HIN 1 bal BNT 2 bʌdʌn BNM 1 bal DGC 3 dẽh BNT 1 bal RKB 3 deh RNS 1 baɾ DKS 3 deh RNK 1 baɾ KkP 3 deh DGC 1 baɾ DkR 4 aŋ SkP 1 baɾ DDK 4 aŋ RKB 1 baɾ TkN 1 baɾ 2. head RNS 1 baɾ HIN 1 sɪɾ RkM 1 baɾ BNM 1 sɪɾ KkP 1 baɾ RNS 2 mʊɖ DkR 2 bhuʈʌla RNK 2 mʊɖ DKS 2 bhuʈʌla RNS 2 mʊɖ DDK 2 bʰutla BNM 2 muɖ CCC 3 keis RKB 2 muɖ TkN 2 muɖ 4. face RkM 2 muɖ HIN 1 tʃehʌɾa 27

DGC 1 tʃehʌɾa 7. nose RNS 2 mo HIN 1 nak BNM 2 mo RNS 1 nak RKB 2 muh (used most) RNK 1 nak RNK 2 muh BNM 1 nak DGC 2 muh DkR 1 nak DKS 2 muh SkP 1 nak TkN 2 muh RKB 1 nak HIN 2 mũh TkN 1 nak DkR 2 mũh DKS 1 nak BNT 2 mũh BNT 1 nak DDK 2 mũh RNS 1 nak SkP 2 mʊh RkM 1 nak RNS 2 mʊh CCC 1 nak RkM 2 moh DDK 1 nak KkP 2 mũ DGC 1 nak KkP 1 nak 5. eye HIN 1 aŋkʰ 8. mouth BNM 1 aŋkʰ HIN 1 mũh DGC 1 aŋkʰ RNS 1 mũh DKS 1 aŋkʰ BNT 1 mũh (4) TkN 1 aŋkʰ DkR 1 mũh (4) BNT 1 aŋkʰ DDK 1 mũh (4) DDK 1 aŋkʰ BNM 1 moh (4) KkP 1 aŋkʰ RkM 1 moh (4) RNS 1 aŋkʰi SkP 1 mʊh (4) RNK 1 aŋkʰi RNS 1 mʊh (4) DkR 1 aŋkʰi RKB 1 muh (4) RNS 1 aŋkʰi TkN 1 muh (4) SkP 1 akʰi DKS 1 muh (4) RKB 1 akʰi RNK 1 muh (4) RkM 1 ãŋkʰi CCC 1 muːhʌ CCC 2 aiːkʰ DGC 1 mʊh KkP 1 mũ (4) 6. ear HIN 1 kan 9. teeth RNS 1 kan HIN 1 dãnt RNK 1 kan RNS 1 dãnt BNM 1 kan RNK 1 dãnt DGC 1 kan DGC 1 dãnt DkR 1 kan DkR 1 dãnt SkP 1 kan RKB 1 dãnt RKB 1 kan DKS 1 dãnt TkN 1 kan BNT 1 dãnt DKS 1 kan RNS 1 dãnt BNT 1 kan DDK 1 dãnt RNS 1 kan KkP 1 dãnt RkM 1 kan BNM 1 dand CCC 1 kan SkP 1 daːt DDK 1 kan TkN 1 daːt KkP 1 kan RkM 1 daːt CCC 1 daːt

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10. tongue DDK 1 pjeʈ HIN 1 dʒibʰ CCC 1 peit RNS 1 dʒibʰ KkP 1 peʈʰ RNK 1 dʒibʰ BNM 1 dʒibʰ 13. arm DkR 1 dʒibʰ HIN 1 bãh SkP 1 dʒibʰ DkR 1 bãh RKB 1 dʒibʰ RNS 1 bãh TkN 1 dʒibʰ CCC 1 bahiː DKS 1 dʒibʰ HIN 2 haʈʰ BNT 1 dʒibʰ RNS 2 haʈʰ RNS 1 dʒibʰ RNK 2 haʈʰ RkM 1 dʒibʰ DGC 2 haʈʰ DDK 1 dʒibʰ DkR 2 haʈʰ DGC 1 dʒibʰ DDK 2 haʈʰ KkP 1 dʒibʰ DKS 2 haʈʰ CCC 1 dʒibʰi RKB 2 haʈʰ KkP 2 haʈʰ 11. breast RNS 2 haʈʰ HIN 1 stʌn TkN 2 hatʰ RNS 2 tʃutʃi RkM 2 hatʰ RNK 2 tʃutʃi BNM 3 pãtʃa RNS 2 tʃutʃi DKS 3 pãtʃa BNM 2 tʃutʃ BNT 3 pãtʃa BNT 2 tʃutʃ SkP 4 kohʌni SkP 3 dudʰ RKB 3 dudʰ 14. elbow DkR 3 dudʰ HIN 1 kʊhʌni TkN 3 dudʰ BNM 1 kʊhʌni RNS 3 dudʰ RNS 1 kahʌni DGC 3 dudʰ HIN 1 kohʌni KkP 3 dudʰ RNK 1 kohʌni DKS 3 dʊʈ RKB 1 kohʌni DDK 3 ɖuɖʰ TkN 1 kohʌni CCC 4 dudʰaktʃʰaʈi RkM 1 kohʌni HIN 5 tʃʰati RNS 1 kohʌni RNS 5 tʃutʃi BNT 1 koni RNK 5 tʃutʃi CCC 1 kehuni RNS 5 tʃutʃi KkP 1 kihoni DkR 2 ʈʰɪhũn 12. belly DDK 2 ʈhehoni HIN 1 peʈ DKS 2 ʈʌjuni RNS 1 peʈ SkP 3 hʌtʰoɾi RNK 1 peʈ DGC 4 ɡãɳʈʰ BNM 1 peʈ DKS 4 ɡãʈi DGC 1 peʈ DkR 1 peʈ 15. palm RKB 1 peʈ HIN 1 hʌtʰeli TkN 1 peʈ RNS 1 hʌtʰeli DKS 1 peʈ BNM 1 hʌtʰeli BNT 1 peʈ BNT 1 hʌtʰeli RNS 1 peʈ RNK 1 hʌtɔɾi RkM 1 peʈ TkN 1 hʌtɔɾi SkP 1 pjaʈ RkM 1 hʌtɔɾi 29

RNS 1 hʌtɔɾi 18. leg SkP 1 hʌtʰoɾi HIN 1 pæɾ RKB 1 hʌtʰoɾi (13) RNK 2 ʈãŋɡ RKB 2 hʌtʰoɾi RNS 2 ʈãŋɡ SkP 2 hʌtʰoɾi SkP 2 ʈãŋɡ RNK 2 hʌtɔɾi RKB 2 ʈãŋɡ TkN 2 hʌtɔɾi RNS 2 ʈãŋɡ RkM 2 hʌtɔɾi BNM 2 ʈaŋɡ RNS 2 hʌtɔɾi TkN 2 ʈãɡ DKS 2 ɡʌɽɔɾi RkM 2 ʈãɡ DDK 2 ɡʌɽɔɾi CCC 2 ʈaŋ KkP 2 ɡʌɖɔɾi DkR 3 ɡoɾa DGC 3 ɡadi DKS 3 ɡoɾa DDK 3 ɡadi DDK 3 ɡoɾ DkR 4 hat (13) DGC 3 ɡoɾ CCC 5 tʌɾʌhʌtʰi KkP 3 ɡoɾ BNT 4 paj 16. finger RNS 4 pãv HIN 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌli DGC 5 lat BNM 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌli BNT 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌli 19. skin RNS 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌɾja HIN 1 kʰal RNK 1 ũŋɡʌɾɪja RNK 1 kʰal RkM 1 ũŋɡʌɾɪja RNS 1 kʰal RNS 1 ũŋɡʌɾɪja BNM 1 kʰal DGC 1 ʌŋɡuɾi RKB 1 kʰal DkR 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌɾi TkN 1 kʰal DKS 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌɾi BNT 1 kʰal DDK 1 ʌ̃ŋɡʌɾi RkM 1 kʰal SkP 1 ũŋɡʌɾi RNS 1 kʰal RKB 1 ũŋɡʌɾi HIN 2 tʃʌmɽi RKB 1 ũŋɡʌli DkR 3 tʃokʌʈa TkN 1 uŋɡʌɾɪja DDK 3 tʃɔkʌʈa CCC 1 juŋɡuri KkP 3 tʃʰutʌka KkP 1 ɔŋɡʌɾi SkP 4 kʌlʌɾi DkR 5 tʃʰala 17. nail DKS 5 tʃʰala HIN 1 nãkʰun CCC 5 tʃʰala RNS 2 nãha DGC 5 tʃʰala RNK 2 nãha SkP 2 nã 20. bone RKB 2 nah HIN 1 hʌɖːi TkN 2 nah RNK 1 hʌɖːi RkM 2 nahã RNS 1 hʌɖːi RNS 2 nahã BNM 1 hʌɖːi CCC 2 nahuː DkR 1 hʌɖːi DGC 2 nɔh SkP 1 hʌɖːi DkR 2 nʊ̃ TkN 1 hʌɖːi DKS 2 nu DKS 1 hʌɖːi DDK 2 no RNS 1 hʌɖːi DKS 2 nuhũ DGC 1 hʌɖːi KkP 2 nãhu RKB 1 hʌɖːa BNM 3 nũɡ BNT 1 hʌɖːa BNT 3 nũɡ KkP 1 hʌɖːa 30

RkM 1 hʌɽːi TkN 2 mut CCC 1 hʌɖ DKS 2 mut DKS 2 ɖaŋɡʌɾ BNT 2 mut DDK 2 ɖoŋʌɾ RkM 2 mut RNS 2 mut 21. heart CCC 2 mut HIN 1 dɪl DDK 2 mut RNS 1 dɪl KkP 2 mute BNM 1 dɪl CCC 3 pʌsiena SkP 1 dɪl RKB 1 dɪl 24. feces BNT 1 dɪl HIN 1 ʈʌʈːi RNS 1 dɪl RNK 2 hʌɡas KkP 1 dɪl RNS 2 hʌɡas RNK 2 kʌledʒa RNS 2 hʌɡas DGC 2 kʌledʒa RKB 2 hʌɡʌn TkN 2 kʌledʒa RNS 2 hʌɡʌdi RNS 2 kʌledʒa BNT 2 haɡʌna DkR 2 kʌɾʌdʒa RkM 2 hʌɡʌna RkM 2 kʌɾedʒa BNT 2 hʌɡija CCC 3 koːɖha KkP 2 hʌɡa DDK 4 dʒiu BNM 3 tʃʰaɖe DGC 4 dʒiw CCC 3 dʒaɖa HIN 5 hudʌi DkR 4 ɡʊ DDK 6 kadʒʌɾa SkP 4 ɡu DKS 4 ɡu 22. blood DGC 4 ɡu HIN 1 kʰun TkN 4 ɡuh RNK 1 kʰun RNS 4 ɡuh RNS 1 kʰun DDK 4 ɡuh BNM 1 kʰun RNS 4 ɡuhu SkP 1 kʰun TkN 1 kʰun 25. village BNT 1 kʰun HIN 1 ɡãũ RkM 1 kʰun RNK 1 ɡãũ RNS 1 kʰun RNS 1 ɡãũ DGC 2 ɾʌkʌt BNM 1 ɡãũ DkR 2 ɾʌkʌt DGC 1 ɡãũ RKB 2 ɾʌkʌt DkR 1 ɡãũ DDK 2 ɾʌkʌt SkP 1 ɡãũ KkP 2 ɾʌkʌt RKB 1 ɡãũ DKS 2 ɾʌɡʌt TkN 1 ɡão CCC 2 ɾakʌtʰ DKS 1 ɡão BNT 1 ɡão 23. urine RNS 1 ɡão HIN 1 peʃab DDK 1 ɡão HIN 2 mut RkM 1 ɡãõ RNK 2 mut CCC 1 ɡaːu RNS 2 mut KkP 1 ɡau BNM 2 mut DGC 2 mut 26. house DkR 2 mut HIN 1 ɡʰʌɾ SkP 2 mut RNK 1 ɡʰʌɾ RKB 2 mut RNS 1 ɡʰʌɾ 31

BNM 1 ɡʰʌɾ TkN 3 kɪwaɽ DGC 1 ɡʰʌɾ BNT 3 kɪwaɖ DkR 1 ɡʰʌɾ CCC 3 keːwaɾi SkP 1 ɡʰʌɾ KkP 3 kibaɾa TkN 1 ɡʰʌɾ BNM 4 moɖe DKS 1 ɡʰʌɾ DkR 5 duwaɾ BNT 1 ɡʰʌɾ DKS 5 duwaɾ RkM 1 ɡʰʌɾ DGC 5 duwaɾ RNS 1 ɡʰʌɾ DDK 5 dʌwaɾ DDK 1 ɡʰʌɾ RKB 1 ɡʰʌɾ 29. firewood CCC 1 ɡʰaɾ HIN 1 lʌkʌɽi KkP 1 ɡʰaɾe BNM 1 lʌkʌɽi RNK 2 tʃʰala BNT 1 lʌkʌɽi BNM 3 mʌkan (pukka house) RNK 2 kaɖʰɪja DKS 3 mʌkan (pukka house) RNS 2 kaɖʰɪja BNT 3 mʌkan (pukka house) DkR 2 kʌʈʰua RKB 3 mʌkʌn SkP 2 kaʈʰi DKS 2 kaʈʰi 27. roof DDK 2 kaʈʰi HIN 1 tʃʰʌt CCC 2 kaʈʰ (wood) DKS 1 tʃʰʌt RKB 2 kʌʈɪja DGC 1 tʃʰʌt TkN 2 kʌtʰɪja RNK 2 tʃʌpːʌɾ RNS 2 kʌtʰɪja RNS 2 tʃʌpːʌɾ RkM 2 kaʈʰɪja DDK 2 tʃʌpːʌɾ DGC 2 kaʈʰɪ DGC 2 tʃʰʌpʌɽa KkP 2 kaʈʰa DkR 2 tʃʰʌpːʌɾa HIN 3 ĩdʰʌn BNM 2 tʃʰʌpːʌɾ RkM 2 tʃʰʌpːʌɾ 30. broom RNS 2 tʃʰʌpːʌɾ HIN 1 dʒʰaɽu RKB 2 tʃʰʌpːʌɾ RNK 2 bʌɖnɪ SkP 2 tʃʰʌpʌɾa RKB 2 bʌɖnɪ (small) DKS 2 tʃʰʌpʌɾa RNS 2 bʌɽhʌni TkN 2 tʃʌpːʌɾa RkM 2 bʌɽhʌni BNT 2 tʃʰʌpʌɾ RNS 2 bʌɽhʌni KkP 2 tʃʌpaɾa DDK 2 bʌɽhʌni BNM 3 lenɖʌɾ (pukka roof) BNT 2 bʌnni RNS 3 lintʌɾ BNM 2 bʌni BNT 3 lʌɳɖʌɾ DGC 2 bʌɾʌni RKB 4 tʃani DKS 2 bʌɾʌni CCC 4 tʃʌnhi DkR 2 bʌɖʌhʌni DDK 5 pʌʈʌŋ SkP 2 baɽhʌni KkP 2 baɽhʌni 28. door TkN 2 bʌɖʰʌhʌnɪ HIN 1 dʌɾvaza CCC 2 bʌɾhʌni HIN 2 pʰaʈʌk RKB 3 kʰʌɾajo (biɡ) RNK 2 pʰaʈʌk DKS 4 sɪʈːa (for outside) RNS 2 pʰaʈʌk CCC 5 kutʃo RKB 2 pʰaʈʌk RkM 2 pʰaʈʌk 31. mortar RNS 2 pʰaʈʌk HIN 1 okʰli SkP 2 kaʈʌk BNM 1 okʰʌɾi BNM 3 kowaɾ BNT 1 okʰʌɾi 32

CCC 1 okʰʌɾi KkP 2 tʰuŋkia DkR 1 dokni DKS 1 dukʌni 34. knife DGC 1 dokʌni (wood) HIN 1 tʃaku DDK 1 dokʌni (wood) RNS 1 tʃaku KkP 1 õŋkʰʌɾi BNM 1 tʃuk RNK 2 pʌtɪja HIN 1 tʃʌkːu RNS 2 pʌtɪja DGC 1 tʃʌkːu SkP 2 pʌtɪja SkP 1 tʃʌkːu RNS 2 pʌtɪja TkN 1 tʃʌkːu TkN 2 pʌtija RNS 1 tʃʌkːu RkM 2 patɪja DKS 1 tʃʌkː RNK 3 ɪmandʌsta BNT 1 tʃʌku RKB 4 ɖʊkia KkP 1 tʃʰʌkʰua DDK 6 loɖʰa (stone) CCC 2 tʃʰuɾi HIN 7 kʰʌɾʌl HIN 2 tʃaku RNS 2 tʃaku 32. pestle DGC 2 tʃʌkːu HIN 1 musʌl SkP 2 tʃʌkːu BNT 1 musʌl TkN 2 tʃʌkːu BNM 1 musʌɾ RNS 2 tʃʌkːu RNS 1 musʌɾa HIN 2 tʃʌkːu RNS 1 mʊsʌla BNT 2 tʃʌku CCC 1 muːsuɾa RNK 3 hʌsija KkP 1 musaɾa RNS 3 hʌsija RNK 2 kʊɖʰʌna DkR 3 hʌsija RkM 2 kʊʈʌna RkM 3 hʌsija RNS 2 kʊʈʌna RNS 3 hʌsija DkR 3 pʌtʰʌɾa DDK 3 hʌsija RKB 3 pʌtʰʌɾ RKB 3 hʌsɪja DKS 4 belʌna DKS 3 hʌsɪja DGC 5 loɖʌha DGC 3 hʌsɪja SkP 5 lʊɖwa DGC 4 ɡʰuɾi TkN 6 mõʈa HIN 4 tʃʰuɾi RkM 7 kʊɽi CCC 4 tʃʰuɾi DDK 8 dhanki DDK 4 tʃʰuɾija

33. hammer 35. axe HIN 1 hʌtʰoɽi HIN 1 kulhaɖi RNK 1 hʌtʰoɽi RNK 1 kʊɽhaɾi HIN 1 hʌtʰoɽa RNS 1 kʊɽhaɾi RNK 1 hʌtʰoɽija SkP 1 kʊɽhaɾi RNS 1 hʌtʰoɽija BNM 1 kuhaɖi BNM 1 hʌtʰaɽa DkR 1 kuɾhaɾ SkP 1 hʌtʰɔɽi DDK 1 kuɾhaɾ RKB 1 hʌtʰɔɖi RKB 1 kʊdahari TkN 1 hʌtɔɾɪja TkN 1 kʊɽʌhʌɾija BNT 1 hʌtːɔɖa DKS 1 kʊɾʌhaɾ RkM 1 hʌtʰoɾa BNT 1 kohaɖi RNS 1 hʌtoɾa RkM 1 kʊɽʌtʃʰʌɾi DGC 2 dokɪja RNS 1 kʊɽʌhʌni DkR 2 ʈʰʌkɪja KkP 1 kohaɾi DKS 2 ʈʰokɪja RNK 2 tʊkla (small) DDK 2 ʈʰokɪja DGC 3 bʌntʃeɾi (small) 33

CCC 4 taŋi DKS 1 sui DGC 5 ʈeɡaɾi (biɡ) BNT 1 sui CCC 1 sui 36. rope DDK 1 sui HIN 1 ɾʌsːi KkP 1 sui RNS 1 ɾʌsːi TkN 1 sui BNM 1 ɾʌsːi RkM 1 sʊi DkR 1 ɾʌsːi RNS 1 sʊi SkP 1 ɾʌsːi RKB 1 ɾʌsːi 39. cloth TkN 1 ɾʌsːi HIN 1 kʌpʌɽa RkM 1 ɾʌsːi CCC 1 kʌpʌɖa RNS 1 ɾʌsːi RNK 2 lʌtːa RNK 1 ɾʌsti RNS 2 lʌtːa BNM 1 ɾʌsa (thick) SkP 2 lʌtːa BNT 1 ɾʌsi RKB 2 lʌtːa KkP 1 hʌsia TkN 2 lʌtːa DGC 2 lʌsʌɾi BNT 2 lʌtːa DKS 2 lʌsʌɾi RkM 2 lʌtːa DDK 2 lʌsʌɾi RNS 2 lʌtːa DGC 3 ʊbʰan (thick) BNM 2 lʌta RKB 4 bʌɾha (thick) KkP 2 lʌʈa BNT 4 bʌɾːa (thick) DkR 3 luɡːa CCC 6 dʒeoːɾʰi DKS 3 luɡːa CCC 3 luɡa 37. thread DDK 3 luɡʌɾa HIN 1 ɖʰaɡa DGC 3 lʊɡʌɽa RNK 1 ɖoɾa RNS 1 ɖoɾa 40. ring BNM 1 ɖoɾa HIN 1 tʃʰʌkka DGC 1 ɖoɾa HIN 2 ʌ̃ŋutʰi DkR 1 ɖoɾa SkP 2 ʌ̃ŋɡuʈʰi RKB 1 ɖoɾa CCC 2 jʌŋɡuti RkM 1 ɖoɾa KkP 2 ʌŋɡuʈhi (men’s) RNS 1 ɖoɾa RNK 3 tʃʰʌla TkN 1 doɾa RNS 3 tʃʰʌla KkP 1 doɾa RNS 3 tʃʰʌla DKS 1 doɾa HIN 3 tʃʰʌlːa BNT 1 doɖa BNM 4 mudʌɾija (both) CCC 1 doaɾa DGC 4 mʊndʌɾi SkP 2 sut DkR 4 mʊndʌɾi DKS 2 sut RKB 4 mʊndʌɾi CCC 2 sut DDK 4 mʊndʌɾi DDK 2 sut KkP 4 mʊndʌɾi (women’s) TkN 4 mʊndʌɾɪja 38. needle BNT 4 mʊndʌɾɪja HIN 1 sui DKS 4 mʊndɪɾi RNK 1 sui RkM 4 mʊ̃dʌɾɪja RNS 1 sui BNM 1 sui 41. sun DGC 1 sui HIN 1 suɾʌdʒ DkR 1 sui BNM 1 suɾʌdʒ SkP 1 sui BNT 1 suɾʌdʒ RKB 1 sui RNK 2 dɪn 34

