Extractivisim in

IMPACT ON WOMEN’S LIVES AND PROPOSALS FOR THE DEFENSE OF TERRITORY Extractivisim in Latin America IMPACT ON WOMEN’S LIVES AND PROPOSALS FOR THE DEFENSE OF TERRITORY

ENGLISH EDITION UAF - LA The Urgent Action Fund for Latin America 2016 WWW.FONDOACCIONURGENTE.ORG.CO Carrera 27A No. 40A-68 /Fondo Acción Urgente - LAC Bogotá, Colombia /FAU_LAC (57+1) 368 6155 [email protected] Responsibility for the content of this book lies solely with the authors and the Urgent Action Fund of Latin America.

Editorial Coordination: Tatiana Cordero - Executive Director UAF- LA Christina Papadopoulou – Responsible for Alliance-Building and Capacity-Stren- gthening in UAF-LA Author: Laura María Carvajal- Collaborative Initiative Women, Environment and Territory UAF-LA Design and Layout - BACKROOM designers Printing: Alternativa Gráfica Cover Photo: C O N A I E - Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del (Ecuadorean Confederation of Indigenous Nations) ISBN 978-958-58833-3-8

Bogotá, Colombia September, 2016

This publication was possible thanks to funds made available through the Count Me In! Consortium funded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands Table of Contents

I II III The Extractivist Impact on Latin Ameri- Model in Latin Women’s Lives can Women’s PRESENTATION America and Rights Proposals for Defense of Territory

PAG 6 PAG 8 PAG 30 PAG 44 Presentation

The Urgent Action Fund of Latin America and the Caribbean, UAF-LA, is a civil-society, feminist organi- zation, committed to the protection and promotion of the human rights of the diversity of women and their organizations throughout the region, by means of rapid response grants, collaborative initiatives, research, and publications.

Based on Rapid Response Grant requests, UAF-LA created the Collaborative Initiative Women, Territory, and the Environment, with the goal of responding to the needs of women, and their organizations, in the region. This Initiative proposes to make visible and strengthen women’s struggles for the defense of their territory, drawing support from paradigms such as Healthful Living and Rights of Nature, as well as advances in acknowledging women’s environmental rights, all of which confront accelerated expansion of extractive industries, increased attacks, and the criminalization of women defenders.

Within this area, we have facilitated several regional encounters, the first being in Santander, Colombia in February, 2014, and the second in Mindo, Ecuador in October of the same year. It was in these spaces where women could share successful experiences and proposals for the defense of the environment and nature. In addition, they drew up a collective action plan based on three themes: solidarity and reciproci- ty; networking and communication; and training and spirituality.

In August of 2015, in Fusagasugá, Colombia, in Alliance with CENSAT-Agua Viva, we convened the Natio- nal Encounter of Women Defenders of Life Confronted by Extractivism. More than 50 Colombian women and international invitees discussed the impacts of the extractivist model on women’s lives and designed proposals to strengthen their struggles.

With the participation of different women’s organizations and funds from Meso-America and South- Ame rica concerned about a context of increasing attacks against activists, in October, 2015, we produced a Regional Report and presented it to the IACHR during its First Thematic Session. The document was entitled Patterns of Criminalization and Limitations on the Effective Participation of Women Defenders of Environmental Rights in the Americas. tainability ofthecurrent model,aswell astheneedto move towards a post-extractivist future. men’sefforts defendto natural draws and Americas;territory that it the in goods attention unsus to the of wo- insupport documentcontributes this activities recognition promotionhope tothe of and our is It approaches, organizational modelsandwide range ofactions women have developed in Latin America. defensepresentterritory,weNext,forproposalsthe diversity of of the underlining women, by designed against, andcriminalization of, women defenders. attacks including rights, women’s of violations main the and territories; of militarization disturbing the conflicts; social-environmental resulting the and model the of characterization general a including: del, mo- extractive of the state current of the an overview offer we section, first the In risks. their increase that region the in tendencies worrying about warn to and nature, defense of and protection the in men of wo- work to the attention drawing of intention the with elaborated been has document present The Bolivia, andColombia,whoshared theirexperiences withdefending territory. Ecuador, Guatemala, Argentina, from of activists efforts collective the together this brought publication regard. This in mechanisms of effective deficiency to the attention draw to and consultations, popular and in free and consultation prior of processes in women’sparticipation light to bring to being goal the WomenDefendingTerritory.book the America, Latin published we in Participatory2016, Experiences in creation, knowledge collective to commitment our on Based America. Latin in Art the ronment-Stateof Envi- the Territory,Women,and Territory, and and Environment the to Related as Women’sRights Standardsfor International produced we 2014 in struggles, women’s strengthening of objective the With -

7 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA I The Extractivist Model in Latin America: Characterization and Manifestations E the exploitation is undertaken, and on several occasions, within their home States. the exploitation isundertaken,home andonseveraltheir occasions, within strategies employed by companies to dominate territory, incahoots withStates where different the in as well as impacts, negative resulting the in both evident are model and the Caribbean, neocolonial appropriation and and the violent nature of the of neoliberalism extractivist which model (ACOSTA, America nature Latin commodifying In ways of new constantly 2012). finds context and voracious current violent, unsustainable, in the an encompasses globalization, witnessed boom, extractivist The tothe given thought no with the countries producing the raw materials (Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, et. al, 2013). the first, of in caused degradation social environmentaland the to nor projects, of sustainability growth economic the to beneficial exclusivelyis labor of division exporters;this of that others, to and countries, certain division of labor that assigns the role of importers of raw materials to be processed to international an for responsible is system, capitalist the of foundation Extractivism, lakes, amongothers 2014). (OCMAL, Andean high and glaciers, plateaus, high-level Jungle, Amazon head-waters,the as such eco-systems frontiersstrategic several on extractive pressure rapidly,generating expanded region, have the Within 2014). Urrea, and (Maldonado industries extractive of flows investment the in dynamism and reserves, world’smain the of increases of certain minerals on international markets, InLatin onthe the depletion based of nature. 90’sthe from place price tooktoonwards,expansion America, due model exploitation and andpolitical commodification unbridled an economic is xtractivism

9 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 10 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA Drummond andGlencore, seethe Report: “ElLadoOscuro delCarbón”(The Obscure SideofCoal), published by PAX in2014. Brands, Dole, DelMonte, Nestle, Postobón, andBavaria. For detailed information aboutthe relationship between paramilitary groups and as coalmultinationals inColombia, such session andextermination. InColombia, numerous companies have been accused of establishing links anddirect payment to paramilitary groups; amongthem, Coca-Cola, Chiquita 1. These strategies have revealed maximum levels ofcrueltyinthe Central American andColombian contexts where war hasserved as asystematic mechanism of community dispos- safeguard project installations paramilitary groups- that guarantee territorialcontrol and illegal armed forces- organized crime groups, armies, and arealliances common between companieslegaland and region, the In communities. peasant and Afro-descendent, of practices tocompanies’ dispossession and we point occupation of land belonging to indigenous, instance, first the In impeding the development of other types of production and production of types other of development the impeding to land, water, and other common goods of local communities, access deprive and limit extractive activities how Wewitness human rights. populations’ of affected forthe violation systematic are responsible occupation and eviction Territorial American States. democratic Latin many characterizes and that instability corruption, fragility, institutional of one is context the when to participation, assembly, and peaceful protest. Thisisworsened and association of and freedom rights licenses, exploitation restricting of the easing frontier, extractive the expanding towards is geared industries benefiting As we will see in a later section, legislation violations. regarding impunity guarantee to, and permanence in, territories, andto and legislators justice officers in order to facilitate access influence carried companies is also out through supposedlegal means; dispossession Often 1 . The extractivist the current context boom, witnessedboom, in voracious model . nable, violent, and and violent, nable, and globalization, of neoliberalism encompasses an unsustai- conflicts and which gloss over the true negative impactsof negative true the over social-environmental gloss which of and conflicts versions their only present which massmedia media) print and digital the hegemonic radio, private and public in (television, influence significant exert companies extractive discourse, their propagate to order In and condemns thosestruggling to doso. of the defenders against way, environment. This permanent aggression, meant dramatic to neutralize a in and also, but Rights violations are evident not only in affected communities, even theextinction of native peoples, result. and displacement, forced that intense so is conditions living the exercise of self-determination. The precariousness of their relation to nature, and; c) refuses to c) refuses model current and; the to alternatives consider nature, to relation existence the ancestralof knowledgepopular and in negates and views world underestimatesb) native peoples’ peoples; rightsself-determinationthe human and of over good supreme a as growth economic positions a) that: naturalization discourse technocratic in of process takes a of model advantage extractivist the strategies, Besides these marauding and criminalization and feminicide. activists, female and male of of assassination types the occasions, several various on and all harassment, measures, encompasses criminalization struggles, their education facilities, allofwhich are responsibilities that States abandon. 2. Thesefoundations, created by the companies to legitimize theiractions, get involved in training programs, socialhousing projects,andmaintenance ofpublichealthand of lack by States’ guarantees for fundamental rights indistant rural areas favored are initiatives such Frequently, benefactors. their as present themselves to and communities Responsibility,Social to theideabeing their image cleanup in Corporate of framework the within works’ ‘social undertake and foundations establish companies The governments. and their to favorable society in civil as as well communities local opinion in both activities, public generate to companies Finally, we point toa recurrent strategy employed by legitimizing violations against theseactivists. thereby goods, natural outlets of defenders the media stigmatize explicitly mass occasions, On many . operations their 2 .

11 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXTRACTIVIST MODEL IN LATIN AMERICA

For the most part, exploitation is undertaken by private, transnational companies, and on occasions, by public-private companies. Such ventures are meant to satisfy global market demand and not the needs of local communities; nearly all profits remain in the hands of the companies (Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, et.al, 2014). An enormous supply of energy and water is required, as well as the construction of infrastructure, especially in the case of new deposits in areas of difficult access (Acosta, et.al, 2013) Extractivism produces irreversible environmental damage, contaminating air, soil, and water, as well as causing enormous biodiversity losses. The affected communities’ human rights are violated, destroying their traditional ways of life and economies, and resulting in their dependence3 on foreign markets. Job opportunities are touted as one of the projects’ main benefits; however, the labor force required is minimal, temporal, precarious, and almost exclusively male. Extractivism promotes a return to primary-goods dependence in Latin American economies attracting foreign investment for the extraction and production of raw materials, thereby weakening other economic sectors. It leads to high fiscal vulnerability due to resource price volatility on inter- national markets and also worsens foreign debt (Acosta, et.al, 2013) ancestral peoples livinginvoluntary isolation. eco-systems such as the Amazon jungle region, inhabited by social extractive invaluableinto frontier the extended has dogma, and model, as this of environmental imposition contrary, the mitigate on devastation; not public-private does or through alliances, State-promoteddirectly whether 2013). exploitation, et.al, (Acosta, capitalism” tional oftransna- the globalization into insertion functional and tivism fromits colonial roots”, thereby ensuring subordinate extrac- classic of elements“key maintain governments that Critics of this variation of the ‘conventional model’ point out in Acosta, 2011;p.166). quoted (Gudynas hybrid” political development and cultural new and a from progress of myth the maintains America, which South of typical ‘developmentalism´, of version neros.net/agregar-documento/publicaciones-ocmal/derechocomparadoocmal/detail 7. For more information, see thedocument from the Observatory ofMiningConflicts in Latin America-OCMAL (acronym in Spanish):“MiningLegislation inComparative Law”, available at: http://www.conflictosmi (García Linera tells theHealth Minister before SheShouldMarry Having Children”); Página Siete. 6. See: “Evo Morales: Casitodas lasmujeres soninferiores aloshombres” (Almost allWomen are Inferior to men), Mira Jerez; and“García Linera le dicealaministra deSaludque debe casarse antes de tener hijos” defiende el extractivismo5. See: “Vice e inversiónextranjera ycritica a “izquierda depasarela (Vice President ExtractivismDefends and Foreign Investment andCriticizes the Showcase Left), Los Tiempos Newspaper. 4. Aspointed outby Acosta et.al (2013), there isnoconsensus aboutthiscategory; authors suchasRaúlZibechiinterpret theextractivism ofthese governments asanew phase ofneoliberalism. mental degradation, causing negative side effects andsocial-environmental liabilities in territories of resource-extraction origin, in exchange for low income from these exports” (León Rodríguez, 2012; 257. P. 3. Thismodelischaracterized by scant production diversification and unstable andpoorlypaidlabor. The return to raw materials is “a path that exacerbates depletion ofthe base, as wellas environ called Neo-extractivism programming. According to authors like Gudynas, this model activities of social extractive in invest to order in profits of distribution the in and a regulator as certain intervention increasing State model, have modified extractivist neoliberal the of Brazil elements and Uruguay, Argentina, Ecuador,Venezuela, Bolivia, of those as such governments For some years now, so-called progressive or post-neoliberal America: What isNew? Latin in Neo-Extractivism 4 “(…) forms part of a contemporary and Tobago capturing more than 50%(ECLAC, 2015). due to the return investment, to2013, raw Latin materials, Bolivia, Chile, and Trinidad in international 10% of 30% captured go above America not did extraction resource natural to directed DFI world-wide of percentage the While concentrated inPeru, Mexico, Brazil, Chile,andArgentina. exploration, reaching more than 5.000 milliondollars in 2012, mining investmentin global receptorof principal the became fiscal requirements in the world. Beginning in 1994, the region environmentalism” financed by mega-corporations from mega-corporations countries” imperialist by financed environmentalism” “imperial of practicing left anti-extractivist the accused have Executive the of members Bolivia, in example, For country. the of destabilize to order critics in right extreme accusing the with conspiring disobedience, ofcivil acts and criticism to neutralize andcriminalization stigmatization using tically These governments take on authoritarian behaviors, systema investment in the extractive sector extractive the in investment promoted American Latin privatestimulate regulatory to reforms and designed political of countries 1990’s, the During the Extractive Sector in (DFI) Investment Foreign Direct 1. and Ecuador, ridicules the political participation ofwomen defenders ofterritory, by usinggender-based stereotyping participation political the ridicules Ecuador, and 5 . Such discourse, especially in Bolivia in especially discourse, Such . 7 , offering the most lax most the offering , 6 . - - -

