DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2017-013 A Sociolinguistic Profile of the Tharu Dialects of the Western Indo-Nepal Tarai Compiled by Jeff Webster A Sociolinguistic Profile of the Tharu Dialects of the Western Indo-Nepal Tarai Compiled by Jeff Webster Primary Researchers: Edward Boehm M. G. D. A. G. K. A. J. M. L. N. L. Laura Beth Webster Jeff Webster SIL International® 2017 SIL Electronic Survey Report 2017–013, August 2017 © 2017 SIL International® All rights reserved Abstract The purpose of this sociolinguistic survey of the Tharu dialects of the Indo-Nepal Tarai was to investigate three areas: 1) socio-cultural factors: to discover important social, cultural, and geographic information about the Tharu; 2) strategic factors: to determine the best strategy for work among the Tharu; and 3) the need for mother tongue literature and literacy classes: to determine whether or not the Tharu desire written materials and literacy classes in their mother tongue, and if so, where. Data collection for this survey began in September 1992 and was completed in November of the same year. The survey team, eight others besides myself, did an outstanding job in administering over 400 recorded text tests, 190 sentence repetition tests, and 100 language use and attitude questionnaires, and in collecting fifteen word lists, all in less than two months! The team covered a huge area—by bus, train, rickshaw, bicycle, and on foot. Towards fulfilling the first two purposes of this survey, the investigation of socio-cultural and strategic factors, we can claim only partial success. So much more could be learned about the Tharu, but the solid foundation of cultural observation and experience by the team provides a sound basis for achieving the goals that relate to these purposes. Conclusions remain tentative, and the team remains sensitive to their need to continue as learners of the rich and complex Tharu culture. (This survey report written some time ago deserves to be made available even at this late date. Conditions were such that it was not published when originally written. The reader is cautioned that more recent research may be available. Historical data are quite valuable as a basis for longitudinal analysis and help us understand both the trajectory and pace of change as compared with more recent studies. —Editor) Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography 1.2 People 1.2.1 Origins 1.2.2 Culture 1.2.3 Subgroups of Tharu 1.2.4 Population 1.3 Language 2 Goals 2.1 Dialect area study 2.1.1 Lexical similarity 2.1.2 Dialect intelligibility 2.2 Bilingualism 2.3 Language use and language attitudes 2.4 Tharu culture 3 Summary of findings 3.1 Tharu speech varieties 3.2 Tharu’s relationship to Hindi 3.3 Bilingualism in Hindi 3.4 Language use and language attitudes 3.5 Tharu culture 4 Study of dialect areas 4.1 Word list comparison 4.1.1 Procedures 4.1.2 Results 4.2 Dialect intelligibility 4.2.1 Procedures 4.2.2 Results 5 Bilingualism 5.1 Recorded text testing 5.1.1 Procedures 5.1.2 Results 5.2 Sentence repetition testing 5.2.1 Procedures 5.2.2 Results 6 Language use and attitudes, and language vitality 6.1 Procedures 6.2 Results 6.2.1 Language use 6.2.2 Language attitudes 7 Recommendations 7.1 For literature development and literacy programs 7.2 For further survey iii iv Appendix A. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Appendix B: Tharu Survey Word Lists Appendix C: Recorded Text Test Scores Appendix D: Sentence Repetition Tests Appendix E: Sentence Repetition Test Results Appendix F: Language Use and Attitudes Results Appendix G: A Summary of Tharu Culture References 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography The Tharu are an aboriginal tribe inhabiting the whole sub-Himalayan Tarai from Nainital District of Uttar Pradesh in the west to just beyond the eastern border of Nepal. They live on both sides of the India-Nepal border (Grierson 1916b:311 and Srivastava 1958:v).1 This survey focused only on the western half of the Tharu region: those Tharu groups living from Nainital District in the west, to Gonda District in the east, including both sides of the India-Nepal border. See maps 1, 2, and 3. Other Tharu groups live in the Tarai east of Gonda District, but they must await investigation at a future time. Map 4 shows the distribution of Tharu in the Tarai districts of Nepal. Map 1. Tharu survey area Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission. 1 Tarai is alternatively spelled Terai; capitalization is inconsistent. It will be spelled Tarai in this report, except where it differs in quotations. 1 2 Map 2. Nainital and Kheri Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission. Map 3. Kheri, Bahraich, Gonda, and Basti Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission. 