RNS 2 dɪn 44. star DGC 2 dɪn HIN 1 taɾe DkR 2 dɪn BNM 1 taɾe SkP 2 dɪn BNT 1 taɾe RKB 2 dɪn RNS 1 taɾe TkN 2 dɪn RNK 1 taɾa DKS 2 dɪn RNS 1 taɾa BNT 2 dɪn RKB 1 taɾa RkM 2 dɪn TkN 1 taɾa RNS 2 dɪn RkM 1 taɾa DDK 2 dɪn KkP 1 taɾa KkP 2 dɪn DKS 1 toɾæ CCC 3 ɡʰam DkR 1 tõɾʌ̃jːa CCC 4 beria SkP 1 tʌɾʌi+ DDK 1 toɽʌjʌ 42. moon DGC 2 taɾʌɡʌn HIN 1 tʃãnd CCC 2 taɾaɡun HIN 2 tʃʌnduma HIN 3 sɪtaɾa RNK 3 dʒoni BNM 3 dʒoni 45. rain TkN 3 dʒoni HIN 1 baɾɪʃ BNT 3 dʒoni SkP 1 bʌɾɪʃ RkM 3 dʒoni RNK 2 mẽh RNS 3 dʒoni RNS 2 mẽh RNS 3 dʒõni RkM 2 mẽh RKB 3 dʒonih RNS 2 mẽh DkR 3 dʒonɪhɪja RKB 2 mẽ DKS 3 dʒonɪja BNM 3 bʌɾkʰa DDK 3 dʒɔnɪha DKS 3 bʌɾkʰa KkP 3 dʒʰonha BNT 3 bʌɾkʰa DGC 4 ʌdʒeɾija DGC 3 bʌɾkʰa SkP 5 ɾat CCC 3 baɾkʰa CCC 6 dʰoɾ DDK 3 baɾkʰa DkR 5 pani (46) 43. sky TkN 6 bʌʃʌtɪ HIN 1 akaʃ KkP 6 bʌɾʃʌt TkN 1 akaʃ CCC 7 tʃʰaɾi BNT 1 akaʃ HIN 8 wʌɾʃa BNM 1 akas KkP 8 bʌɾsʌt KkP 1 akas CCC 1 ʌkas 46. water RNK 2 badʌɾ HIN 1 pani RNS 2 badʌɾ RNK 1 pani RKB 2 badʌɾ RNS 1 pani RkM 2 badʌɾ BNM 1 pani RNS 2 badʌɾ DGC 1 pani DGC 2 bʌdʌɾi DkR 1 pani DKS 2 bʌdʌɾi SkP 1 pani DDK 2 bʌdʌɾi RKB 1 pani SkP 2 badɾi TkN 1 pani RKB 2 badʌl DKS 1 pani BNT 2 badʌl BNT 1 pani BNM 2 badʌl RkM 1 pani DkR 3 uppʌɾ RNS 1 pani 35

CCC 1 pani RNS 1 bɪdʒʌli DDK 1 pani KkP 1 bɪdʒʌli KkP 1 pani RKB 1 bɪŋʌli HIN 2 dʒʌl CCC 1 bɪdʒuli DGC 2 bʌdʌɾitʃʌmʌkʌthæ 47. river DDK 2 tʃʌmʌkʌʈa HIN 1 nʌdi CCC 3 tʃilʌkai BNT 1 nʌdi RNK 1 nʌdɪja 50. rainbow RNS 1 nʌdɪja HIN 1 ɪndɾʌdʰʌnuʃ DGC 1 nʌdɪja DGC 1 ɪndɾʌdʰʌnuʃ RKB 1 nʌdɪja RNK 2 dʰʌnʌʃban TkN 1 nʌdɪja RNS 2 dʰʌnʊʃ RNS 1 1 nʌdɪja BNM 2 dʰʌnʌkʌman BNM 1 nʌ̃ndi BNT 2 dʰʌnʌkʌman DkR 1 lʌdija RKB 2 dʰʌnʌkman DKS 1 lʌdija TkN 2 dʰʌnʌkman KkP 1 lʌdija SkP 2 dʰʌnʊʃman SkP 1 lʌʈːi RNS 2 dʰʌnʊʃman RkM 1 nadɪja RkM 2 dʰanʊʃman DDK 1 lʌɖijʌ KkP 2 dʰanʌkban CCC 1 lʌdi DDK 3 ɖʰʌni KkP 1 nandi DGC 3 dʰʌnuhi DGC 2 dundʌɾa DKS 3 dʰʌnikʰʌni DkR 4 ɾamʌtʃʌɾʌnketʃʰani 48. cloud HIN 1 badʌl 51. wind BNM 1 badʌl HIN 1 hʌwa BNT 1 badʌl (43) BNM 1 hʌwa RNK 1 badʌɾi DkR 1 hʌwa RNS 1 badʌɾi SkP 1 hʌw DkR 1 badʌɾi CCC 1 hawa CCC 1 badʌɾi RNK 2 bjaɾ DGC 1 badʌɾi (43) RNS 2 bjaɾ DKS 1 badʌɾi (43) RKB 2 bjaɾ RKB 1 badɾi RkM 2 bjaɾ SkP 1 badɾi (43) RNS 2 bjaɾ TkN 1 badʌɾ TkN 2 biaɾ RkM 1 badʌɾ (43) DKS 2 bʌjal RNS 1 bʌdʌɾɪja DDK 2 bʌjal DDK 1 bʌdɾi (43) DGC 2 bʌjaɾ KkP 1 badɾi KkP 2 bajaɾ

49. lightning 52. stone HIN 1 bɪdʒʌli HIN 1 pʌʈʰːʌɾ RNK 1 bɪdʒʌli RNK 1 pʌʈʰːʌɾ RNS 1 bɪdʒʌli RNS 1 pʌʈʰːʌɾ BNM 1 bɪdʒʌli BNM 1 pʌʈʰːʌɾ DkR 1 bɪdʒʌli DGC 1 pʌtʰʌɾa SkP 1 bɪdʒʌli RNS 1 pʌtʰʌɾa TkN 1 bɪdʒʌli DDK 1 pʌtʰʌɾa DKS 1 bɪdʒʌli DkR 1 pʌtʰːʌɾa BNT 1 bɪdʒʌli SkP 1 pʌtʰɾa RkM 1 bɪdʒʌli RKB 1 pʌtʰʌɾ 36

TkN 1 pʌtːʌɾ DkR 1 aɡi DKS 1 pʌʈʌjʌɾa SkP 1 aɡi BNT 1 pʌtʰʌɾija RKB 1 aɡi RkM 1 pʌtʰːʌɾ TkN 1 aɡi CCC 1 pataɾa DKS 1 aɡi KkP 1 pʌʈʰaɾa BNT 1 aɡi DDK 2 dũŋɡa RkM 1 aɡi RNS 1 aɡi 53. path CCC 1 aɡi HIN 1 ɾasta DDK 1 aɡi RNS 1 ɾasta KkP 1 aɡi RNK 1 ɾʌtːa RNS 1 ɾʌtːa 56. smoke BNM 1 ɾʌsta HIN 1 dʰũa DGC 2 ɖʌɡʌɾa RNK 1 dʰũa DkR 2 ɖʌɡʌɾ RNS 1 dʰũa SkP 2 ɖʌɡʌɾ BNM 1 dʰũa RKB 2 ɖʌɡʌɾ DGC 1 dʰũa DKS 2 ɖʌɡʌɾ DkR 1 dʰũa DDK 2 ɖʌɡʌɾ TkN 1 dʰũa KkP 2 daɡaɾ BNT 1 dʰũa TkN 3 ɾʌha RkM 1 dʰũa RNK 3 ɾʌtːa SkP 1 dʰuwã RNS 3 ɾʌtːa DDK 1 dʰuwã RkM 3 ɾah RKB 1 dʰuã RNS 3 ɾaha DKS 1 dʰuã CCC 4 paheːɖa RNS 1 dʰuã HIN 5 maɾɡ KkP 1 dʰũwa CCC 1 dʰuːʌ 54. sand HIN 1 balu 57. ash DGC 1 balu HIN 1 ɾakʰ DkR 1 balu RNK 2 bʰua DKS 1 balu RNS 2 bʰua CCC 1 balu DGC 2 bʰua DDK 1 balu TkN 2 bʰua SkP 1 baɾu DkR 2 bʰui KkP 1 baɾu DKS 2 bʰui HIN 2 ɾet RKB 2 bʰũa TkN 2 ɾet RkM 2 bʰʊa RNK 2 ɾeta RNS 2 bʰʊa RNS 2 ɾeta DDK 2 bʰʊa BNM 2 ɾeta SkP 2 bʰʊa BNT 2 ɾeta KkP 2 bʰuwa RkM 2 ɾeta BNM 3 tʃʰaɾ RNS 2 ɾeta BNT 3 tʃʰaɾ RKB 2 ɾota CCC 3 tʃʰaɖu

55. fire 58. mud HIN 1 aɡ HIN 1 miʈːi BNM 1 aɡ RNK 1 mʌʈːi RNK 1 aɡi RNS 1 mʌʈːi RNS 1 aɡi BNM 1 mʌʈːi DGC 1 aɡi RKB 1 mʌʈːi 37

RkM 1 mʌʈːi RNS 1 peɽ RNS 1 mʌʈːi DGC 1 peɽva DGC 1 maʈi DKS 1 peɽʌ DkR 1 maʈi RNK 2 ɾukʰa SkP 1 maʈi TkN 2 ɾukʰa DDK 1 maʈi KkP 2 ɾukʰa TkN 1 mɪʈːi SkP 2 ɾukʰːa DKS 1 maʈːi DkR 2 ɾukʰʌwa BNT 1 mʌʈːɪ DKS 2 ɾukʰʌwa KkP 2 kĩntʃʰa DDK 2 ɾukʰʌwa CCC 3 ɡatʃʰ 59. dust HIN 1 dʰul 62. leaf DGC 1 dʰuɾ HIN 1 pʌʈːa DkR 1 dʰuɾ RNK 1 pʌʈːa SkP 1 dʰuɾ RNS 1 pʌʈːa DDK 1 dʰuɾ BNM 1 pʌʈːa KkP 1 dʰuɾ DkR 1 pʌʈːa DKS 1 duɾa RKB 1 pʌʈːa RNK 2 dʰutʃʰãɾ BNT 1 pʌʈːa RNS 2 dʰudʰʌ̃ɾ KkP 1 pʌʈːa BNM 2 dʰudʌɾ DGC 1 pʌʈɪja TkN 2 dʰudʰʌɾ DDK 1 pʌʈɪja BNT 2 dʰudʰʌɾ SkP 1 pata RNS 2 dʰudʰʌɾ CCC 1 pata RkM 2 dʰũdʰʌɾ DGC 1 pata RKB 2 dʰũdʰʌɾ TkN 1 pʌta DKS 1 pʌʈːɪja 60. gold RkM 1 pʌtːa HIN 1 sona RNS 1 pʌtːa RNK 1 sona RNS 1 sona 63. root BNM 1 sona HIN 1 tʌna BNT 1 sona RNK 2 hʌ̃ŋɡa DkR 1 TkN 2 hʌ̃ŋɡa DKS 1 son RkM 2 hʌ̃ŋɡa CCC 1 son RNS 2 hʌ̃ŋɡa DDK 1 son DkR 2 hʌɡa DGC 1 son SkP 2 hʌ̃nɡa KkP 1 son RNS 2 hʌŋɡpa RKB 1 sono BNM 3 dʒʌɖ TkN 1 sono DGC 3 dʒʌɾ RkM 1 sono RKB 3 dʒʌɾ RNS 1 sono DKS 3 dʒʌɾ SkP 1 swan DDK 3 dʒʌɾ BNT 3 dʒʰʌɖ 61. tree CCC 3 dʒʌɾi HIN 1 peɖ HIN 3 dʒʌɽ RNK 1 peɖ KkP 3 dʒʰʌɾa RNS 1 peɖ DkR 4 ɖahã BNM 1 peɖ DDK 4 ɖahã RKB 1 peɖ BNT 1 peɖ 64. thorn RkM 1 peɽ HIN 1 kãɳʈa 38

DGC 1 kãɳʈa RNK 1 am DkR 1 kãɳʈa RNS 1 am RNK 1 kãɳʈo BNM 1 am RNS 1 kãɳʈo DGC 1 am BNM 1 kãɳʈo DkR 1 am SkP 1 kãɳt SkP 1 am RKB 1 kaʈo RKB 1 am TkN 1 kãʈo TkN 1 am RkM 1 kãʈo DKS 1 am RNS 1 kãʈo BNT 1 am DKS 1 kaʈ RkM 1 am KkP 1 kaʈ RNS 1 am CCC 1 kaːʈ CCC 1 am DDK 1 kaʈa DDK 1 am KkP 1 ɡaŋʈʰi KkP 1 amb BNT 2 dʒʰaɾ 68. banana 65. flower HIN 1 kela HIN 1 pʰul BNT 1 kela BNM 1 pʰul DGC 1 keɾa TkN 1 pʰul DkR 1 keɾa BNT 1 pʰul TkN 1 keɾa RNK 1 pʰula DKS 1 keɾa RNS 1 pʰula CCC 1 keɾa DGC 1 pʰula DDK 1 keɾa DkR 1 pʰula SkP 1 kjaɾa SkP 1 pʰula RNS 2 tʃʰɪjã RkM 1 pʰula RkM 2 tʃʰɪjã RNS 1 pʰula RNK 2 tʃʰɪjã CCC 1 pʰula RKB 2 tʃʰɪja DDK 1 pʰula RNS 2 tʃʰɪja KkP 1 pʰula KkP 2 tʃʰia RKB 1 pʰula BNM 3 ɡeɾkibʰʌɾi DKS 1 pʰula 69. wheat 66. fruit HIN 1 ɡehũ HIN 1 pʰʌl RNK 1 ɡehũ RNK 1 pʰʌl RNS 1 ɡehũ RNS 1 pʰʌl BNM 1 ɡehũ BNM 1 pʰʌl BNT 1 ɡehũ DkR 1 pʰʌl RkM 1 ɡehũ SkP 1 pʰʌl KkP 1 ɡehũ TkN 1 pʰʌl DGC 1 ɡohũ BNT 1 pʰʌl DkR 1 ɡohũ RNS 1 pʰʌl DDK 1 ɡohũ CCC 1 pʰʌl SkP 1 ɡʊhʊ̃ RkM 1 pʰʌɾa DKS 1 ɡʊhʊ̃ DGC 1 pʰaɾa RKB 1 ɡehõ KkP 1 pʰaɾa TkN 1 ɡehu RKB 1 bʰʌɾa RNS 1 ɡehʊ̃ DKS 1 bʰaɾa 70. 67. mango HIN 1 dʒʌvaɾ HIN 1 am DkR 1 dʒolʌɾi 39

SkP 1 dʒwaɾ RNK 2 bʰʌʈa RkM 1 dʒwaɾ RNS 2 bʰʌʈa RNS 1 dʒwaɾ BNM 2 bʰʌʈa TkN 1 dʒʌbʌɾ TkN 2 bʰʌʈa RNK 2 tʃʌɾi RkM 2 bʰʌʈa RKB 2 tʃʌɾi RNS 2 bʰʌʈa RNS 2 tʃʊɾi DGC 2 bʰaʈa BNT 2 tʃʌɾe DkR 2 bʰaʈa BNM 3 bʌɾe DKS 2 bʰaʈa HIN 4 dʒɔ KkP 2 bʰaʈa KkP 4 dʒoᶸ SkP 2 bʰaʈʌa DKS 4 dʒaᶸ RKB 2 bʌʈːa CCC 5 koːdo BNT 2 bʌʈa DDK 6 bʌdʒʌɾa DDK 2 bʰaɳʈa DGC 6 bʌdʒʌɾa 74. groundnut 71. rice HIN 1 mũŋɡɸʌli HIN 1 tʃawʌl BNM 1 muŋpʰʌli BNM 1 tʃawʌl RNK 1 mumpʌɾi TkN 1 tʃʌwʌl RNS 1 mumpʌɾi RNK 1 tʃamʌɾ DGC 1 mumpʰʌli RKB 1 tʃamʌɾ DkR 1 mumpʰʌli RkM 1 tʃamʌɾ SkP 1 mumpʰʌli RNS 1 tʃamʌɾ TkN 1 mumpʰʌli KkP 1 tʃamʌɾ KkP 1 mumpʰʌli RNK 1 tʃawʌɾ RKB 1 mʌŋɡpʰʌli RNS 1 tʃawʌɾ DKS 1 bʌmbʰʌli BNT 1 tʃawʌɾ BNT 1 mũpʰʌɾi DDK 1 tʃawʌɾ RNS 1 mũpʰʌɾi DGC 1 tʃauɾ RkM 1 mumpʰʌɾi DkR 1 tʃauɾ DDK 1 mompʰʌli SkP 1 tʃʌɔɾ HIN 1 mompʰʌli DKS 1 tʃawuɾ CCC 2 bedam

72. potato 75. chili HIN 1 alu HIN 1 mɪɾtʃ RNK 1 alu RNK 1 mɪɾtʃ RNS 1 alu RNS 1 mɪɾtʃ BNM 1 alu BNM 1 mɪɾtʃ DGC 1 alu SkP 1 mɪɾtʃ DkR 1 alu TkN 1 mɪɾtʃ SkP 1 alu DKS 1 mɪɾtʃ RKB 1 alu BNT 1 mɪɾtʃ TkN 1 alu RkM 1 mɪɾtʃ DKS 1 alu RNS 1 mɪɾtʃ BNT 1 alu DDK 1 mɪɾtʃ RkM 1 alu DGC 1 mɪɾtʃi RNS 1 alu DkR 1 mɪɾtʃi DDK 1 alu DGC 1 mɪɾtʃa KkP 1 alu KkP 1 mɪɾtʃa CCC 1 alo RKB 1 mɪtʃi CCC 1 maɾtʃa 73. eggplant HIN 1 bæ̃ ŋɡʌn 40

76. turmeric DGC 2 pjadʒ HIN 1 hʌldi DkR 2 pjadʒ RNK 1 hʌɾʌdi RKB 2 pjadʒ RNS 1 hʌɾʌdi TkN 2 pjadʒ DkR 1 hʌɾʌdi DKS 2 pjadʒ DKS 1 hʌɾʌdi RkM 2 pjadʒ TkN 1 hʌɾʌdi RNS 2 pjadʒ RkM 1 hʌɾʌdi DDK 2 pjadʒ RNS 1 hʌɾʌdi HIN 3 pjadʒ DDK 1 hʌɾʌdi RNK 3 pjadʒ BNM 1 hʌɾʌd RNS 3 pjadʒ DGC 1 hʌɾʌd BNM 3 pjadʒ BNT 1 hʌɾʌd DGC 3 pjadʒ SkP 1 hʌɾdi DkR 3 pjadʒ KkP 1 hʌɾdi RKB 3 pjadʒ RKB 1 hʌɾʌdɪ TkN 3 pjadʒ DKS 3 pjadʒ 77. garlic RkM 3 pjadʒ HIN 1 lʌhsʊn RNS 3 pjadʒ BNM 1 lʌhsʊn DDK 3 pjadʒ DkR 1 lʌhsʊn KkP 3 pedʒ BNT 1 lʌhsʊn BNT 4 ɡʌɳʈʰi RNK 1 lasun BNM 4 ɡʌɳʈʰi RNS 1 lasun SkP 1 lasun 79. cauliflower TkN 1 lasun HIN 1 pʰulɡobʰi RkM 1 lasun RNK 1 pʰulɡobʰi KkP 1 lasun RNS 1 pʰulɡobʰi DGC 1 lʌɾʌsʊn BNM 1 pʰulɡobʰi RKB 1 lʌhsun DGC 1 pʰulɡobʰi DKS 1 nʌhʌsun DkR 1 pʰulɡobʰi RNS 1 lasʌn SkP 1 pʰulɡobʰi CCC 1 lʌhʌsun TkN 1 pʰulɡobʰi DDK 1 lʌsun DKS 1 pʰulɡobʰi BNT 1 pʰulɡobʰi 78. onion RNS 1 pʰulɡobʰi HIN 1 pjadʒ DDK 1 pʰulɡobʰi RNK 1 pjadʒ RKB 1 pʰulɡobi RNS 1 pjadʒ RkM 1 pʰulɡobi BNM 1 pjadʒ KkP 1 pʰulɡobi DGC 1 pjadʒ DkR 1 pjadʒ 80. tomato RKB 1 pjadʒ HIN 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ TkN 1 pjadʒ RNK 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ DKS 1 pjadʒ RNS 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ RkM 1 pjadʒ BNM 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ RNS 1 pjadʒ DGC 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ DDK 1 pjadʒ DkR 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ SkP 1 pja SkP 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ CCC 2 piadʒu TkN 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ HIN 2 pjadʒ RkM 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ RNK 2 pjadʒ RNS 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ RNS 2 pjadʒ DDK 1 ʈʌmaʈʌɾ BNM 2 pjadʒ RKB 1 ʈɪmaʈʌɾ 41

DKS 1 ʈɪmaʈʌɾ BNM 2 non KkP 1 ʈɪmaʈʌɾ DGC 2 non BNT 2 ʈʌmʈʌmbhʌʈa DkR 2 non CCC 3 ɾambʰʌnʈa BNT 2 non SkP 2 nwan 81. cabbage RNK 3 nun HIN 1 bʌndɡobʰi RNS 3 nun RNK 1 bʌndɡobʰi RKB 3 nun RNS 1 bʌndɡobʰi TkN 3 nun BNM 1 bʌndɡobʰi DKS 3 nun DkR 1 bʌndɡobʰi RkM 3 nun SkP 1 bʌndɡobʰi RNS 3 nun TkN 1 bʌndɡobʰi CCC 3 nun DKS 1 bʌndɡobʰi DDK 3 nun BNT 1 bʌndɡobʰi KkP 3 nun RNS 1 bʌndɡobʰi BNM 3 non DDK 1 bʌndɡobʰi DGC 3 non DGC 1 bʌndɡobʰi DkR 3 non RKB 1 bʌndɡobi BNT 3 non RkM 1 bʌndɡobi KkP 1 bʌndɡobi 84. meat DGC 1 patɡobʰi HIN 1 mãs DDK 2 ɡaɳʈʰɡobʰi CCC 1 masu RNK 2 sɪkaɾ 82. oil RNS 2 sɪkaɾ HIN 1 tel BNM 2 sɪkaɾ RNK 1 tel DkR 2 sɪkaɾ RNS 1 tel SkP 2 sɪkaɾ BNM 1 tel RkM 2 sɪkaɾ DkR 1 tel RNS 2 sɪkaɾ RKB 1 tel DDK 2 sɪkaɾ TkN 1 tel RKB 2 sɪkaɾ DKS 1 tel DGC 2 ʃɪkaɾ BNT 1 tel DKS 2 ʃɪkaɾ RkM 1 tel BNT 2 ʃɪkaɾ RNS 1 tel KkP 2 sikaɾ CCC 1 tel HIN 3 ɡoʃt DDK 1 tel RKB 4 buʈːi (small piece) KkP 1 tel KkP 4 butːi DGC 1 ʈel SkP 1 tjal 85. fat HIN 1 tʃʌɾbi 83. salt RNK 2 tadʒõ HIN 1 nʌmʌk RNS 2 tadʒõ RNK 2 nun SkP 2 tadʒa RNS 2 nun KkP 2 tadʒa RKB 2 nun RKB 2 tadʒo TkN 2 nun TkN 2 tadʒo DKS 2 nun RkM 2 tadʒo RkM 2 nun RNS 2 tadʒo RNS 2 nun BNM 3 muʈa CCC 2 nun BNT 3 muʈa DDK 2 nun DkR 3 moʈ KkP 2 nun DDK 3 moʈ 42