13 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 14 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA economies it is only transnational companies that possess possess that companies transnational only is it economies small and medium of majority the in that Givenyears. ten last increased green-house gas emissionsby two milliontons inthe that cause the greatest environmental impact; companies have In the region, it is the mining, hydrocarbon, and forestry sectors financial reasons. for but rather violations, rights human and destruction mental environ- prevent to measures taking States of result the not was sector extractive the in DFI in reduction the that worrying Itis 2015). (ECLAC, financing company in lastly restrictions certain and infrastructure, and mining in projects investment of termination the costs, other operating increased raw materials, include sector for prices region’s the extractive of juncture current factors the affecting in reduction the Besides exploration inthe world. highest the list countries with of rates the of continue on be to Mexico and Chile as However,such 2012. countriesto respect with 47% decreased scale global a on prospecting mineral for Currently,(ECLAC). 40% down budgetswent 2014 in which oil, was due principally to the fall in mineral prices, especially of change This years. ten last the in lowest sector,the the in DFI in downturn drastic 17% a wasthere 2015, and 2014 Between noting thepredominance ofChileand (ECLAC, 2015). sector, world-wide, responsible for more than 50% of projects, tively. dominates America copper time, the Latin same the At respec projects, of 40% and 30% to home world, the in role In the case of gold and silver, the region plays a very important - material extracted (ECLAC, 2015). of exploitation decreasesproductivity in which relationthe of the deposits, to the for energy of use intensive the is impact is impact undeniably this related to industries, DFI. Among other extractive causes of the develop increasing to capacity the CANADIAN MINING INVESTMENT IN LATIN AMERICA

The Canadian mining sector, representing 4% of the impacts of Canadian mining in receiving countries. country’s GNP, concentrates more than 66% of its At the same time, it warns about Canadian - Gover investments in the Americas. On this continent, of nment policies that favor the mining sector, ignoring the 1,000 companies operating in the region, 80% its responsibility for rights violations in the affected are Canadian, concentrated mainly in Mexico, Chile, communities. Among such policies:- political support and the United States. In Latin America, Canada has from embassies and parliament and through the approximately 80 active mining projects and another Canadian International Development Agency and the 48 under construction, its investments concentrated in Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade, and Develo- Mexico, Chile, Peru, Argentina, Brazil, and Colombia. pment; financial support through Export Development Canada (a credit agency of the Canadian gover- The report, Impact of Canadian Mining in Latin America nment) and the Canadian Pension Plan Investment and Canada´s Responsibility, by the WORKING GROUP Council; as well as an inadequate legal framework for ON MINING AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN LATIN AMERICA, preventing and sanctioning human rights violations documents 22 representative cases in nine countries given that extra-territoriality is not recognized. in the region where the systematic violation of human rights by Canadian mining companies is mentioned. Several mining projects highlighted for this reason include: the Bi-National Pascua-Lama Project, Argen- tina-Chile, currently shut down and administered by Barrick Gold Corp.; the Bajo de la Alumbrera Project in Argentina, administered by Goldcorp Inc. and Yamana Gold Inc.; and the Frontino Projects (in the department of Antioquia) and Mazamorras (in the department of Nariño) in Colombia, administered by the Gran Colombia Gold Corp.. * Source: WORKING GROUP ON MINING AND HUMAN In its report, the Working Group points to deficient RIGHTS IN LATIN AMERICA. “The impact of Canadian judicial norms, problems with their implementation Mining in Latin America and Canada’s Responsibility”. and application, and non-existent or ineffective Report presented to the Inter- American Commission legal resources as conditions that favor the negative on Human Rights, s.f. CHINESE INVESTMENT IN LATIN AMERICA*

Currently, China stands out as one of the major investor for Petrobras. At the same time, China has acquired heavyweights in the extractive and infrastructure sectors significant percentages of oil companies in Brazil such in Latin America. The announcement and granting of as GALP and Repsol. In the case of Ecuador, it was the project licenses has generated strong resistance among fourth largest recipient of Chinese funds, having received communities and environmental movements due to the loans for more than 11,000 million dollars, destined to magnitude of the foreseeable environmental destruction hydroelectric, infrastructure, and oil exploitation. and because they are located in strategic regions and protected areas in the countries. In terms of large infrastructure projects, China will promote the Transcontinental, Brazil-Peru railway Between 2005 and 2014, China provided credits for that will connect the Brazilian coast with the Peruvian 119,000 million dollars throughout Latin America, Pacific. In addition, a Chinese consortium- HKND and the prediction is this tendency will increase in Group- has obtained the concession to build the the coming years. Currently, there is a commitment Nicaragua Canal, a proposal that has generated resis- to invest more than 50,000 million dollars in projects tance from communities and social movements, in the region, mainly in the energy, infrastructure, especially from the National Committee for the mining, and high technology sectors; while in the Defense of Land, the Lake, and Sovereignty. next ten years it is believed this amount will increase to 250,000 million dollars. Besides, the creation of an investment fund of 10,000 million dollars from bilateral cooperation has been announced for such activity in Latin America. Of Chinese investment in the region, 47% is concen- trated in Venezuela with more than 56,000 million dollars destined to oil, copper, and gold exploitation. In Peru, Chinese companies account for 30% of the * Source. “China a la conquista de Latinoamérica” country’s mining investments. Brazil signed 35 coope- (China on a Conquest of Latin America); published ration agreements with the Chinese government in Actualidad RT, November 21, 2015. See: https:// in 2015 to finance activities in the energy, science, actualidad.rt.com/actualidad/192245-china-inversio- agriculture, and transport sectors, including funding nes-proyectos-america-latina 8.The EJOLT Project -Enviromental Justice Organizations, Liabilities, and Trade. See the EJOT Project Atlasonthis web site: https://ejatlas.org/ 34% from increased production 45%, Silver to respectively. 25% from and 21%, to 10% production from copper, doubled, and gold of case the in cantly: in metal production world-wide increased signifi- Between 1990 and 2012, the importance of the region Mining Liabilities, andTrade Organizations, Justice Environmental Project- EJOLT The and Environmental Conflicts 2. Regional Patterns ofExtractivism of extractivist, frontier expansion.(Martínez Alier, 2015). indigenous populations protecting their territories, in the face that approximately half the conflicts in Latin America involved Brazil,Ecuador, the fact is note Of Peru, Chile. Argentina, and in the Caribbean. The countries most affected were Colombia, as follows: 390 in , 116 in Mesoamerica, and ten were reported in Latin America and the Caribbean, distributed Up to February, 2016, a total of 516 conflicts, in all categories, defenders (Martínez Alier, 2015). womenmore or one by led aremovements justice mental defenders, environmental more men and women, or and in approximately 250 cases, environ- one of death the in environ- for conflictshavecases,resulted the of 12% victoriesmental in justice; as resolved been have 20% 2015, 1,670 includes reported date, cases. Ofthe1,500 documented cases to June, to which, conflicts environmental 8 hasconstructed aworld atlas of world, located in the La Guajira Peninsulathe in in mine Colombia, coal pit open caused largest the Cerrejón, havoc El by the consumption, water of terms In agriculture, are highlighted (Acosta, 2012). for and consumption human for unusable them rendering sources, water of contamination the plus operations, for quantitiesenormous the impacts, major of water required their Among sustainable. environmentally as themselves despitecompanypossible, not is effortsmining´ portrayto ´responsible that insist organizations women’s, victims’ mining social, and result, a as its and devastating havoc,for environmental known is activity mining Large-scale Mexico andPeru witnessed adownturn. and Chile was registered, whilecountries suchas Republic, Dominican Guatemala, Ecuador, Brazil, in in theregion isheterogeneous; in2014, highgrowth The evolution of the sector among different countries and Peru isapparent (ECLAC, 2015). Chile of role significant the where projects, of 50% region isdominant world-wide, hometo more than the copper, of case the In respectively. projects, of 40% and 30% encompassing mining, silver and gold The region plays a very important role in international denum from 16%to 24%(ECLAC 2013). refinedto48%, molyb- and copperfromto20%, 15%

17 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 18 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA sil-llego-al-mar toxic mudofBrazil’s10. See: “The worst environmental disaster reached thesea”: http://www.infobae.com/2015/11/24/1772104 -el-lodo-toxico-del-mayor-desastre-ambiental-bra- 9. Atlas ofthe conflicts available at: http://mapa.conflictosmineros.net/ocmal_db/ in Costa Rica; andElDorado inElSalvador and Famatina in Argentina; Pascual Lama and El Morro in Chile; Esquel CrucitasPeru; in Conga Tambograndeand projects: several paralyze to With respect to gold, environmental justice movements have managed (Spanish acronym) To date, the Observatory of Mining Conflicts in Latin America, OCMAL Arroyo Bruno(BrunoStream) more than500milliontons ofcoal, andnow hasitseyeof onthe extraction the for River Ranchería the diverting in insisted has Cerrejón El Nevertheless, registered. been has corruption, to and company’soperationsthe to due girls, and 5.000boysWayuú indigenous than more of malnutrition from death area, dessert this In the area subsists with0.7liters ofwater aday (CAJAR, 2014). of waste; anduses 17millionliters ofwater daily, while aperson in Education Center, Women’s Force], Popular2013); and generates [Research Mujeres340 million de (CINEP,tonsFuerza annually coal of American (SouthAfrican-English) produces about32milliontons Billiton(English-Australian),BHP Glencore Xtrata Anglo(Swiss),and multinationals involving complex, production coal This alarming. is Chile, Argentina, andColombia. Peru,Mexico, are conflicts registered of number greatest the with Countries conflicts. cross-border as them of six characterizing and communities, 314 affecting directly projects, mining 219 involving 9 hs ouetd 0 css n h region, the in cases 209 documented has , (Martínez Alier, 2015). areas ofcoral reefs Santo, affecting important beaches of the state of Espírity Doce River basinreached the mud whichdestroyed the Gerais. Immediately, thetoxic municipality ofMariana,Mina thousands ofhectares inthe and thedestruction of disappearance of12people, which caused 11deaths, the the Anglo-Australian Billiton- Brazilian company, Vale, and Mine- currently owned by the belonging to theSamarco world: therupture ofadam worst miningdisasters inthe was thescene ofonethe In November, 2015,Brazil 10 . 14. Thisreport was aninitiative ofPilr Ayuso, aEuropean parliamentarian from the right. tra-el-fracking?gclid=COCuysCEmc4CFYVehgod344J4Q 13. See: AIDA, Unaluchapanamericana contra el fracking (“Panamerican against Struggle June 8, 2016.Available Fracking”). at: http://www.aida-americas.org/es/blog/una-lucha-panamericana-con- Available at: http://www.aida-americas.org/es/blog/una-lucha-panamericana-contra-el-fracking?gclid=COCuysCEmc4CFYVehgod344J4Q 12. See, for example: Contagio Radio, “ENCOLOMBIA HAY 22BLOQUES PETROLEROS DESTINADOS PARA FRACKING” (IN COLOMBIA 22OILBLOCKS HAVE BEEN SIGNALLED FOR FRACKING), June8, 2016. Collective for Critical Approaches to Territory). Vida en el centro yelcrudo bajotierra: El Yasuni enclave feminista” (Life at the Center andOilintheGround: The Yasuni from a Feminist Perspective) bythe Collective Miradas Críticas (The al Territorio 11. For detailed information, see: “El Yasuní: unsemillero decreación denuevas formas de defender lavida”(The Yasuní: aSeedbed for Creating New Forms for Defending Life) byGabrielaRuales;and“La protection of the Park the Yasuní of protection tothe particularly related mobilization, social resistance international local Strong and national increasing as well as peoples. resulted,have movements indigenous Kichwa and , Waorani, , , Sápara, the affecting sharply towards oil exploitation in the Amazon Jungle Region, veered has government Ecuadorean the hand, one the On • conflicts, bothcurrently andinthefuture: environmental and impacts of terms in concern, extreme of situations to two be paid should attention America, Latin In drilling (Roa Avedaño, 2013). deep-sea extreme-temperatures; and of areas in exploration hydraulic fracturing or fracking; oil mining; in-situ combustion; of application deposits; former new techno- of exploitation the for for logies search initiatives: following the including demand, satisfy to order in expanded be must frontiers gical technolo and geographic matrix, energy global the of base sector.oil the tendenciesin toglobal constitutesoil Since the Currently,conventionaldecrease in correspondsthe deposits frontier continues to expand. 2013). 20% (ECLAC Despite its recent international price decline, the region’s world, oil than the of more in reserves upwards concentrating oil largest second and Caribbean the Latin has America regionthe East, Middle the After Hydrocarbons 11 . We need to remember that remember to need We . - • On the other hand, we see the ‘unsuspecting’ the see we hand, other the On • (Rosa Luxemburg area Foundation, et.al, 2013). jungle Amazon the into oil of gallons million 17 spilled 1992 and 1964 between Ecuador,which in happened Texaco-Chevron,by caused disaster, oil greatest world’s the significant modifications to the original version. for approval achieve to managed continents, both on zations fracking, debates promoted by moresocial organi200 than - this reportin thebeginning, called for the unlimited useof to anenergy notdependent model onfossil fuels. Although, containing strong criticisms of fracking and calling for transition of local communities local of thehealth threatens fracking air, and water contaminating By oil. shale and extractgasto order in depths greatat earth sand and the into carcinogenic- with even and mixed toxic frequently of water chemicals- of liters millions injecting involves which practice a governments, some by fracking of In May, 2016, after arduous debate, Eurolat- the main Latin main report approveda space- American-Europeanparliamentary the Eurolat- debate, arduous after 2016, May, In ground water sources. under contaminate that chemicals, toxic with water,mixed of quantities exorbitant the to addition in proven, been has conventional deposits, since the increased risk of earthquakes much more serious than those produced by the exploitation of 13 . The negative effects of fracking are fracking of effects negative The . 12 initiation 14 14 -