3 Map 4. Tharu population of Nepal Source: © 1993 Ed Boehm. Used by permission. The Tarai—the name for the geographic region inhabited by the Tharu—is the strip of tropical, marshy flatlands that runs along the base of the east-west foothills of the Himalayas. The Tharu are found especially in the heavily forested areas of the Tarai. For centuries, the malaria and wild animals of the Tarai jungle ensured that only malaria-immune indigenous groups like the Tharu lived in this area. Neville (1905:71) writes that the Tharu “appear to be almost the only race that can stand the deadly climate of that tract.” But as World Health Organization spraying in the late 1950s largely eradicated malaria, other groups from the hills and the plains began to move in. Highways were built, agriculture spread, the timber industry was established, and the Tharus suddenly had fierce competition for their fertile land (Dahal 1992:17). The various clans of Tharu are found living in different regions, generally separate from one another; these clans will be discussed in §1.2.3. Rana Tharu are located in Khatima, Sitarganj, Kichha, and Haldwani Tehsils of Nainital District, in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District, and in the far southwestern districts of Nepal. Buksa, a separate clan from Rana Tharu, are located in southwestern Nainital district, along a diagonal from Ramnagar to Dineshpur. They live in about 130 villages in Kichha and Kashipur Tehsils. There are also small numbers reported in Bijnor and Garhwal Districts. Dangora Tharu generally live to the east of Rana Tharu. In India they live primarily along the border in Nighasan Tehsil of Kheri District and Tulsipur Tehsil of Gonda District.2 In Nepal they live in 2 As of the mid 1980s, Tulsipur Tehsil was still part of Balrampur Tehsil. 4 all border districts west of Dang-Deokri District. It appears that they are newcomers to the Indian side of the border. Dang Tharus live primarily in the Dang valley of Dang-Deokri District, east of the Dangoras. The valley is at an elevation of about 600 meters above sea level (MacDonald 1975:267). Kathoriya Tharus are found living in approximately the same areas as Dangoras. They are most heavily concentrated in Kailali District of Nepal, but are also in Kheri and Gonda Districts of India. 1.2 People 1.2.1 Origins Srivastava (1958) provides a good summary of the debate over the origins of the Tharu. Many believe them to be originally a Dravidian race that has become more Mongoloid in appearance as a result of alliances with different hill races. Srivastava concludes, however, that they are the northernmost extension of the “Middle Indian aboriginal races,” since their basic cultural patterns are the same as those farther south. They are predominantly Mongoloid in their physical makeup, yet distinct from other groups in Nepal in that they have assimilated non-Mongoloid physical features as well. Various authors have searched for Tharu origins by doing an etymology of their name, generally tracing through Hindi. Nesfield (in Srivastava 1958:186) searched for the meaning in the local language, showing that the word thar in the dialect of the lowest classes means “a man of the forest”—an accurate description of the people. One Tharu legend speaks of their tie to the forest (Müller-Böker 1991:112): Long ago, God called all people to him in order to give them riches. All the castes, such as the Pahariyas, the Newaris, and the Tharus, started toward God in order to receive riches from him. After wandering a long way, they passed through a beautiful forest area (kathaban). Everyone continued their journey; only the Tharus remained in the forest, looking around for nice wood, thereby forgetting to continue their journey to God. After some time, the other people came back with riches, and the Tharus came back from the forest. Though their exact origins may be debated, it is fairly certain that the Tharu are the original inhabitants of the Tarai, and that they have only recently been joined there by other groups. Most of the Tharu interviewed in this survey claimed to be the descendants of Rajput women who fled Rajasthan approximately 800 years ago during a great battle in which their king was defeated. These women intermarried with their servants and settled in the dense forestlands of the north. The Dangora Tharu in Gonda District trace their ancestry to Dang District in Nepal. They say that many people left Dang a long time ago and settled to the south, when there was a very evil king who was making life difficult for the people. 1.2.2 Culture The religion of the Tharus is traditionally animistic, but many are now outwardly adopting Hindu beliefs and practices.