DGC 3 moʈ DKS 1 ãɾa DKS 3 muʈ 89. cow 86. fish HIN 1 ɡaj HIN 1 mʌtʃʰli BNM 1 ɡaj RNK 1 mʌtʃʰːi BNT 1 ɡaj RNS 1 mʌtʃʰːi RNK 1 ɡaja SkP 1 mʌtʃʰːi RNS 1 ɡaja RkM 1 mʌtʃʰːi RKB 1 ɡaja RNS 1 mʌtʃʰːi DkR 1 ɡʌjːa BNM 1 mʌtʃʰi DDK 1 ɡʌjːa DGC 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾi DGC 1 ɡʌjːa RKB 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾi SkP 1 ɡʌjːã DKS 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾi RNS 1 ɡʌjːã CCC 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾi TkN 1 ɡʌ̃jːa DDK 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾi DKS 1 ɡɔja KkP 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾi CCC 1 ɡae DkR 1 mʌtʃʌhi KkP 1 ɡãija TkN 1 mʌtʃʰʌli RkM 1 ɡʌjijã BNT 1 mʌdʒi 90. buffalo 87. chicken HIN 1 bʰæs HIN 1 mʊɾɡi DkR 1 bʰæs DGC 1 mʊɾɡi BNT 1 bʰẽs DkR 1 mʊɾɡi RNK 1 bʰæsɪja DKS 1 mʊɾɡi RNS 1 bʰæsɪja BNT 1 mʊɾɡi BNM 1 bʰæsɪja DDK 1 mʊɾɡi SkP 1 bʰæsɪja KkP 1 mʊɾɡi DGC 1 bʰæ̃ sʌnɪja RNK 1 mʊɾɡija RKB 1 bʰæsɪja RNS 1 mʊɾɡija TkN 1 bʰæsɪja TkN 1 mʊɾɡija RkM 1 bʰæsɪja BNM 1 mʊɡi RNS 1 bʰæsɪja SkP 1 mʊɾɡa DKS 1 bʰæs RKB 1 muɾɡi CCC 1 bʰæːsi RkM 1 mʊɾɡɪja HIN 1 bʰæ̃ s RNS 1 mʊɾɡɪja KkP 1 bʰaⁱsa DDK 2 bʌdʰo 88. egg HIN 1 ʌɳɖa 91. milk RNK 1 ʌɳɖa HIN 1 dudʰ RNS 1 ʌɳɖa RNK 1 dudʰ BNM 1 ʌɳɖa RNS 1 dudʰ DGC 1 ʌɳɖa BNM 1 dudʰ SkP 1 ʌɳɖa DGC 1 dudʰ BNT 1 ʌɳɖa DkR 1 dudʰ RNS 1 ʌɳɖa SkP 1 dudʰ KkP 1 ʌɳɖa RKB 1 dudʰ RKB 1 aɖa TkN 1 dudʰ CCC 1 aɖa DKS 1 dudʰ TkN 1 ʌnɖa BNT 1 dudʰ RkM 1 ʌ̃nda RNS 1 dudʰ DDK 1 ãnɽa DDK 1 dudʰ DkR 1 ãɾa KkP 1 dudʰ 43

RkM 1 dud DkR 2 tʃʰeɡʌɾa CCC 1 dudʰa DKS 2 tʃʰeɡʌɾi CCC 2 tʃʰeɾi 92. horns DDK 2 tʃʰʌɡʌɽi HIN 1 sɪ̃ŋ RNK 1 sɪ̃ŋ 95. dog RNS 1 sɪ̃ŋ HIN 1 kʊtːa BNM 1 sɪ̃ŋ RNK 1 kʊtːa DGC 1 sɪ̃ŋ RNS 1 kʊtːa DkR 1 sɪ̃ŋ BNM 1 kʊtːa SkP 1 sɪ̃ŋ SkP 1 kʊtːa BNT 1 sɪ̃ŋ TkN 1 kʊtːa RNS 1 sɪ̃ŋ BNT 1 kʊtːa DDK 1 sɪ̃ŋ RNS 1 kʊtːa RKB 1 sɪŋɡ RKB 1 kuʈːa TkN 1 sɪŋɡ KkP 1 kuʈːa DKS 1 sɪŋɡ RkM 1 kutːa RkM 1 sɪ̃ŋɡ DGC 2 kʊkʌɾa CCC 1 sɪŋ DkR 2 kʊkʌɾa KkP 1 siŋɡ DKS 2 kʊkʊɾ DDK 2 kãʈa DDK 2 kʊkʊɾ CCC 2 kʊkʊɾu 93. tail DGC 3 kʊkʌɾa HIN 1 pũtʃʰ DkR 3 kʊkʌɾa BNM 1 pũtʃʰ CCC 3 kʊkʊɾu RKB 1 pũtʃʰ BNT 1 pũtʃʰ 96. RkM 1 pũtʃʰ HIN 1 sãp RNK 1 pũtʃʰɪja RNK 1 sãp RNS 1 pũtʃʰɪja RNS 1 sãp KkP 1 pũtʃʰɪja BNM 1 sãp DGC 1 putʃʰĩ SkP 1 sãp DKS 1 putʃʰĩ RKB 1 sãp DkR 1 pũtʃʰi TkN 1 sãp SkP 1 putʃʰ DKS 1 sãp TkN 1 putʃʰ BNT 1 sãp DDK 1 putʃʰ RkM 1 sãp RNS 1 putʃʰɪja RNS 1 sãp CCC 1 putʃʰi CCC 1 saːp HIN 2 ɖum KkP 1 samp DGC 2 sʌpuwa 94. goat DkR 2 sapuã HIN 1 bʌkʌɾi DDK 2 sʌpua BNM 1 bʌkʌɾi BNT 1 bʌkʌɾi 97. monkey RNK 1 bʌkʌɾɪja HIN 1 bʌndʌɾ RNS 1 bʌkʌɾɪja BNM 1 bʌndʌɾ SkP 1 bʌkʌɾɪja BNT 1 bʌndʌɾ RKB 1 bʌkʌɾɪja RNK 1 bʌndʌɾa TkN 1 bʌkʌɾɪja RNS 1 bʌndʌɾa RNS 1 bʌkʌɾɪja DGC 1 bʌndʌɾa KkP 1 bʌkʌɾɪja DkR 1 bʌndʌɾa RkM 1 bʌkaɾɾja SkP 1 bʌndʌɾa DGC 2 tʃʰʌɡɽɪja RKB 1 bʌndʌɾa 44

TkN 1 bʌndʌɾa RNS 1 mʌkʌɾa DKS 1 bʌndʌɾa DDK 1 mʌkʌɾa RkM 1 bʌndʌɾa BNM 1 mʌkːʌɾi RNS 1 bʌndʌɾa DGC 1 mokʌɾa DDK 1 bʌndʌɾa TkN 1 mʌkʌɾɪja KkP 1 bʌndʌɾa CCC 1 makaɾa CCC 1 banaɾ RKB 2 dʒaɾa (web) KkP 3 tʃʰiŋɡoɾa 98. mosquito HIN 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾ 101. name RNK 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾ HIN 1 nam RNS 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾ BNM 1 nam BNM 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾ BNT 1 nam RKB 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾ RNK 2 nãũ BNT 1 mʌtʃʰʌɾ RNS 2 nãũ TkN 1 matʃʰʌɾ DGC 2 nãũ RkM 1 mʌtʃʰːʌɾ DkR 2 nãũ RNS 1 mʌtʃʰːʌɾ SkP 2 nãũ DGC 2 mʌs RKB 2 naõ DkR 2 mʌs DKS 2 naõ SkP 2 mʌs TkN 2 não DKS 2 mʌs RkM 2 não CCC 2 mʌs RNS 2 não DDK 2 mas CCC 2 nʌːu KkP 2 mãsa DDK 2 naũ KkP 2 naũ 99. ant HIN 1 tʃ ɪ ̃ʈ ĩ 102. man RNK 1 tʃ ɪ ̃ʈ ĩ HIN 1 adʌmi RNS 1 tʃ ɪ ̃ʈ ĩ RNK 1 adʌmi BNM 1 tʃ ɪ ̃ʈ ĩ RNS 1 adʌmi BNT 1 tʃ ɪ ̃ʈ ĩ BNM 1 adʌmi RKB 1 tʃ ɪ ̃ʈ i SkP 1 adʌmi SkP 1 tʃæ̃ ʈi RKB 1 adʌmi TkN 1 tʃiʈi TkN 1 adʌmi RkM 1 tʃɪʈi RkM 1 adʌmi RNS 1 tʃɪʈi RNS 1 adʌmi KkP 1 tʃʰeⁱnti DGC 2 mʌnʌi CCC 1 tʃihuti DkR 2 mʌnʌi DkR 2 tʃimʈa DKS 2 mʌnæja DGC 2 tʃimʈa DDK 2 mʌnʌj DDK 2 tʃimʈa KkP 2 mʌnæ DKS 2 tʃimʌʈ BNT 3 amʌdi BNM 3 amʌdi 100. spider CCC 4 mardana HIN 1 mʌkʌɽi HIN 5 puɾuʃ RNK 1 mʌkʌɾa KkP 6 loɡ RNS 1 mʌkʌɾa DkR 1 mʌkʌɾa 103. woman SkP 1 mʌkʌɾa HIN 1 ɔɾʌt RKB 1 mʌkʌɾa BNM 1 ɔɾʌt DKS 1 mʌkʌɾa BNT 1 ɔɾʌt BNT 1 mʌkʌɾa RNK 2 bʌtʃːʌɾ RkM 1 mʌkʌɾa RNS 2 bʌjːʌɾ 45

RkM 2 bʌjːʌɾ RNS 2 ʌbːa RNS 2 bʌjːʌɾ DGC 2 bʌpːa RNK 2 bʌjːʌɾ BNM 3 bap TkN 2 bʌjːʌɾ HIN 3 bap RKB 2 bæjʌɾ DGC 3 bʌpːa BNT 2 bæjʌɾ RNK 3 baba DGC 4 dʒʌnʌwi DkR 3 baba DkR 4 dʒʌnːi TkN 3 baba DKS 4 dʒʌnːi DKS 3 baba DDK 4 dʒʌnːi RkM 3 baba CCC 4 dʒʌni DDK 3 baba SkP 5 lɔɖɪja KkP 3 baba HIN 6 stɾi SkP 4 bau KkP 7 mehaɾu RNK 4 baba DkR 4 baba 104. child TkN 4 baba HIN 1 bʌtʃːa DKS 4 baba RNS 2 balʌk RkM 4 baba BNM 2 balʌk DDK 4 baba RNK 2 balʌk KkP 4 baba TkN 2 balʌk RKB 5 dæwa BNT 2 balʌk RkM 2 balʌk 106. mother RNS 2 balal HIN 1 mata RKB 3 walɪka BNM 2 abːu RNS 3 balʌk RNS 3 ʌjːa BNM 3 balʌk RNK 3 ʌjːa RNK 3 balʌk RNS 3 ʌjːa TkN 3 balʌk BNM 3 ʌija BNT 3 balʌk RKB 3 ɔja RkM 3 balʌk TkN 3 ajːa DGC 4 lʌika RkM 3 aija DKS 4 lʌɖʌka BNT 3 ʌia SkP 4 lʌɽʌka DGC 4 dai KkP 4 lʌɽʌka SkP 4 dai DkR 5 loɽa DKS 4 dai DDK 5 loɽa KkP 4 dai SkP 5 lʌɽʌka DkR 4 daji KkP 5 lʌɽʌka DDK 4 daji DKS 5 lʌɖʌka HIN 5 mã BNT 6 æwa 107. older brother 105. father HIN 1 bʌɽabhai HIN 1 pita RNK 2 dʌda RNK 2 baba RNS 2 dʌda DkR 2 baba TkN 2 dʌda TkN 2 baba RkM 2 dʌda DKS 2 baba RNS 2 dʌda RkM 2 baba BNM 2 ʌdːa DDK 2 baba BNT 2 ʌdːa KkP 2 baba DGC 2 dada RNS 2 ʌbːa DkR 2 dada BNM 2 ʌbːa SkP 2 dada BNT 2 ʌbːa HIN 2 dada 46

KkP 2 dada RNS 2 lʌlo DkR 2 dadu RKB 2 lʌlːo DKS 2 dadu BNT 2 ʌlːo DDK 2 dadu DKS 3 babu RKB 2 dʌta DDK 3 babu DGC 3 babu 108. younger brother KkP 3 babu HIN 1 tʃhoʈabʰai RNK 1 bʰʌjːa 111. son RNS 1 bʰʌjːa HIN 1 beʈa RkM 1 bʰʌjːa BNM 1 beʈa RNS 1 bʰʌjːa BNT 1 beʈa BNM 1 bʰai RNK 2 lɔɽa DGC 1 bʰæjːa RNS 2 lɔɽa DkR 1 tʃʰuʈʌlibʰʌjːa TkN 2 lɔɽa SkP 1 bʰjːa RNS 2 lɔɽa RKB 1 bʰæja DGC 2 lɔɽa DKS 1 bʰæja RKB 2 lɔɽa BNT 1 bʰæja RkM 2 lɔɽã TkN 1 bʰʌjːa KkP 2 lɔɳɖa CCC 1 ʌbaⁱja DGC 4 pʊtʌva DDK 1 bʰaⁱwa HIN 4 putɾa KkP 1 bʰaⁱja DkR 5 tʃʰawa DKS 5 tʃʰawa 109. older sister DDK 5 tʃʰawa HIN 1 didi SkP 5 tʃʰawʌs RNK 1 didi RNS 1 didi 112. daughter DGC 1 didi HIN 1 beʈi DkR 1 didi BNM 1 beʈi TkN 1 didi BNT 1 beʈi DKS 1 didi DGC 1 beʈi BNT 1 didi RNK 2 lɔɽija RkM 1 didi RNS 2 lɔɽija RNS 1 didi TkN 2 lɔɽija KkP 1 didi RKB 2 lɔɽija SkP 1 dɪdi RkM 2 lɔɽɪja RKB 1 dɪdi RNS 2 lɔɽɪja DDK 1 ɖaɖi DGC 2 lɔɽi BNM 2 ʌtʃːi KkP 2 lɔɳɖia BNT 3 bʌhʌn DkR 3 tʃʰaji DKS 3 tʃʰaji 110. younger sister DDK 3 tʃʰaji HIN 1 bʌhʌn SkP 3 tʃʰais BNM 1 bʌhʌn HIN 4 putɾi RNS 1 bʌhʌn DGC 1 bʌhʌnɪja 113. husband DkR 1 vʌhʌnɪja HIN 1 pʌti SkP 1 bʌhɪni RNK 2 loɡa RkM 1 bʌjɪnʌja RNS 2 loɡa KkP 1 bahini RKB 2 loɡa RNK 2 lʌlo TkN 2 loɡa TkN 2 lʌlo RkM 2 loɡa RNS 2 lʌlo RNS 2 loɡa 47

BNT 2 loɡ RNS 2 lɔɽija (112) KkP 2 loɡ (102) DkR 2 lɔɽija (112) BNM 3 ɡʰʌɾwala RKB 2 lɔɽija (112) DGC 3 tʰʌɾua TkN 2 lɔɽija (112) DkR 3 tʰaɾu DDK 2 lɔɽija DKS 3 dʰaɾu DGC 2 lɔɽi DDK 3 tʰʌɾuwa RkM 2 lɔɽɪja (112) KkP 3 dulʌha RNS 2 lɔɽɪja (112) SkP 4 bʰʌtaɾʌs KkP 2 lɔɳɖia KkP 5 misaɾwa DKS 2 loɳɖi SkP 3 tʃais (112) 114. wife DKS 3 tʃʰaji (112) HIN 1 pʌtni DDK 3 tʃʰaji (112) RNK 2 bʌzdʒʌɾ BNT 4 ʌlːo (110) RNK 3 bʌjːʌɾ (103) BNM 4 ʌlːo (110) RNS 3 bʌjːʌɾ (103) RNS 3 bʌjːʌɾ (103) 117. day TkN 3 bʌjːʌɾ (103) HIN 1 dɪn RkM 3 bʌjːʌɾ (103) RNK 1 dɪn BNM 3 bʌjaɾ RNS 1 dɪn RKB 3 bæjʌɾ (103) BNM 1 dɪn BNT 3 bæjʌɾ (103) DkR 1 dɪn BNM 4 ɡʰʌɾʌwali SkP 1 dɪn DGC 5 dʒʌnʌni (103) RKB 1 dɪn DkR 5 dʒʌnni (103) TkN 1 dɪn DKS 5 dʒʌnni (103) DKS 1 dɪn DDK 5 dʒʌnewa BNT 1 dɪn SkP 6 dʒwis RkM 1 dɪn KkP 7 mehaɾua (103) RNS 1 dɪn DDK 1 dɪn 115. boy KkP 1 dɪn HIN 1 lʌɽʌka DGC 1 ɖɪn BNM 1 lʌɽʌka CCC 1 din BNT 1 balʌk DGC 2 lɔɽa 118. night DkR 2 lɔɽa (104) HIN 1 ɾat DDK 2 lɔɽa (104) RNK 1 ɾat RKB 2 lɔɽa (111) RNS 1 ɾat TkN 2 lɔɽa BNM 1 ɾat RkM 2 lɔɽa DkR 1 ɾat RNS 2 lɔɽa SkP 1 ɾat RNK 2 lɔɽa RKB 1 ɾat RNS 2 lɔɽa TkN 1 ɾat KkP 2 loɳɖa (111) DKS 1 ɾat DKS 2 loɳɖa BNT 1 ɾat SkP 3 tʃʰawʌs (111) RkM 1 ɾat DKS 3 tʃʰawa (111) RNS 1 ɾat DDK 3 tʃʰawa (111) DDK 1 ɾat BNT 5 loɳɖe KkP 1 ɾat DGC 1 ɾaʈ 116. girl CCC 1 ɾati HIN 1 lʌɽʌki BNM 1 lʌɽʌki 119. morning RNK 2 lɔɽija (112) HIN 1 sʊbʌh 48

RNK 2 bʰoɾ BNM 4 etʃ RNS 2 bʰoɾ BNT 5 ɾat (118) RKB 2 bʰoɾ HIN 6 saĩ RkM 2 bʰoɾ RNS 2 bʰoɾ 122. yesterday BNM 3 tʌɖʌke HIN 1 kʌl BNT 3 tʌɾʌke RNK 1 kʌl DGC 4 sʌkaɾe RNS 1 kʌl DKS 4 sʌkaɾe BNM 1 kʌl DkR 4 sʌkaɾ TkN 1 kʌl DDK 4 sʌkoɾ DKS 1 kʌl TkN 5 sʌweɾo BNT 1 kʌl HIN 5 sʌweɾa RkM 1 kʌl DGC 5 sʌkaɾe RNS 1 kʌl DKS 5 sʌkaɾe KkP 1 kʌl DkR 6 vɪhan DGC 1 kal SkP 6 bihan DkR 1 kal CCC 6 bihan SkP 1 kal KkP 6 bʰen RKB 1 kal DDK 1 kal 120. noon CCC 1 kalu HIN 1 dopʌhʌɾ DGC 1 dopʌhʌɾ 123. today RNK 1 dopʌhʌɾi HIN 1 adʒ RNS 1 dopʌhʌɾi RNK 1 adʒ BNM 1 dupɔɾija RNS 1 adʒ SkP 1 dupʌhʌɾ BNM 1 adʒ RKB 1 dupʌhʌɾ DGC 1 adʒ DKS 1 dupʌhʌɾ DkR 1 adʒ DDK 1 dupʌhʌɾ SkP 1 adʒ KkP 1 dupʌhʌɾ RKB 1 adʒ TkN 1 dʊpʌhʌɾi TkN 1 adʒ BNT 1 dʊpʌhʌɾɪja BNT 1 adʒ RkM 1 dʊpʌhʌɾ RkM 1 adʒ RNS 1 dʊpahʌɾi RNS 1 adʒ DkR 2 mɪntʃʰidʒun DDK 1 adʒ KkP 1 adʒ 121. evening DKS 1 adʒʊ HIN 1 ʃam CCC 1 adʒu RNK 2 sʌndʒʰa RNS 2 sʌndʒʰa 124. tomorrow DGC 2 sʌndʒʰa HIN 1 kʌl (122) DkR 2 sʌndʒʰa RNK 1 kʌl (122) RNS 2 sʌndʒʰa RNS 1 kʌl (122) DDK 2 sʌndʒʰa BNM 1 kʌl (122) BNM 2 sãntʃ TkN 1 kʌl (122) SkP 2 sãndʒʰ DKS 1 kʌl (122) KkP 2 sãndʒʰ BNT 1 kʌl (122) RKB 2 sʌ̃dʒʰ RkM 1 kʌl (122) TkN 2 sʌndʒa RNS 1 kʌl (122) RkM 2 sʌndʒa KkP 1 kʌl (122) DKS 2 sʌndʒa RKB 1 kʌl CCC 2 saːdʒʰ DDK 1 kʌl DKS 3 sahɪdʒʊn DGC 1 kal (122) 49

DkR 1 kal (122) DKS 2 bʌɾʌs SkP 1 kal (122) CCC 2 bʌɾʌs CCC 2 andini KkP 2 bʌɾʌs HIN 2 vʌɾʃ 125. week HIN 1 hʌftah 128. old RNK 1 hʌftah HIN 1 pʊɾana RNS 1 hʌftah DGC 1 pʊɾana BNM 1 hʌftah BNT 1 pʊɾana DGC 1 hʌpta BNM 1 pʊɾana SkP 1 hʌpta KkP 1 pʊɾana DkR 1 hʌpʈa RNK 1 pʊɾanɔ TkN 1 hʌpʰta RNS 1 pʊɾanɔ RkM 1 hʌpʰta DkR 1 pʊɾan DKS 1 hʌptːah SkP 1 pʊɾan RKB 1 hʌptah DDK 1 pʊɾan KkP 1 hʌptah RKB 1 puɾana CCC 1 hapta TkN 1 puɾano RKB 2 aʈʰʌdɪn (used most) DKS 1 puɾaɳa RkM 1 pʊɾano 126. month RNS 1 pʊɾano HIN 1 mʌhina CCC 1 puɾan DGC 1 mʌhina BNM 2 bʌhutsalka DKS 1 mʌhina KkP 1 mʌhina 129. new RNK 1 mʌhʌna DkR 1 lʌbːa RNS 1 mʌhʌna SkP 1 lawa RkM 1 mʌhʌna DDK 1 lawa DDK 1 mʌhʌna DKS 1 lɔa BNM 1 mʌhin RNK 2 nãvi DkR 1 mʌhɪna RNS 2 nãvi SkP 1 mʌhɪna RkM 2 nʌ̃u TkN 1 mʌhɪna RNS 2 nʌ̃u RNS 1 mʌhɪna TkN 2 nʌjã RKB 1 mahina DGC 2 nʌjã CCC 1 mahina HIN 2 nʌja BNT 1 mahine BNM 2 nʌja RKB 2 nʌja 127. year BNT 2 nʌja HIN 1 sal KkP 2 nʌmːa RNK 1 sal CCC 3 lʌota RNS 1 sal BNM 1 sal 130. good DGC 1 sal HIN 1 ʌtʃʰːa SkP 1 sal BNM 1 ʌtʃʰːa RKB 1 sal BNT 1 ʌtʃʰːa BNT 1 sal RNK 1 ʌtʃʰːo RkM 1 sal RNS 1 ʌtʃʰːo RNS 1 sal TkN 1 ʌtʃʰːo DDK 1 sal RKB 1 atʃʰːa KkP 1 sal RkM 1 ʌtʃʰo DKS 1 sal RNS 1 ʌtʃʰo DkR 2 bʌɾesdɪn DKS 2 mʌdʒa TkN 2 bʌɾʌs DDK 2 mʌdʒa 50