19 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 20 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA . 15. See: OilObservatory ofthe South:“Eurolat CommissionApproves Report Critical ofFracking”. May 18, 2016. on single-cropon farming ofsoy, corn, sugar-cane, Africanand based biodiesel, and ethanol as such biofuels of production For themostare part, agribusinesses dedicated to the market value, butdoesnotrespond to theword’s food needs and hunger, this model increases financial nutrition in speculation on Based 2015). to consumersdelayed is (Yacoub,et.al, products of delivery the since transport, scientific the areas of industrial transformation and and labor, knowledge. This chain increases profits in human energy, water, of use intensive requires then of land the same with agricultural crop, which tracts huge planting investors, on private based by controlled chain Moredities. specifically,a is it production commo- agricultural of the production distribution and in involved operations Agribusinesses refer to thetotality of Agribusiness andForestry Plantations by others, among Friends oftheEarth, Europe led, and organizations environmental to placeamoratorium onfracking, which ispromoted by proposal the accept to respect not however, does communities; it local governments urges text protected final areas therightsand ofindigenousand peoples the result, a As 15 . important exporter the second most of biofuels after Colombia was By 2013, By Brazil biofuels after Brazil (Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, et.al, 2014). of exporter important most second the was by Colombia 2013, production; ethanol stimulate to passed been had laws sugar-cane,and oil palm begantoprior 2005, although in this, 281 environmental communities conflicts related to the world’s reports biomass. Atlas in EJOLT The displacement. instability generating and increased causing territories, indigenous,on been imposed Afro-descendant,peasant and lling markets. To a great extent, this agro-industrial model has of theproblem solve hunger the world,in toto but enrichafew companiescontro - not is objective their production, somemonoculturesAlthough palm. are dedicated tofood ...... In Colombia, biofuel production, based on based production, biofuel Colombia, In national markets (Seoane, et.al, 2013). harvest,increaseinterc) in and; demand farmers to pay for the seeds at the time of that allowed policies sales of promotion companies’ b) companies; same the by traded pesticides and herbicides, seeds, gical package that included transgenic trading: seeds a) theworld-wide pushofatechnolo- of terms international in three tendencies of confluence due to the was This mainly. cultivation soy transgenic and extending 2000’s, mid the Paraguay in Brazil, Uruguay, agribusiness gained prominence Argentina, In - 20. Interms oflaborrights, thecase ofcane-cutters inCauca, Colombiaisan emblematic case. 19. Complete text isavailable at http://www.iwgia.org/ actividad forestal enlapoblaciónindígena mapuche” (The Invasion of Forestry Plantations in Chile: Effects of Forestry ActivityontheMapucheIndigenous2003. Population), 18. Thiscase hasbeen detailed by theObservatory ofEnvironmental Conflicts inLatin America, OLCA (Spanishacronym) in its report: “La invasión de las plantaciones forestales enChile: Efectosla de againstThe Struggle asaTool for Legalizing Dispossession, Territorial Control, andtheImpositionofAgro-industrial Megaprojects), 2011. contra elcambio climático como herramienta para lalegalización deldespojo, el control territorial ylaimposicióndemegaproyectos agroindustriales” intheMontes (ARGOS, S.A. de Maria Region: 17. To know more aboutwiththeARGOS case inColombia, see: MoritzTenthoff- Corporation for CommunityConsultation and Training- COSPACC-; A. enlos “ARGOS S. Montes deMaría:Lalucha 16. See: Diego Cardona: “Desiertos verdes delsuroccidente colombiano” (Green Desserts inColombia’s SouthWest), publishedinGRAIN, July24th,2009 demand for water to the due sources of water extinction and Contamination • • Concentration andusurpation ofenormous tracts ofland. the following devastating traits: plantationsforestry and reveal agribusiness America, Latin In companies like Smurffit Kappa by generated conflicts where here is It cellulose. making for teak, and pine, eucalyptus, as such region, the than to native not other uses of species plantations forestry finds to one production, biofuel destined crops monoculture Among market, and the legalization of territorial dispossession territorial of legalization exercised by paramilitary groups can bewitnessed the emissions and carbon the market, plantations, teak forestry association the latter, between the of case the In fore. the to come can be witnessed in the emblematic case of the Lumaco the of Commune case emblematic events the These in witnessed lands. be can ancestral Peoples’ Mapuche the of State Chilean with huge the sumsofmoney, hasgenerated dispossession by promoted model, forestry the 70’s, the since how, ever reveals (IGWIA), Affairs Indigenous for Group Working International the and Observatory Citizens’ by the produced Globalization), Economic of Context a in Conservation and Devastation Chile: in un Resources Forestry en conservación y contexto de Devastaciónglobalización económica” (Mapuche People and Chile: yrecursos en mapuche forestales “Pueblo entitled study the Chile, In 18 intheregion ofAraucanía 16 and ARGOS S.A. in Colombia in ARGOS and S.A. 19 . 17 . workers human rights oflocalpopulations and salariedplantation All lead to a decline in food sovereignty and violation of the since soilsbecome infertile andlackinginbiodiversity. • For thesereasons, monocultures are known asgreen deserts suitable for food consumption not crops other by substitution and crops original of Loss • tation andthe introduction of genetically modified crops defores - through agrobiodiversity and biodiversity of Loss • use ofagro-toxins the to due air and soil of deterioration and Contamination • and involves a specific relationship to women, given their given protagonistto role women, intheirpeoples’food sovereignty. relationship specific a involves and region the in generated has conflicts numerous it time, same the markets. At global into insertion economic subordinated characteristics related to as especially extractivist the model, attributable to all embody they and commodity, as nature areincluded they in thisdocument because they are based ona concept of activities, extractive considered usually greenand per se,agribusiness Although, desertsare not paramilitary groups. palm plantations are closely related to landusurpation by 20 I cutis sc a Clmi, h African the Colombia, as such countries, In .

21 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 22 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA Violations intheBelo Monte 7, 2015. DamCase), January 24. See: AIDA, “Iniciacaso contra Brasil en laCIDHporviolaciones dederechos humanosrelacionados con larepresa BeloMonte” (IACHR Initiates Proceedings against Brazil due to HumanRights Soler, Duarte andRoa Avendaño, 2013. a detailed analysis ofthe damage caused by damconstruction inColombia, see: “Hidroeléctrica: Conflictos ecológicos distributivos” (Hydro-electric Projects: Distributive Environmental by Conflicts) 23. Inthesouth-western partofColombia, the EPSA Company, responsible for theBajoAnchicayá project, caused the spillingof 500.000cubicmeters oftoxic mudsover theriver communities. For 22. For example, ithasbeen shown that communities close to dams tend to pay higher electricity rates than the national average. 21. See: ElPaís. “450presas amenazan auntercio de los peces de ríodelmundo”(450damsthreaten onethird ofthe world’s river 8, 2016. fish).January forms of river life river of forms at the global level, they contribute to climate change due to the the tocontribute level,duethey climatetochange global the at and continental levels since they alter the course of rivers; while cized for producing devastating environmental and social effects. (Yacoub, et.al , consumption” 2015, P.199). and On production the contrary,of they modes have been tocriti nor tothe model, energychange no substantial promote they since questioned, seriously been have economies» «green for alternatives as or development» «clean as promoted projects “energyHowever, fuels. fossil on dependence the energy toby caused crisis environmental and as alternatives legitimacy to gain attempt tives initia These consortiums. business transnational from demands satisfy to being into come projects hydroelectric management, Far from responding to local energy requirements orwater river fish would be at riskofdisappearing MekongRivers,(Asia) thatmeans which thirdone world’sthe of the basinsofthe Amazon (Americas region), Congo (Africa), and Europe, currently, there are plansto construct 450barriers in in expands dams harmful most the suspend to movement the Although 2013). (ECLAC, 12% used only potential, greatest the has which region, Andean the respectively; while 32%, and 33% with way the leading Brazil and Cone Southern the generation, Until 2013, the region used 22% of its potential for hydroelectric In Latin America, 51% of electricityis generated from hydropower. Dams buted unequally deepens social inequalities, since impacts and benefitsof rivers, are distri- privatization the on based model, hydro-energy The 22 23 (Yacoub, et.al, 2015).Besides destroying local , dams cause repercussions at the national national the at repercussions cause dams , 21 . - -

population affected bythe project international entity totheindigenous protection measures granted by thesame addition, for failing to comply with collective environmental requirements; andin though thecompany hadnotsatisfied and allowing thedamto beflooded even accused ofgranting theoperating license society organizations. TheBrazilian State is presented against Brazil in2011by civil Human Rights acknowledged apetition 2015, theInter-American Commissionon in thehydro-energy context. InDecember, emblematic case ofhuman rights violations in theBrazilian Amazon, represents an Norte Energía Company ontheXingúRiver The BeloMonte Dam,developed by the

24 . social protest, aswell asassassination. persecution, and arbitrary detention in the context harassment, of peacefulsuffered have members their and criminalized, nities in Guatemala. Communities and movements have been commuindigenous- and Panama,Emberáin Colombia, the in Buglé Ngäbe the Lenca the Chile, in Mapuche the Honduras, them, in People among of rivers, and privatization the detain communities to struggles important Peasant in engaged have peoples indigenous acronym). (Spanish REDLAR Dams- against Network American Latin the plus in Colombia; in and Dams Movement Rivers by Living the and Mexico’sRivers, of Affected Defense People of Movement the Mexican Brazil; in - acronym) (Portuguese MAB Barrangens- for Movement Atingidos Dos the find we America Latin in rivers of the defense for movements significant most the Among water, amongothers. their are right to participation, life, a healthy environment, violating and to territories, projects peasant and hydro-electric indigenous in undertaken Mexico, and Ecuador, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, as such countries In tendency.a regional reflects Brazil, in observed pattern, This of organic material lyingbeneath thedams. tons of decomposition the from gases green-house of emission . ea Faeok Fvrbe to Favorable Extractive Activities Frameworks Legal 3. among legal frameworks incompatibilities or legislation mining adequate of Absence • of rights • Constitutional andlegalgaps concerning the protection rights violations: human of perpetration the and companies of installation the promote which frameworks, legal region’s four the in identifies traits main America, Latin on in Group Rights Working Human and the Mining by IACHR Impactof the to (The Responsi presented Canada’s bility), and America deCanadá” Latin in Mining Canadian la responsabilidad y Latina América en canadiense minería la de impacto “El report, The companies is concerned” to (A/HRC/29/25, weaken 2015, paragraph 31). exists competition standards States, as far as the creation of among a favorable environment for result, a As regulated environments possible in order to maximize profits. due to thenaturecompanies, of they tend to prefer the least and is ferocious, investments to attract competition national Inter resources. natural exploit to investors push that ways in practices and frameworks legal elaborate to tend “States that noted Kiai, Maina Association, the and PeacefulAssembly of activities, extractive Freedom to Right the for concerning Rapporteur Special Nations United report recent his In - -