HIN 3 bʌɽɪja DGC 1 sʊkʰa DGC 3 bʌɽɪja BNT 1 sʊkʰa DKS 3 bʌɽɪja RNK 1 sʊkʰo DkR 4 sʊɡʰːʌɽ RNS 1 sʊkʰo KkP 4 suɡʰʌɽ TkN 1 sʊkʰo SkP 5 næŋɡ RNS 1 sʊkʰo CCC 6 ɖol SkP 1 sʊkʰʌl KkP 1 sʊkʰʌl 131. bad DKS 1 sʊkʰʌl HIN 1 ɡʌnda RKB 1 sukʰo BNM 1 ɡʌnda RkM 1 sʊkhʌna BNT 1 ɡʌnda DkR 1 sʊɡʌɡɪl TkN 1 ɡʌndo DDK 1 sukʰaɡo RNK 2 tʃʰɪja CCC 1 sukʰaili RNS 2 tʃʰɪja RKB 2 tʃʰɪja 134. long RNS 2 tʃʰɪja HIN 1 lʌmba SkP 3 tʃʰɪʈɔn BNM 1 lʌmba DGC 4 bekʌɾ DGC 1 lʌmba HIN 4 bekʌɾ DkR 1 lʌmba DkR 5 ɡʌndhʌjʌna SkP 1 lʌmba RkM 6 kʰʌɾab KkP 1 lʌmba CCC 6 kʰʌɾab RNK 1 lʌmbõ HIN 6 kʰʌɾab RNS 1 lʌmbõ DDK 7 nʌhimʌdʒa RKB 1 lʌmbo DKS 7 nʌhimʌdʒa TkN 1 lʌmbo CCC 8 badʌmas BNT 1 lʌmbo HIN 9 buɾa RkM 1 lʌmbo KkP 9 bʰuhʌɾ (person) RNS 1 lʌmbo KkP 9 mælʌha (object) DKS 1 nʌmba DDK 1 lamma 132. wet CCC 2 nʌmʌhaɾa HIN 1 bʰiɡa DDK 3 ɖʰẽɖ BNM 1 bʰiɡa RKB 1 bʰidʒa 135. short TkN 1 bʰidʒo HIN 1 tʃʰoʈa RNK 1 bʰidʒ BNM 1 tʃʰoʈa RNS 1 bʰidʒ RNK 1 tʃʰoʈo BNM 1 bʰidʒ RNS 1 tʃʰoʈo DGC 1 bʰidʒ RKB 1 tʃʰoʈo DKS 1 bʰidʒ TkN 1 tʃʰoʈo BNT 1 bʰidʒ RkM 1 tʃʰoʈo DDK 1 bʰidʒ RNS 1 tʃʰoʈo SkP 1 bʰidʒʌl CCC 1 tʃʰoʈe CCC 1 bʰidʒʌl DDK 1 tʃʰoʈ KkP 1 bʰidʒʌl KkP 1 tʃʰoʈ DkR 1 bʰidʒʌɡɪl DKS 1 tʃʰoʈ RkM 1 bʰɪdʒʌna DGC 1 tʃʰoʈʌmoʈ RNS 1 bʰɪdʒʌna DkR 1 tʃoʈimoti HIN 2 ɡila KkP 1 tʃoʈimoti SkP 2 tʃʌwaʈ 133. dry BNT 3 ɡʌʈa HIN 1 sʊkʰa HIN 3 tʃʰoʈa BNM 1 sʊkʰa BNM 3 tʃʰoʈa 51

RNK 3 tʃʰoʈo DGC 1 dʌhɪnʌ RNS 3 tʃʰoʈo DkR 1 dʌhɪn RKB 3 tʃʰoʈo TkN 1 dʌhɪno TkN 3 tʃʰoʈo RNS 1 dʌhɪno RkM 3 tʃʰoʈo RkM 1 dãhɪno RNS 3 tʃʰoʈo CCC 1 dahin CCC 1 dʌhini 136. hot DDK 1 dahɪja HIN 1 ɡʌɾʌm BNT 2 kʰana DKS 1 ɡʰam BNM 2 kʰana BNT 1 ɡʰam BNM 1 ɡaɾʌm (weather) 139. left RNS 2 tʌlo HIN 1 bãja TkN 2 tʌtːo BNM 1 bãja RNS 2 tʌtːo DGC 1 bãja RkM 2 tʌʈːo SkP 1 bãja BNM 2 tʌʈːi DkR 1 bãjo SkP 2 tatʌl TkN 1 baja DDK 2 ʈaʈul DKS 1 bawʊ DkR 2 tatɾʌl BNT 1 baj RKB 2 tʌto RkM 1 bao RNK 2 lʌtːo RNS 1 bão CCC 3 dʰikʌl CCC 1 bajaː DGC 3 dʰikʌl RNK 2 ɖɪbʌno KkP 3 dʰikʌl RNS 2 ɖɪbʌno RKB 2 dɪbʌɾa 137. cold KkP 2 dɪbʌɾa HIN 1 ʈʰʌɳɖa DDK 2 ɖabɾi BNM 1 ʈʰʌɳɖa CCC 3 lʌdʌɖi RNK 1 ʈʰʌɳɖo DDK 3 lebʌɾi RNS 1 ʈʰʌɳɖo DGC 3 lebʌɾi TkN 1 ʈʰʌɳɖo BNT 1 ʈʰʌɳɖo 140. near RNS 1 ʈʰʌɳɖo HIN 1 nʌdʒik SkP 1 ʈʰʌɳɖʌ CCC 1 ladʒike CCC 1 ʈʌnɖʰa RNK 2 dʒʰɔno DGC 2 dʒuɾ RNS 2 dʒʰɔno DkR 2 dʒuɾ RkM 2 dʒʰɔne DDK 2 dʒuɾ RNS 2 dʒʰɔne KkP 2 dʒuɾ BNM 3 tʰoɾæ RKB 2 dʒudo SkP 3 ʈʰɔɽe DKS 2 dʒaɾ BNT 3 ʈʰoɾi RkM 2 dʒʊɽo DGC 4 lʌɡːe CCC 2 dʒaɖ DKS 4 lʌɡːe DDK 4 lʌɡːe 138. right DkR 4 lʌɡːʌva HIN 1 dahɪna KkP 4 lɪɡʰe BNM 1 dahɪna RKB 5 ɖʰiŋɡai SkP 1 dahɪna TkN 6 hɪn RKB 1 dahɪna DDK 7 tʰʌn DKS 1 dahɪna KkP 1 dahɪna 141. far RNK 1 dahɪno HIN 1 duɾ RNS 1 dahɪno RNK 1 duɾ 52

RNS 1 duɾ 145. light BNM 1 duɾ HIN 1 hʌlka DGC 1 duɾ DkR 1 duɾ 146. above SkP 1 duɾ HIN 1 upʌɾ RKB 1 duɾ RNK 1 upʌɾ BNT 1 duɾ RNS 1 upʌɾ RkM 1 duɾ BNM 1 upʌɾ RNS 1 duɾ DkR 1 upʌɾ DDK 1 duɾ DKS 1 upʌɾ KkP 1 duɾ RkM 1 upʌɾ TkN 1 dʊɾ RNS 1 upʌɾ DKS 1 dʊɾ KkP 1 upʌɾ CCC 2 tʌnau DGC 1 ʊpːʌɾ SkP 1 ʊpːʌɾ 142. big RKB 1 upːʌɾ HIN 1 bʌɽa TkN 1 upːʌɾ BNM 1 bʌɽa DDK 1 upːʌɾ SkP 1 bʌɽa BNT 1 ʊpʌɾ RkM 1 bʌɽa CCC 1 upːiɾi RNS 1 bʌɽo RNK 1 bʌɽo 147. below TkN 1 bʌɽo HIN 1 nitʃe RKB 1 bʌdo BNM 1 nitʃe DGC 1 bʰaɽi TkN 1 nitʃe DkR 1 bʰaɾi BNT 1 nitʃe DKS 1 bʰaɾi RNK 2 tʌɾe RNS 1 bʰaɾi RNS 2 tʌɾe DDK 1 bʰaɾi DGC 2 tʌɾe KkP 1 bʰaɾi RKB 2 tʌɾe BNT 1 baɖa RkM 2 tʌɾe CCC 1 dʒabʌɖe RNS 2 tʌɾe DDK 2 tʌɾe 143. small KkP 2 tʌɾe HIN 1 tʃʰoʈa (135) DkR 2 tæɾe BNM 1 tʃʰoʈa (135) SkP 2 tʌɾʌ DKS 1 tʃʰoʈa DKS 2 ʈʌɾe BNT 1 tʃʰoʈa CCC 3 eʈːo RkM 1 tʃʰoʈa TkN 1 tʃʰoʈo (135) 148. white RNK 1 tʃʰoʈo (135) HIN 1 sʌfed RNS 1 tʃʰoʈo (135) SkP 1 sʌpʰed RNS 1 tʃʰoʈo (135) RNK 2 seto DGC 1 tʃʰoʈʌ RNS 2 seto RKB 1 tʃʰoto RKB 2 seto CCC 1 tʃʰoʈe TkN 2 seto DDK 1 tʃʰuʈinʌɡ RkM 2 seto KkP 1 tʃʰoʈ (135) RNS 2 seto DkR 2 tʃʰoʈimoʈi (135) BNM 2 seta SkP 3 tʃʰʌwaʈ (135) KkP 2 set DGC 3 ʊdʒːʌɾ 144. heavy DKS 3 ʊdʒːʌɾ HIN 1 bhaɾi DkR 3 ʊɖːal DDK 3 uɖːaɾ 53

BNT 4 bʰuɾo CCC 1 ek BNM 4 bʰuɾo DDK 1 ek CCC 5 ɡoɾʌhʌɾ KkP 1 ek

149. black 152. two HIN 1 kala HIN 1 do BNM 1 kala BNM 1 do RNK 1 kaɾo BNT 1 do TkN 1 kaɾo RNK 2 dui BNT 1 kaɾo RNS 2 dui RNS 1 kaɾo DGC 2 dui RNS 1 kaɾi DkR 2 dui RKB 1 kaɾa SkP 2 dui DGC 1 kʌɾɪja RKB 2 dui DkR 1 kʌɾɪja CCC 2 dui SkP 1 kʌɾɪja KkP 2 dui DKS 1 kʌɾɪja TkN 2 dʊi DDK 1 kʌɾɪja DKS 2 dʊi KkP 1 kʌɾɪja RkM 2 dʊi RkM 1 kʌɾo RNS 2 dʊi CCC 1 kʌɾiʌ DDK 2 dʊi

150. red 153. three HIN 1 HIN 1 tin RNK 1 lal RNK 1 tin RNS 1 lal RNS 1 tin BNM 1 lal BNM 1 tin DGC 1 lal DkR 1 tin DkR 1 lal SkP 1 tin SkP 1 lal RKB 1 tin RKB 1 lal TkN 1 tin TkN 1 lal DKS 1 tin DKS 1 lal BNT 1 tin BNT 1 lal RkM 1 tin RkM 1 lal RNS 1 tin RNS 1 lal CCC 1 tin CCC 1 lal DDK 1 tin DDK 1 lal KkP 1 tin KkP 1 lal DGC 1 ʈin

151. one 154. four HIN 1 ek HIN 1 tʃaɾ RNK 1 ek RNK 1 tʃaɾ RNS 1 ek RNS 1 tʃaɾ BNM 1 ek BNM 1 tʃaɾ DGC 1 ek DGC 1 tʃaɾ DkR 1 ek DkR 1 tʃaɾ SkP 1 ek SkP 1 tʃaɾ RKB 1 ek RKB 1 tʃaɾ TkN 1 ek TkN 1 tʃaɾ DKS 1 ek DKS 1 tʃaɾ BNT 1 ek BNT 1 tʃaɾ RkM 1 ek RkM 1 tʃaɾ RNS 1 ek RNS 1 tʃaɾ 54

CCC 1 tʃaɾ DDK 1 sat DDK 1 tʃaɾ KkP 1 sat KkP 1 tʃaɾ DGC 1 saʈ

155. five 158. eight HIN 1 pãntʃ HIN 1 aʈʰ RNS 1 pãntʃ RNK 1 aʈʰ BNM 1 pãntʃ RNS 1 aʈʰ DGC 1 pãntʃ BNM 1 aʈʰ DkR 1 pãntʃ DGC 1 aʈʰ SkP 1 pãntʃ DkR 1 aʈʰ RKB 1 pãntʃ SkP 1 aʈʰ TkN 1 pãntʃ RKB 1 aʈʰ DKS 1 pãntʃ TkN 1 aʈʰ BNT 1 pãntʃ DKS 1 aʈʰ RNS 1 pãntʃ BNT 1 aʈʰ DDK 1 pãntʃ RkM 1 aʈʰ KkP 1 pãntʃ RNS 1 aʈʰ RNK 1 patʃ DDK 1 aʈʰ RkM 1 patʃ KkP 1 aʈʰ CCC 1 paːtʃ CCC 1 at

156. six 159. nine HIN 1 tʃʰe HIN 1 nɔ RNK 1 tʃʰe RNK 1 nɔ RNS 1 tʃʰe RNS 1 nɔ BNM 1 tʃʰe BNM 1 nɔ DGC 1 tʃʰe DGC 1 nɔ DkR 1 tʃʰe DkR 1 nɔ SkP 1 tʃʰe SkP 1 nɔ RKB 1 tʃʰe RKB 1 nɔ DKS 1 tʃʰe TkN 1 nɔ BNT 1 tʃʰe DKS 1 nɔ KkP 1 tʃʰe BNT 1 nɔ TkN 1 tʃʰʌ RkM 1 nɔ RNS 1 tʃʰʌ RNS 1 nɔ RkM 1 tʃʰʌⁱ DDK 1 nɔ CCC 1 tʃʰo KkP 1 nɔ DDK 1 tʃʰɔᶸ CCC 1 nou

157. seven 160. ten HIN 1 sat HIN 1 dʌs RNK 1 sat RNK 1 dʌs RNS 1 sat RNS 1 dʌs BNM 1 sat BNM 1 dʌs DkR 1 sat DkR 1 dʌs SkP 1 sat SkP 1 dʌs RKB 1 sat RKB 1 dʌs TkN 1 sat TkN 1 dʌs DKS 1 sat DKS 1 dʌs BNT 1 sat BNT 1 dʌs RkM 1 sat RkM 1 dʌs RNS 1 sat RNS 1 dʌs CCC 1 sat DDK 1 dʌs 55

KkP 1 dʌs KkP 1 bis DGC 1 ɖʌs CCC 1 das 164. hundred HIN 1 sɔ 161. eleven RNK 1 sɔ HIN 1 ɡjaɾʌh RNS 1 sɔ RNK 1 ɡjaɾʌh BNM 1 sɔ RNS 1 ɡjaɾʌh DGC 1 sɔ BNM 1 ɡjaɾʌh DkR 1 sɔ DGC 1 ɡjaɾʌh SkP 1 sɔ DkR 1 ɡjaɾʌh RKB 1 sɔ TkN 1 ɡjaɾʌh TkN 1 sɔ DKS 1 ɡjaɾʌh DKS 1 sɔ RkM 1 ɡjaɾʌh BNT 1 sɔ RNS 1 ɡjaɾʌh RkM 1 sɔ DDK 1 ɡjaɾʌh RNS 1 sɔ KkP 1 ɡjaɾʌh DDK 1 sɔ SkP 1 ɪɡjaɾʌh KkP 1 sɔ RKB 1 ɡaɾʌh CCC 1 BNT 1 ɡaɾʌh 165. who 162. twelve HIN 1 kɔn HIN 1 baɾʌh BNM 1 kɔn RNK 1 baɾʌh RKB 1 kɔn RNS 1 baɾʌh BNT 1 kɔn BNM 1 baɾʌh RkM 1 kɔn DGC 1 baɾʌh RNS 1 kɔn DkR 1 baɾʌh RNK 1 kɔːn RKB 1 baɾʌh RNS 1 kɔːn TkN 1 baɾʌh DGC 1 kʌʊn DKS 1 baɾʌh KkP 1 kʌʊn BNT 1 baɾʌh SkP 1 kʊn RkM 1 baɾʌh TkN 1 kon RNS 1 baɾʌh CCC 1 kun DDK 1 baɾʌh DGC 3 ke KkP 1 baɾʌh DKS 3 ke SkP 1 baɾʌhʌɾ DkR 3 ke DDK 3 ke 163. twenty HIN 1 bis 166. what RNK 1 bis HIN 1 kja RNS 1 bis SkP 1 kja BNM 1 bis RNK 1 DGC 1 bis RNS 1 ka DkR 1 bis BNM 1 ka SkP 1 bis DGC 1 ka RKB 1 bis DkR 1 ka TkN 1 bis TkN 1 ka DKS 1 bis DKS 1 ka BNT 1 bis BNT 1 ka RkM 1 bis RkM 1 ka RNS 1 bis RNS 1 ka CCC 1 bis DDK 1 ka DDK 1 bis RKB 1 ka 56

KkP 1 ka RNS 3 kɪtːe CCC 2 kʌtʰi DGC 3 kæiʈʰo CCC 4 katek 167. where SkP 4 kʌtːa HIN 1 kʌhã BNM 1 kʌhã 170. what kind DGC 1 kʌhã HIN 1 kɪspɾʌkaɾ DkR 1 kʌhã BNM 1 kɪspɾʌkaɾ RKB 1 kʌhã BNT 1 kɪspɾʌkaɾ TkN 1 kʌhã RNK 2 kɔnsitʌɾʌhʌko DKS 1 kʌhã RNS 2 kɔnsitʌɾʌhʌko BNT 1 kʌhã RNS 2 kɔnsi RNS 1 kʌhã DGC 2 kɔnseɾ KkP 1 kʌhã RNS 2 konso SkP 1 kʌha TkN 3 kontʌɾikako RkM 1 kʌha RNK 3 konsitʌɾʌhʌko DDK 1 kʌha RNS 3 konsitʌɾʌhʌko RNK 1 kʌhãko DkR 4 kʌtʌɾaɾʌ̃ŋke RNS 1 kʌhãko SkP 5 kʌtːaekaɾ RKB 6 kæso 168. when HIN 6 kæsa HIN 1 kʌb KkP 6 kæse RNK 1 kʌb DDK 6 kæɪsin RNS 1 kʌb DKS 6 kæɪsin BNM 1 kʌb KkP 6 kæsʌn DGC 1 kʌb DKS 7 kɔnmeɾ DkR 1 kʌb DDK 7 kɔnmeɾ SkP 1 kʌb DGC 7 kɔʊnmeɾ RKB 1 kʌb BNT 8 konkon TkN 1 kʌb RkM 9 kɪtʌnekɪsʌm DKS 1 kʌb BNT 1 kʌb 171. this RkM 1 kʌb HIN 1 jʌh RNS 1 kʌb BNM 1 jʌh DDK 1 kʌb BNT 1 jʌh KkP 1 kʌb RNS 2 dʒʌw CCC 2 dʒʌb RNK 2 dʒʌw DGC 3 kʌhɪja (future) RKB 2 dʒa TkN 2 dʒa 169. how many RkM 2 dʒɔ HIN 1 kitne RNS 2 dʒʌ BNM 1 kitne DkR 3 i BNT 1 kɪtne SkP 3 i DDK 1 kʌtʌna DKS 3 i DGC 1 kʌtʌna CCC 3 i DkR 1 kʌtʌɾa DDK 3 i KkP 1 kʌtʌɾa DGC 3 i DKS 1 kʌtʌɾa KkP 3 i SkP 3 kʌtːa RkM 3 kɪtːo 172. that RKB 3 kɪtːo HIN 1 vʌh RNK 3 kɪtːe BNT 1 vʌh RNS 3 kɪtːe RkM 1 vʌh TkN 3 kɪtːe BNM 1 ve 57

RNK 2 dʒʌb 175. same RNS 3 bo HIN 1 eksʌman RKB 3 boh TkN 1 eksʌman DGC 3 vohe RNK 2 ekdʒæse DkR 4 u RNS 2 ekdʒæse SkP 4 u RNS 2 ekdʒæse DKS 4 u BNM 3 ekæ CCC 4 u HIN 3 ekse DGC 4 u DkR 5 ekʌnas KkP 4 u DKS 5 ekʌnas DDK 4 ʊ SkP 5 ʌkekʌs TkN 5 dʒa (171) DDK 5 akːenas RNS 6 hʊn DGC 5 ekːæɡʰʌs DGC 6 ekːæmeɾ 173. these KkP 6 ekeʈaɾ HIN 1 je RKB 7 ekhani DKS 1 je BNT 8 bʌɾʌbʌɾ BNT 1 jẽ RkM 9 ekʌjtʌɾʌh BNM 1 jẽ CCC a ɾitto (alike) RKB 1 be HIN b sʌman RNK 2 dʒɔ RNS 2 dʒɔ 176. different RkM 2 dʒo HIN 1 ʌlʌɡʌlʌɡ RNS 2 dʒʌw BNM 1 ʌlʌɡʌlʌɡ TkN 2 dʒe DkR 1 ʌlʌɡʌlʌɡ BNM 3 ɪtna BNT 1 ʌlʌɡʌlʌɡ DkR 4 i (171) TkN 1 ʌlʌɡælʌɡ SkP 4 i (171) SkP 1 ʌlʌɡʌlʌɡoʈ DGC 4 i (171) RkM 1 ʌlʌɡæʌlʌɡæ KkP 4 i (171) DDK 1 ʌlɪɡẽʌlɪɡẽ DDK 4 i (171) DGC 1 ʌlʌɡeʌlʌɡe CCC 5 ia RKB 2 ʌlʌɡoʈ DDK 6 tæ RNK 3 ɔɾeɔɾe DGC 7 ajne RNS 3 ɔɾeɔɾe HIN 8 in RNS 3 ɔɾeɔɾe RKB 3 ɔɾeɔɾe 174. those DK 3 ɔɾeɔɾe HIN 1 ve KkP 3 ɔɾeʈaɾɔɾeʈaɾ BNM 1 ve CCC 4 weeɾa BNT 1 ve DGC 5 dusʌɾdusʌɾ TkN 1 be HIN 6 fʌɾʌk RNK 2 vo HIN 7 bʰinː RkM 2 vo KkP 8 ɔɾeʈʰaɾɔɾeʈʰaɾ RNS 2 bo RKB 2 bo 177. whole RNS 2 bo HIN 1 pʊɾa DkR 3 u (171) RNK 1 pʊɾa SkP 3 u (171) BNM 1 pʊɾa DGC 3 u (171) SkP 1 pʊɾa KkP 3 u (171) DGC 1 pʊɾa DDK 3 ʊ (171) DKS 1 pʊɾa CCC 4 ua RNS 1 puɾo DKS 5 de RKB 1 puɾo BNT 1 puɾa 58