23 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 24 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA the ZIDRE Law (Areas of Rural, Economic, and Social Development Interest) in Interest)Development Social and Economic, Rural, of (Areas Law ZIDRE the sanctioned inequality, Santos President distribution land of terms in world the In Colombia, the third most unequal country in Latin America and fourteenth in also ofgreat concern. extractive sector, the and agribusiness are of benefit concentration the land to promoting initiatives other reserves, archeological forestry,and ecological, as well as plateaus,high-level as protectedsuch areasdiminish that Laws Besides exploitation in formerly-protected areas. allow and licenses for procedures authorization simplify to intend Laws Both from thecompanies for theirelectoral campaigns donations (Chammas andBossi,2015). has received the project discussing body parliamentary entire the follow a similar course, with proven interference from mining companies: nearly Brazil,in discussion currentlyunder 5807/2013, Bill Peruand in 30230 No. Law reducing company requirements for environmental impactstudies. the processing of environmental licenses for exploration and exploitation by Legislative and administrative measures are frequently adopted to facilitate with any measure affecting their territories, are therefore contravened. to prior, free, and informed consultation for indigenous and tribal peoples faced instru- ILOments,as such Convention obliges States which 169, Obligatory guaranteeto right the populations. affected of demands the outside established been has always reason for this and participation, citizen and information to access tolimit isdesigned legislation activities, extractive facilitateto order In Group onMiningandHumanRights inLatin America, s.f) and a lack of requirements for the same by the competent authorities (Working damages of environmental reparation and measures mitigation of Absence • even financialsupport-guaranteeing benefits tominingactivity;and • Legislative processes influenced by Canadian interference- direct political and Collective, 2015). in State hands(CASA final decisions remaining public hearingswith it isrestricted to three the exploitation phase, ration phases; while in prospecting andexplo- consultation during area, eliminating reduces rights inthis approved in2014, and Metallurgy Law, In Bolivia, theMining Sacrifice), CENSAT- AguaViva, June 22, 2016. 28. See: Catalina Caro andDaniloUrrea: “Minera enColombia2015:Delasventajas corporativas alas zonas de sacrificiominero” (MininginColombia, 2015: From Corporate Advantage to Areas ofMining Nature). Available at: http://censat.org/es/noticias/comunicado-a-la-opinion-publica-el-ambientalismo-radical-es-la-defensa-de-la-vida-de-la-paz-y-de-la-naturaleza 27. See: “Comunicado alaopiniónpública. ElAmbientalismo radical es ladefensa delavida, delapazy lanaturaleza” (PublicOpinionComuniqué.Radical Environmentalism isthe Defense ofLife, Peace, and 26. RadioMundoReal: “Entrevista con coordinador del COPINH ante unnuevo feminicidio politico” (Interview withthe coordinator of COPINH, faced withanew political feminicide), July 7, 2016. radio.com/cerca-de-19-empresas-son-las-que-han-acaparado-mas-tierras-en-colombia-articulo-19980/ 25. See: “CERCA DE19EMPRESAS SON LASQUEHAN ACAPARADO MÁSTIERRASEN COLOMBIA” (NEARLY 19COMPANIES ARETHOSEHOARDING MOST LAND IN COLOMBIA). Available at: http://www.contagio January, 2016 hydro-electric projects for and minerals of exploitation the for companies tional of the country has beengrantedconcession in to transna noteworthy.are 2015), 35% Currently,estimated that is it (CEHPROODEC,interests companysafeguard to approved Police, Military Order Public of Law the and Law, Mining ElectricalEnergy throughRenewable Resources, the New of Generation and Promotion the forWater, Law on General Law the Employment), and Development of (Zones and the privatization of water. Among them, the Law ZEDE lation have facilitated the installation ofextractive projects legis- of pieces several Coup, 2009 the after Honduras, In the has whoever means to buythem(OLCA, 2015). of hands the in sources water leaves which Constitution, 1981 the of 19 Article by sanctioned as in, factored be must water of privatization the Tothis, peoples. indigenous of self-determination the extreme, the in violating, group, population any to belonging lands of dominion the over priority Law take to This concessions allows intervention. State for margin minimal the a only become they since depleted,until leavingwhoeverexploitspropertythem of deposits, privatize totally to sions- created during the Pinochet dictatorship- is designed In Chile, the Organic Constitutional Law on Mining Conces- causing (OXFAM, 2015). and expropriation” companies, concentration land foreign negative and further national by State control- under historically holdings- land of accumulation 25 Ti Lw wud eaie h irregular the legalize “would Law This . 26 . - for theauthorization ofprojects and stipulated extremely shorttime-frames Ministry oftheEnvironment competencies which, amongother things, diminished known asthe´Decree of Express Licensing´, In Colombia, Decree 2041of2014, popularly government’s priorities. mining continues to beoneofthecurrent nature persist sincethe for impulse large-scale social organizations response to pressure from communities and was suspended by theCouncilofState asa and companies to initiate projects. ThisDecree provided free reign to the Ministry ofMines popular consultations and at thesametime limited local authorities’ autonomy to convene 28 ;however, threats ofthis 27 ; it also ;italso -

25 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 26 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA 32. Available at: http://www.ishr.ch/sites/default/files/article/files/informecoalicionempresastierraishr.pdf March 16, 2016. 31. See: Contagio Radio:“Empresa canadiense demandaría aColombiaporfallo que protege páramo deSanturbán” (“CanadianCompany to for Accuse Colombia Decisionto protect the Santurbán HighAltitudePlateau”); tra-ley-que-prohibe-mineria-metalica-a-cielo-abierto&catid=40:noticias-ambientales&Itemid=60 30. See: CarlosSalazar. Miningcompany confronts law prohibiting metal open-pit mining. http://kioscosambientales.ucr.ac.cr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1441:empresa-minera-la-emprende-con riesgos” (Decree 16anditsRisks) http://decreto16.com/ 29. See: “Demanda alDecreto Ejecutivo 16”(Challenge to Executive Decree 16); http://www.flacsoandes.edu.ec/observatoriodiscriminacion/index.php/notas/343-demanda-al-decreto-ejecutivo-16; “ELy sus Decreto 16 mining company questioned the State and strengthened and State the questioned company mining the defenders ofNature systematicthe and policies persecution of government pro-extractivist with patible paradigm.new a However, areprinciples totallythese incom - of subject a Kawsay,Sumak rights;the includes as and as Healthfulor Living, Nature recognizes Republic; the of nature pluri-national the denotes Constitution 2008 Ecuador,the In of the law of prohibition of law the of constitutionality the Ascotchallenging complaint Rica, a lodged Costa Mining in decisions: these reverse to strategies In both countries, companies have applied exploitation projects (Mira, 2015). and exploration active no are there result moratoriumbeen declaredhas as a and given that notprohibited, although a defacto activity, a mining legal of in terms in limbo itself another finds Salvador In El case, passed. unanimously was approvalawaiting licenses for procedures useof cyanide and mercury,the and extinguishing all mining, open-pit prohibiting Law the activity- such against was which of 90% mobilization- perse- society of civil vering result a In as mining. 2010, to of November, America free itself Latin declared in have country first exception, an the tendency, as out regional stands Rica the Costa to contrast In 29 30 . . In El Salvador, the Oceana Gold Oceana Salvador,the El In . estimated that 35% has been granted has been the explotatation for Hydroelectric to transnational of minerals and of the country companies for currently, it is in concession In Honduras projects Often, companies avail themselves of State commitments of State themselves avail companies Often, that creation oftheElDorado Foundation (Mira, 2015). benefits social the through mainly communities, the to promote bring would mining to campaigns media social highlights thefollowing: 2015, in IACHR the before UAF-LA, including organizations,

in high-altitudeplateaus mining to prohibit Decree Court tutional monetary compensation, given the Consti- demanding had and affected negatively interests been its arguing bodies, tional denounce to Statethe Colombian before interna- intention its announced in the Santurbánplateauhigh Colombia, in gold exploit to planned which Corp., company,Canadian Eco Oro Minerals The territories. protect to designed lation reversallegis- pressurethe of fortoorder Freein enshrined Trade Agreements in oe f opne ad tts n viola- 38 defenders, against by presented tions in States and companies of role edicts and ‘antiterrorist’ laws. In this regard, theregional report laws. ‘antiterrorist’ and edicts criminal vague of creation the through nalize thework of defenders of territory crimi- and action social for space reduce that norms recent mention we Finally, 31 . 32 onthe - COUNTRY Guatemala Colombia Paraguay México Bolivia Perú ‘Law ofBurialSites’ of2014 Four Laws passedin2014 INSTRUMENT Metallurgy of2014 Law onMiningand Law ofPublicOrder Law 1453of2011 Law 357of2013 (Decree 7-1965) Law 30151 2009 in contexts ofsocialprotest. Absolves theArmedForces for physical attacks and fatalities rities to prohibit and repress demonstrations. and to socialprotest; grants extraordinary powers to autho Reduces therights to freedom ofexpression andassembly, indigenous peopleagainst mining. Proposes theprohibition ofpeaceful protest, especially of Allows for the declaration ofaState ofPrevention/Siege/Exception. another’s property. sentences from two to five years for the crime ofinvasion of Escalates the criminalization ofpeasant protest, increasing vent theexploitation ofdepositswithup to 8 years injail. Against ‘intimidation ofminers’: penalizes thosewho pre- public protest. that affect publicorder’, openingthe way for prosecution of Creates thecrimeof‘obstruction ofpublicthoroughfares Penalizes collective andindividualactionsthat impede miningactivity. IMPLICATIONS -

27 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 28 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA 34. Presentation given duringdebates oftheCommissionII ColombianSenate, November 3, 2015. project, Humalamilitarizes 8regions); May, 2015.Observatory ofMining Conflicts inLatin America. 33. See: “Humalamilitariza 8regiones ante lasprotestas contra proyecto minero de GrupoMéxico” (Faced withprotests against theGrupoMexico’s mining there is a worrying and expanding phenomenon of ´the of phenomenon expanding and worrying a is there by thesuspensionofconstitutional guarantees were massive detentions of demonstrators as permitted to the death ofthree people inlessthanaweek, there militarization of eight regions in the country. In addition the project, the with a Ollanta Humala government ordered the faced 2105, May, 48-hour solidarity strike with agriculturalists In affected by Exception. of State a of contextthe in 2015 and 2011 registeredbetweenwere the Grupo México (Mexico Group). Seven civilian deaths to affiliated company a by implemented project mining In Peru, the province of Islay rose up against the Tía María women, are incurred. against especially violations, rights human cases, all In military ofspecial thatunits frequently paramilitary act alongside groups. creation the acomplex and criminalization, into corruption, as phenomena turns such incorporating strategy it demonstrations, peaceful contain to from forces repressive of deployment the Farlimiting region. the throughout countries several in repeated is and policy, government becomes force in Militarization of territories where extractive projects are Dispossession ofTerritories 4. Militarization: AStrategy for the As Senator Iván Cepeda documented in a recent report 33 . 34 , (Martínez, 2012.P. 33) to move freely abouttheir territory” their right, andthat oftheirchildren, circuit withrelief at having recovered threat ofimminent death, endingtheir their reconnaissance under the heavy would lose theirlives. They initiated paths to ensure noneoftheirchildren women decidedto walk alongthese it hadbeen mined;so“theSarayaky threatened the population, insisting have thearea militarized andeven company pressured inmany ways to in the defense oftheirterritory. The petroleum block74, have beenleaders CGC Company andthetendering of faced withoilexploitation by the Huaorani women ofSarayaku, In the Ecuadorean Amazon, the Many companies hire functionaries with open legal battalions militaryregis agreementswith frequentlysign open with functionaries processes for serious crimes; while at the same time, they hire companies Many EXPLORATIONS. AMERISUR COLOMBIA and GLENCORE are METAPETROLEUM, and 2006; RUBIALES, PACIFIC ECOPETROL, and 1996 among companies signingthese agreements; aswell as between groups financed paramilitary which Cesar in mines coal the in Prodeco and Drummond Dam; Ituango the of case the in Enterprises), Sector Public (Medellin Medellín de Públicas Empresas the Armed of Forces (GISBERT andPINTO, 2014). 30% 80,000 almost have representing members, Battalions Mining-Energy The ments. agree signed 1,229 and Infrastructure, State Critical Battalions, of Protection Highway the Centers for Operational Special nine and Energy Special twenty are infrastructurehas been denounced. Currently inthecountry, there projects’ safeguard to forces security agreements between mining-energy companies and context of the armed conflict. The existence of multiple by the State asacounter-terrorist strategy within the justified Colombia, in forces´ security of privatization infringements of peoples’ rights, and particularly of particularly and rights, defenders ofhumanrights andnature, can befound: peoples’ following of the agreements, infringements these of framework the In tering the greatest number of extrajudicial assassinations. - - expression. • and activists armed harassment ofcivilians. against attacks and pursuits, Threats, • local people. for guarantees no with land of dispossession Violent • sexual violence against women detainees which occurs. during detentions massive and Illegal • men and of women leaders. criminalization and persecution Legal • against violence sexual of types community women andactivists. all and Bullying • • Forced disappearance andmassacres. and association toassembly right and workers’ citizens of Violation • • Restriction ofmovement. Violation of the right to protest and freedom of and freedom to protest right the of Violation

29 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA II Impact on Women’s Lives and Rights A thought structures, typical ofwesterncolonial logic, both modern, and that an from evolve binary in found not be to are roots does the rather them; between relationship nature essentialist and women between 2014). similarity (Weinstock, and exploitation the usedin However, of control Themechanism that is domination domination. of cases of both patterns share they since nature, and women between parallels symbolic and historic, cultural, are there affirmed, have patriarchalOn theotherhand,itisbasedin culture. As some feminist theorists and self-determination, territory, land, to participation, rights asenshrinedinthe ILO Convention 169. their of denial meant This for the environment. also has caring of forms and practices cultural peoples’ of native negation the in and territories, ancestral of dispossession the in found racism the colonized at the service of the west (Lugones: 2010, 106). It is rooted in structural modernity: the dichotic hierarchy between the human and non-human, imposed on Therefore,therehand, the one on centralunderlying an is dichotomy colonial of Afro-descendant women. and women’s indigenous ways,specific especially in lives functions through pillage and neo-colonial expropriation (ACOSTA, 2012) and affects In such contexts, it is important to recognize that extractivism, in its different forms, association are undermined. In addition, the right to participation, protest, freedom of expression, assembly, and property, food, work, and the enjoyment of a healthy environment.healthy a of enjoyment the and property,work, food, affected populations, brings violating rights for to life, extractivism health, condition dignified housing, ofliving sections, a worsening previous and in devastation environmental out pointed have we s