DkR 2 sʌbkʊ 180. many DKS 2 sʌkːu HIN 1 bʌhʊt DDK 2 sʌkːu BNM 1 bʌhʊt RKB 3 sʌb SkP 1 bʌhʊt TkN 3 sʌb BNT 1 bʌhʊt RkM 3 sʌb RNK 1 bʰɔt RNS 3 sʌb RKB 1 bʰɔt CCC 4 onɖi RNS 1 bɔhʌt KkP 5 dʒʌmma TkN 1 bɔt CCC 1 bʌhut 178. broken DKS 1 bʌhɔt HIN 1 ʈʊʈa DGC 2 baɾideɾ BNM 1 ʈʊʈa DkR 2 dʰjaɾ RNK 1 ʈʊʈo DDK 2 bʌhuʈedeɾ RNS 1 ʈʊʈo DKS 2 dʰeɾ RNS 1 ʈʊʈo KkP 2 bʌhutʈʰeɾ DkR 1 ʈʊʈʌl HIN 3 dʒada SkP 1 ʈʊʈʌl KkP 3 dʒeʈa KkP 1 ʈʊʈʌl RkM 4 bʌɖadʒoi RKB 1 ɖʰuʈo RNS 4 bʌɽadʒo DGC 1 ʈuʈʌla HIN 5 adʰɪk BNT 1 pʰuʈa DDK 1 pʰuʈʌlwã 181. all DKS 1 tutɡaija HIN 1 saɾe RkM 2 dukʌɾa BNT 1 saɾe TkN 3 dʊʈi BNM 1 saɾe HIN 4 ʌdʰuɾa DkR 1 sʌɾʌdʒ SkP 1 saɾa 179. few HIN 2 sʌb HIN 1 kʊtʃʰ RNK 2 sʌb BNT 1 kʊtʃʰ RNS 2 sʌb BNM 1 kʊtʃʰ BNM 2 sʌb HIN 2 tʰoɽi DGC 2 sʌb RNK 2 tʰoɽi KkP 2 sʌb BNM 2 tʰoɽi RKB 2 sʌb (176) RKB 2 tʰoɽi TkN 2 sʌb (176) DGC 2 tʰoɽiek RkM 2 sʌb (176) KkP 2 tʰoɽiek DDK 3 sʌkːu (176) RkM 2 tʰoɾi DKS 3 sʌkːu (176) HIN 2 ʈhoɽa RNS 4 sʌbbʰaɾ RNS 3 dʒʌɾase CCC 5 dʒʌmai DkR 4 kʌm KkP 5 dʒʌmːa TkN 4 kʌm CCC 6 bʰaɾe DDK 4 kʌm DGC 7 kul HIN 4 kʌm DKS 4 kʌm 182. eat!; he ate SkP 5 tʌndɪjaka HIN 1 khao; kʰaja RKB 6 nɪkʌna RKB 1 kao; kajalɔ DKS 7 tʰoɖtʃʊn RNK 1 kʰao; kʰale DGC 7 ʈʰɔɽewun RNS 1 kʰao; kʰale RkM 8 dʒʌɾakenahæ̃ BNM 1 kʰao; kʰalæ RNS 9 dʒʌɾʌjeɡʰaj DGC 1 kʰale SkP 1 kʰajʌlja; ...halʌe DkR 1 kʰa; kʰʌinu 59

TkN 1 kʰajle; kʰanlʊ TkN 1 pile; pilʌ DKS 1 kʰao; kʰaɖʌnu DKS 1 pijo; pikʰːʌnu BNT 1 kʰalo; kʰali BNT 1 pilo; pilɪja RkM 1 kʰaleɾe; kʰaʊɾʌhʊ RkM 1 pile; pilʊ RNS 1 kʰailo; kʰailʊ RNS 1 pɪle; pilʊhʊ̃ CCC 1 kʰʌi CCC 1 piʌi DDK 1 kʰadʒʰʌʈːe; kʰa... DDK 1 pile; pilelu KkP 1 kʰaliʰʌl KkP 1 pilʌhʌl

183. bite!; he bit 186. he is/was thirsty HIN 1 kaʈo; kaʈa HIN 1 pjasa; pjasa RKB 1 kaʈo; kaʈi SkP 1 pjasa; pjasa RNK 1 kaʈo; kaʈle RNK 1 pjaso RNS 1 kaʈo; kaʈle RNS 1 pjaso DkR 1 kaʈ; kaʈʌnu RKB 1 pjaso SkP 1 kaʈdja; kaʈʌlhala BNM 1 pjasahæ; pjasatʰa TkN 1 kaʈde; katdu BNT 1 pjasahæ; pjasatʰa DKS 1 kaʈ; kaʈʌlas DkR 1 pjasʌl BNM 1 kaʈkʰao TkN 1 pjasohʊ̃; pjaso BNT 1 kaʈʌlo; kaʈʌleta DKS 1 pjas..; pjasʌn.. RkM 1 kaʈo; kaʈoɾʌhe RkM 1 pjaso; pjasoɾʌhʌɡʊ RNS 1 kaʈ; kaʈdʌʊ RNS 1 pjaso; pjasoɾʌhʊ CCC 1 kʌtʌi DDK 1 pjasʌl; pjasʌlɾʌhu DDK 1 kʌʈ; kaʈlelu DGC 1 pjasala; pjasalrʌhe DGC 1 kaʈdæ̃ ; kaʈduinu KkP 1 pjasʌl KkP 1 kaʈʌdʌhʌl CCC 3 tokʌi 187. he sleeps; he slept HIN 1 soo; soja 184. he is/was hungry BNM 1 soo; soja HIN 1 bʰukʰa; bʰukʰa BNT 1 soo; soja RNK 1 bʰukʰo RNK 1 sodʒa; souɾʌhæ RNS 1 bʰukʰo RNS 1 sodʒa; souɾʌhæ RKB 1 bʰukʰo; bʰukʰa RKB 1 sojdʒa; sojŋo BNM 1 bʰukʰao; bʰukʰtʰa TkN 1 sojdʒa; sojʌlu DGC 1 bʰukʰ RkM 1 sojdʒa; sojɡʊɾʌho DkR 1 bʰukʰʌlʌː; bʰukʰʌl RNS 1 sojdʒa; sotrʌhẽ SkP 1 bʰukʰeɾo; ...ɾʌhe DGC 2 suʈʌt TkN 1 bʰukʰohae; bʰukʰo DkR 2 sut; sutseknu DKS 1 bʰukʰ..; bʰukʰajʌl.. SkP 2 sutdʒa; sutʌnu BNT 1 bʰukʰahæ; bʰukʰatʰa DKS 2 sutdʒa; suʈʌɡʌjilʌs RkM 1 bʰukʰo; bʰukʰoɾʌ... CCC 2 sutʌi RNS 1 bʰukʰo; bʰukʰorʌhʊ DDK 2 sutdʒa; sutʌlɾʌhu DDK 1 bʰukʰajlʌwa; bʰukʰ.. KkP 2 sutɡjal KkP 1 bʰukʰajlʌhʌle 188. lie down!; he lay down 185. drink!; he drank HIN 1 leʈo; leʈa HIN 1 pijo; pija BNM 1 leʈo; leʈa BNM 1 pijo; pija RNK 1 leʈdʒa; leʈoɾʌhæ RNK 1 pile; pilʌi RNS 1 leʈdʒa; leʈoɾʌhæ RNS 1 pile; pilʌi RNS 1 leʈdʒa; leʈoɾʌhæ DGC 1 pile RKB 1 leʈdʒa; leʈa RKB 1 pil; pilɪja TkN 1 leʈdʒa; leʈoɾʌho DkR 1 pi; pisekʌnu BNT 1 leʈedʒa; leʈʌɡʌtʰa SkP 1 pilja; piljahʌl RkM 1 ledʒdʒaːleʈõɾʌhõ 60

KkP 1 leʈɡʌ̃jʌl DGC 2 bʌɾʌta; bʌɾʌthæ̃ DGC 2 bolʌɾdʒa RNK 3 pʌdʒʌɾ; pʌdʒʌɾʌt SkP 2 ʊɽʌɾdʒa; ʊɽʌɾʌl RNS 3 pʌdʒʌɾ; pʌdʒʌɾʌt CCC 2 ultʌi BNM 3 pʌdʒʌɾ; pʌdʒʌɾʌti DKS 3 suʈo; suʈʌɡʌj (187) BNT 3 pʌdʒʌɾ; pʌdʒʌɾʌti DDK 3 sutdʒa; sutʌl (187) RKB 3 pʌdʒʌɾʌt; pʌdʒʌɾʌt CCC 4 pultʌi TkN 3 pʌdʒʌɾʌthæ̃ ; pʌ... RkM 3 pʰʌdʒʌɾɾʌji; pʌ... 189. sit down; he sat do RNS 3 pʌdʒʌɾʌt; pʌdʒʌɾʌt. HIN 1 bæʈʰo; bæʈʰa BNM 1 bæʈʰo; bæʈʰa 192. he dies; he died BNT 1 bæʈʰo; bæʈʰa HIN 1 mʌɾta; mʌɾɡʌja RNK 1 bæʈdʒa; baʈʰoɾʌu RNK 1 mʌɾvaɾo; mʌɾɡʌu RNS 1 bæʈdʒa; baʈʰoɾʌu RNS 1 mʌɾvaɾo; mʌɾɡʌu DGC 1 bæʈʰʌl SkP 1 mʌɾʌtɾʌhe DkR 1 bæʈʰ; bæʈʰʌl DkR 1 mʌɾʌtɾʌhʌ; mʌɾʌɡɪl SkP 1 bæʈʰdʒa; bæʈʰʌl RKB 1 mʌɾʌnleɡo; mʌɾɪɡao RKB 1 bæʈʰʌɡʌo; bæʈha TkN 1 mʌrɾʌhohaẽ; mʌɾ TkN 1 bætʰdʒa; bæʈʰoɾʌh BNT 1 mʌɾʌnevas; mʌɾʌɡʌo RNS 1 bætʰdʒa; bæʈʰoɾʌh RkM 1 mʌɾʌthæ̃ ; mʌɾʌɡʊ DKS 1 bæʈʰai; bæʈʰʌɡʌjinʊ RNS 1 mʌɾʌnwaɾo; mʌɾʌɡʊ RkM 1 bætʰdʒa; bæʈoɾʌho CCC 1 mʌɾʌi CCC 1 betʌi DDK 1 mʌɾʌthæ DDK 1 bæʈtaji; bæʈʌlɾʌhu DGC 1 mʌɾʌthæ̃ KkP 1 bæʈɡjʌl KkP 1 mʌɾɡjʌl CCC 2 besʌi DKS 2 ; muɡil BNM 3 ɡɪɾʌɡaja 190. give!; he gave HIN 1 do; doja 193. kill!; he killed BNM 1 do; doja HIN 1 maɾo; maɾta BNT 1 do; dija RNK 1 maɾʌt; maɾi RNK 2 dæjʌdæ; dʌiɾʌhæ RNS 1 maɾ; maɾi RNS 2 dæjʌdæ; dʌiɾʌhæ RkM 1 maɾ; maɾi DGC 2 de BNM 1 maɾi; maɾʌna DkR 2 de; dehʌl DkR 1 mʌɾʌt; maɾʌl (192) SkP 2 dedʌja; djal SkP 1 mʌɾ; mʌɾʌnu (192) RKB 2 dedæ; dɪja RKB 1 maɾʌdæ; maɾa TkN 2 dæjde; dejdʌi TkN 1 maɾo; maɾi DKS 2 de; dædenʊ DKS 1 mʌɾʌnu RkM 2 dæɪdæ; dæɪdæɪ BNT 1 maɾʌdo; maɾʌdɪthi RNS 2 dejʌde; dejʌdɪ RNS 1 maɾhe; maɾi CCC 2 dei DDK 1 maɾ; maɾʌthæ DDK 2 dæitæ; delʌs DGC 1 maɾʌl KkP 2 dedʌhʌl KkP 1 maɾdaɾʌl

191. it burns; it burned 194. it flies; it flew HIN 1 dʒʌlta; dʒʌli HIN 1 ʊɾti; ʊɾɡʌji DGC 1 dʒʌla RNK 1 ʊɽʌt KkP 1 dʒʌɾɡjʌl RNS 1 ʊɽʌɾʌu; ʊɽɡʌji DkR 2 bʌɾʌta; bʌɾʌl BNM 1 ʊɽʌtihæ; ʊɽʌɡaji SkP 2 bʌɾʌtɾʌhe DGC 1 ʊɽʌʈ DKS 2 bʌɾʌʈa; dʒʌɾʌɡʌji DkR 1 ʊɽʌta; ʊɾʌt CCC 2 bʌɾʌi SkP 1 uɖʌthæ; uɖʌtrʌhæ DDK 2 bʌɾʌlba; bʌɾʌtehæ RKB 1 uɖʌt; uɖʌɡaji 61

TkN 1 ʊɽɾʌhihæ̃ʊɽʌt RKB 1 dʒao; ɡʌo DKS 1 ʊɾʌʈa; ʊɾʌɡʌjel BNT 1 dʒao; ɡʌo BNT 1 uɖʌtihæ; uɖʌɡʌtʰi DGC 1 dʒa RkM 1 uɽʌʈrʌh; uɽʌtrʌhe SkP 1 dʒatɾo; dʒatrʌhʌl RNS 1 uɾːɪhæ̃ ; uɾːɪrʌhẽ TkN 1 dʒao; ɡʌʊ CCC 1 uɖiʌi DKS 1 dʒaoːɡʌjɪɡɪl DDK 1 uɽʌt; uɽʌtɾʌhæ CCC 1 dʒaeʌb KkP 1 uɾɡjal DDK 1 dʒa; tʃʌlɡʌilʌs KkP 1 ɡʌjil (past) 195. walk!; he walked BNM 2 tʃʌlo; tʃaja (195) HIN 1 tʃʌlo; tʃʌla DkR 2 tʃʌldʒa; tʃʌlɡɪl BNM 1 tʃʌlo; tʃʌla RkM 2 tʃʌl BNT 1 tʃʌlo; tʃʌla RNS 2 tʃʌl; ɡʌʊ (195) SkP 1 tʃʌl; dʒatrʌhʌl RNK 3 bʰodʒdʒa; ... (196) RKB 1 tʃʌlo; tʃʌlodæ RNS 3 bʰodʒdʒa; ... (196) TkN 1 tʃʌl; tʃʌldʌi RNS 3 bʰodʒdʒa; ... (196) DKS 1 tʃʌlo; ɡʌjʌɡʌjil RNS 1 tʃʌlo; tʃʌlorʌhẽ 198. come!; he came DDK 1 tʃol; dʒajta HIN 1 ao; ajo KkP 1 tʃʌlɡjʌl RNK 1 ao; ajo RNK 2 neɡʌthæ; neɡʌtɾʌhe RNS 1 ao; aɾe RKB 2 neɡʌthæ; neɡʌtɾʌhe BNM 1 (ʊlʌ̃ɡ)ao RNS 2 neɡʌthæ; neɡʌtɾʌhe DGC 1 a DDK 2 neɡʌthæ; neɡʌtɾʌhe DkR 1 a; ail DGC 2 neɡʌŋʌt SkP 1 adʒa; aheɡɪl RkM 2 niɡʌtrʌh; neɡʌt... RKB 1 aidʒa; aiɡo DkR 2 næɽ; næɽʌl TkN 1 a; aorʌhæ̃ CCC 3 bulʌi DKS 1 ao; aɡʌjɪl CCC 4 ɡʰɪmʌi BNT 1 ao; awʌhʌ̃ DGC 5 ɾæ̃ ŋʌɡ RkM 1 ao; adʒa RNS 1 ajːdʒa; ajʌɡʊ 196. run!; he ran CCC 1 awʌi HIN 1 dɔɽo; dɔɽa DDK 1 a; ailʌs DGC 1 dɔɾʌna KkP 1 ajil DkR 1 dɔɽ; dɔɽʌnu SkP 1 dɔɽʌtahæ; dɔɽʌt 199. speak!; he spoke RKB 1 dɔdo; dɔda HIN 1 bolo; bola TkN 1 dɔɾdʒa; dɔɾɾʌho BNM 1 bolo; bola DKS 1 dɔɾ; dɔɾʌnʊ RNK 1 bol; bolo RNS 1 dɔɾɾe RNS 1 bol; bolo DDK 1 dɔɽtæ; dɔɽʌthæ DGC 1 bol KkP 1 dɔɾɡjʌl DkR 1 bol; bolʌnu RNK 2 bʰodʒdʒa; bʰodʒɡʌu SkP 1 bol; bolʌl RNS 2 bʰadʒ; bʰadʒo DKS 1 bol; bolːʌs RNS 2 bʰadʒ; bʰadʒo BNT 1 bol; kʌhi BNM 2 bʰodʒ RNS 1 bol; bolʌtɾʌhẽ RKB 2 bʰadʒ; bʰadʒʌt DDK 1 bol; bolʌl BNT 2 bʰodʒ; bʰodʒo RKB 2 mʌsko; mʌska RNS 2 bʰadʒɡʌʊ TkN 3 bʌdʌkatrʌhæ̃ RkM 2 bʰadʒɾʌʊ; bʰadʒ... RkM 4 kʌh; kʌhɪ RNS 3 dʒʰʌno KkP 5 mʌnko; mʌnkʌl

197. go!; he went 200. he hears; he heard HIN 1 dʒao; ɡajo HIN 1 sunta; suna 62

RNK 1 suno; suni 203. you (sg. informal) RNS 1 sun; suno HIN 1 tʊm BNM 1 suno; suna BNM 1 tʊm DGC 1 sʊn KkP 1 tʊm DkR 1 sun; sunːʊ RNK 2 tu SkP 1 sʊn; sʊnʌl RNS 2 tu RKB 1 sunlo; sunlɔ BNT 2 tu TkN 1 sʊno; sʊnohæ̃ RNS 2 tu DKS 1 sʊno; sʊnːʊ HIN 2 tu BNT 1 sʊnʌle; sʊnʌlæ BNM 2 tu RkM 1 sʊn; sʊno DGC 3 tʌĩ RNS 1 sʊnle; sʊnʌtɾʌhẽ SkP 3 tæi CCC 1 sunʌi CCC 3 tuːi DDK 1 sunʌt; sunʌlæ̃ DDK 3 tæ̃ i KkP 1 sunʌl DkR 4 tæ̃ TkN 4 tæ̃ 201. he sees; he saw RkM 4 tæ̃ HIN 1 dekʰta; dekʰa RKB 4 tæ BNM 1 dekʰta; dekʰa DKS 4 tæ RNK 1 dekʰʌthæ; dekʰi RNS 1 dekʰʌthæ; dekʰi 204. you (sg. formal) DGC 1 dekʰnu HIN 1 DkR 1 dekʰun (look) RNK 2 tu (203) RKB 1 dekhʌto; dekhʌlɔ RNS 2 tu (203) TkN 1 dekʰho RNS 2 tu (203) DKS 1 dekʰʌnʊ; dekʰʌli DKS 2 ʈʊ BNT 1 dekʰʌta; dekʰu DDK 2 tũ RkM 1 dekʰ; dekʰo BNM 3 tum (203) RNS 1 dekʰle; dekʰo KkP 3 tum (203) DDK 1 dekʰʌt; dekʰʌlæ BNT 3 tum KkP 1 dekʰʌl RkM 3 tʊm SkP 2 dʌjakʰo; dʌjakʌl DGC 4 tʌĩ (203) DkR 3 heɾ (see) SkP 4 tæi (203) DGC 3 heɾ (see) DkR 5 tæ̃ (203) CCC 3 heɾʌi TkN 5 tæ̃ (203) RKB 5 tæ (203) 202. I CCC 6 jʌpʌnahike HIN 1 mæ̃ RNK 1 mæ̃ 205. he RNS 1 mæ̃ HIN 1 vʌh BNM 1 mæ̃ RNK 1 vʌh RKB 1 mæ̃ BNT 1 vʌh TkN 1 mæ̃ RNS 1 vo BNT 1 mæ̃ BNM 1 vo RkM 1 mæ̃ RNS 1 vo (174) RNS 1 mæ̃ RKB 1 boh KkP 1 mæ RkM 1 bʌh DkR 2 mej TkN 1 SkP 2 mæi DkR 2 u (171) DGC 2 mæi SkP 2 u (171) CCC 2 muːi DDK 2 u (171) DDK 2 mʌi DGC 2 u (171) DKS 2 mʌi KkP 2 u (171) DKS 2 u (171) 63

CCC 3 ua (174) 209. you (2nd pl.) HIN 1 aploɡ 206. she RNK 2 tum KkP 2 tum 207. we (inc.) SkP 2 tʊm HIN 1 hʌm RNS 2 tʊm RNK 1 hʌm BNT 2 tʊm (203) RNS 1 hʌm RNS 3 tumloɡ BNM 1 hʌm BNM 3 tumloɡ RKB 1 hʌm RKB 3 tumloɡ BNT 1 hʌm RNS 3 tumloɡ RkM 1 hʌm DGC 4 tohʌɾe RNS 1 hʌm DDK 4 tohʌɾe DGC 1 hʌmɾe DKS 4 ʈuɾeh DkR 1 hʌmʌɾe KkP 4 tumʌɾeh KkP 1 hʌmʌɾe DkR 5 tæ̃ (203) DKS 1 hʌmʌɾeh TkN 5 tæ̃ (203) CCC 1 hamaɾa RkM 6 hʌm (206) DDK 1 hʌmʌɾẽ DDK 7 tu SkP 2 hʌmsʌb DGC 8 tɔhi RNS 2 hʌmsʌb DDK 2 hʌmʌɾẽsʌb 210. they TkN 3 apʌnsʌb HIN 1 ve RNK 1 ve 208. we (exc.) RNS 1 ve HIN 1 hʌm (207) RKB 1 ve (174) RNK 1 hʌm (207) BNT 1 ve (174) RNS 1 hʌm (207) BNM 1 be BNM 1 hʌm (207) TkN 1 be (174) RKB 1 hʌm (207) RNS 2 vou BNT 1 hʌm (207) RkM 2 voʊ RkM 1 hʌm (207) RNS 2 vo (205) DGC 1 hʌmɾe (207) DGC 3 vʌjʌne SkP 1 hʌm DKS 3 vohine RNS 1 hʌm DkR 4 u (205) DKS 1 hʌmʌɾe (207) SkP 4 u (205) KkP 1 hʌmʌɾe (207) DDK 4 u (205) DDK 1 hʌmʌɾẽ KkP 4 u (205) DkR 2 mæj (202) CCC 5 hunkasabʰ TkN 2 mæ̃ (202)

Appendix C: Recorded Text Test Scores

Reference Point: Hindi HTT Test Point: Bareilly, U.P. Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

HIN001 M 45 05 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN002 M 16 08 LA H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN003 M 26 10 LA 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN004 F 40 14 PR H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN005 M 40 08 LA H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN006 F 26 08 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN007 F 65 14 PR H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN008 F 26 14 PR H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN009 F 29 10 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 HIN010 F 17 06 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 3.16 Mean 99

64

65

Reference Point: Gonda Dangora HTT (DGC) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

CHA001 M 16 12 ST H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA002 M 17 12 ST H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 CHA003 M 26 08 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA004 M 23 14 ME H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA005 F 17 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA006 F 24 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA007 F 28 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA008 F 32 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA009 F 53 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA010 M 55 00 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA011 M 20 13 ST H 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 80 CHA012 M 19 11 ST H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA013 M 65 00 AG L 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 80 CHA014 F 23 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA015 M 45 07 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA016 F 20 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA017 F 45 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA018 F 25 00 HM L 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 80 CHA019 F 25 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 CHA020 M 21 00 LB H 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA021 M 37 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA022 F 50 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA023 F 25 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 23 Standard Deviation 7.3 Mean 95.7

66

Reference Point: Kailali Kathoriya HTT (KKP) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

CHA011 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA012 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA019 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA020 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA021 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 CHA022 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA023 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 7.0 Mean 95

Reference Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

CHA004 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 CHA006 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 CHA011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA013 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 0 70 CHA014 0 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 50 CHA015 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 70 CHA016 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 60 CHA017 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 60 CHA018 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 80 CHA019 0 10 10 10 0 10 0 0 10 0 50 Number 11 Standard Deviation 18.6 Mean 74.6

67

Reference Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

CHA006 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 70 CHA011 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 80 CHA012 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA015 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70 CHA016 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 60 CHA019 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 70 CHA020 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 80 CHA021 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 70 CHA022 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 80 CHA023 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 40 Number 10 Standard Deviation 14.8 Mean 72

Reference Point: Tal Rana (RNS) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

CHA004 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 80 CHA006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 90 CHA011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA012 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA013 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 10 50 CHA014 0 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 10 50 CHA015 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 CHA016 10 10 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 0 60 CHA017 10 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 50 CHA018 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 70 CHA019 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 0 10 70 Number 11 Standard Deviation 18.5 Mean 72.7

68

Reference Point: Hindi (HIN) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

CHA006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA011 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA012 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA016 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA019 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 10 10 0 50 CHA020 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CHA021 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70 CHA022 10 10 10 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 95 CHA023 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 Number 10 Standard Deviation 14.9 Mean 88.5

Reference Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Test Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

CHA004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 CHA006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CHA011 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 0 70 CHA012 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 CHA013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 CHA014 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 CHA015 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 0 70 CHA016 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 80 CHA017 0 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 50 CHA018 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 80 CHA019 10 0 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 60 Number 11 Standard Deviation 15.1 Mean 79.1

69

Reference Point: Kheri Rana HHT (RKB) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

BAN001 M 25 08 CS H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN002 F 22 00 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN003 M 35 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN004 F 52 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN005 M 18 04 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN006 M 42 04 CS M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN007 M 56 00 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN008 F 18 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN009 F 16 00 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN010 F 35 00 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN011 M 16 09 ST L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN012 M 42 00 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN013 M 22 00 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN014 M 35 04 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN015 F 29 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN016 F 37 00 HM H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN017 F 19 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN018 M 62 00 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN019 F 53 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 80 BAN020 F 27 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 BAN021 M 58 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN022 M 42 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN023 M 26 06 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 Number 23 Standard Deviation 4.9 Mean 98.3

70

Reference Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

BAN001 10 10 10 10 0 5 10 10 10 10 85 BAN002 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 80 BAN003 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 80 BAN004 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 80 BAN005 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 10 70 BAN006 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 80 BAN007 0 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 70 BAN008 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 80 BAN009 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 BAN010 10 10 0 0 0 10 0 10 10 10 60 Number 10 Standard Deviation 8.6 Mean 77.5

Reference Point: Hindi (HIN) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

BAN001 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 BAN002 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 BAN003 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 BAN004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 BAN005 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN007 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN008 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 BAN009 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN010 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 7.9 Mean 92

71

Reference Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

BAN011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN003 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 BAN002 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN017 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 BAN008 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 7 Mean 96

Reference Point: Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

BAN001 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN016 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 BAN017 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN018 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 BAN019 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 60 BAN020 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 BAN021 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN022 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 BAN023 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 12.5 Mean 90

72

Reference Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

BAN011 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 BAN012 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 BAN013 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 70 BAN014 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 70 BAN003 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 BAN015 10 0 0 10 10 10 0 5 10 0 55 BAN016 0 5 0 10 5 10 0 0 10 0 40 BAN002 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 50 BAN017 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 70 BAN008 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 70 Number 10 Standard Deviation 16.3 Mean 68.5

Reference Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Test Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

BAN015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN016 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 80 BAN017 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 BAN001 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 95 BAN018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 BAN019 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 70 BAN020 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 80 BAN021 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 BAN022 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BAN023 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 Number 10 Standard Deviation 9.8 Mean 87.5

73

Reference Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Test Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

SIV001 M 15 01 ME H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV002 M 45 00 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV003 M 16 00 AG H 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV004 M 17 05 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV005 M 50 00 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV006 F 16 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 SIV007 F 25 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV008 M 35 08 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV009 F 17 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV010 F 45 00 HM H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV011 M 26 09 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV012 M 28 10 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV013 M 26 04 AT H 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 80 SIV014 F 35 06 HM M 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 80 SIV015 M 45 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV016 F 45 00 HM 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 80 SIV017 M 50 00 AG M 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 80 SIV018 F 18 06 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV019 F 30 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 SIV020 F 20 02 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 20 Standard Deviation Mean 95.7

74

Reference Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Test Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIV001 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV002 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 80 SIV003 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 60 SIV004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 SIV005 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV006 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 70 SIV007 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV008 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 80 SIV009 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 80 SIV010 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 11.6 Mean 83

Reference Point: Hindi (HIN) Test Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIV001 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV002 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 SIV003 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 10 10 60 SIV004 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 SIV005 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV006 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 70 SIV007 10 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 70 SIV008 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 0 10 0 60 SIV009 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 5 10 10 65 SIV010 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 10 70 Number 10 Standard Deviation 12.12 Mean 74.5

75

Reference Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Test Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIV011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 80 SIV014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV016 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 60 SIV017 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 60 SIV018 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV019 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV020 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 15.7 Mean 87

Reference Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Test Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIV011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV012 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 80 SIV014 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 10 0 70 SIV015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 SIV017 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV018 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 SIV019 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV020 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 9.9 Mean 91

76

Reference Point: Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Test Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIV011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 SIV014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV017 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIV018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIV019 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 SIV020 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 4.8 Mean 97

Reference Point: Kailali Kathoriya HTT (KKP) Test Point: : Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

PAB001 M 30 08 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB002 F 22 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB003 F 25 04 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB004 F 25 00 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB005 M 21 10 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB006 M 33 05 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB007 M 25 02 AG H 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 PAB008 F 16 03 HM M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB009 F 20 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB010 F 33 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 3.2 Mean 99

77

Reference Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Test Point: : Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

PAB001 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 0 0 50 PAB002 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 PAB003 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 80 PAB004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 PAB005 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 PAB006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB007 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB008 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB009 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 80 PAB010 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 60 Number 10 Standard Deviation 17.1 Mean 84

Reference Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Test Point: : Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

PAB001 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 80 PAB002 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 PAB003 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB005 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 PAB006 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 PAB007 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB008 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB009 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 80 PAB010 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 80 Number 10 Standard Deviation 8.8 Mean 91

78

Reference Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Test Point: Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

PAB002 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB011 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 80 PAB012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB015 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 PAB016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB017 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 PAB019 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 7.1 Mean 95

Reference Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Test Point: Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

PAB002 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 90 PAB012 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 85 PAB013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB014 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 PAB015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB017 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 PAB018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB019 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 6.1 Mean 95.5

79

Reference Point: Kheri Dangora (DKS) Test Point: Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

PAB002 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB013 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 80 PAB014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB015 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 5 85 PAB016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 PAB017 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 5 85 PAB018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 5 85 PAB019 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 8.3 Mean 92.5

Reference Point: Nepal Dang HTT (DDK) Test Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

SHO001 M 18 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO002 M 18 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO003 M 15 - - - 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SHO004 M 45 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 SHO005 M 18 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 SHO006 M 25 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO007 M 35 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO008 M 40 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO009 M 20 - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 SHO010 M - - - - 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 SHO011 M 15 03 CS 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 - 100 SHO012 M 17 02 CS 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 - 100 SHO013 M 29 08 CS 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 - 88 SHO014 F 26 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 - 100 SHO015 F 24 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 - 88 SHO016 F 32 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 - 88 SHO017 F 35 00 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 - 100 SHO018 F 22 00 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 - 67 Number 18 Standard Deviation 8.5 Mean 93.4 80

Reference Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Test Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SHO001 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 70 SHO004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 SHO011 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 80 SHO012 10 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 80 SHO013 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 60 SHO014 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 SHO015 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 0 60 SHO016 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 0 60 SHO017 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 0 60 SHO018 10 10 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 60 Number 10 Standard Deviation 12.9 Mean 71

Reference Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Test Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SHO001 10 0 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 60 SHO004 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 70 SHO011 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SHO012 10 10 10 40 10 10 10 0 10 0 70 SHO013 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 70 SHO014 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 SHO015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 70 SHO016 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 SHO017 10 10 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 50 SHO018 0 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 70 Number 10 Standard Deviation 15.5 Mean 68

81

Reference Point: Kailali Kathoriya (KKP) Test Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SHO001 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 SHO004 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SHO011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO013 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SHO014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SHO016 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SHO017 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 SHO018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 5.3 Mean 95

82

Reference Point: Nainital Rana HTT (RNS) Test Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

SIS001 M 18 10 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS002 M 60 00 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS003 F 54 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS004 F 17 05 ST L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS005 M 52 00 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS006 M 20 12 AG 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS007 F 42 00 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS008 F 49 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS009 F 22 11 HM H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS012 M 40 08 AG 0 ------SIS013 M 19 12 AG 0 ------SIS014 F 18 05 HM 0 ------SIS015 M 28 09 AG 0 ------SIS016 M 30 07 AG 0 ------SIS017 F 23 10 HM 0 ------SIS018 F 45 00 HM 0 ------SIS019 M 18 10 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS020 M 20 10 PR H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS021 F 27 05 HM H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS022 M 22 01 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS023 F 18 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS024 M 18 12 ST H 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 0 70 SIS025 M 26 00 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS026 F 26 00 HM H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS027 F 17 03 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 80 SIS028 M 47 07 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 19 Standard Deviation 8.1 Mean 97.4

83

Reference Point: Gonda Dangora (DGC) Test Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIS006 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 60 SIS007 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 60 SIS008 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 50 SIS012 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 70 SIS013 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 80 SIS014 0 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 10 30 SIS015 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 50 SIS016 0 0 0 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 40 SIS017 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 60 SIS018 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 20 Number 10 Standard Deviation 18.1 Mean 52

Reference Point: Nepal Dang (DDK) Test Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIS019 10 10 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 50 SIS020 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 0 60 SIS021 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 30 SIS022 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 60 SIS023 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 40 SIS024 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 10 0 30 SIS025 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 50 SIS026 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 50 SIS027 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 70 SIS028 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 10 0 70 Number 10 Standard Deviation 14.5 Mean 51

84

Reference Point: Kheri Rana (RKB) Test Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIS006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS007 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS008 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS014 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS015 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 SIS016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS017 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS018 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 3.2 Mean 99

Reference Point: Nainital Buksa (BNM) Test Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIS019 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS020 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS021 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS022 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS023 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS024 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS025 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS026 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS027 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS028 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 10 Standard Deviation 0.0 Mean 100

85

Reference Point: Hindi (HIN) Test Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

SIS006 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS007 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS008 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 SIS012 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 SIS013 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS014 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 SIS015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 SIS016 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 0 70 SIS017 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 SIS018 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 80 Number 10 Standard Deviation 9.4 Mean 91

Reference Point: Nainital Buksa HTT (BNM) Test Point: Nainital Buksa (BNM) Occupation Education Average Travel Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 Age Sex ID

MAT002 M 26 04 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT004 M 17 05 AG L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT011 M 32 03 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT009 M 27 11 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT010 M 17 09 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT012 M 25 05 AG H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT008 F 20 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 MAT014 F 40 00 HM 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT015 M 70 00 AG M 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT016 M 25 05 AG H 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 MAT003 M 18 05 LB H 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT005 M 45 00 AG L 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 MAT006 F 18 05 HM L 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Number 13 Standard Deviation 4.39 Mean 97.7

86

Reference Point: Nainital Rana (RNS) Test Point: Nainital Buksa (BNM) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

MAT002 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT011 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT009 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT010 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 85 MAT012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT008 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT014 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 70 MAT015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT016 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 Number 10 Standard Deviation 10.1 Mean 94.1

Reference Point: Hindi (HIN) Test Point: Nainital Buksa (BNM) Average Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q10 ID

MAT002 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 MAT004 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT011 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 90 MAT009 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT010 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT012 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 MAT008 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT014 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 70 MAT015 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 MAT016 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 80 Number 10 Standard Deviation 11.1 Mean 91

Appendix D: Sentence Repetition Tests

Bilingual proficiency descriptions

The following bilingualism proficiency descriptions are adapted from Radloff (1991:152–153), and Brewster and Brewster (1976:370–376). They apply to the RPE levels used in sentence repetition testing.

Level 0+ (Very minimal proficiency)

Memorized proficiency. Able to satisfy immediate needs using rehearsed utterances. Able to use at least 50 words in appropriate contexts.

Level 1 (Minimal, limited proficiency)

Able to satisfy minimum courtesy requirements and maintain very simple face-to-face conversations on familiar topics. Understands only very simple speech, and needs frequent repetition. A person at this level has a very heavy accent which makes understanding difficult. Examples: Could understand and correctly respond to questions about marital status, nationality, occupation, age, and place of birth; could buy a bus ticket, and get off where intended.

Level 1+ (Limited, basic proficiency)

Can initiate and maintain predictable face-to-face conversations and satisfy limited social demands. Vocabulary is limited to basic personal and survival areas. Can do anything a Level One can do, and a few of Level Two. Examples: Might be able to give one’s life story and talk about one’s plans and hopes.

Level 2 (Adequate, basic proficiency)

Able to satisfy routine social demands and limited requirements in other domains. Can talk about and understand everyday topics, but has difficulty with some topics. A person at this level has great difficulty dealing with complications or conflicts if they arise. Pronunciation is almost always understandable. Has a heavy accent that forces people to concentrate when listening, and sometimes causes misunderstanding. Examples: Can engage in superficial discussions on current events, about oneself, and about family and work; can also understand native speakers talking about simple topics. Can describe a recent job or activity in some detail, and can describe the local political structure.

Level 2+ (Good, basic proficiency)

Able to satisfy most requirements with language usage that is often, but not always, acceptable and effective. A person at this level can do all the things a Level Two person can do and a few things of Level Three. Examples: Might be able to cope with a social blunder, or discuss alternative views on a controversial topic.

Level 3 (Good, general proficiency)

Able to speak the language with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations on practical, social, and occupational topics. Has a marked

87

88

“foreign” accent, but this does not impede understanding. Normal educated speech is understood quite well. Examples: Can successfully defend a position and understand an opposing point of view. Can understand native speakers talking with each other on a variety of topics. If unjustly accused of something, could successfully explain the misunderstanding; language skills are adequate for coping with emergency situations. At this level, the formation of close friendships is not hindered by language ability.

Level 3+ (Very good, general proficiency)

Is often able to use the language to satisfy needs in a wide range of sophisticated and demanding tasks. Is usually able to understand idiomatic speech that native speakers use when talking with each other. Can do all the things a Level 3 person can do, and some of the things of a person at Level 4. Examples: Could usually convey exact meaning in a technical or professional discussion.

Level 4 (Excellent proficiency)

Able to use the language fluently and accurately on all levels normally pertinent to needs. Grammatical errors are only rarely made, and these are corrected automatically and unconsciously. Vocabulary is adequate for all technical, social, and practical situations. Examples: Could naturally alter speech style for talking intimately with a friend, or respectfully to a high government official. Can understand humor and puns, and can actively use the language to participate in fun and humorous situations.

Level 4+ (Approaching native speaker proficiency)

Speaking proficiency is regularly superior in all respects, usually equivalent to that of a “well-educated,” highly articulate native speaker.

Appendix E: Sentence Repetition Test Results

Key

ID: Subject Identification number SX: Sex AG: Age ED: Education in years OC: Education in Years Occupation: AG=agriculture; CS=caste occupations; HM=homemaker; LB=laborer; ST=student; PR=professional TR: Travel – 0=none; L=lx/week RW: Total raw score out of 45 points possible 01-15: SRT sentence score (3 points possible)

Chandenpur

ID SX AG ED OC TR RW 01 02 03 04 50 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 CHAB01 M 16 12 ST H 36 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 1 0 2 CHAB02 M 17 9 ST H 37 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 1 CHAB03 M 17 12 ST H 31 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 0 1 0 CHAB04 M 20 12 ST H 35 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 0 2 2 3 2 1 CHAB05 M 22 8 AG - 36 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 CHAB06 M 17 12 ST - 32 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 CHAB07 M 40 10 RE - 16 1 3 2 2 1 0 1 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB08 M 22 8 AG - 28 3 3 3 0 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 1 3 0 0 CHAB09 M 25 10 AG - 33 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 3 3 0 2 3 1 0 CHAB10 M 60 0 AG L 13 1 2 3 2 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB11 M 50 0 AG M 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB12 M 56 0 AG L 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB13 M 48 4 AG M 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB14 F 23 0 CS L 17 0 2 2 3 3 1 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 CHAB15 F 29 0 CS M 13 0 3 2 0 3 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 CHAB16 F 24 0 CS M 20 2 2 3 3 2 2 0 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB17 F 23 0 CS M 7 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB18 F 18 0 CS - 13 2 3 3 0 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB19 F 34 0 CS L 9 0 2 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 CHAB20 F 45 0 CS 6 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

89

90

Mathpuri

ID SX AG ED OC TR RW 01 02 03 04 50 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 MATB01 M 7 9 AG H 41 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 MATB02 M 28 8 AG H 38 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 0 MATB03 M 27 11 ST H 38 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 MATB04 F 20 0 AG L 40 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 0 MATB05 M 25 8 AG H 26 2 3 0 1 3 0 3 3 2 0 2 2 3 0 2 MATB06 M 26 4 AG H 23 3 0 0 3 3 2 2 3 1 0 2 2 2 0 0 MATB07 F 18 5 AG L 35 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 1 3 0 0 MATB08 M 20 0 AG L 32 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 2 2 0 0 MATB09 M 45 0 AG H 29 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 MATB10 F 22 0 Ac 0 22 3 3 3 3 3 1 0 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 MATB11 F 30 5 AG 0 37 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 0 MATB12 M 30 0 AG 0 29 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 1 0 1 1 3 0 1 MATB13 M 20 0 AG H 35 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 0 0 MATB14 F 65 0 AG 0 17 1 3 1 2 3 0 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 MATB15 F 15 7 AG 0 35 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 0 0 MATB16 F 40 0 AG 0 23 3 2 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 MATB17 M 45 0 AG L 37 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 0 1 MATB18 F 25 0 AG 0 12 1 0 3 1 0 2 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 MATB19 M 16 0 AG L 37 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 0 0 MATB20 M 65 0 AG 0 9 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 MATB21 M 17 5 AG H 35 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 0 3 3 1 0 MATB22 F 40 0 AG L 25 2 3 3 3 2 2 0 2 1 1 3 1 2 0 0 MATB23 F 20 6 AG L 25 3 0 1 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 0 0 2 0 0 MATB24 M 25 2 LB H 32 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 1 0 0 MATB25 F 17 0 AG L 25 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 MATB26 M 47 2 AG L 33 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 0 0 3 MATB27 M 47 0 AG L 31 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 0 1 3 0 0 MATB28 F 45 0 AG 0 16 3 3 1 1 2 0 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 MATB29 M 17 5 AG L 23 3 3 3 2 1 2 2 3 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 MATB30 M 35 0 AG L 25 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 MATB31 M 47 2 AG 0 25 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 MATB32 F 75 0 AG 0 6 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 MATB33 F 45 0 AG 0 17 3 2 3 3 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 MATB34 F 26 0 AG 0 25 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 2 0 2 1 0 0 0 MATB35 F 40 0 AG 0 27 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 3 0 2 0 2 0 0 MATB36 F 27 0 AG 0 22 3 3 0 3 0 0 3 2 2 0 3 1 2 0 0 MATB37 M 30 0 AG H 40 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 0 2 MATB38 F 26 0 AG L 24 3 2 3 3 3 1 0 3 2 0 3 1 0 0 0 MATB39 M 18 5 AG H 25 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 0 MATB40 M 55 0 AG 0 19 2 3 0 3 1 0 3 1 2 1 0 0 3 0 0

91

Mathpuri (continued)

ID SX AG ED OC TR RW 01 02 03 04 50 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 MATB41 M 80 0 AG 0 17 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 MATB42 M 36 8 AG H 36 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 0 0 MATB43 M 35 7 AG H 40 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 0 2 MATB44 M 33 8 AG H 42 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 MATB45 M 19 9 AG H 41 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 MATB46 M 25 5 AG H 37 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 0 0 MATB47 F 15 6 ST L 32 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 0 0 0

92

Sisana

ID SX AG ED OC TR RW 01 02 03 04 50 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 SISB01 M 42 8 AG 0 41 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 SISB02 M 16 6 ST M 32 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 2 2 0 SISB03 M 50 0 AG 0 4 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB04 M 60 7 AG L 30 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 0 0 SISB05 M 20 12 AG - 36 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 3 3 2 0 3 3 2 3 SISB06 F 42 0 AG 0 19 3 1 1 3 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 0 SISB07 F 56 0 AG - 15 2 3 2 2 2 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB08 M 53 0 AG 0 17 2 1 2 s 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 SISB09 M 26 8 AG M 37 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 0 2 SISB10 F 58 0 AG L 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB11 M 19 11 AG - 42 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 SISB12 M 19 10 AG 0 38 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 0 SISB13 M 45 4 AG - 37 3 3 0 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 SISB14 F 16 10 ST H 40 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 SISB15 F 14 9 ST M 40 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 0 SISB16 F 15 8 ST M 43 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 SISB17 F 18 10 ST M 43 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 SISB18 F 16 8 ST M 39 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 0 2 SISB19 F 15 8 ST - 37 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 SISB20 M 18 10 ST M 37 3 3 2 3 3 0 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 SISB22 F 36 8 AG L 17 3 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 2 1 0 SISB23 F 46 0 AG L 12 2 3 0 2 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB24 F 15 0 AG - 19 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 SISB25 M 32 3 AG L 36 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 0 2 3 2 2 SISB26 F 27 0 AG - 13 3 2 3 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB27 M 30 10 AG - 38 3 3 2 3 3 3 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 SISB28 F 28 0 AG - 25 2 3 2 3 3 3 0 2 2 2 0 1 2 0 0 SISB29 F 65 0 AG - 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB30 F 46 0 AG - 12 3 2 0 3 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB32 F 47 3 AG - 12 0 0 3 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 SISB33 F s0 0 AG - 33 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 2 SISB34 M 19 0 AG - 3s 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 0 0 SISB35 M 36 0 AG - 35 3 3 0 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 0 SISB36 M 44 0 AG - 33 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 0 3 2 2 2 2 SISB37 F 32 0 AG - 14 3 3 0 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SISB38 F 22 12 AG - 42 3 3 3 s 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 SISB40 M 52 0 AG - 24 3 2 3 3 2 0 2 3 2 1 1 0 2 0 0 SISB41 F 25 0 AG - 35 3 3 2 3 3 3 0 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 SISB42 F 19 0 AG - 27 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 SISB43 F 32 0 AG - 6 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 SISB44 M 48 3 AG - 30 0 3 1 2 0 3 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 SISB45 M - 0 AG - 33 3 0 0 3 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 2