31 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 32 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA rud h dsrs n vle of values and desires hegemonic masculinity reconfigured the are life around daily and spaces community in which 2013, Perspective), (Critical FeminismoApproaches to Territory from aFeminist el desde al Territorio Críticas Miradas 2014; Torres, García 2015; a ´masculinization´ Ortiz, (Solano occurs territories of construction, hydro-electric and dam exploitation oil and mining of contexts current in addition, In pairing isdevalued (Sevilla andZuluaga, 2009). masculine/feminine,and where thesecondcategory the of reason/emotion, public/private, production/reproduction, establisheshierarchic dichotomies between society/nature, tanding ofmasculinity, realizing communities’ andpeoples’ socialand gender relations are diverse. 35. The reference isto hegemonic masculinity, basedinpatterns of colonization and colonialthinking.Inthis regard, we distance ourselves from auniversal oressentialist unders- oce al set o ter ie ad s xrse i the following ways: in expressed is and lives their of aspects all touches Territory, and the Environment, UAF-LA, 2014). The former Women,CollaborativeInitiative the of EncounterFirst the of(Record inequality gender of exacerbation the and girls and women against violence patriarchal simultaneously with theworsening of contamination of territory are expressed practices ofdispossession andthe working organizationto defend territory, itisclear that women’s from Based ontestimonies anddocumentation 35 . and affects women’s lonial expropriation pillage and neo-co- its different forms, functions through Afro-descendant . Extractivism, in ways, especially lives inspecific indigenous and Increasing Insecurity in the Work of Care rupture in “the previous forms of social reproduction of life, these a and economies in local dislocation cause activities Extractivist the context of the construction of the Hidrosogamoso dam in in dam Hidrosogamoso the of construction the of context the in example, For autonomy. economic women’s in loss drastic causesa activities, productive other as incompatibility and extractive between as well disappearance, or contamination their to due survival for goods accessing of impossibility The Loss ofEconomic Autonomy from otherhabitualchores. release nor remuneration, no receiving In addition, todue environmentalsick contamination, health. women have to look after people who get deteriorating to them exposesfetch water)toand further work (for example, they must travel much sources- generates existing an of overload contamination in women’s the or access and other of water common goods-whether due to limited privatization The care, historically doneby women. of work the of undervaluing the in resulting (Gartor, and labor” 2014), of sexual division the accentuating ensues, communities the in economy productive masculinized highly a of installation The presence. centralizing companies’ the serve to re-directed being larly Economic, SocialandCultural rights. A/67/304of2012, paragraph 40. 36. Report ofthe Independent Expertonthe Effects of Foreign Debt andother Related International FinancialObligations of States ontheFullEnjoyment ofallHumanRights, Particu- for women and children and contributing to a differentiated worsening to ofheath conditions. contributing and children and women for food of amounts small only leaving perpetuated, is better and first eat they that custom harder”,the work “they that idea the with together and priority, the is well-being and health cases, many men’s In invisible. provision, of food terms in practices, role, rendering their ancestral andpopular knowledge and and forced immersion into capitalist economies eliminates this the protection of native seeds. The loss of community autonomy in a major role play food and production consumption home for serious for women since they usuallyassumeresponsibility for especially is sovereignty.This food ensure that inputs to access limiting as well agrobiodiversity,as and biodiversity of loss the The contamination of land, air, and water dramatically influences of Food Sovereignty Violation oftheRight to Food andLoss essential inorder services to maintain their families women’s women are obliged to reduce their intake offood oraccessto increases resources, of scarcity the affects “with income that considering this health, their and violence, self-managed by confronted when of vulnerability lack The access to the river. received from the sale of fish, due to their dying off and limited previously had they income significant lost women Colombia, 36 ” . frequently related to highrates ofviolence. consumption, alcohol in increase the tensions c) and in ruptures; and resulting economies family of worsening 2014); b) the (CASA Collective, rejection definite (reduced, maintain of women ajob positions while work), getting precarious in and interest part-time, their to mainly due extractive hold favorable to opinions inclined more on are men activities: perspectives women’s and men’s between in intra-family and followingfactors:linkedincompatibilitythe tois a) violence conflicts inter-family in increase The Intrafamily Violence against women defenders. criminalization of form a as used is and protest, peaceful of repression and dispossession violent contextsof in recurrent is It rape. collective even rape, and tracking, nature,sexual a of aggression verbal and harassment includes It police. and groups paramilitary and military companies, security private Sexual violence is exercised by both public and private actors: Sexual Violence

33 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN THE CONTEXT OF MILITARIZATION OF TERRITORIES IN GUATEMALA

In Guatemala, sexual violence is used to ensure dispossession of territories, with joint action between public security forces and private agents being highlighted. In 2007, Maya-Q’eqchis indigenous women from the Lote Ocho community suffered multiple sexual violations in a context of violent eviction realized by the Police and private security forces pertaining to the Guatemala Nickel Company, subsidiary of the Canadian transnational HudBay Minerals (Solano Ortiz, 2015). Here, as well, the Pérez Molina government imposed a State of Siege in the departments of Huehuetenango (Santa Cruz Barillas) in 2012, and in Jalapa and Santa Rosa in 2013, as a strategy for neutralizing broad- based anti-extractive and anti-mining resistance, especially related to projects developed by the Spanish Hidro-Santacruz and the Canadian Tahoe Resources and Goldcorp37 . Women’s organizations, such as AMISMMAXAJ, denounced soldiers and police for their abuse of power and different types of attacks, harassment, and sexual violence during the State of Siege, and even the arrival of babies resulting from rape (Cabnal), 2015).

37, On repeated occasions, under the pretext of national security, high crime levels, or disturbance of the peace, the Guatemalan State has turned to the use of the Public Order Law to dissolve and repress public demonstrations and social protests. Over a period of four years (2008-2012), “67 states of exception or their extension were recorded, for an average of 16.75 per year”: Repression and Criminalization of Social Protest in Guatemala, Report prepared for the IACHR to draw attention to the repression and criminalization of social protest in Guatemala, at the 149th sessional period, October 17th, 2013, par. 87. Framework Convention onClimate Change, andthe Aarhus1998Convention A/HRC/25/53, 2013). Development, Stockholm 2001Convention, Convention onBiological Diversity, United Nations 1992 Convention ontheStruggle against Desertification (articles3 and 5), 1992 the United Nations participation in affairs related tothe environment islaidoutin diverse international instruments suchasthe1992RioDeclaration (principle 10), United Nations2012 Conference on Sustainable 39. Theright ofallpeopleto participate inpublic affairs isbasedinthe Universal Declaration ofHumanRights andthe International PactonCiviland Political Rights. The requisite of nature el Territorio. Experienciasdeparticipación en América Latina (Women Defending Territory. Experiencesin Participation in LatinAmerica. Available at: http://www.fondoaccionurgente.org.co/ 38. Adetailed exposé onthe topic can befound inthe collaborative research undertaken by theUrgent ActionFundof Latin America, together withactivists, in thepublication Mujeres defendiendo risks to, UAF-LA’s identified Activism, have Sustainable we commitment, of political-ethical perspective the From 2012). (Martínez, percentage women of a higher affecting and average national the than higher times three death, of causes the of 32% constitutes cancer areas, oil-producing in Action), according to studies undertaken by AcciónEcológico (Ecological Ecuador,water. In contaminated with mainly, contact, to due 2100. Mining], and As was Women (Escuela mentioned above, on women are increase [School more vulnerable Minería to malformations illnesses y fetalMujer at-risk and ofmonoculture miscarriages, pregnancies, diseases, sexually-transmitted the fumigation of rate to crops, increase ormake and their appearance. Besides, the operations oil skin, hearingandother diseases, related to miningand are new respiratory, of activities, projects initiation the With never guaranteed. was the extraction health to before right peoples’ even companies, resource the where, of arrival areas rural part, isolated in most developed the For 1998/15). (Resolution health” poor of state permanent a or health problems, andresult inthedeath ofthousandswomen basic sanitation insufficient services, all and or which cause contamination, serious mental water and physicalover-crowding, living and housing conditions, including serious contamination, of womenof “millions world-wide sufferwho extremely deficient on Prevention are there affirms, Minorities of Sub-Commission Protection and Discrimination Nations United the As Violation oftheRight to Health the activists themselves, and tend not to be documented. to not by and tend and themselves, organizations activists by the underestimated care. Often, are factors offamily such work the and work organizational in overload the to added this futures; communities’ and families’ of the magnitude of the challenges, andpermanent insecurityregarding their fear conflicts, exhaustion, of organizational result internal a as health land, the the of for, defenders women consequences of emotional and physical and eae t ctzn atcpto i environmental in participation affairs citizen to related According to international humanrights standards in IssuesRelated to theEnvironment Violation oftheRight to Participation o vld s h epeso o fe, ro ad informed and prior consent of affected free, parties”. (A/HRC/29/25, of paragraph 11). expression the is valid how how to as genuine consultation processes ordecisionsare taken and arise automatically questions “authenticity of peaceful assembly andassociation means that He states that restrictions onthe right to freedom lucrative”.(A/HRC/29/25, paragraph 9). especially are they because abuses rights gas presenting and mining, heightened risks of human notoriously difficult, withsome sectors, such asoil, is sector resources natural the in “citizenengagement and thatreport Assembly 2015 his in Peaceful warns Kiai, Maina of Association, Freedom to Right the on without discrimination; however, the Special Rapporteur 39 , States are obliged to guarantee thisright 38

35 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 36 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA oe’ priiain hog codntd action. coordinated through participation women’s decision- in that extractivist crucial making spaces, States andindigenous peoples promote is “it and out pointing populationsactivity, Afro-descendant and Rights Human on makes asimilar claiminitslatest report onindigenous Commission Inter-American The particularly by indigenous peoples andwomen rights,exercisethese full of the on depend democracy and justice of policies in a framework of environmental many countries”. It also mentions that the effectiveness who confront high risk of harassment and even death in indigenous activists and leaders and women defenders, with ahead move includingdefenders,environmental to of protection “the need the stresses and decision- making Rio environmental in 1992 participation citizen the informationand to of access on effective focuses 10 which Declaration, the Principle guaranteeing of treatyimplementation binding legally The document emphasizes theneed to adopt a participation, andjustice inenvironmental affairs”. regional a on instrument to guarantee the right to accessto information, agreement achieve to Caribbean the and America Latin in efforts government for its support regional a “strong indicating democracy, ECLAC issued environmental an on experts negotiating instrument Nations to related United Declaration 2015, October, In 40. The declaration is available at: http://www.ohchr.org/SP/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16630&LangID=S#sthash.79GjcEVE.dpuf 40 . omnt mmes a eul’ Rae, 05. The 2015). following chartshows themainbarriers inthisregard. (Ruales, equals’ ‘as members community be male with to negotiate representatives women company andprivate State and cases, these men in territories; the the in exploited over and nature over and patriarchal, determined by alogicofdomination existing in participation mechanisms. Often, these spacesare perspective racist gender evident, a of is absence the purpose is this as for non-existence mechanisms absolute specific of the region, the Throughout decision-making (Aliaga andCuenca, 2015). work does nottranslate into equitable participation in women’s of environmentalsphereof the in defense,activities their importance the and environment the to related issues in participation women’s guaranteeing multiple dispositionsandinternational instruments theDespite acronym]2015). [Spanish OCMAL America- Latin in Conflicts Mining of (Observatory impediments movements, and frequently face legal or administrative participation the legitimate interests of oforganizations andsocial mechanisms evident; and consultation are contrary weak, non-binding, to of is violation right systematic this America, Latin in However, December 2015IACHR, Recommendations, Numeral B). 31 47/15 Doc. (OEA/Ser.L/V/territories”II. indigenous of role the identified defenseofthe of has diverseaspects in women indigenous IACHR the regard, this In BARRIERS TO WOMEN’S MEANINGFUL PARTICIPATION IN ISSUES RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Internal barriers in community contexts External Barriers by Public and Private Actors

Psychological and physical violence within homes, Absence of a gender perspective in legal procedures and exacerbated by alcoholism and the precarious implementation manuals related to prior consultation, nature of family incomes, typical of contexts of and more generally, in regard to citizens’ participation in extractive economies. environmental issues. Similarly, the non-existence of this perspective in the realization of environmental impact Overload in the work of care: generally, women must studies is underscored. work more than men and in non-paid labor, meaning they have less disposable time to participate in Difficulties with Spanish-language communication. With decision-making spaces. respect to the lack of culturally appropriate information and communication, women are more affected, since a larger Lack of recognition of their organizational work. percentage, with respect to men, speak only their native language and do not speak Spanish (Raico, 2011). Exclusion and silencing. Since women’s voices question and challenge naturalized practice, the fact Cooptation and negotiation with male leaders. In many that they speak up and express themselves generates cases, it has been shown that community affairs regarding tensions in their communities and organizations territory move to the sphere of the private, a masculine (ECLAC, 2014). For this reason, they tend to be negotiating space that generally negates the interests excluded and segregated. Historic discrimination in of communities and peoples, and especially women’s access to formal education, and even community-de- demands. On several occasions, these spaces are mediated signed education, generates insecurity in women through alcohol that facilitate ´man-to-man´ pacts governing and diminishes their capacity to assume leadership the future of peoples. positions in their organizations. Armed territorial control by public and private, legal and Stigmatization of feminine leadership as witnessed in illegal, agents that increases women’s vulnerability and slander, accusations, and harassment. weakens their capacity to influence decision-making spaces.

Criminalization and political violence used by public and private agents that worsen when indigenous women are involved, since they connect with manifestations of racism. (ECLAC, 2014). 38 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA mines, hasbeen documented (Solano Ortiz, 2015). thetolocated campsclose the in workforsexcountry the women andgirlsfrom other regions of existence the developing of networks, whichattract many young Here, is mining. open-pit multinationals, other among Drummond, where point, in case department ofCesarinColombiaisa Women the in on situation The 2011). Mining], and [School Minería, y by Mujer (Escuela promoted activity economic of is type this which work, sexual stigmatization ofwomen whoundertake trafficking, female migration, aswell as human servitude, permanent:- is sector functionaries by and workers services from themining-energy and sexual for Women on de Mining inColombia), the demand Minería (School y Mujer Colombia de Escuela the As denouncedinadeclaration from Sexual Slavery Networks andIncrease in Creation ofProstitution with the complicity own, and from the evict women from The companies-The which they live of indigenous and Afro-descendants’ communities on collective lands the land they of States- the same time, the extractivist model ignores women as struggles ignores their criminalizing reform, model agrarian of beneficiaries extractivist the time, same At live. the they which on communities Afro-descendants’ and the land they own, and from the collective lands of indigenous from women evict States- of complicity the with companies- constructed onthe basisofgender, race, andclass.The .. ilto o te ih to Right the of Violation Land andProperty in Latin America, inequities historically inequities America, Latin in inequity structural distribution land and inequalities social deepens Extractivism Vía Campesina, 2009). (La world the in land the of 1% only own yet they and areas rural in populations 90% of the food required by marginalized to the FAO, peasant women produce upto to according discrimination: subjected of forms many are women access, land around However, 31). Paragraph 2012, (A/HRC/22/50, support” community and allows herto garner more social, family the woman’s role in decision-making and results from landownership enhances greater economic independence that is “it asset; land is also ameansofempowerment, asthe economic an women, than more for affirms, Food to As theSpecialRapporteur for theRight Environmental Rights, Territories, andNature inthe Americas”, publishedinJune, 2016by theUrgent ActionFundofLatin America. can be consulted. Thiscase hasbeen documented inthe Update oftheReport “Patterns ofCriminalization andLimitations on the Effective Participation of Women Defenders of 41. Asanexample ofsuch astrategy, the emblematic case of women from peasant organizations andlandless women, prosecuted inthe context oftheCuruguaty massacre in Paraguay, I no longer have land or sleep; my medicinal plants have plants medicinal my sleep; or land have longer no I butguide, excellent spiritual a woman”… a example:am “I an is Colombia, in mine Cerrejón El the exploitationof the affectedWayuúwoman,by indigenousa testimony of The an indispensablerole. playwomen which gastronomy,memory,in collective and ancestral andpopularknowledge inareas like medicine, of transmission and survival the undermines subjugation, 2011). Thisrupture, added to displacement andterritorial ties”.Womenon [School Minería; Mining],y Mujerand (Escuela community and organizational, family, destroying and apart, fabric social ripping territories, communities’ the on assault an cultural and is spiritual identity of “there native peoples’ industries, and peasant extractive With Women’s CommunityandAncestral Roles Loss ofCultural Identity and Weakening of spaces in decision-making demanding the right to land, and disallowing their participation standards to eradicate discrimination in this regard, subjects. They are left adriftinaseaof patriarchal customary norms. autonomous as this included are women ensure in that discrimination focus a gender lack policies compensation eradicate and resettlement to standards Despite some progress in national legislation vulnerable. and international more even are women eviction, territorial After 4 1 . Women], 2014). we interviewedMujeresFuerzaWayuúbyde [ForceWayuú of which leader, spiritual yujas, (Wayuú food…” own our our produce or to use waters our with longer contact no have I because (…) illnesses their recognize longer no I but me, see to here come patients many (…) ownculture my in women lost a am I because speaking, ceased nuty wih ae nros cnmc neet at interests economic enormous have which extractive industry, the like activities, industrial certain support where there are serious tensions between sectors that that targeting this group of defenders worsens “in contexts Inter-AmericanThe RightsHuman on Commission affirms International, 2015). targeted”(Amnestyespecially be to continuedresources on humanrights related to land, territory andnatural concentratewho those or women’srights, for Latinwork those who impunity, against in struggle who that “people assured America International Amnesty Report, 2014-2015 Annual its In work. their neutralizing of goal the with perpetrated attacks, multiple to exposed be to tendland defendersextractiveof industries, with play at investments and interests the of magnitude the to Due Defenders ofTerritory andNature Attacks andCriminalization of Women

39 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 40 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA f rmnlzto ad iiain o te Effective the on Limitations and Criminalization of “Patterns on audience regional thematic first the to and fundsfrom Latin America, we madeapresentation In October, 2015, together with women’s organizations auspices ofthe State. groups assaulted paramilitary by contracted sexually by thecompanies andactingunder the or Forces, and Police Special by physically are evictions. women Defenders forced against violent attacks during such happens defenders of majority the that America and the Caribbean, 2015). We have found have We 2015). Caribbean, the and America assassination attempts, abuse, andfeminicide (Urgent ActionFundofLatin sexual of and death of threats result, they are exposed to physical and verbal attacks, militarization, racism, andapatriarchal culture. Asa must confront aneconomic modelbasedoninequality, they since intense, are struggles defenders’ Women Colombia (ISHR, 2015). in two Guatemala, region: oneinHonduras, one inBrazil, and16in the in occurred land of defenders of Human for assassinations20 2015, PageDuring 2015, Rights, 27). Service International (ISHR- capita” per Honduras beingthecountry withthehighest rate greatest absolute number ofassassinated defenders, Currently,Brazil continues countrythe“the towith be Mexico, Ecuador, Panama, andPeru. been found to be Brazil, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, America, convened by the UAF-LA inLima, inDecember, 2015. 43. Findingsfrom the Encounter onCriminalization of Human Rights Defenders inLatin of HumanRights Defenders in the Americas; December, 2011.Par. 312. 42. Inter-American Commission onHumanRights (IACHR); Second Report ontheSituation projects such of stake, andthose sectors that resist theimplementation 42 ” . The countries at greatest risk have risk greatest at countries The . ” 43

the following sister strugglers was registered: In Latin America, between 1994 and 2014, the assassinationof against women defenders. 525 suffering attacked, were most incidents, which represented 31% of the total of 1,688 attacks resources defenders natural rights human and the territory, land, of defenders Woman Human Rights Defenders Rights Human Womanagainst Attacks of Registry Mesoamerican the to According Women Defenders of Land in COSTA RICA EL SALVADOR MÉXICO 2011 1994 2009 2012 2010 Latin America Attacked and Nov Dec Dec Feb Apr Oct Jun Assassinated Costa Rica Canadian conservationist based in Kimberley Blackwell Association (AECO ) Member oftheCosta Rican Ecological María delMarCordero Committee ofCabañas(CAC ). Member oftheEnvironmental Dora AliciaSorto and Coyuca deCatalan . Ecologists oftheSierra dePetatlan Leader oftheOrganization of Peasant Juventina VillaMojica The leaderofChihuahuaBarzón Manuela MarthaSolís Environmental activist Fabiola OsorioBernáldez People Affected by Mining Member oftheMexican Network of Betty Cariño 44 , between 2012 and 204, 204, and 2012 between , HONDURAS COLOMBIA 2014 2013 2011 2016 2014 2013 2010 1995 Mar Mar Mar Aug Aug Aug Aug Sep Feb Feb Boards Corporation President Direct Influence Area Edith delConsueloSantos Women Local Process Farmer andleaderoftheMaciceñas Adelinda Gómez Gaviria protection of watersheds and wetlands Environmentalist lockingtowards the Sandra VivianaCuéllar Defender oftheTolupán territory ( COCOCH ) of Peasant Organizations ofHonduras Member oftheCoordinating Council María Teresa Flores Founder ofPROLANSATE Jeannette Kawas Zarca ,inWhite River . the construction ofthedamAgua defense ofRiver Gualcarque against and GoldmanPrize 2015.Heledthe Organizations ofHonduras , COPINH Council ofPopular andIndigenous Lenca people,memberoftheCivic Feminist, indigenous leaderofthe Popular Resistance Front Leader andmemberoftheNational Production Company Bellavista Member ofthePeasant Associative Production Company Bellavista Member ofthePeasant Associative Bertha Cáceres Margarita Murillo Alma Yaneth Díaz Ortega Uva HerlindaCastellanos María Enriqueta Matute ce-em-rondonia/ Available at: http://www.terrasemmales.com.br/militante-do-mab-desapare - 45 See: “MILITANTE DOMABDESAPARECE EMRONDÔNIA”, Terra semMales. against women defenders inElSalvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, andMexico. merican Women HumanRights Defenders Initiative gathers statistics on aggressions 44. The Registry ofAggressions against Women HumanRights Defenders ofthe Mesoa- GUATEMALA BRASIL 2016 2011 2014 2012 2011 May Apr Jun Jun Jan Jirau dam responsible for theconstruction of Sustainable Energy ofBrazil, committed by the company denouncing humanrights violations better known as ‘ Nicinha‘, hadbeen ofthe same year.January Nilce , Rondonia ,whowas missingsince Atingidos porBarragems (MAB)in Member oftheMovimento dos (Paex) Praialta Piranheira felling intheagroextractivist Project Defender oftheterritory against tree Alta Verapaz Community leaderParana, Panzos , activist leader Young community andanti- mining villageHecateFilo El of , Huité , Zacapa Development( COCODE Council the ) of Presidentthe Community of Nilce deSouza Magalhães Maria doEspírito Santo CHUB MARIA MARGARITA Marilyn Topacio Reynoso Sandra SaguilNájera Murdered CONVENTIONS CHÉ 45 . Disappeared

41 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 42 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA 46. Complete report available46. at www.fondoaccionurgente.org.co Commission onHumanRights Inter-Americanthe of Sessions of 156 Period during Americas, and the Territory,in Nature Rights, Environmental of Defenders Women of Participation after being freed, their vulnerability in the face of new legal framing or other legal framing new of aggressions doesnotend. face the in vulnerability their freed, being after time, same the persecution. At of in forms other interceptions, and surveillance, of not happen do prosecuteddefenders patterns havetopreviouslyharassed, been stigmatized, victims and criminalization these cases, an isolated manner, rather they are mutually reinforcing; of itis common for majority the In of Latin America andthe Caribbean, 2015). stigmatizationof on c) based and; different of forms harassment Fund (Urgent Action words,other legal display in a public prosecution; means phenomenon, as as by a) b) Mexico, Honduras, and Paraguay, we identified the following patters of criminalization: Based on documentation and case study analysis from Chile, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, projects involved incriminalizationextractive processes. on and documented been had that cases on up following report, 46 . In June, 2015, we published an update on this DEFENDERS Your legacy will NOT be forgotten III Latin American Women’s Proposals for the Defense of Territory I discrimination exercised against them. and violence the light organizations movements,to their bringing social within and They have constructions. reflected about their collective lives as defenders and activists and and questioned sexist practices exchanges information on based them, affects it ways particular the and extractivism, of nature racist and patriarchal the have elaborated understandings they critical territories, of their of destruction and Besides being at the forefront, and exposing their bodies to prevent the expropriation increases, vulnerability given themagnitude ofdestabilizing political andeconomic interests. their time, same in the gaining At day. currently every are visibility and and strength struggles, historic these of part been have women Through invaluable activities of mobilization and resistance, based in daily practices, forms ofproduction, management, andorganization, basedon communalaction. public and of democracy itself, thereby contributing to the construction of alternative of nature from capitalist logic. There have been disputes around the meaning of the Along this route, critical points of view have appeared, given the frenetic exploitation expression ofneoliberalism inthedecade ofthe 90’s (Seamone, et.al, 2012). an as burst scene which the onto goods, privatization said managementthe of the of resistedhave and stage,biodiversity,center atand mineralsterritory, of and land of eatto ad ipseso cn e inse i cletv actionand in collective against environmental of the protection of water, placed have struggles These culturalidentities. peoples’ survival the life ensure to order bewitnessed of in goods, common can de-commodify to demands the defense dispossession for and devastation struggles America, Latin n

45 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 46 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA (interview withBerta Cáceres inGargallo, 2013, p.77). of women’s rights, althoughwe hadnever participated ina workshop on feminist theory, never read abook, nothing…Itgrew outofour own need withinthe group, amixed group”. experiences ofstruggle. AsBerta Cáceres commented: “one case inpoint isthe struggle we have led inCOPINH (…), whichfrom itsfounding, was committed to working for thedefense 47. Women’s perspectives inthissense are nourished notonly by exchanges with conceptual proposals from Latin American feminisms-suchas -, butalsoown from their and political injustice, as well as allthis as environmental, as well cultural, injustice, political and economic, all whether dignity, indigenous ornot;we need to change women’s planet. about this talk We on dignity human develop do is impossibleto understand we how we can if that not conceptualize andunderstand believe this, it I because dignity, and whenwe are ontheroad to human development organizational in doing are we patriarchy, isreally when we understand how havede-structurealso towethatracism, but only dowe need to confront capitalism and not understandthat we when that believe “I nesadn ta opesv sses hr ec ohr up other each shore systems oppressive that Understanding Anti-patriarchal, Anti-racist, andAnti-capitalist that are organizations within dynamics grounded insolidarityandcollective caring. democratic more implement can they where spaces cratedhaveautonomous and roles stereotypesand gender assigned traditionally- transgressed have women life, everyday of spaces the politicizing By women assume defense of their territories as a unified struggle in order to order in struggle anti-capitalist. We remember the words ofBerta Cáceres: unified a and anti-racist, as anti-patriarchal, named have territories they threats combat simultaneously their of defense assume women (Berta Cáceres, en Gargallo, 2013, Page 77). Page 2013, Gargallo, en Cáceres,(Berta of”. rid get to want we domination of history consideration, then we are going to onceagain repeat the into of taken not elements and are patriarchy, these classism- racism, all domination- If triple power. wins after comes X women for justice that say or at the on racism the one handandpostpone patriarchy; separate in place cannot we time; are same domination triple of understand: they cannot beseparated; alltheelements to need we believe I point of the domination and women. They cannot be separated, thisis violence, aggression, 47 , Latin American Latin , 49. Slogan from Mayan grassroots feminists- Xinka ofGuatemala. along withother organizations, and available at: http://defensoraspachamama.blogspot.com.co/2016/07/resoluciones-del-encuentro-de-mujeres.html, July 5, 2016. 48. See, for example, Resolutions from the recent Encounter of Women from the Countryside andtheCity in Ecuador, convened by theFront of Women Defenders ofthe Pachamama, osn ilne n dsossin gis indigenous development paradigm. against dispossession peoples and and women, as well as continuity within practice the capitalist violence and discourse worsen their how showing governments, progressive by implemented extractivist model the of nature have patriarchal, the classist, of and producedcritiques racial such as Environmental Actions), CASA (Spanish acronym) from Bolivia, as organizations Socioambientales (Collective Socio- Acciones for de Colectivo well as Collective; Territory) to al Criticas Approaches Critical (Feminist Miradas Feminismo el desde the territorio and Action) (Ecological Ecológico determination of peoples, if internally, women are assaulted are internally, women if peoples, of determination the exploitation and Theyof land. insistto itisimpossible struggle for theself bodies of women’s commodification the between connection the highlight to order ´body-land in territory´, of communities, category political indigenous the contributed have discrimination and they confronting organizations and their lands within their from mining expelling in experience their on Based feminists. grassroots Guatemalan by suggested been also has women’sfordignity inseparabilityThe the struggleof for defenseterritory of and Our Blood” Land; IfOurLandIsInvolved, SoIs “If OurBloodisInvolved, SoIsOur Pachamama) the de the Frente WomenDefendersof of (Front Pachamamaas la Defensorasde such organizations women’s Ecuador, In 48 49 ; and eco-feminist proposalsfrom Acción common goods, care ofother, andcare ofoneself. integrates of carethatcare the of experience and vision broad a to related are commitments these Often, 131). Page 2015. (Svampa, sphere” social the in work reproductive of value the capitalism onthebasisofrecognizing eco-dependence and questioning and rationality, logic another from relationships social of conceives It pro-communal, potentially ethos. radical, a express to tends care, of culture a in grounded valuable, is of current resistance to extractivism, women’s language of what multiple its As thein Svampa forms. “in (2015), contextaffirms are committed to transformation that is based on caring for life women territory,defending in experiences their in Grounded as such production, native seeds,land,and water. agro-ecological and autonomous for food,as well the defenseas commonthe necessary of goods appropriate and culturally healthy of consumption through foodhealth for caring supports sovereignty,simultaneously which for struggles women’s in expressed is territory-body, between betweenthe non-human; and the human territory-landand connection ona the example, For continuity, sustainability. of life’s their affirmation the non-fragmented conceptlife, of humanandnon-human and on and based Colombia are These feminisms in ofterritory”. women as “feminisms America by Latin defense environmental of processes and experiences diverse named has Ulloa Astrid by Latin American socialmovements (Flórez, 2012). the claimed energy) economic, (food, the sovereignty as of dimensions broadens and body defended of recovered be concept to territory the first way, this In 2015). (Cabnal,