93

Bangama

ID SX AG ED OC TR RW 01 02 03 04 50 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 BANB01 M 24 5 AG L 23 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 BANB02 M 20 5 AG L 24 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 BANB03 M 25 5 AG 0 34 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2 0 0 BANB04 M 25 8 AG L 34 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 0 0 BANB05 M 20 3 AG H 21 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB06 M 36 0 CS 0 15 3 1 3 2 2 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 BANB07 M 25 4 AG L 22 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 BANB08 M 26 2 AG L 18 2 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB09 M 65 0 AG 0 70 2 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB10 M 43 0 AG - 10 2 3 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB11 M 68 0 AG M 10 0 3 2 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB12 F 55 0 AG - 11 0 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 BANB13 F 23 0 AG 0 82 0 1 1 r 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB14 F 21 0 AG 0 16 3 2 2 2 3 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 BANB15 F 29 0 AG L 25 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 BANB16 F 32 0 AG 0 L4 3 2 3 3 2 o o 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB17 M 25 2 AG 0 31 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 0 2 3 0 0 BANB18 M 25 6 AG 0 32 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 0 0 BANB19 M 23 2 AG L 32 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 3 3 1 0 BANB20 M 26 0 AG 0 20 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 BANB21 M 29 2 AG 0 34 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 2 1 0 BANB22 M 24 12 AG - 42 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 BANB23 F 32 0 AG 0 12 3 2 2 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB24 M 45 0 AG 0 30 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 0 0 2 2 2 3 0 2 BANB25 M 47 0 AG 0 26 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 0 0 3 1 2 2 0 0 BANB26 M 15 9 ST - 41 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 BANB27 F 32 0 AG 0 60 1 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB28 M 18 0 AG 0 80 2 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB29 F 18 0 AG 0 26 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 BANB30 F 18 0 AG 0 82 0 2 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB31 M 16 0 AG 0 14 3 2 3 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB32 M 19 12 ST - 43 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 BANB33 M 55 0 AG - 25 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 BANB34 M 23 0 AG 0 22 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 BANB35 M 20 12 PR - 42 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 BANB36 F 37 0 AG L 21 3 2 3 2 2 0 0 3 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 BANB37 M 50 0 AG L 37 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 0 1 BANB38 M 22 0 AG M 34 3 3 3 0 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 0 1 BANB39 M 70 0 AG 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB40 F 50 0 AG - 5 0 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BANB41 F 40 0 AG - 18 0 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 BANB42 F 40 0 AG 0 4 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

94

Bhusahar

ID SX AG ED OC TR RW 01 02 03 04 50 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 BHUB01 M 19 3 AG L 20 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB02 M 60 0 AG 0 11 3 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB03 M 35 0 AG 0 10 0 2 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB04 M 65 0 AG 0 15 2 3 2 0 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB05 F 21 0 AG 0 74 2 3 3 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB06 M 17 9 ST H 26 3 3 3 2 3 0 2 3 3 3 0 1 0 0 0 BHUB07 M 28 0 AG L 26 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 3 2 0 2 1 0 0 BHUB08 M 23 10 AG 0 20 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 BHUB09 M 22 10 PR H 34 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 1 0 1 BHUB10 M 48 0 AG L 10 1 2 3 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB11 M 32 10 PR H 35 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 0 0 BHUB12 F 60 0 AG 0 6 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB13 M 28 0 AG L 22 0 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 BHUB14 M 32 0 AG L 14 0 3 2 0 3 0 2 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB15 F 75 0 AG 0 6 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB16 M 25 1 AG L 9 2 3 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB17 M 37 4 AG L 18 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB18 F 35 0 AG 0 16 1 3 3 2 3 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB19 F 28 0 AG 0 12 0 3 3 1 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB20 F 20 0 AG 0 9 0 3 2 o 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB21 F 25 0 AG 0 8 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB22 F 37 0 AG 0 18 1 2 3 3 3 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB23 F 25 0 AG 0 11 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB24 M 45 0 PR H 30 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 0 0 0 0 2 BHUB25 F 22 0 AG O 24 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 2 0 3 0 0 0 2 0 BHUB26 M 77 9 ST L 28 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 2 2 3 1 1 2 0 0 BHUB27 M 50 0 AG L 29 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 0 0 BHUB28 M 20 15 ST H 44 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 BHUB29 M 37 2 AG L 29 0 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 1 0 0 BHUB30 F 60 0 AG 0 44 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB31 M 18 2 AG L 21 0 3 2 3 3 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 BHUB32 F 20 8 AG L 29 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 1 0 0 0 BHUB33 M 33 0 AG L 16 3 3 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 BHUB34 F 55 5 AG L 23 1 3 3 3 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 BHUB35 F 21 2 AG L 32 1 3 3 3 3 0 3 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 BHUB36 M 24 0 AG L 15 1 2 3 2 3 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 BHUB37 M 77 0 AG 0 11 0 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 BHUB38 M 45 8 AG L 27 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 3 2 3 2 2 0 0 0 BHUB39 M 48 7 AG H 32 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 1 2 0 0

Appendix F: Language Use and Attitudes Results

List of Questions

Q01. What do you call your language? Q02. What other languages do you speak? Q03. Do you ever speak Hindi with (other) Tharus? Q04. What language do you speak with merchants in the bazaar? Q05. What language is spoken in your home? Q06. What language do the children use when they are playing? Q07. Do non-Tharus ever speak the Tharu language? Q08. Are there any Tharus who do not speak Tharu? Q09. (if so) where? Q10. Are there any Tharus who speak differently from you? Ql l. (if so) where? Q12. Do you understand the Tharu language spoken in Kheri district? Q13. Do you understand those in Gonda district? Q14. Where is the sweetest Tharu spoken? Q15. What language do you use in private puja? Q16. In what language should a mother speak to her (young) child? Q17. Should Tharu children learn to speak Hindi? Q18. If books were written in Tharu, would that be a good thing? Q19. Would you want your child (or you) to marry someone who spoke only Hindi? Q20. Only Tharu? Q21. Would you want your child (or you) to marry someone who is Hindu? Q22. Muslim? Q23. Christian? Q24. Do you think children here will still be speaking Tharu in fifty years? Q25. Should children today learn to follow Tharu customs and tradtions? Q26 Are they?

Banghau Village, Kheri District

Sex: M Age: 50 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Q02. Hindi Q03. Sometimes Q04. Hindi Q05. Tharu Q06. Tharu Q07. No Q08. Yes Q09. Those working outside Q10. Yes Q11. Mostly in Nepal: Rana Tharu, Dangauriya Tharu (servants of Rana), Malauriya Tharu, Bisena Tharu, Kathouriya Tharu in Gonda Q12. Yes Q13. No. They are known as Kathoruiya Tharu Q14. Tharu in Nepal Q15. Tharu Q16. Tharu

95

96

Q17. Yes Q18. Yes, but people don’t like the Tharu language. It is an unwritten language. Q19. No Q20. Yes, only their people and caste Q21. No Q22. No Q23. No Q24. No. Tharu language will be finished off. Many children do not understand Tharu even today. Q25. Yes Q26. Yes

Banghati Village, Kheri District

Sex: ? Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Rana Tharu Q02. Hindi Q03. No Q04. Hindi Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q07. Yes. Some government workers Q08. Yes Q09. Those living in Nepal Q10. Yes Q11. In Nepal Q12. Yes Q13. No Q14. In Nepal Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q17. Yes Q18. ? “Very few would like; mostly Hindi is being spoken and language is neglected by Tharus also.” Q19. No Q20. Yes, only Tharu Q21. No Q22. No Q23. No Q24. Maybe Q25. Yes, certainly: Deepali, , Thijiya gudiya in April Q26. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District7

ID. BANB25 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes, a little Q13. Yes, a little

7 For sex, age, and education details for all subjects from Bangama Village, refer to Appendix E. 97

Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB26 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. Yes, even then Q24 Yes, I hope it will remain

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB27 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bargama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB28 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes 98

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB29 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. No, it will change

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB30 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB31 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB32 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu 99

Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. No, it will change

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB33 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No, I can’t understand Q24. Yes, well, I don’t know about later

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB34 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Well, I don’t know what will happen

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB35 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. Yes, even then Q24. Well, I don’t know

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB36 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No 100

Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB24 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. Yes, a little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, it will in __

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB23 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, it will

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB22 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes, but I can’t speak Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. No, It may change, it is changing. 101

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB21 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. Yes, a little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. No, it is changing and hopefully it will change.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB20 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. Yes, a little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. No, I think it will change.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB19 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. Yes, a little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, but it may change.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB18 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No, a little bit Q13. Yes, a little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu 102

Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, but it may change.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB17 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB16 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, unless they go out to the village.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB15 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB14 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes 103

Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB13 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, well, it may change.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB11 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. Yes Q24. Yes, but it is changing.

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB09 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. A little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. I don’t know Q24. Yes, why not? 104

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB08 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes, but I can’t speak Q13. Yes, but I can’t speak Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18.Yes Q18a. Yes, if it is written. Q24. I don’t know

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB06 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. No Q14. I don’t know Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB07 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. Yes Q13. Yes Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB05 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. Very little Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu 105

Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes, it will

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB04 Q05. Tharu Rana Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. It is ditficult Q13. I can understand but it is difficult. Q14. Rana Tharu Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Rana Tharu Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. It may change, I’m not sure

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB02 Q05. Rana Tharu Q06. Rana Tharu Q12. No Q13. Yes, a little Q14. Rana Q15. Rana Tharu Q16. Q18. Yes Q18a. No Q24. Yes

Bangama Village, Kheri District

ID. BANB01 Q05. Tharu (Rana) Q06. Tharu (Rana) Q12. No Q13. Yes, a little bit Q14. Rana Q15. Tharu Rana Q16. Tharu Rana Q18. Yes, (Rana) Q18a. Yes, even that we would like. Q24. Yes

Bejpuri Village, Nepal

Sex: M Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Dangra. Q02. Hindi and Nepali, but my main one is Dangra. Q03. Not at all. 106

Q04. Nepali, which is their language. Q05. Tharu Boli. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. Only those who live near us. Q08. Danga will speak only Dangra, but Ranas are different. Q09. They live here. Q10. Rana. Q11. Only at Bhira Sisari. Q12. Do not know. Q13. Do not know. Q14. Dang Tharus who live in speak nicely. Q15. Our own Tharu Boli. Q16. Tharu Boli. Q17. They want to. Q18. Old people would like it, but not the young people. Q19. No. Q20. Only Tharu. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Not sure. Q25. In the future it will be difficult for children to follow. Q26. Yes they are.

Bejpuri Village, Nepal

Sex: M Age: 36 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi and Nepali. Q03. Tharu and Nepali. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No one. Q08. Rana Tharu Q09. Near us. Q10. Rana Tharu Q11. Near us. Q12. I do not know. Q13. I do not know. Q14. Dangra. Q15. Dangra. Q16. Dangra. Q17. Why not? Q18. Why not? Q19. No. Q20. Only Tharu. Q21. (No answer) Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Some will forget—little will remain. Q25. I do not know, but I obey. Q26. (No answer) 107

Bejpuri Village, Nepal

Sex: M Age: 22 Edu: 4 Q01. Tharu Boli Q02. Hindi, Nepali, Tharu Rana, Dhangra Tharu. Q03. Dhangra and also Nepali. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Our own Dhangra Boli. Q06. Dhangra Boli. Q07. Many speak it who live among us. Q08. Those who live in the market places. Also, Rana Tharus. Q09. Sisara and Kaskan. Q10. Rana Tharu, Kuchalia, and Dangli. Q11. Sisara in . Q12. I do not know about them much. Q13. No. Q14. Dhangra in Kathmandu where we come from. Q15. Dhangra only. Q16. Dhangra. Q17. No problem. Q18. Why not. Q19. It does not matter. Q20. Tharu is also good. Q21. Only Hindu would be all right. Q22. Not at all. Q23. No. Q24. It will remain as it is. Q25. It is necessary. Q26. Yes, they are.

Bejpuri Village, Nepal

Sex: M Age: ? Edu: ? Q0l. Tharu Dhangra. Q02. Nepali and Hindi. Q03. Only Tharu Dhangra. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Tharu Dhangra. Q06. Tharu Dhangra. Q07. Some speak who live in our midst from the outside. Q08. A few speak Pahari. Q09. Near by us. Q10. Rana speak their own language. Q11. Away from here. Q12. I have not gone there. Q13. I do not know them. Q14. Dhanga (Kathmandu) Q15. Dhangara Tharu. Q16. Dhangara Tharu. Q17. Yes, if they go out. Q18. Yes. Q19. It does not matter. Q20. (No answer given) 108

Q21. lt is possible Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. It will change. Q25. It is necessary. Q20. It is now changing.

Chandanpur Village, Gonda District

Sex: F Age: 60 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Dangora. Q02. Only Tharu. Q03. No. Q04. Sometimes uses a little bit of Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes. Q08. Yes. Q09. In the south they speak mixed Dahali and Awadi Boli. Q10. Yes. Q11. Dankharia (Nepal) Q12. I have not heard it. Q13. I have not heard it. Q14. I do not know. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes, it does not matter. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: M Age: 25 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Yes, sometimes. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes. Q08. Yes. Q09. In Nepal (Dhangrias) Q10. Yes. Q11. Nainital (U.P.) Q12. I never heard them. Q13. I never heard them. 109

Q14. Chandarpur. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes, if they both like it. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: M Age: 50 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. A little Hindi. QO3. Tharu only. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Very few people can speak our language. Q08. I have not heard it Q09. I do not know. Q10. Yes. Q11. Nepal (Sivraj Village). Q12. I have not heard it. Q13. I have not heard it. Q14. Chandanpur. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes, why not? We must learn all languages. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes, we will teach her our own languages. Q20. Yes. Q21. No...(not unless) they fall in love with each other. Q22. No...(not unless) they fall in love with each other. Q23. No...(not unless) they fall in love with each other. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes, they do learn.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: M Age: 26 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Boli. Q02. None (see #4 below). Q03. No. Q04. Hindi, a little bit. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. 110

Q07. Yes, a few who come and spend time with us. Q08. No. Q09. No. Q10. I have not gone anywhere. Q11. (See #10 above) Q12. If I would go I would see, but I have not gone. Q13. If I would go I would see, but I have not gone. Q14. What we speak is best. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu (but now it is changing). Q17. Yes, we want them to. Q18. Yes, why not? Q19. Yes (if she is of the same clan). Q20. Yes. Q21. No. But if anyone does so he has to pay something like a treat he has to give to everyone. Only then can we accept him or her. Q22. No. (Same disclaimer as #21 above). Q23. No. (Same disclaimer as #21 above). Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: M Age: 48 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes, some live here. Q08. No. Q09. No. Q10. No. Q11. No. Q12. Yes. Q13. Yes. Q14. Chandanpur. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Why not? We would like it. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No, but if they fall in love, we cannot say anything. Q22. No (same disclaimer as #21 above). Q23. No (same disclaimer as #21 above). Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes, it is necessary. Q26. Yes. 111

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: 32 Edu: 29 Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Yes, sometimes. Q04. Local dialect. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. Suga Nagar, Dungri, Tharus who speak Dahali. Q10. Yes. (Kathari Tharu). Q11. Rahra Ulitpru (Dhabolia) Tal-Tulsipur. Q12. I have never met anyone from there. Q13. I have never met anyone from there. Q14. Chandanpur. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: 29 Edu: ? Q01. Tharuana. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Yes, sometimes. Q04. Local dialect. Q05. Tharuana. Q06. Tharuana. Q07. No. Q08. No. Q09. No. Q10. Kathoria. Q11. Ralira Dhabalia-Nepal Q12. I do not know. Q13. I do not know. Q14. Gorakhpur Tharu. Q15. Tharuana. Q16. Tharuana. Q17. Yes, I want them to. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. 112

Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Well, as the time changes, I do not know. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: 25 Edu: ? Q01. Tharuana. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharuana only. Q04. Tharuana. Q05. Tharuana. Q06. Tharuana. Q07. Yes. Q08. No. Q09. I do not know. Q10. No. Q11. No. Q12. (This questionnaire was not completed).

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: 28 Edu: ? Q01. Tharuana. Q02. Hindi, sometimes. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Local dialect. Q05. Tharuana. Q06. Tharuana. Q07. Yes. Q08. No. Q09. I do not know. Q10. No. Q11. No. Q12. No, I do not know them. Q13. No, I do not know them. Q14. I do not know. Q15. Tharuana. Q16. Tharuana. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. Yes, it’s possible when they fall in love. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. They will. But if they get an education they may leave their language. Otherwise, they will speak Tharu. Q25. Well, as they prefer. Q26. Yes. 113

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Tharuana. Q02. Local dialect. Q03. Tharuana only. Q04. Local dialect. Q05. Tharuana. Q06. Tharuana. Q07. Local dialect. Q08. No. Q09. I do not know. Q10. Local dialect. Q11. Dhabolia Boli (Tal Tulsipur) Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Among Tharus only. Q15. Tharuana. Q16. (No answer) Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: 18 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Local dialect, sometimes. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Local dialect. Q05. Tharuana. Q06. Tharuana. Q07. Yes. Q08. No. Q09. I do not know. Q10. No. Q11. (See #10) Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. I do not know. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. No. Q20. Yes. 114

Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Chandanpur Village

Sex: F Age: 45 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Tharu only. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Tharuana. Q05. Tharuana. Q06. Tharuana. Q07. Yes. Q08. No. Q09. I do not know. Q10. No. Q11. I do not know. Q12. No, I have never gone there. Q13. No. Q14. Chandanpur. Q15. Tharuana. Q16. Tharuana. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Majora, Nainital

Sex: M Age: 30 Edu: ? Q01. Bhuksa. Q02. No. Q03. Hindi. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Bhuksa. Q06. Bhuksa. Q07. No. Q08. No. Q09. Education is beginning to bring changes. Q10. No. Q11. -- Q12. Doesn’t know. Q13. Doesn’t know. 115

Q14. Doesn’t know. Q15. Bhuksa. Q16. Bhuksa. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. ? Q20. ? should marry within clan. Q21. ? Q22. ? Q23. ? child’s decision. Q24. No. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Bhuksa Village (uncertain)

Sex: ? Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Bhuksa Q02. Hindi. Q03. sometimes. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Bhuksa (Boli) Q06. Bhuksa Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. those living outside. Q10. Yes. Q11. those mixed with other groups Q12. Don’t know. Q13. Don’t know. Q14. Don’t know. Q15. Bhuksa. Q16. Bhuksa boli. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. No (only from own tribe) Q20. Only Bhuksa. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Maybe, it will reduce very much. Q25. Maybe, it is not much important. Q26. Many do not.

Madanapur, Nainital District

Sex: M Age: 22 Edu: B.A. Q01. Bhuksa. Q02. Hindi, English Q03. No. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Bhuksa. Q06. Bhuksa. 116

Q07. Yes. Some Paharis. Q08. Yes. Q09. Those living outside. Q10. No. Q11. – Q12. Doesn’t know. Q13. Doesn’t know. Q14. Nainital District Q15. Bhuksa Q16. Bhuksa Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. ? Q20. ? Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. No. “this language will finish” Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Majhgam Village

Sex: M Age: 45 Edu: ? Q01. Tharua Boli Q02. Nepali, Pahari, and Hindi. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Tharua. Q06. Tharua. Q07. No one. Q08. Yes. Q09. Those who live in Kheri and Gonda. Q10. Dangra Tharu and Sunaha Tharu in Nepal also speak a different language. Q11. Pipara Village (Mahandra Nagar), also in Kathmandu. Q12. Yes. Q13. Yes. Q14. Tharuwati only. Q15. My own language. Q16. Tharu. Q17. No problem. Q18. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. It will remain, but it may change and it is changing. Q25. It is necessary. Q26. Yes. 117

Mathpuri, Nainital District

Sex: ? Age: ? Edu: ? Q05. Mixture of Hindi and Bhuksa. Q06. Mixture of Hindi and Bhuksa. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Ram Nagar. Q15. Mixture of Hindi and Bhuksa. Q16. Q18. Yes. Q24. Yes, but few will speak it.

Mathpuri, Nainital District

Sex: ? Age: ? Edu: ? Q05. Bhuksadi. Q06. Bhuksadi. Q12. Understands. Q13. No. Q14. Every village. Q15. Bhuksadi. Q16. Bhuksadi. Q18. Yes. Q24. Yes.

Nai Basti Village

Sex: ? Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi & Nepali. Q03. No. Q04. Hindi, Nepali, and Pahari (spoken according to shopkeeper). Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. In Nepal. Q10. Yes. Q11. Togi Tharu in Emalia. Also in Bandarpur (Mahsdra Nagar). Q12. I do not know, I have not gone there. Q13. I do not know, I have not gone there. Q14. Among us. Q15. Tharu Boli Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes, why not. Q18. Why not. Q19. Yes, if she is from the same tribe. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. 118

Q25. Yes. Q26. Some they do follow, some they do not.

Piparia Village

Sex: M Age: 30 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali, Hindi, Pahari and Tharu Rana. Q03. (No) Sunha. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Sunha, our own language. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No one. Q08. Yes. Q09. I do not know. Q10. () Thakur Thfius and Rana Tharu-Dargma Q11. Q12. Yes. Q13. I do not know. Q14. Among us in Kanchanpur. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. Yes, we want them to. Q18. Yes, we would like it. Q19. Yes. Q20. It would be good. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. It will stay as it is. (Yes) Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Piparia Village

Sex: M Age: 24 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali, Hindi, and Bhari. Q03. (No) Sunha. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. Far away from here, towards the east. Q10. Yes, Rana, Chondri, and Dangora. Q11. Nainar Gorion, Naya Basti and Udali Mahandra Nagar. Q12. I do not know. Q13. I do not know. Q14. Here only. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. No. 119

Q18. Why not? Q19. No. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. They will speak it. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Piparia Village

Sex: F Age: 42 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali and Hindi. Q03. (No) Sunha. Q04. Nepali/Hindi. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No one. Q08. Yes-Rana. Q09. Near us. Q10. Yes, there are so many. Q11. Near us. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Among us. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. No. Q18. Why not? Q19. We would not like it, but if it happened we would teach her Sunha. Q20. Yes. Q21. No, but if it takes place, we will see. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes, up to the end of the world. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Piparia Village

Sex: F Age: 26 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Napali, Hindi, and Pahari. Q03. Yes, sometimes. Q04. Nepali, Hindi, and Pahari according to the people. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. In Nepal. Q10. Yes. 120

Q11. I do not know. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Yes. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. No. Q18. Yes. Q19. No. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. They will speak. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Piparia Village

Sex: F Age: 28 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali, Hindi, and Pahari. Q03. No. Q04. NePali. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No, they cannot speak it. Q08. No. Q09. I do not know. Q10. Yes, Rana and so many others. Q11. Near us. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Sunha. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. No. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24 Yes. Q25 Yes. Q26 Yes.