47 • THE URGENT ACTION FUND FOR LATIN AMERICA 48 • EXTRACTIVISIM IN LATIN AMERICA 50. These visionstake precedence ininternational organizations and governmental institutions, and formpartofthe current ofliberal ecofeminism (SevillandZuluaga, s.f.). legitimacy and has expanded to include activities of activities toinclude sectors. expanded social of broad-based mobilization and nationalarticulation has extensive and gained has legitimacy both men participate, which women in and Guard, This against place. resistance take of peaceful extractivism encounters, activities where and territories assemblies, their in protection a of establishing line Guard), (Indigenous Indígena Guardia the In the criminalization. consolidated have People Nasa the and south-west, Colombian territory attacks from their defenders protect and to Patrols) (Peasant Campesinas Rondas constituted have communities native lakes, sacred razing and mountains altitude high from gold extracting is Company YanacochaMining the where Peru, Cajamarca, In few. a only mention to Honduras, in COPINH and OFRANEH and Guatemala Aq’ab’al in Mujeres and Maquín Mamá of case the is Such spirituality. garífuna and Afro-descendant of protection whichtakeand healing, into account indigenous, practices and measures organizations collective regard, propose In this territory. of protection with defenders of humanrights andnature of isnecessarily interlaced women is protection of care protection:- about think comprehensiveness the time, reflected how in women’s native and peoples’ organizations same the At Integrated andSpiritualProtection to Us,ButBecause We Are Part ofIt” Mother Earth, NotBecause ItBelongs “We Women SpeakofDefending the equal participation of women in the management of the management in resources of women participation equal the and development, sustainable and conservation to norms directed technological and environmental of application the not presuppose does which focus commitment transformative a This implies contributions. and knowledge peoples´ native and women’sinstrumentalizes way, the along which, and resources’ of ‘natural rationalization the supposes that one of territory, vision technocratic a to counterpoised are concepts organizations,feminist these environmental and by exchanges with academic knowledge, as well as that produced garífuna, gypsy, and peasant knowledge systems, and through Nourished by a multiplicity of native peoples’, Afro-descendant, and commodification. object, separated from society, and susceptible to domination sharedynamic, and natureof the idea denouncing in diverse as visions, These America. Latin in struggles women’s underlie that nature of concepts constituent the expresses K’che’ Mayan a Chávez, Lolita leader, defenderrightshuman of territoryand Guatemala, in Aura by used phrase, This relationship between thehumanandnon-human. the s.f.)Zuluaga,of and and (Sevilla ´nature´ and ´women´ of 50 , but rather to an ethical-political re-definition ethical-political an to rather but , WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS FOR THE DEFENSE OF LIFE

In Latin America, women’s struggles assume heterogeneous forms, depending on local and national contexts and the nature of threats faced in their territories. Not all women’s leadership, nor their orga- nizations, incorporate a gender focus, nor do they assume feminism; neither do all of them express an explicit commitment to the promo- tion and protection of women’s rights. National-level, sectoral, women’s associations Autonomous women’s organizations, for the most part locally-based, the central axis of which is environmental defense. Regional-level articulations and networks of women’s organizations, whose major thrust is the defense of territory, or which include this aspect in their work plans, due to its particular relevance for women human rights defenders. Associations, movements, and community resistance processes; mixed organizations of a local, national or regional nature, members- hip being persons affected by specific extractive projects. Ethnic organizations: local or national organizations of indigenous peoples or Afro descendants. Mixed, inter-ethnic, and multisector women’s articulations: coordina- tions, confederations, and associations of distinct interest and ethnic groups Non-governmental organizations and environmental collectives that develop an area of specific intervention on the issue REPERTOIRES FOR ACTION

In the context of their work in caring for and defense of the environment and nature, women develop diverse activities that have allowed their particular demands and perspectives to be put on agendas, and on several occasions, they have managed to stop or temporarily paralyze extractive interventions that threaten their terri- tories. At the same time, significant transformations at the personal and collective levels have resulted, constructing new practices directed towards integral forms of protection and security (Sustainable Activism).

Creation of spaces for articulation and exchange of Advocacy initiatives with local and national authorities, experiences related to defense, at the national and and international human rights organisms. regional levels. The Escuela Mujer y Minería (Women and Mining School), convened by CENSAT Agua-Viva from Documentation and denouncement of attacks and 2011, has brought Colombian defenders and activists criminalization of defenders together and includes the participation of activists from Elaboration of communication strategies to bring to light other countries in the region. environmental conflicts, the particular impacts on their lives, Construction of regional networks which contribute to and their defense actions. These are useful as a protection visibility, accompaniment, and strengthening of local mechanism in cases of attacks and criminalization. resistance nodes. Among these, we note: Red Unión Local and national-level training centers that promote Latinoamericana de Mujeres (Network of the Latin inter-generational exchanges and organizational American Women’s Union), ULAM (Spanish acronym), strengthening processes. and the Red Latinoamericana de Mujeres Defensoras de Derechos Ambientales (Latin American Network of Support for popular and autonomous consultations Women Defenders of Environmental Rights). so communities can express their wishes concerning decisions and activities that affect them, as well as Mobilization and concrete actions to prevent the advance the demand for prior consultation in accordance with of extractive activities, and to recover land: sit-ins, marches, international standards. permanent territorial occupations to block companies’ installations. In these settings, women act as spokespeople, Daily practices of resistance related to food sovereignty- preser- coordinators, and are also responsible for the logistics vation of native seeds and their traditional uses, agro-ecological required for sustainability over time of such activities. practices- and the popular economy of solidarity.

Activities demanding protection mechanisms at national Practices and reflection regarding self-care and the care of and international levels. others, as well as strategies for personal and collective healing. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Note: Unofficial translation by the authors of the names of texts and organizations when they do not officially exist in English.

ACOSTA, Alberto. “Extractivismo y Derechos de la Naturaleza” (Extractivism and the Rights of Nature). In: “Justicia indígena, plurinacionalidad e interculturalidad en Ecuador” (Indigenous Justice, Pluri-Nationa- lism and Inter-Culturalism in Ecuador). Boaventura de Sousa Santos and Agustín Grijalva Jiménez, Editor. ABYA YALA, Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, 2012.

ACOSTA, Alberto, MARTÍNEZ, Esperanza and SACHER, William. “Salir del extractivismo: una condición para el Sumak Kawsay. Propuestas sobre petróleo, minería y energía en el Ecuador” (Leaving Extractivism Behind: a Requisite for Sumak Kawsay: Oil, Mining and Energy Proposals in Ecuador); “Alternativas al capitalismo- colonialismo del Siglo XXI” (Alternatives to XXI Century Capitalism-Colonialism) in: “Grupo Permanente de Trabajo sobre Alternativas al Desarrollo” (Permanent Working Group on Development Alternatives), Cali, 2013.

ALIAGA, Carmen and CUENCA Ángela. “Participación política de las mujeres indígenas campesinas en con- textos de violencia medioambiental en Bolivia (Indigenous and Peasant Women’s Political Participation in Contexts of Environmental Violence in Bolivia). In: “Women Defending Territory. Experiences in Participa- tion in Latin America. Urgent Action Fund of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2015.

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL. Report 2014/2015: World Human Rights Situation. 2015.

CABNAL, Lorena. “Sin ser consultadas: la mercantilización de nuestro territorio cuerpo-tierra” (Not Con- sulted: the Commodification of Our Body-Land Territory). In: “Women Defending Territory. Experiences in Participation in Latin America. Urgent Action Fund of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2015. CAJAR (Spanish acronym), José Alvear Restrepo Lawyers’ Collective. “El mayor gesto de solidaridad con la Gua- jira: Exigir que el Cerrejón suspenda su actividad durante la sequía” (The Best Solidarity Gesture with La Gua- jira: Demand that El Cerrejón Suspend Activities During the Drought). August, 2014. Available at: http://www. colectivodeabogados.org/El-mayor-gesto-de-solidaridad-con

CARVAJAL, Laura María. “Participación de las mujeres en procesos de consulta en el marco de la defensa de los territorios y la naturaleza en América Latina” (Women’s Participation in Consultation Processes in a Context of Defending Territory and Nature in Latin America). In: “Women Defending Territory. Experiences in Participation in Latin America. Urgent Action Fund of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2015.

CASA Collective. Bolivia. In: OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMERICA – OMCLA, “Conflictos Mineros en América Latina: Extracción, Saqueo y Agresión. Estado de situación en 2014”. (Mining Conflicts in Latin America: Extraction, Pillage and Aggression. State of the Situation in 2014), 2015.

CEHPRODEC. Honduras. In: OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMERICA - OMCLA, “Conflictos Mineros en América Latina: Extracción, Saqueo y Agresión. Estado de la situación en 2014” (Mining Conflicts in Latin America: Extraction, Pillage and Aggression. State of the Situation in 2014). 2015.

CEPEDA, Iván. “Convenios entre empresas del sector minero-energético y fuerza pública” (Agreements be- tween Mining-Energy Sector Companies and the Armed Forces”). Presentation to the II Commission of the Colombian Senate, November, 2015. Document available at: http://www.ivancepedacastro.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/11/DEBATE-CONVENIOS.pdf.

CEHPRODEC. Honduras. In: OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMERICA - OMCLA, “Conflictos Mineros en América Latina: Extracción, Saqueo y Agresión. Estado de la situación en 2014” (Mining Conflicts in Latin America: Extraction, Pillage and Aggression. State of the Situation in 2014). 2015.

CENSAT Agua Viva, Political Declaration from the Latin American Encounter on Women and Mining. CENSAT Agua Viva. Bogotá, Octubre de 2011. Available at: http://www.ocsi.org.es/Encuentro-Latinoamericano-Mujer-y

CHAMMAS, Danilo y BOSSI, Dário. Brazil. In: OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMERICA – OM- CLA, “Conflictos Mineros en América Latina: Extracción, Saqueo y Agresión. Estado de situación en 2014”. 2015. (Mining Conflicts in Latin America: Extraction, Pillage and Aggression. State of the Situation in 2014). 2015. CINEP (Spanish acronym), (Centre for Investigation and Popular Education) and FUERZA DE MUJERES WAYUU (WAYUU WOMEN’S FORCE). “Impacto de la explotación minera en las mujeres rurales: afecta- ciones al derecho a la tierra y el territorio en el sur de La Guajira” (Impact of Mining Exploitation on Rural Women: Effects on the Right to Land and Territory in the South of La Guajira), Colombia. December, 2013.

Collective MIRADAS CRÍTICAS AL TERRITORIO DEL EL FEMINISMO (FEMINIST CRITICAL APPROACHES TO TERRITORY). “La vida en el centro y el crudo bajo tierra: El Yasuní en clave feminista (Life at the Centre and the Oil Undergroud. The Yasuní from a Feminist Perspective). Quito, 2014.

DUE PROCESS OF LAW FOUNDATION, “Right to Consultation and Prior, Free, and Informed Consent in Latin America. Advances and Challenges for its Implementation in Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Guate- mala, and Peru”. Washington, 2015.

ECLAC, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean: Direct Foreign Investment in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2015.

ECLAC, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean: “Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America. Progress in the Past decade and Remaining Challenges”. 2014.

ECLAC, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. “Natural Resources: Status and Trends towards a Regional Development Agenda in Latin America and the Caribbean”. 2013.

EJOLT, Environmental Justice Organizations, Liabilities and Trade. 2015, www.ejolt.org.

Independent Expert on the Effects of Foreign Debt and other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of all Human Rights. Report on the Impact of the Foreign Debt on Wo- men’s Rights. A/67/304 de 2012.

FLÓREZ, Judith. “La Soberanía Alimentaria y las Mujeres” (Food Sovereignty and Women). In: “Ecofemi- nismo desde los derechos de la Naturaleza” (Ecofeminism from the Perspective of the Rights of Nature). Instituto de Estudios Ecologistas del Tercer Mundo (Institute for Third World Ecology Studies) Quito, 2012.

GARCÍA TORRES, Miriam. “El feminismo reactiva la lucha contra el ‘extractivismo’ en América Latina” (Fe- minism Reactivates the Struggle against Extractivism in Latin America). Published in La Marea February 17, 2014; and in the Red Latinoamericana de Mujeres Defensoras de los Derechos Sociales y Ambientales (Latin American Network of Women Defenders of Social and Environmental Rights), February 17, 2014.

GARGALLO CELENTANI, Francesca. “Feminismos desde Abya Yala. Ideas y proposiciones de las mujeres de 607 pueblos en nuestra América” (Feminisms from the Abya Yala. Women’s Ideas and Proposals from 607 peoples in the Americas); Editors: Corte y Confección, Mexico City; First digital edition, January, 2014. Available at: http://francescagargallo.wordpress.com/

GISBERT, Tomás y PINTO, Maria Jesús. “Colombia: militarización al servicio del extractivismo” (Colombia: Militarization at the Service of Extractivism). Published in El Turbión, April 20, 2014.

GIZ, “El derecho a la consulta previa: Normas jurídicas, prácticas y conflictos en América Latina” (The Right to Prior Consultation: Legal Norms, Pracice and Conflicts in Latin America), 2013.

GRUPO DE TRABAJO SOBRE PUEBLOS INDÍGENAS DE LA COORDINADORA NACIONAL DE DERECHOS HU- MANOS, PERÚ. (WORKING GROUP ON INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF THE NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COOR- DIATING BODY, PERU”). “Informe alternativo sobre cumplimiento del Convenio 169 de la OIT”. (Alternati- ve Report on Compliance with ILO Convention 169); 2015.

GUATEMALA SOLIDARITY NETWORK, COLLECTIF GUATEMALA, PWS, NISGUA AND OTHERS. “Territorios indígenas y democracia guatemalteca bajo presiones” (Indigenous Territories and Guatemalan Democracy under Pressure), s.f.

INTER AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS (IACHR). Second Report on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders in the Americas. December, 2011. Par. 312.

INTERNATIONAL SERVICE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS et.al. “The role of businesses and States in violations against human rights defenders of the rights to land, territory and the environment” - Civil society orga- nizations joint report, October 2015

LEÓN RODRÍGUEZ, Nohra. “Crisis, reprimarización y territorio en economías emergentes: caso Colombia” (Crisis, Return to Raw Materials and Territory in Emerging Economies: the Colombian Case); In: Crisis eco- nómica e impactos territoriales (Economic Crisis and Territorial Impacts) - V Working Session of Economic Geography AGE University of Girona, 2012. LUGONES, María. “Hacia un feminismo descolonial” (Towards a Decolonized Feminism). Hypatia, vol. 25, No. 4 (Fall, 2010).

MARTÍNEZ ALER, Joan. “Ecología política del extractivismo y justicia socio-ambienta” (Political Ecology of- Ex tractivism and Socio-Environmental Justice). In: Dossier Interdisciplina (Interdisciplinary Dossier) Volumen 3, Number 7, September-December, 2015. Universidad Nacional Autónoma of México.

MARTÍNEZ, Esperanza. “Mujeres víctimas del petróleo y protagonistas de la resistencia” (Women Victims of Oil and Protagonists of Resistance). In: Ecofeminismo desde los derechos de la Naturaleza (Ecofeminism Based in the Rights of Nature). Instituto de Estudios Ecologistas del Tercer Mundo (Institute of Ecology Studies of the Third World), Quito, 2012.

MAYÉN, Guisela. “Guatemala: el derecho a la consulta previa” (Guatemala: the Right to Prior Consultation. In: “El derecho de la consulta previa de los pueblos indígenas en América Latina” (The Right of Prior Consultation of Indigenous Peoples in Latin America). 2013

MIRA; Edgardo. Chile. In: OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMAERICA- OCMAL (Spanish acron- ym); “Conflictos Mineros en América Latina: Extracción, Saqueo y Agresión. Estado de situación en 2014. (Mi- ning Conflicts in Latin America: Extraction, Pillage and Aggression. State of the Situation in 2014). 2015

OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMERICA –OCMAL (Spanish Acronym); Conflictos Mineros en América Latina: Extracción, Saqueo y Agresión. Estado de situación en 2014. (Mining Conflicts in Latin America: Extraction, Pillage and Aggression. State of the Situation in 2014), 2015.

OBSERVATORY OF MINING CONFLICTS IN LATIN AMERICA –OCMAL (Spanish Acronym); “Humala militariza 8 regiones ante las protestas contra proyecto minero de Grupo México” (Humala Militarizes Eight Regions due to Protests against Grupo México Mining Project); May, 2015. Available at: http://www.conflictosmineros.net/ noticias/19-peru/17827-humala-militariza-8-regiones-ante-las-protestas-contra-proyecto-minero-del-gru- po-mexico

OAS/Ser.L/V/ II. Doc. 47/15 December 31, 2015 IACHR. “Indigenous Peoples, Afro-Descendent Communities, and Na- tural Resources: Human Rights Protection in the Context of Extraction, Exploitation, and Development Activities”. OXFAM. “Las falacias detrás de ZIDRES: una ley de subdesarrollo rural” (Fallacies behind the ZIDRES: A Law of Rural Under-Development). 2015. Available at: https://www.oxfam.org/es/colombia-las-falacias-detras-de-zi- dres-una-ley-de-subdesarrollo-rural

Preliminary observations of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Funda- mental Freedoms of Indigenous People; S. James Anaya, on his visit to Guatemala (June 13 to 18, 2010).)

RODRÍGUEZ, Tatiana y URREA, Danilo. “Gran Minería y Conflicto: una perspectiva socioambiental del modelo de desarrollo en Colombia” (Large-Scale Mining and Conflict: A Social-Environmental Perspective on Colombia’s Development Model). In: Extractivismo: Conflictos y resistencias (Extractivism: Conflicts and Resistances). CENSAT Agua Viva, Bogotá, 2014.

ROSA LUXEMBURG FOUNDATION, BROADCASTERS WITH PASSION, CENSAT-AGUA VIVA. “Alternativas al desarro- llo. La destrucción del planeta no es una opción” (Alternatives to Development. Destruction of the Planet is not an Option), 2013.

ROA AVENDAÑO, Tatiana. “Petróleo. El nuevo mapa y los conflictos” (Oil: The New Map and the Conflicts). In: -“Ex tractivismo: Conflictos y Resistencias” (Extractivism: Conflicts and Resistances). CENSAT Agua- Viva. Bogotá, 2014.

RUALES, Gabriela. “The Yasuní: Un semillero de creación de otras formas de defender la Vida” (The Yasuní: a See- dbed for Creating New Forms for Defending Life”). In: Women Defending Territory. Experiences of Participation in Latin America. Urgent Action Fund of Latin America and the Caribbean. 2015.

SEOANE, José, TADDEI, Emilio y ALGRANATI, Clara. “Las disputas sociopolíticas por los bienes comunes de la natura- leza: Características, significación y desafíos en la construcción de Nuestra América” (Socio-Political Disputes over Nature’s Common Goods. Characteristics, Meaning, and Challenges for the Americas). In: FERNÁNDEZ, Miriela y LUGO, Llanisca, “Reencauzar la Utopía. Movimientos sociales y cambio político en América Latina” (Re-Directing the Utopia. Social Movements and Political Change in Latin America). Caminos Publishers, La Havana, 2012.

SEVILLA, Eduardo y ZULUAGA, Gloria Patricia. “Una aproximación al ecofeminismo desde distintas voces” (An Aproximation of Eco Feminism from Different Voices). Magazine: En otras Palabras (In Other Words), No. 17; Gru- po Mujeres y Sociedad, Escuela de Estudios de Género (Women and Society Working Group, School of Gender Studies), National University of Colombia, 2009. SOLANO ORTIZ, Lina. “Mujer, violencia e industria minera” (Women, Violence and the Mining Industry) 2015. Available at: http://redulam.org/guatemala/mujer-violencia-e-industria-minera/

Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Olivier De Schutter. “Women’s Rights and the Right to Food”. A/ HRC/22/50, 2012

Special Rapporteur on the Rights to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and of Association. Maina Kiai. A/ HRC/29/25, April, 2015.

Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of UNHCOHR. Resol. 1998/15. Women and the Right to Land, Property and Adequate Housing.

SVAMPA, Maristella. “Feminismos del Sur y Ecofeminismo” (Feminisms from the South and Ecofeminism); Revista Nueva Sociedad (New Society Review); No. 256, March-April, 2015.

URGENT ACTION FUND OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN (b). “Mujeres, territorios y medio ambiente en américa latina y el caribe: mapa de derechos, riesgos y resistencias” (Women, Territory, and the Environment in Latin America: A Map of Rights, Risks and Resistances); “Memorias del encuentro realizado en Zapatoca – San- tander, Colombia (Record of the Encounter Held in Zapatoca, Santander, Colombia; February 26 to March 1, 2014 Available at: http://www.fondoaccionurgente.org.co/

URGENT ACTION FUND OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN. “Patterns of Criminalization and Limitations on the Effective Participation of Women Defenders of Environmental Rights, Territory, and Nature in the Americas. Regional Report presented to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 2015. Prepared by Diana Murcia. Available at: www.fondoaccionurgente.org.co

VÍA CAMPESINA, AL. “Mujeres gestoras de Soberanía Alimentaria” (Women, Agents of Food Sovereignty). In: “Las mujeres alimentan a mundo. Soberanía Alimentaria en defensa de la vida y de planeta” (Women Feed the World. Food Sovereignty for the Defense of Life and the Planet). Entre Pueblos, 2009.

WORKING GROUP ON MINING AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN LATIN AMERICA; “The impact of Canadian Mining in Latin America and the Responsibility of Canada”. Report Presented to the Inter American Commission of Human Rights, s.f. WEINSTOCK, Ana María. “Aportes del feminismo a la lucha socioambiental” (Contributions from Feminism to Social-Environmental Struggle). Revista Estudos Feministas (Feminist Studies Review), vol. 22, num. 2, May-Au- gust, 2014, pages. 647-655. Federal University of Santa Catarina, Santa Catarina, Brazil.

WAYUU WOMEN’S FORCE, “Tierra, territorio y carbón” (Land, Territory, and Coal). 2015.

YACOUB, Cristina, DUARTE, Bibiana, BOELENS, Rutgerd, PEÑA, Francisco. “Agronegocios y concentración de agua en América Latina, ¿alimentos, abundancia, desarrollo? (Agribusiness and Concentration of Water in Latin Ame- rica. Food, Abundance, Development?); In: “AGUA Y ECOLOGÍA POLÍTICA: El extractivismo en la agroexportación, la minería y las hidroeléctricas en Latinoamérica” (WATER AND POLITICAL ECOLOGY: Extractivism in Agro-Exports, Mining and Hydro-Electricity in Latin America); ABYA YALA, Justicia Hídrica. Quito, 2015

YACOUB, Cristina, DUARTE, Bibiana, BOELENS, Rutgerd. “Hidroeléctricas: ¿energía limpia o destrucción so- cioecológica? (Hydroelectricity: Clean Energy or Social-Environmental Destruction?) In: “AGUA Y ECOLOGÍA POLÍTICA: El extractivismo en la agroexportación, la minería y las hidroeléctricas en Latinoamérica”. (WATER AND POLITICAL ECOLOGY: Extractivism in Agro-Exports, Mining and Hydro-Electricity in Latin America); ABYA YALA, Justicia Hídrica. Quito, 2015

VÍA CAMPESINA, LA. Mujeres gestoras de Soberanía Alimentaria. En: Las mujeres alimentan a mundo. Soberanía Alimentaria en defensa de la vida y de planeta. Entre Pueblos, 2009.

WEINSTOCK, Ana María. Aportes del feminismo a la lucha socioambiental. Revista Estudos Feministas, vol. 22, núm. 2, mayo-agosto, 2014, pp. 647-655. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Santa Catarina, Brasil.

YACOUB, Cristina, DUARTE, Bibiana, BOELENS, Rutgerd, PEÑA, Francisco. Agronegocios y concentración de agua en América Latina, ¿alimentos, abundancia, desarrollo? En: AGUA Y ECOLOGÍA POLÍTICA: El extractivismo en la agroexportación, la minería y las hidroeléctricas en Latinoamérica. ABYA YALA, Justicia Hídrica. Quito, 2015

YACOUB, Cristina, DUARTE, Bibiana, BOELENS, Rutgerd, Hidroeléctricas: ¿energía limpia o destrucción socioecoló- gica?. En: AGUA Y ECOLOGÍA POLÍTICA: El extractivismo en la agroexportación, la minería y las hidroeléctricas en Latinoamérica. ABYA YALA, Justicia Hídrica. Quito, 2015 CONTACT

CARRERA 27A NO. 40A-68 /Fondo Acción Urgente - LAC BOGOTÁ, COLOMBIA /FAU_LAC (57+1) 368 6155 [email protected]

www.FONDOACCIONURGENTE .org.co