Piparia Village

Sex: M Age: 19 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali, Hindi, and Pahari. Q03. No. 121

Q04. Nepali. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No one. Q08. Yes. Q09. I do not know. Q10. Yes. Q11. Near us. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Among us. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. Yes, we want them to. Q18. Yes. Q19. No. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes, our children will continue to speak it. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Piparia Village

Sex: M Age: 60 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali, Hindi, and Pahari Q03. (No) Sunha. Q04. Hindi or Nepali, according to the shopkeepers. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. I do not know. Q10. I do not know. Q11. Near us (Ranas). Q12. No. Q13. No, I have not heard it. Q14. Among us. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes, why not? Q19. No. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes. 122

Piparia Village

Sex: M Age: 22 Edu: ? Q01. Sunha. Q02. Nepali and Hindi. Q03. No. Q04. Nepali and Hindi. Q05. Sunha. Q06. Sunha. Q07. No. Q08. Yes, Rana and Dangora. Q09. Near us. Q10. Yes. Q11. In Nepal. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Here, among us. Q15. Sunha. Q16. Sunha. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Rajpuri Village

Sex: M Age: 19 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Q02. Nepali and Hindi. Q03. Yes. Q04. Nepali. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No one. Q08. No. Q09. No where. Q10. 1. Rana Tharu; 2. Sonaha Tharu; 3. Kochila Tharu. Q11. Nepal Bhuli, Suna Sisara (Rana), Sonaha, Bandarpur Nepal, Kuchila, Rhulwari, Nepal. Q12. Do not know. Q13. Not seen them. Q14. West area of Tharu Zone. Q15. Tharu Bhasha. Q16. In Tharu language. Q17. Yes, they want to. Q18. Yes, they would like it. Q19. Yes. Q20. No, if she is not Tharu we can teach her. 123

Q21. They will accept her. Q22. No. Q23. No, do not know about . Q24. They will speak our own language. Q25. It is necessary. Q26. They follow them now.

Sisana Village

Sex: M Age: 40 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Boli. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Hindi (at least half of the time). Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No. Q08. I don’t know. Q09. I don’t know. Q10. Yes. Q11. Khatima and (Buksha) very few. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Our town. Q15. Tharu. Q16. I wish for a change. They speak Hindi, but they used to speak Tharu. Q17. Yes, why not. Q18. No, because we have very bad words (not respectable) in our language. Q19. No problem. Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. I do not think it would. Q25. Q26. Well, if they wish they can, otherwise there is no need if they do not obey.

Sisana Village

Sex: M Age: 18 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. We speak both Hindi and Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu Boli. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. No. Q08. Yes, those who are educated. Q09. Among us. Q10. No. Q11. I don’t know. Q12. I never met them. Q13. I don’t know. 124

Q14. I cannot tell this. Q15. Tharu Boli. Q16. Hindi and also Tharu. Q17. No problem. Q18. No. Q19. No problem. Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. No. Q25. I think we must obey our customs. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Vilage

Sex: F Age: 19 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes, those who live among us. Q08. Yes, those who live away from us. Q09. In cities. Q10. Not there. Q11. I do not know. Q12. We can understand them. Q13. Yes. Q14. I do not know. Q15. Hindi. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Why not? Q19. It’s their choice. I cannot say anything. Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. It will not end. Yes, our children will still be speaking it. Q25 They should obey. Q26 Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 32 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu Boli. 125

Q07. Yes. Q08. All of them speak Tharu. Q09. Those who have gone out. Q10. Only Tharu. Q11. I do not know. Q12. I have not heard it. Q13. (No answer) Q14. In our Tharua place. Q15. Our own. Q16. Tharu Boli. Q17. Yes. Q18. Why not? Those who can read will read for us. Q19. I would like it. Q20. It’s all right. Q21. I will see them. I will teach her Tharu Boli. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. I do not know. As the time comes, it will tell. Q25. They do. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 28 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi, when I get out. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Hindi and Tharua. Q05. Our own Tharu. Q06. Tharua. Q07. They do not speak. Q08. Yes. Q09. Among Buksas. Q10. Yes. Q11. Nepal/Kheri. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Among Tharus. Q15. Tharu Boli. Q16. Tharua, our own. Q17. (Survey data lost)

Sisana Village

Sex: M Age: 18 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. We speak both Hindi and Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu Boli. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. No. Q08. Yes, those who are educated. 126

Q09. Among us. Q10. No. Q11. I don’t know. Q12. I never met them. Q13. I don’t know. Q14. I cannot tell this. Q15. Tharu Boli. Q16. Hindi and also Tharu. Q17. No problem. Q18. No. Q19. No problem. Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. No. Q25. I think we must obey our customs. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 19 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes, those who live among us. Q08. Yes, those who live away from us. Q09. In cities. Q10. Not here. Q11. I do not know. Q12. We can understand them. Q13. Yes. Q14. I do not know. Q15. Hindi. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Why not? Q19. It’s their choice. I cannot say anything. Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. It will not end. Yes, our children will still be speaking it. Q25. They should obey. Q26. Yes. 127

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 32 Edu. ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. Yes. Q08. All of them speak Tharu. Q09. Those who have gone out. Q10. Only Tharu. Q11. I do not know. Q12. I have not heard it. Q13. (No answer) Q14. In our Tharua place. Q15. Our own. Q16. Tharua Boli. Q17. Yes. Q18. Why not? Those who can read will read for us. Q19. I would like it. Q20. It’s all right. Q21. I will see then, I will teach her Tharu Boli. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. I do not know. As the time comes, it will tell. Q25. They do. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 28 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi, when I get out. Q03. Tharu only. Q04. Hindi and Tharua. Q05. Our own Tharu. Q06. Tharua. Q07. They do not speak. Q08. Yes. Q09. Among Buksas. Q10. Yes. Q11. Nepal/Kheri. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Among Tharus. Q15. Tharu Boli. Q16. Tharua, our own. Q17. If they learn, it is nice. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes, why not? Q20. Why not? 128

Q21. According to the time. (When the time comes, I will make that decision). Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Who knows? It may change. Q25. Yes. Q26. Some follow, some do not.

Sisana Village

Sex: M Age: 45 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharua. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharua. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. No, they speak Hindi. Q08. No. Q09. No. Q10. Buksa. Q11. Bajpur. Q12. No. Q13. No, I do not know them. Q14. I do not know. Q15. Hindi. Q16. Hindi, but they speak Tharu. Q17. Why not? We want them to. Q18. Yes. Q19. We will feel good (if that occurs). Q20. She will be liked, too. Q21. I would not like it. Q22. I would not like it. Q23. I would not like it. Q24. They will speak it. Q25. It is necessary. Q26. Yes, they do.

Sisana Village

Sex: M Age: 20 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu Boli. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No. Q08. No. Q09. No. Q10. Yes. Q11. Kheri, Gonda. Q12. No. Q13. No. 129

Q14. Our own. Q15. Tharu Boli. Q16. Tharu Boli. Q17. Yes. Q18. No. Q19. No. Q20. Only Tharu yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: M Age: 18 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu and Hindi also. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes, a few. Q08. Yes. Q09. Gulan Bhoj, Rudrapur. Q10. Yes. Q11. Near Khatima. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Here in Sitarganj. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Hindi. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. We would not like it. Q24. Children will speak a little. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 24 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Tharu. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. 130

Q07. No. Q08. There are those who do not speak—those who have gone to the cities. Q09. In cities. Q10. Yes. Q11. Buksha, Bajapur, also in Nepal. Q12. No. Q13. No. I do not know them. Q14. Everyone likes his own language. Q15. Hindi. Q16. Hindi. Q17. Why not? We want it. Q18. Why not? (Especially) If songs are written. Q19. Yes. Q20. Yes. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. I do not know. Q25. Some do, some do not. It’s up to them. Q26. Yes.

Sisana Village

Sex: F Age: 39 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Yes. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. No. Q08. Yes. Q09. Yes. Q10. No. Q11. No. Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. Where Tharus live. Q15. Tharu Boli. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. A Hindi speaking person is all right. Q20. Also, Tharu (is all right). Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Yes. Q25. They should. Q26. They do. 131

Sitarganj

Sex: ? Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Boli. Q02. Hindi. Q03. Yes, sometimes. Q04. Hindi only. Q05. Tharu Boli. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. No one. Q08. Yes: 1) Khunka, 2) Rasuga, 3) Gorora, 4) Digora. Q09. Dineshpur, Gadharpur, Baupur, Birja Pur, Nainital District. Also in Kheri District and Gorora District. Q10. Yes. Khunka, Pasiya, Gorora, and Digora. Q11. In Nainital District. Also in Gonda and Kheri District. Q12. Yes, in both places. Q13. Yes. Q14. Sitarganj Block. Q15. Tharua. Q16. Tharua Boli. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes, they would like. Q19. No. Q20. Only Tharu. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. No, hope it will not be lost. Q25. No need, if they wish the can, otherwise no need. Q26. They are not very much interested.

Sivaratnapur Village

Sex: M Age: 60 Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Q02. Hindi, Nepali. Q03. Sometimes. Q04. Hindi and Tharu. The merchants here know Tharu. Q05. Tharu. Q06. Tharu. Q07. Yes, those in the border area. Q08. Yes. Q09. Those in the cities, in Kathmandu. Q10. Yes. Q11. Inside Nepal. Q12. Yes. Q13. Not sure. Q14. Dangdukhar District in Nepal. Q15. Tharu. Q16. Tharu. Q17. Yes, both Hindi and Nepali. Q18. Yes, certainly. Q19. Yes. 132

Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Maybe. It may not exist by that time. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Sugia Village, Nainital District

Sex: M Age: ? Edu: ? Q01. Tharu Boli. Q02. Hindi. Q03. No. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Tharu Boli. Q06. Tharu Boli. Q07. Yes. Some people who live in their midst. Q08. Yes. Q09. They are in Nepal, and all these districts. Q10. Yes. Q11. They are in Nepal, and all these districts. Q12. They do not know. Q13. Do not know. Q14. Their own. Q15. Hindi. Q16. Tharu Boli. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes. Q19. Yes, but only Tharu. Q20. Only Tharu. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. It will change. Q25. No. Q26. Yes, sometimes.

Thari Village, Nainital District

Q01. Bhuksadi. Q02. Hindi and Panjabi. Q03. No. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Bhuksadi. Q06. Bhuksadi. Q07. Yes, some Sikhs. Q08. Yes. Q09. Those living outside. Q10. No. Q11. – Q12. Don’t know any. Q13. Don’t know any. 133

Q14. Nainital, no differences. Q15. Bhuksadi. Q16. Bhuksadi. Q17. Yes. Q18. Yes, certainly. Q19. No. Q20. No. Q21. No. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. Maybe, it may finish, but want to keep the language forever. Q25. Yes. Q26. Yes.

Thari Village, Nainital District

Sex: M Age: 50 Edu: ? Q01. Buksa. Q02. Hindi. Q03. No. Q04. Hindi. Q05. Buksa. Q06. Buksa. Q07. Yes, some Sikhs. Q08. Yes. Q09. Those living outside. Q10. No. Q11. – Q12. No. Q13. No. Q14. ? Q15. Buksa. Q16. ? Q17. “They are welcome.” Q18. “It is welcome.” Q19. Never. Q20. Yes. Q21. Only Buksa. Q22. No. Q23. No. Q24. No. Q25. Yes. Q26. “They are stubborn.”

Appendix G: A Summary of Tharu Culture

The intent of this summary is to document some of the observations of the survey team for the benefit of those who want to know more about the Tharu than is found in the introduction to this report. Some of the information here is redundant with the report, but is presented here in a slightly different format. This summary is in a question-(Q) answer (A) format.

1. (Q) In which Districts and Tehsils are they located? What is the population in each? What is the percentage of urban and rural? (A) The Tharu are almost entirely rural, i.e. living in towns and villages with less than two thousand people. Less than 1 percent live and work outside in urban areas.

India

Location, population, and literacy among Tharu in India

District Total Male Female Male Literacy Female Literacy Gonda 11,457 5,871 5,586 12.2% 0.3% Kheri 17,789 9,301 8,488 8.6% 0.7% Nainital 73,998 37,549 36,448 31.6% 6.1% Pilibhit 273 138 135 1.1% 0.7% Bahraich 6,340 3,270 3,070 7.9% 0.6% Gorakhpur 2,303 1,230 1,073 43.3% 7.7% Bijnor 3,647 1,968 1,679 19.5% 1.8%

Nepal

The Tharu-speaking population in the Western Tarai was 333,755 in 1981. This is comprised mostly of Dangora and Kathoriya. The total Tharu-speaking population in Nepal in 1981 was 545,685, comprising 3.6 percent of the total national population. Tharus make up a significant proportion of the population in districts like Kailali (47 percent), Bardiya (37 percent), and Dang (32 percent).

2. (Q) Are there geographic features common to all of the places where Tharus live? (A) All Tharu villages are located in the Tarai, the low marshy land that stretches all along the base of the Himalayan foothills. They are especially known for inhabiting the dense jungle. Previously other ethnic groups avoided this area because of malaria and wild animals.

3. (Q) Where do they come from? What are their origins? (A) Most Tharus west of Gonda District claim to be the descendants of Rajput women from Rajasthan who fled there many hundreds of years ago. As a result of this many of the women hold themselves to be of higher caste and treat the men with some disdain. (A) The Dangora Tharu of Gonda District claim to be descended from the Dang Tharu farther north. No information is available about the origin of the Dang Tharu.

4. (Q) What is their primary occupation? (A) Their primary occupation is agriculture, with rice being the main crop. They also grow wheat, mustard, chilies, , and some vegetables. Recently some have begun to grow sugar cane as a cash crop. The sale of some of their crops provides the sole income for most families. They also hunt and fish almost year round, and gather forest products. They are mostly self-sufficient except for simple commodities such as cloth, kerosene, sugar, salt, etc.

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(A) The women are skilled at basket weaving, though this is almost entirely for household use. It has potential as a cottage industry.

5. (Q) What common foods do they eat? (A) Rice, vegetables and chapattis are the most common foods. It is generally very spicy, and little dal is used in comparison to elsewhere in . They eat two meals per day, around 8 a.m. and again around 4 p.m. (A) They are meat eaters, enjoying most kinds of meat (but not beef). The Dangora are said to relish field rat, a difference which sets them apart from the other Tharus. A further difference for the Dangora (at least at the turn of the century) is that they eat pork while their neighbors do not.

6. (Q) What is the average family size? What is the basic family unit? (A) In most Tharu areas the average family size, or average number per household, is about ten. Joint families are common. After marriage it is common for a man to remain in his parents’ home with his new wife. Thus, several nuclear families would share the same house. In Buksa households, each nuclear family has a separate kitchen fire, but in other Tharu households there is a joint kitchen. When a household gets too large (sometimes up to fifty people), then a new household will be started.

7. (Q) What use are the clans? How are they divided? Are they ranked? Where is each located? (A) Among the Tharu there is little awareness of the different clans, and no consensus on their number or ranking. There are subdivisions of at least some of the clans. The primary clans are Rana, Buksa, Dangora, Dang, and Kathoriya. Others include Sunha, Thakur, Rajiya, Molaria, Kunka, Jhogi, and Songsa. (A) Rana Tharu: Khatima, Sitarganj, Kichha, and Haldwani Tehsils of Nainital District; in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District; and in the far southwestern districts of Nepal. (A) Buksa: In about 130 villages in Kichha and Kashipur Tehsils of southwestern Nainital district, along a diagonal from Ramnagar to Dineshpur. Small numbers reported in Bijnor and Garhwal Districts. They are officially recognized as a separate Scheduled Tribe by the Indian government. (A) Dangora Tharu: Primarily in the southwestern districts of Nepal: Kanchanpur, Kailali, Bardia, and Banke; in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District; and in Tulsipur Tehsil of Gonda District. (A) Dang Tharu: Primarily in Dang District, Nepal. (A) Kathoriya Tharu: Kailali District, Nepal; some in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District; reportedly some in Tulsipur Tehsil of Gonda District.

8. (Q) What is the preferred marital pattern? (A) All marriage is within the clan, but generally not within the same village, as everyone in a village is considered to be related. In the past people married in their early teens, but this is slowly changing, though the average age at first marriage is still quite young (about fifteen). All marriages are arranged by the families concerned, except for the rare love marriage.

9. (Q) How are the Tharu villages structured? (A) Tharu villages are generally very neat and well kept. Courtyards are swept clean and fresh mud and dung applied regularly to the porch area surrounding a house. Most houses have their own courtyard, generally with a tube-well. In one Kathoriya village the courtyards were fenced and flowers were planted for decoration. (A) Kathoriya Tharus appear unique in the colorful decoration of the outside of their houses. Different images, like a sun or animals, are carved in relief on the outer walls of the houses, and then colored. (A) Different clans do not generally live in the same village, though a few Dangora families will often live among other clans working as household servants. Only a small number of outsiders (Sikhs, Paharis, Bengalis, caste Nepalis) live in Tharu villages. 136

10. (Q) Who are the leaders? How are they chosen? (A) Local leadership of a village consists of a village leader, with a five year term, who is promoted by family members as a potential leader and “run for office.” Election is apparently by consensus. (A) In at least some places there is a community council with authority for such things as appointing school teachers if there is a vacancy that cannot be filled by the government. At the turn of the century there were tribal councils who settled disputes in the villages.

11. (Q) What is the status of women? (A) Women appear to have more freedom than in many north Indian communities. They can be quite bold and uninhibited. They are busy from dawn to dusk in household chores and fieldwork, generally being much more hard working than the men. In some Tharu communities the women view themselves as higher caste than the men and will not allow the men into the kitchen; likewise, they do not eat with the men.

12. (Q) What are the educational patterns today? How have they changed in the past ten years? What is the attitude towards education by different segments of the community? (A) Education has made substantial inroads among Tharu children in the past ten years. Approximately 50 percent of children begin school (this figure varies widely). The percentage going beyond fifth class is still quite small, and the dropout rate in the first few years is over 50 percent. There are hostels for Tharu students in Palia and Chandan Chouki in Kheri District, and in Pachpedwa and Tulsipur in Gonda District (also in several towns in Nainital District). The number of girls beginning school is approximately one-third the number of boys, and the number who continue school beyond fifth class is negligible. (A) Attitudes are becoming increasingly positive towards education among the Tharu as they see the benefits coming to those who are educated. More people are becoming more willing to forego the short-term benefit of their child’s labor for the potential long-term benefit of education. Generally, the younger generation is more positive towards education than the older generation. Among the older generation, and also among some young people, there is the fear that education will contribute to the demise of the Tharu language and culture.

13. (Q) Are they an ambitious people? Complacent (vs. change-oriented)? Do children today follow customs of the elders? (A) In general the Tharu are very resistant to change. The very strict adherence to only intra-clan marriage is an example of this, as is the continued very strong use of the mother tongue in most domains of life. (A) Whether it is complacency or just naïveté, the Tharu have suffered greatly at the hands of unscrupulous immigrants to their areas. They have lost much of their land to immigrants. Recent laws and a bit more worldly wisdom seems to have stemmed the tide of this now. (A) Government services and programs such as development banks and nutrition programs, promoted in a few areas to “develop” the Tharu, have met very limited success. There is widespread willingness to accept different benefits (electricity, loans, nutrition), but little interest in paying for these benefits. (A) When asked on a questionnaire if young people today should continue to follow Tharu customs, 86 percent said that they should and only 2 percent said they should not (n=47). Eighty-three percent said that indeed they still were practicing these customs. This provides good evidence that Tharus today are showing little tendency to abandon their traditional culture.

14. (Q) What have been the significant changes in the last ten years? (A) The increase in education has probably been the greatest change in the past ten years. There have also been changes in agriculture: the increased use of fertilizers has significantly improved crop yields, and the use of farm tractors in some places has dramatically changed the nature of agricultural work. 137

15. (Q) What are their religious practices? (A) Tharus are a god-fearing people, with firm faith in deities, demons and evil spirits. In many household courtyards a small raised and covered platform houses the house god, often an image of a small horse. They believe in a supreme being Thakur who is generally too distant and too benevolent to do any harm to mankind. The Tharus place great importance on the forest, but always go into the forest with a group of people, for fear of the wild animals, and especially, the presence of gods and spirits. As the inhabitants of the high mountains in Nepal attribute the mountains as the seat of the gods, the Tharus attribute the forests as the place where the gods and spirits live. (A) Hindu holidays are celebrated with vigor among the Tharu, and Hindu nationalist groups are quick to say that Tharus are , but they are still essentially animist in practice.

16. (Q) What is their attitude towards outsiders? Towards being Tharu? (A) Tharus are quite closed to outsiders with regard to long term influence, though they are open and hospitable at first. There are very few opportunities for outsiders to settle among them. Indeed, it has only been in the last forty years that a few outsiders have settled among them as teachers and businessmen. (A) Those who are Tharu but from a different clan than one’s own clan, fall somewhere between being outsiders and insiders. There is a sense of common ethnic identity with all Tharus, but their strongest allegiance is to their own clan. (A) In recent decades the use of Hindi and Nepali (in Nepal) has increased, and women have begun wearing the saree, but by and large Tharu cultural identity is still strongly intact. The traditional women’s dress is still used by the majority of women, the language is still spoken to children and used in all local domains, marriage and living patterns have changed very little, and local customs and traditions are still followed. There is a sharp contrast between the majority who remain in village areas and the few who live in outside towns and cities. Those outside tend to have a negative view of being Tharu and want to hide their ethnicity; those in the villages maintain a strong and positive sense of ethnic identity.

17. (Q) To which neighboring group are they most similar? What kind of relationship do they have with neighboring groups? (A) The Tharus have the distinction of being the original inhabitants of the Tarai, having successfully adapted to the dense jungle and malarial climate. They are unique in this respect, and recent immigrants to their lands can hardly be called similar. (A) The most characteristic relationship the Tharus have had with neighboring groups and immigrants has been the one of exploiter and exploited. Originally their ignorance of outsiders and their weakness for alcohol made them easy prey to be swindled of their land. (A) This exploitation quickly resulted in a second kind of relationship, that of landlord and tenant. Today landlessness has in some cases extended to bonded labor—known as the kamaiya system. A Tharu man’s debt passes on to his sons and, before long, generations are bonded to the landlord or moneylender’s estate. There are also cases of Tharu landlords. (A) A third kind of relationship is the merchant-client relationship that they have with bazaar shopkeepers and grain merchants. In the border town of Chandan Chouki in Kheri District the Marwari merchants charge excessive prices, give an unfair rate for crops purchased, and oppose with force any threat to their monopoly. (A) A final relationship is perhaps the most common today, that of mutually disinterested and independent neighbors. Living in mostly homogeneous Tharu villages, they have little contact with neighboring groups. References

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